Technical Report

NREL/TP-550-46101

September 2009

Grocery Store 50% Energy Savings 

Technical Support Document

Matthew Leach, Elaine Hale, Adam Hirsch, and 

Paul Torcellini
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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Contract No. DE-AC36-08-GO28308

Technical Report

NREL/TP-550-46101

September 2009

Grocery Store 50% Energy Savings 

Technical Support Document

Matthew Leach, Elaine Hale, Adam Hirsch, and 

Paul Torcellini

Prepared under Task No. BEC71204
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i 

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Building 

Technologies and Drury Crawley, Technology Development Manager for Commercial Buildings 

for supporting this work. This document was prepared by the Commercial Buildings Group of 

the NREL Electricity, Resources, and Building Systems Integration Center as Deliverable 09-

3.2.1 under Task BEC7.1204 in the Commercial Building Statement of Work.

We are indebted to a number of retailers and building industry professionals for taking the time 

to review our analysis assumptions and earlier versions of this report. Jim Kirk of A&P Grocery 

Stores, Kathy Loftus of Whole Foods, and Scott Williams of Target, all members of the Retailer

Energy Alliance, commented on our prototype and energy design measure (EDM) model 

assumptions based on their companies’ experiences and standard practices. Don Zerrip, Ben 

Butler, and H. J. Enck of CxGBS; Tim A. Speller of Speller Energy Consulting; and Thomas H. 

Phoenix of Moser Mayer Phoenix Associates reviewed an earlier draft of this report.

We extend our thanks to our colleagues Larry Brackney and Kristin Field for conducting formal 

internal reviews of this document, and to Stefanie Woodward for editing assistance. 

Several other National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) colleagues provided valuable 

guidance and information during the modeling process, either directly or through their past work. 

Ian Doebber and Michael Deru contributed insights gained through their work with grocery store 

owners and retailers. Jennifer Scheib and Rob Guglielmetti provided electric lighting and 

daylighting EDM data. We would also like to thank Don Shirey of the Florida Solar Energy 

Commission, and Hugh Henderson of CDH Energy Corporation for responding to several 

specific questions; and Merle McBride acting on behalf of the ASHRAE Standard 90.1 Envelope 

Subcommittee for providing recent cost data for mass wall constructions. 

Tens of thousands of EnergyPlus simulations were run for this report. This would not have been 

possible without the support of the NREL High Performance Computing Center managed by 

Wesley Jones and Jim Albin. 

Finally, a number of our colleagues in the Commercial Buildings Group helped set up and run 

our analysis and results extraction routines. We would especially like to thank Dan Macumber, 

Nicholas Long, Eric Bonnema, and Kyle Benne for programming assistance; and Brent Griffith, 

Dan Macumber, Kyle Benne, Michael Deru, and Ian Doebber for sharing their computing 

resources.
ii

Executive Summary

This Technical Support Document (TSD) was developed by the Commercial Buildings Group at 

NREL, under the direction of the DOE Building Technologies Program. It documents technical 

analysis and design guidance for grocery stores to achieve whole-building energy savings of at 

least 50% over ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 and represents a step toward determining how to 

provide design guidance for aggressive energy savings targets. 

This report: 

• Documents the modeling and integrated analysis methods used to identify cost-effective 

sets of recommendations for different locations. 

• Demonstrates sets of recommendations that meet, or exceed, the 50% goal. There are 16 

sets of recommendations, one for each climate zone location.

• Establishes methodology for providing a family of solutions, as opposed to a single 

solution, that meet the 50% goal as a means of exploring the relative importance of 

specific design strategies.

• Demonstrates the energy efficiency, and, to a lesser extent, cost implications, of using 

ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007 instead of Standard 90.1-2004. 

This report, along with a sister document for general merchandise stores (Hale et al. 2009), also 

evaluates the possibility of compiling a 50% Advanced Energy Design Guide (AEDG) in the 

tradition of the 30% AEDGs available through the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating 

and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and developed by an interorganizational committee 

structure. 

Methodology

To account for energy interactions between building subsystems, we used EnergyPlus to model 

the predicted energy performance of baseline and low-energy buildings and verify that 50% 

energy savings can be achieved. EnergyPlus computes building energy use based on the 

interactions between climate, building form and fabric, internal gains, HVAC systems, and 

renewable energy systems. Percent energy savings are based on a minimally code-compliant 

building as described in Appendix G of ASHRAE 90.1-2004, and whole-building, net site energy 

use intensity: the amount of energy a building uses for regulated and unregulated loads, minus 

any renewable energy generated within its footprint, normalized by building area. 

The following steps were used to determine 50% savings: 

1. Define architectural-program characteristics (design features not addressed by 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004) for typical grocery stores, thereby defining a prototype model. 

2. Create baseline energy models for each climate zone that are elaborations of the 

prototype models and are minimally compliant with ASHRAE 90.1-2004. 

3. Create a list of energy design measures (EDMs) that can be applied to the baseline 

models to create candidate low-energy models.

4. Use industry feedback to strengthen inputs for baseline energy models and EDMs. 
iii

5. Simulate and select low-energy models for each climate zone that achieve 50% 

energy savings (or more). Give preference to those models that have low five-year 

total life cycle cost.

The simulations supporting this work were managed with the NREL commercial building energy 

analysis platform, Opt-E-Plus. Opt-E-Plus employs an iterative search technique to find EDM 

combinations that best balance percent energy savings with total life cycle cost for a given 

building in a given location. The primary advantages of the analysis platform are its abilities to

(1) transform high-level building parameters (building area, internal gains per zone, HVAC 

system configuration, etc.) into a fully parameterized input file for EnergyPlus; (2) conduct 

automated searches to optimize multiple criteria; and (3) manage distributed EnergyPlus 

simulations on the local CPU and a Linux cluster. In all, 78,355 EnergyPlus models were run. 

The economic criterion used to filter the recommendations is five-year total life cycle cost (using 

the January 2008 OMB real discount rate, 2.3%). The five-year analysis period was established 

in our statement of work and is assumed acceptable to a majority of developers and owners. 

The bulk of this report (Section 3.0) documents prototype building characteristics, baseline 

building model inputs, and modeling inputs for each EDM. The prototypes are 45,000 ft2

 (4,181 

m2

), one-story rectangular buildings with a 1.5 aspect ratio. We assume 1,400 ft2 (130 m2) of 

glazing on the façade, which gives a 27% window-to-wall ratio for that wall, and an 8% windowto-wall ratio for the whole building. The prototype building has masonry wall construction and a 

roof with all insulation above deck. HVAC equipment consists of 10-ton packaged rooftop units 

with natural gas furnaces for heating, and electric direct-expansion coils with air-cooled 

condensers for cooling. The nominal refrigerated case and walk-in cooler load is 973 kBtu/h 

(274 kW), split 78%/22% between medium and low temperature compressor racks, respectively. 

The EDMs considered in this work fall into the following categories:

• Lighting technologies. Reduced lighting power density, occupancy controls, and 

daylighting controls.

• Fenestration. Amounts and types of façade glazing and skylights; overhangs. 

• Envelope. Opaque envelope insulation, air barriers, and vestibules. 

• HVAC Equipment. Higher efficiency equipment and fans, economizers, demand 

control ventilation (DCV), and energy recovery ventilators (ERVs).

• Refrigeration Equipment. Higher efficiency refrigerated cases, and evaporatively 

cooled condensers.

• Generation. Photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation. 

Findings

The results show that 50% net site energy savings can be achieved cost-effectively in grocery 

stores. On-site generation technology (in this case, PV) was not necessary to meet the energy 

goal in any climate zone. Specific recommendations for achieving the 50% goal are tabulated 

for all climate zones. The following EDMs are recommended in all locations: 

• Reduce lighting power density by 47%, and install occupancy sensors in the active 

storage, mechanical room, restroom, and office zones.

• Add a vestibule to the front entrance to reduce infiltration. 
iv

• Equip rooftop HVAC units with high efficiency fans.

• Install daylighting sensors tuned to a 46.5 fc (500 lux) set point. 

• Replace baseline frozen food and ice cream refrigerated cases with efficient, vertical 

models with doors and hot gas defrost. 

• Replace open multi-deck dairy/deli refrigerated cases with efficient, vertical models with

doors 

• Replace baseline meat display cases with models that have efficient fans, anti-sweat 

heater controls, electric defrost, and sliding doors. 

• Reduce south façade window-to-wall ratio by 50%. 

Two EDMs were not chosen for any location: 

• Shaded overhangs above the windows on the south façade. 

• Replacing the refrigeration system’s air-cooled condensers with evaporative condensers. 

In general, EDM selection trends were as expected: 

• Skylights were selected in warm and hot climates where there is ample sunlight for 

daylighting. 

• More highly insulated opaque envelope constructions were selected in extreme climates 

(better insulated walls in hot climates and a better insulated roof in the coldest climate). 

• High coefficient of performance (a 20% increase over baseline) HVAC rooftop units 

were selected in all but the coldest climate, which has a very low cooling load. 

• Infiltration reduction measures (front entrance vestibule and envelope air barrier) were 

almost universally selected, especially in humid and cold climates. 

• Economizers were not selected in humid or cold climates.

• ERVs played an important role in achieving the energy savings goal, especially in humid 

and cold climates.

A comparison of baseline models that satisfy ASHRAE 90.1-2004 and ASHRAE 90.1-2007 

demonstrates that the newest standard does save energy, but at the expense of increased capital 

and lifetime costs (except in climate zone 8, where a five year analysis period is sufficient for the 

energy savings to balance out increased capital expenditures).

A novel post-processing methodology designed to identify multiple designs that reach the energy 

savings goal while simultaneously answering questions like, “Is daylighting required to meet the 

goal?” was developed and applied to five climate zones. It identified ten to twelve additional 

designs per climate zone, and demonstrated that the energy used by baseline multi-deck 

dairy/deli refrigerated cases must be addressed if one intends to build a 50% energy savings 

grocery store. The successful designs are significantly different from each other in both 

composition and performance across several criteria of interest, including capital cost, lifetime 

cost, and maximum electricity demand. Perturbation information is also extracted and used to 
v

calculate the amount of PV required to replicate the energy savings associated with the EDMs 

used in the original low-energy model. 

A number of modeling errors skewed the results of our original optimizations over the complete 

set of EDMs. The original results indicated that the low-energy models would require a larger 

initial capital investment than the corresponding baseline models and that the climate zone 1A 

and 2A stores would not be able to save enough energy to offset those higher capital costs within 

the five-year analysis period. By correcting the modeling errors and performing abbreviated 

optimization runs to determine which of ERV, DCV, and PV should actually be included in each 

low-energy model, we were able to show that 50% energy savings can be achieved cost 

effectively in terms of both lifetime and capital cost. 

Although this TSD is fairly comprehensive and describes design packages that achieve the 50% 

energy savings goal cost effectively, future analyses may benefit from adopting some of the 

recommendations outlined in Section 5.0. For instance, EDMs we feel are deserving of 

increased attention, but omitted because of modeling constraints, are: 

• Alternative HVAC systems such as ground source heat pumps, packaged variable air 

volume systems, and radiant heating and cooling 

• Solar thermal technologies for service water heating and space conditioning 

• Direct and indirect evaporative cooling 

• Decreased pressure drop via improved duct design 

• Advanced humidity control 

• Strategies to use waste heat from the refrigeration equipment 

• Secondary loop refrigeration 

• Multiple compressor types 

• Under-case HVAC return air 
vi

Nomenclature

5-TLCC five-year total life cycle cost

AEDG Advanced Energy Design Guide 

AIA American Institute of Architects

ARI Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute 

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers 

CBECS Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey 

CDD cooling degree day 

c.i. continuous insulation

CO2 carbon dioxide 

COP coefficient of performance

DEA dedicated exhaust air

DOE U.S. Department of Energy 

DX direct expansion 

EA exfiltrated air

EER energy efficiency ratio

ERV energy recovery ventilator 

EUI energy use intensity

HDD heating degree day

HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

IECC International Energy Conservation Code 

IESNA Illuminating Engineering Society of North America

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design 

LPD lighting power density 

NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

OA outside air

O&M operations and maintenance 

RTU rooftop unit 

PSZ A package single zone DX rooftop unit 

SHGC solar heat gain coefficient

5-TLCC total life cycle cost

TSD Technical Support Document 

USGBC U.S. Green Building Council 

VAV variable air volume

VLT visible light transmittance

w.c. water column

XML extensible markup language 
vii

Contents

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................ i

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ ii

Methodology ............................................................................................................................... ii

Findings ...................................................................................................................................... iii

Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................. vi

Contents ........................................................................................................................................ vii

Figures and Tables .......................................................................................................................... x

Figures ......................................................................................................................................... x

Tables ......................................................................................................................................... xi

1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Scope ................................................................................................................................ 2

1.3 Report Organization ......................................................................................................... 3

2.0 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 4

2.1 Guiding Principles ............................................................................................................ 4

2.2 Definitions ........................................................................................................................ 4

2.2.1 Energy Use ................................................................................................................... 5

2.2.2 Percent Energy Savings ................................................................................................ 5

2.2.3 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline ...................................................................................... 5

2.3 Building Energy Modeling Methodology ........................................................................ 6

2.3.1 EnergyPlus .................................................................................................................... 6

2.3.2 Climate Zones ............................................................................................................... 6

2.4 Integrated Design Methodology ....................................................................................... 8

2.4.1 Initialization .................................................................................................................. 8

2.4.2 Execution ...................................................................................................................... 9

2.5 Post-Processing Methodology .......................................................................................... 9

2.5.1 Basic ............................................................................................................................. 9

2.5.2 Finding Families of Solutions..................................................................................... 10

2.6 External Review Process and Results ............................................................................ 10

3.0 Model Development and Assumptions .............................................................................. 12

3.1 Analysis Assumptions .................................................................................................... 12
viii

3.1.1 Integrity of Simulation Models................................................................................... 12

3.1.2 Economics .................................................................................................................. 12

3.2 Prototype Model ............................................................................................................. 16

3.2.1 Program ...................................................................................................................... 16

3.2.2 Form............................................................................................................................ 24

3.2.3 Fabric .......................................................................................................................... 26

3.2.4 Equipment ................................................................................................................... 27

3.2.5 Prototype Model Summary ......................................................................................... 30

3.3 Baseline Model ............................................................................................................... 33

3.3.1 Program ...................................................................................................................... 33

3.3.2 Form............................................................................................................................ 33

3.3.3 Fabric .......................................................................................................................... 34

3.3.4 Equipment ................................................................................................................... 39

3.4 Energy Design Measures ................................................................................................ 47

3.4.1 Form............................................................................................................................ 48

3.4.2 Fabric .......................................................................................................................... 49

3.4.3 Equipment ................................................................................................................... 52

4.0 Results ................................................................................................................................ 66

4.1 Baseline Models ............................................................................................................. 66

4.1.1 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Models: Performance................................................. 66

4.1.2 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Models: Performance................................................. 68

4.1.3 Comparison to CBECS ............................................................................................... 72

4.1.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 75

4.2 Selected Low-Energy Models ........................................................................................ 75

4.2.1 Description.................................................................................................................. 75

4.2.2 Performance ................................................................................................................ 84

4.2.3 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 90

4.3 Alternative Low-Energy Models .................................................................................... 91

4.3.1 Results ........................................................................................................................ 92

4.3.2 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 96

4.4 Addressing Known Issues .............................................................................................. 97

5.0 Suggestions for Future Work ............................................................................................. 99
ix

5.1.1 Problem Formulation .................................................................................................. 99

5.1.2 Economic Data ......................................................................................................... 100

5.1.3 Energy Modeling ...................................................................................................... 100

5.1.4 Search Algorithms .................................................................................................... 102

5.1.5 Advanced Energy Design Guide Format .................................................................. 103

6.0 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 104

7.0 References ........................................................................................................................ 105

Appendix A. Space Types and ASHRAE Standards .............................................................. 108

Appendix B. Baseline Schedules ............................................................................................ 109

B.1 Occupancy .................................................................................................................... 109

B.2 Lighting ........................................................................................................................ 110

B.3 Plug and Process Loads ................................................................................................ 111

B.4 Infiltration and HVAC ................................................................................................. 112

B.5 Thermostat Set Points................................................................................................... 114

B.6 Service Water Heating ................................................................................................. 116

Appendix C. Metric Unit Tables ............................................................................................ 117

Appendix D. Energy Use Data by End Use ............................................................................ 129

Appendix E. Alternative Low-Energy Model and Sensitivity Analysis Results.................... 131

E.1 Climate Zone 1A (Miami, Florida) .............................................................................. 131

E.2 Climate Zone 3B-NV (Las Vegas, Nevada) ................................................................. 134

E.3 Climate Zone 4C (Seattle, Washington) ...................................................................... 137

E.4 Climate Zone 5A (Chicago, Illinois) ............................................................................ 140

E.5 Climate Zone 8 (Fairbanks, Alaska) ............................................................................ 143

Appendix F. Corrected Results from Abbreviated Optimization ........................................... 146

Appendix G. General Merchandise and Grocery Store Technical Support Documents: 

Summary and Information Request ............................................................................................ 151
x

Figures and Tables 

Figures

Figure 2-1 DOE climate zones and representative cities............................................................................. 7

Figure 2-2 Example Opt-E-Plus output: Climate zone 4C (Seattle, Washington)....................................... 8

Figure 2-3 Example Opt-E-Plus output with PV post-processing: Climate zone 1A (Miami, Florida) .... 10

Figure 3-1 Area-weighted histogram of post-1970 grocery store size....................................................... 17

Figure 3-2 Area-weighted histogram of post-1970 grocery store open hours lighting percentage............ 22

Figure 3-3 Area-weighted histogram of post-1970 grocery store closed hours lighting percentage ......... 22

Figure 3-4 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store shape characteristics........................... 25

Figure 3-5 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store fenestration amounts.......................... 26

Figure 3-6 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store sunlight management ......................... 26

Figure 3-7 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store construction types.............................. 27

Figure 3-8 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store heating and cooling equipment .......... 28

Figure 3-9 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery stores’ main heating source ........................ 29

Figure 3-10 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store setback and setup practices.............. 29

Figure 3-11 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store service water heating 

characteristics...................................................................................................................... 30

Figure 3-12 Grocery store prototype model floor plan .............................................................................. 32

Figure 3-13 Grocery store baseline model rendering: View from southwest .......................................... 34

Figure 3-14 Building flow balance diagram .............................................................................................. 38

Figure 3-15 Potential daylight sources for each zone ................................................................................ 53

Figure 4-1 EUI comparison for baseline and CBECS survey buildings.................................................... 73

Figure 4-2 Electricity use intensity comparison for baseline and CBECS survey buildings..................... 74

Figure 4-3 Natural gas intensity comparison for baseline and CBECS survey buildings.......................... 74

Figure 4-4 Energy intensity by end use for baseline and selected low-energy models.............................. 87

Figure 4-5 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Chicago, Illinois 

grocery store........................................................................................................................ 94

Figure 5-1 Key Pareto curve features to provide absolute EUI targets...................................................... 99

Figure E-1 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Miami, Florida, 

grocery store ...................................................................................................................... 131

Figure E-2 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Las Vegas, Nevada, 

grocery store ...................................................................................................................... 134

Figure E-3 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Seattle, Washington, 

grocery store ...................................................................................................................... 137

Figure E-4 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Chicago, Illinois, 

grocery store ...................................................................................................................... 140
xi

Figure E-5 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Fairbanks, Alaska, 

grocery store ...................................................................................................................... 143

Figure G-1 Grocery prototype floor plan................................................................................................. 154

Figure G-2 General merchandise prototype floor plan ............................................................................ 155

Tables

Table 3-1 Economic Parameter Values...................................................................................................... 13

Table 3-2 Electricity Tariff........................................................................................................................ 14

Table 3-3 National Average Natural Gas Tariff and Source Data in $/MCF ............................................ 15

Table 3-4 Benchmark Project Supermarket Space Types.......................................................................... 18

Table 3-5 TSD Grocery Space Types........................................................................................................ 18

Table 3-6 Occupancy Density Mapping and Peak Values......................................................................... 19

Table 3-7 Peak Plug and Process Loads .................................................................................................... 20

Table 3-8 Occupancy Schedule, in Fraction of Peak Occupancy .............................................................. 21

Table 3-9 Lighting Schedule, in Fraction of Peak Lighting Density ......................................................... 23

Table 3-10 Plug and Process Load Schedule, in Fraction of Peak Load ................................................... 24

Table 3-11 Refrigerated Cases and Walk-In Units by Zone ...................................................................... 30

Table 3-12 Grocery Store Prototype Model Characteristics and Data Sources......................................... 31

Table 3-13 Space Types and Sizes in the Grocery Store Prototype Model ............................................... 32

Table 3-14 Selected Baseline Modeling Assumptions............................................................................... 33

Table 3-15 Baseline Exterior Wall Constructions ..................................................................................... 35

Table 3-16 Baseline Roof Constructions................................................................................................... 35

Table 3-17 Baseline Window Constructions ............................................................................................. 36

Table 3-18 Baseline Skylight Constructions.............................................................................................. 37

Table 3-19 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Operating Hours................................................. 38

Table 3-20 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Non-Operating Hours......................................... 38

Table 3-21 Baseline Lighting and Occupancy Loads by Space Type........................................................ 39

Table 3-22 Baseline Minimum Ventilation Rates...................................................................................... 41

Table 3-23 Baseline Fan System Total Pressure Drops............................................................................. 42

Table 3-24 Baseline HVAC Models Summary.......................................................................................... 43

Table 3-25 Baseline Refrigerated Case Characteristics............................................................................. 45

Table 3-26 Refrigerated Case Restocking Assumptions............................................................................ 45

Table 3-27 Walk-In Cooler and Freezer Characteristics............................................................................ 46

Table 3-28 Exterior Wall EDMs................................................................................................................ 50

Table 3-29 Roof EDMs.............................................................................................................................. 51
xii

Table 3-30 South Fenestration Construction EDMs.................................................................................. 51

Table 3-31 Skylight Fenestration Construction EDMs.............................................................................. 52

Table 3-32 Lighting Power Density EDMs ............................................................................................... 54

Table 3-33 HVAC System EDMs.............................................................................................................. 56

Table 3-34 Energy Recovery EDMs.......................................................................................................... 57

Table 3-35 Dedicated Exhaust by Space Type .......................................................................................... 58

Table 3-36 Island Single-Deck Meat Case EDMs..................................................................................... 61

Table 3-37 Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli Case EDMs ........................................................................................ 62

Table 3-38 Vertical Frozen Food with Doors Case EDMs........................................................................ 63

Table 3-39 Island Single-Deck Ice Cream Case EDMs............................................................................. 64

Table 4-1 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Model Performance: Humid Climates..................................... 67

Table 4-2 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Model Performance: Arid Climates......................................... 67

Table 4-3 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Model Performance: Marine and Cold Climates..................... 68

Table 4-4 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Exterior Wall Constructions..................................................... 69

Table 4-5 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Roof Constructions................................................................... 69

Table 4-6 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Window Constructions............................................................. 69

Table 4-7 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Skylight Constructions ............................................................. 70

Table 4-8 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Minimum Ventilation Rates ..................................................... 70

Table 4-9 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Model Performance: Humid Climates..................................... 71

Table 4-10 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Model Performance: Arid Climates....................................... 71

Table 4-11 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Model Performance: Marine and Cold Climates................... 72

Table 4-12 Retail Building Climate Zone Weighting Factors................................................................... 73

Table 4-13 Selected Low-Energy Models: Humid Climates.................................................................... 78

Table 4-14 Selected Low-Energy Models: Arid Climates........................................................................ 80

Table 4-15 Selected Low-Energy Models: Marine and Cold Climates.................................................... 82

Table 4-16 Selected Low-Energy Model Energy Performance: Humid Climates.................................... 84

Table 4-17 Selected Low-Energy Model Energy Performance: Arid Climates........................................ 85

Table 4-18 Selected Low-Energy Model Energy Performance: Marine and Cold Climates.................... 86

Table 4-19 Selected Low-Energy Model Costs: Humid Climates............................................................ 88

Table 4-20 Selected Low-Energy Model Costs: Arid Climates................................................................ 88

Table 4-21 Selected Low-Energy Model Costs: Marine and Cold Climates............................................ 89

Table 4-22 Selected Low-Energy Model Electricity Demand: Humid Climates...................................... 89

Table 4-23 Selected Low-Energy Model Electricity Demand: Arid Climates ......................................... 89

Table 4-24 Selected Low-Energy Model Electricity Demand: Marine and Cold Climates...................... 90
xiii

Table 4-25 High Performance Building Strategies as used in the Algorithm for Identifying Alternative

Low-Energy Models............................................................................................................ 92

Table 4-26 Summary of the Chicago, Illinois Low Energy Models........................................................... 94

Table 4-27 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for 

Chicago, Illinois .................................................................................................................. 95

Table 4-28 Summary of Each Climate Zone’s Low-Energy Models......................................................... 95

Table 4-29 Sensitivity Analysis Summary by Strategy ............................................................................. 96

Table A-1 Mapping Between Analysis Space Types and ASHRAE Standard 62.1................................ 108

Table A-2 Mapping Between Analysis Space Types and ASHRAE Standard 90.1................................ 108

Table B-1 Occupancy Schedule............................................................................................................... 109

Table B-2 Lighting Schedule ................................................................................................................... 110

Table B-3 Plug and Process Load Schedule ............................................................................................ 111

Table B-4 HVAC Schedule ..................................................................................................................... 112

Table B-5 Infiltration Schedule................................................................................................................ 113

Table B-6 Heating Set Point Schedule (oC)............................................................................................. 114

Table B-7 Cooling Set Point Schedule (oC)............................................................................................. 115

Table B-8 Service Water Heating Schedule ............................................................................................ 116

Table C-1 Baseline Exterior Wall Constructions (SI Units)..................................................................... 117

Table C-2 Baseline Roof Constructions (SI Units).................................................................................. 117

Table C-3 Baseline Window Constructions (SI Units)............................................................................ 117

Table C-4 Baseline Skylight Constructions (SI Units) ............................................................................ 118

Table C-5 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Operating Hours (SI Units) ............................... 118

Table C-6 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Non-Operating Hours (SI Units) ....................... 118

Table C-7 Baseline Fan System Total Pressure Drops (SI Units) ........................................................... 118

Table C-8 Baseline HVAC Models Summary (SI Units)........................................................................ 119

Table C-9 Baseline Refrigerated Case Characteristics (SI Units)............................................................ 119

Table C-10 Refrigerated Case Restocking Assumptions (SI Units)........................................................ 120

Table C-11 Exterior Wall EDMs (SI Units) ............................................................................................ 120

Table C-12 Roof EDMs (SI Units) .......................................................................................................... 121

Table C-13 South Fenestration Construction EDMs (SI Units)............................................................... 121

Table C-14 Skylight Fenestration Construction EDMs (SI Units) .......................................................... 122

Table C-15 Lighting Power Density EDMs (SI Units)............................................................................ 122

Table C-16 HVAC System EDMs (SI Units).......................................................................................... 123

Table C-17 Energy Recovery EDMs (SI Units) ...................................................................................... 124

Table C-18 Dedicated Exhaust by Space Type (SI Units)....................................................................... 124
xiv

Table C-19 Island Single-Deck Meat Case EDMs (SI Units).................................................................. 125

Table C-20 Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli Case EDMs (SI Units)..................................................................... 126

Table C-21 Vertical Frozen Food with Doors Case EDMs (SI Units)..................................................... 127

Table C-22 Island Single-Deck Ice Cream Case EDMs (SI Units) ......................................................... 128

Table D-1 Energy Use Intensity Decomposed by End Use ..................................................................... 129

Table D-2 Percent of Energy Use Intensity Devoted to Each End Use ................................................... 130

Table E-1 Summary of the Miami, Florida, Low-Energy Models........................................................... 132

Table E-2 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Miami, 

Florida ............................................................................................................................... 133

Table E-3 Summary of the Las Vegas, Nevada, Low-Energy Models.................................................... 135

Table E-4 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Las 

Vegas, Nevada................................................................................................................... 136

Table E-5 Summary of the Seattle, Washington, Low-Energy Models................................................... 138

Table E-6 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Seattle, 

Washington........................................................................................................................ 139

Table E-7 Summary of the Chicago, Illinois Low-Energy Models......................................................... 141

Table E-8 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for 

Chicago, Illinois ................................................................................................................ 142

Table E-9 Summary of the Fairbanks, Alaska, Low Energy Models ...................................................... 144

Table E-10 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for 

Fairbanks, Alaska .............................................................................................................. 145

Table F-1 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Energy Performance: Humid Climates................... 146

Table F-2 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Energy Performance: Arid Climates....................... 147

Table F-3 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Energy Performance: Marine and Cold Climates... 148

Table F-4 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Costs: Humid Climates........................................... 149

Table F-5 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Costs: Arid Climates............................................... 150

Table F-6 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Costs: Marine and Cold Climates........................... 150

Table G-1 TSD Prototype Characteristics and Related Questions*......................................................... 152

Table G-2 Space Types and Sizes in the Prototype Models .................................................................... 153

Table G-3 Peak Plug (Electric) and Process (Gas) Loads in the Prototype Models................................ 153

Table G-4 Grocery Prototype: Refrigerated Cases and Walk-In Units by Zone ..................................... 154

Table G-5 Energy Design Measure (EDM) Information Requests.......................................................... 156
1

1.0 Introduction

This report is often referred to as a Technical Support Document, or TSD, because it is a detailed 

compilation of the modeling assumptions, analysis techniques, and results that provide the 

technical basis for recommending building design packages that achieve a desired level of net 

energy savings as compared to a baseline grocery store model. Historically, there have been a 

series of TSDs for different building types and different energy savings levels, some of which 

have led to the production of volumes in the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and 

Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Advanced Energy Design Guide (AEDG) series. The 

AEDGs are user-friendly books containing the design recommendations of the TSDs plus 

relevant case studies and best practice tips. 

The TSDs and AEDGs are part of an inter-organizational effort to progressively facilitate the 

design, construction, and operation of more efficient buildings, with the eventual goal of 

achieving net zero energy buildings (Torcellini et al. 2006). The first phase concentrated on 

achieving 30% energy savings over ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE). 

The study presented here is part of the second phase of this effort as it provides design guidance 

that architects, designers, contractors, developers, owners and lessees of grocery stores can use to 

achieve whole-building net site energy savings of at least 50% compared to the minimum 

requirements of Standard 90.1-2004. The recommendations are given by climate zone, and 

address building envelope (including infiltration through walls and doors), fenestration quantities 

and types, electrical lighting systems, daylighting, HVAC systems, outside air (OA) quantity and 

treatment, refrigerated cases, refrigeration system condensers, and photovoltaic (PV) systems. In 

all cases, the recommendations are not part of a code or a standard, and should be used as 

starting points for project-specific analyses. 

This TSD belongs to a first set of studies aimed at the 50% milestone on the path toward Zero 

Energy Buildings (ZEBs), which generate or purchase an amount of renewable energy equivalent 

to or greater than the fossil fuel-derived energy they purchase over the course of a year. A 

number of public, private, and nongovernmental organizations have adopted ZEB goals. 

Directly relevant to this report is this statement by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy Building Technologies Program (DOE 2005): 

By 2025, the Building Technologies Program will create technologies and design 

approaches that enable the construction of net-zero energy buildings at low incremental 

cost. A net-zero energy building is a residential or commercial building with greatly 

reduced needs for energy through efficiency gains, with the balance of energy needs 

supplied by renewable technologies.

The interorganizational AEDG effort is one pathway being pursued to help reach these goals. 

We hope that this TSD will result in the production of a Grocery Store 50% AEDG, in support of 

the ASHRAE Vision 2020 Committee and AEDG Scoping Committee goals to enable interested 

parties to achieve 50% energy savings by 2010 (Jarnagin et al. 2007; Mitchell et al. 2006). This 

work will also reach its intended audience of architects, designers, contractors, developers, 

owners, and lessees of grocery stores through the DOE-sponsored Retailer Energy Alliance 

(REA) (DOE 2008a). 

This TSD was developed by the Commercial Buildings Section at the National Renewable 

Energy Laboratory (NREL), under the direction of the DOE Building Technologies Program, 

and in parallel with a sister TSD for general merchandise stores (Hale et al. 2009). It builds on 
2

previous work (Hale et al. 2008a; Hale et al. 2008b) that established a basic methodology for 

finding building designs that achieve 50% energy savings over ASHRAE 90.1-2004. These

analyses improve on the earlier work in that (1) the analysis assumptions were reviewed by 

external experts; (2) an extended methodology for determining alternative 50% designs was 

developed; and (3) the extended methodology was applied to select climate zones. 

1.1 Objectives

The modeling and analysis described in this report are intended to: 

• Develop recommendations that meet a numeric goal. The energy savings goal is a hard 

value, not an approximate target. All recommendation sets have been verified to give at least 

50% net site energy savings compared with Standard 90.1-2004. The savings are calculated 

on a whole-building energy consumption basis, which includes non-regulated loads.

• Develop recommendations that can assist a range of interested parties. Multiple designs 

that meet the 50% goal are provided in select climate zones (1A, 3B-NV, 4C, 5A, and 8). 

The method for producing those design packages also provides guidance as to whether 

particular strategies (types of design measures) or combinations of strategies are necessary to 

reach the target.

• Investigate and communicate the benefits of integrated design. An EnergyPlus-based 

building optimization tool, Opt-E-Plus, is used to find complementary combinations of 

efficiency measures that economically achieve the desired level of energy savings. The 

resulting recommendations demonstrate and quantify the benefits of considering the energy 

and economic implications of every design decision on a whole-building basis. 

• Incorporate review of modeling assumptions by industry representatives. A condensed 

compilation of baseline and energy design measure (EDM) cost and performance 

assumptions was circulated to the REA to assess their validity. Several collaborating 

engineering firms reviewed an earlier draft of this document. Many of their comments were 

incorporated into this study or taken into consideration for future study. 

• Compare ASHRAE 90.1-2004 to ASHRAE 90.1-2007 as they apply to grocery stores. 

We report the energy use and approximate cost difference between baseline grocery stores 

that prescriptively satisfy ASHRAE 90.1-2004 and ASHRAE 90.1-2007 so interested parties 

can evaluate the progression of Standard 90.1. 

1.2 Scope

This document provides recommendations and design assistance to designers, developers, and 

owners of grocery stores that will encourage steady progress toward net zero energy buildings. 

To ease the burden of designing and constructing energy-efficient grocery stores, we describe a 

set of designs that reach the 50% energy savings target for each climate zone. The 

recommendations and discussion apply to grocery stores of 25,000 ft2 to 65,000 ft2 (2,323 m2

 to 

6,039 m2

), with about 750 ft (229 m) of refrigerated cases and 500 ft (152 m) of walk-in coolers 

and freezers. 

This TSD is not intended to substitute for rating systems or other references that address the full 

range of sustainable issues, such as acoustics, productivity, indoor environmental quality, water 

efficiency, landscaping, and transportation, except as they relate to operational energy 

consumption. It is also not a design text—we leave detailed design to the experts working on 

particular projects. Our results are intended to demonstrate the advantages of integrated whole-
3

building design, and to suggest sets of design features that seem to work well together in each 

climate zone. 

1.3 Report Organization

This report is organized into four sections. The introduction, Section 1.0, gives background, 

overview and scope information. Section 2.0 describes our modeling methodology, including 

definitions, analysis framework, post-processing of results, and external review. Section 3.0

documents all our modeling assumptions: (1) overall assumptions including economic 

methodology; (2) the prototype model, that is, programmatic, floor plan, and equipment type 

information that remains constant throughout the study; (3) detailed cost and performance data 

for climate-specific baseline buildings; and (4) EDMs, which are design perturbations that may 

provide energy savings in one or more climates. Section 4.0 contains the results of the modeling 

study, including cost and energy use intensity (EUI) of baseline and low-energy models, the 

EDMs chosen in different climate zones to reach the energy saving goal, and post-processing 

results showing alternative paths to 50% energy savings. We also show how the baseline energy 

use changes when using ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007 instead of Standard 90.1-2004 and 

compare baseline results with the Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) 

dataset.
4

2.0 Methodology

This chapter describes the methodology and assumptions used to develop early stage building 

designs that achieve 50% energy savings. We begin with the overall approach of the study to 

modeling energy savings in grocery stores, including the energy and economic metrics used and 

the scope of EDMs that are considered in the analysis. We proceed to describe how we found 

models that meet the 50% energy savings goal, and conclude with a summary of our solicitations 

for retailer and engineering review and the results of that activity.

2.1 Guiding Principles

Our objective is to find grocery store designs that achieve 50% energy savings over ASHRAE 

90.1-2004. We also seek designs that are cost effective over a five-year analysis period. These 

objectives lead us to examine the Percent Net Site Energy Savings and the Five-Year Total Life 

Cycle Cost (5-TLCC) of candidate buildings. Of course, other objectives could be used; this 

choice best fits the mandate for this project.

Achieving 50% savings cost effectively requires integrated building design--a design approach 

that analyzes buildings as holistic systems, rather than as disconnected collections of individually 

engineered subsystems. Indeed, accounting for and taking advantage of interactions between 

subsystems is a paramount concern. As an example, a reduction in installed lighting power 

density (LPD) can often be accompanied by a smaller HVAC system, but only if an integrated 

design process allows for it. (In one instance, we found that the capacity of the HVAC system 

could be reduced by 0.7 tons cooling for every kilowatt reduction in installed lighting power.) 

Candidate designs are chosen by applying one or more perturbations to a baseline building. The 

perturbations are called Energy Design Measures (EDMs) to reflect that they are meant to have 

an impact on energy use. We used the following guiding principles to develop a list of 

prospective EDMs:

• We recommend off-the-shelf technologies that are available from multiple sources, as 

opposed to technologies or techniques that are available only in limited quantities or from 

one manufacturer. 

• The EDMs are limited to technologies that can be modeled using EnergyPlus and the 

NREL Opt-E-Plus platform.

The methodology for developing candidate integrated designs is discussed in Sections 2.4 and 

2.5. That the recommended low-energy designs achieve 50% energy savings is verified during 

the process of model development and simulation. The recommended designs are also expected 

to be reasonably cost effective, but not necessarily the most cost effective, given the difficulty of 

obtaining accurate and timely cost data on all the technologies required to reach 50% savings in 

all climate zones.

2.2 Definitions

This section specifies how we calculate building energy use and percent energy savings relative 

to ASHRAE 90.1-2004. This description includes the site boundary used to calculate net site

energy use, how we deal with energy demands not treated by the ASHRAE Standards, and how 

Appendix G of ASHRAE 90.1 is applied. 
5

2.2.1 Energy Use

Building energy use can be calculated a number of ways based on where the energy is assumed 

to originate, and on which loads are included in the calculation. The assumptions used in this 

TSD follow.

2.2.1.1 Net Site Energy Use

The percent energy savings goal is based on net site energy use: the amount of energy delivered 

to a building by the utility (typically in the form of electricity or natural gas) minus any 

renewable energy generated within its footprint. Other metrics, such as energy cost savings, 

source energy savings, and carbon savings, could be used (Torcellini et al. 2006). Each metric 

has advantages and disadvantages in calculation and interpretation, and each favors different 

technologies and fuel types. This TSD uses net site energy savings to retain consistency with the 

previous AEDGs, and to serve as a milestone on the path to the DOE goal of zero net site energy. 

2.2.1.2 Whole Building Energy Use

Historically, energy savings have been expressed in two ways: for regulated loads only and for 

all loads (the whole building). Regulated loads metrics do not include plug and process loads 

that are not code regulated. Whole-building energy savings calculations, on the other hand, 

include all loads, whether regulated or not. In general, whole-building savings are more 

challenging than regulated loads savings given the same numerical target, but more accurately 

represent a building’s impact on the national energy system. 

We use the whole-building energy savings method to determine 50% energy savings, in line with 

the current ASHRAE and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) practices 

specified in Appendix G of ASHRAE 90.1-2004 and in LEED 2.2. However, we do not limit 

our recommendations to the regulated loads, as was done in the 30% AEDGs. 

2.2.2 Percent Energy Savings

Percent energy savings are based on the notion of a minimally code-compliant building as 

described in Appendix G of ASHRAE 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE 2004a). The following steps were 

used to determine 50% savings: 

1. Define architectural-program characteristics (design aspects not addressed by ASHRAE 

90.1-2004) for typical grocery stores, thereby defining prototype models. 

2. Create baseline energy models for each climate zone that are elaborations of the 

prototype models and are minimally compliant with ASHRAE 90.1-2004. 

3. Create a list of EDMs that can be applied to the baseline models to create candidate lowenergy models. 

4. Select low-energy models for each climate zone that achieve 50% energy savings as 

compared to the baseline models, giving preference to those models that have low 

5-TLCC. 

2.2.3 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline

The 50% level of savings achieved by each low-energy building model is demonstrated in 

comparison with a baseline model that minimally satisfies the requirements of 

ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE 2004a). The baseline models are 

constructed in a manner similar to what was used in the previous TSDs (Hale et al. 2008a; Hale 

et al. 2008b; Jarnagin et al. 2006; Liu et al. 2006; Pless et al. 2007), and in compliance with 
6

Appendix G of Standard 90.1-2004 when appropriate. Notable deviations from Standard 90.1-

2004 Appendix G include: 

• Glazing amounts (window area and skylight area) are allowed to vary between the 

baseline and low-energy models. We thereby demonstrate the effects of optimizing 

window and skylight areas for daylighting and thermal considerations. 

• Fan efficiencies are set slightly higher than code-minimum1

• Net site energy use, rather than energy cost, is used to calculate savings.

to represent a more realistic 

split of energy efficiency ratio (EER) between the supply fan and the 

compressor/condenser system in a packaged rooftop direct expansion HVAC unit. 

• Mass walls are modeled in the baseline and low-energy models to ensure that our 

baseline accurately reflects typical design practice.

2.3 Building Energy Modeling Methodology

2.3.1 EnergyPlus

EnergyPlus Version 3.1 (DOE 2009), a publicly available building simulation engine, is used for 

all energy analyses. The simulations are managed with the NREL analysis platform, Opt-E-Plus, 

which transforms user-specified, high-level building parameters (building area, internal gains per 

zone, HVAC system configuration, etc.) stored in XML files into an input file for EnergyPlus. 

Opt-E-Plus can automatically generate the XML files, or it can manage XML files that have been 

assembled or modified elsewhere. Working with the XML files is much faster than modifying 

EnergyPlus input files directly, because a single XML parameter usually maps to multiple 

EnergyPlus inputs.

We selected EnergyPlus because it is a detailed DOE simulation tool that computes building 

energy use based on the interactions between climate, building form and fabric, internal gains, 

HVAC systems, and renewable energy systems. The simulations were run with EnergyPlus 

Version 3.1 compiled on local personal computers (PCs), and a 64-bit cluster computer at NREL. 

EnergyPlus is a heavily tested program with formal BESTEST validation efforts repeated for 

every release (Judkoff and Neymark 1995). 

2.3.2 Climate Zones 

The AEDGs contain a unique set of energy efficiency recommendations for each International 

Energy Conservation Code (IECC)/ASHRAE climate zone. The eight zones and 15 subzones in 

the United States are depicted in Figure 2-1. The zones are categorized by heating degree days 

(HDDs) and cooling degree days (CDDs), and range from the very hot Zone 1 to the very cold 

Zone 8. Sub-zones indicate varying moisture conditions. Humid subzones are designated by the 

letter A, dry sub-zones by B, and marine subzones by C. This document may also be beneficial 

for international users, provided the location of interest can be mapped to a climate zone 

(ASHRAE 2006). 

 

1 We use the code-minimum EER value with a typical value for the compressor/condenser coefficient of 

performance (COP) and the total static pressure to calculate fan power. The resulting horsepower per 1000 cfm is 

lower than code-maximum.
7

Figure 2-1 DOE climate zones and representative cities

To provide a concrete basis for analysis, the 16 specific locations (cities) used in the Benchmark 

Project (Deru et al. 2008) are designated as representatives of their climate zones. The cities are 

marked in Figure 2-1 and listed below. Larger cities were chosen, as their weather and utility 

data directly apply to a large fraction of building floor area. Two cities are provided for Zone 3B 

to account for the microclimate effects in California. Climate zone-specific recommendations 

were validated by running baseline and low-energy model simulations with the same weather file 

(one set of simulations for each city). 

Zone 1A: Miami, Florida (hot, humid) 

Zone 2A: Houston, Texas (hot, humid) 

Zone 2B: Phoenix, Arizona (hot, dry) 

Zone 3A: Atlanta, Georgia (hot, humid)

Zone 3B: Las Vegas, Nevada (hot, dry) and Los Angeles, California (warm, dry) 

Zone 3C: San Francisco, California (marine)

Zone 4A: Baltimore, Maryland (mild, humid) 

Zone 4B: Albuquerque, New Mexico (mild, dry) 

Zone 4C: Seattle, Washington (marine) 

Zone 5A: Chicago, Illinois (cold, humid) 

Zone 5B: Denver, Colorado (cold, dry) 

Zone 6A: Minneapolis, Minnesota (cold, humid) 

Zone 6B: Helena, Montana (cold, dry)

Zone 7: Duluth, Minnesota (very cold) 

Zone 8: Fairbanks, Alaska (extremely cold)
8

2.4 Integrated Design Methodology

We used Opt-E-Plus, an internal NREL building energy and cost optimization research tool, to 

determine combinations of EDMs that best balance two objective functions: net site energy 

savings and Five-Year Total Life Cycle Cost (5-TLCC, see Section 3.1.2.6). After the user 

specifies these functions, a baseline building, and a list of EDMs, Opt-E-Plus generates new 

building models, manages EnergyPlus simulations, and algorithmically determines optimal 

combinations of EDMs. The building models are first specified in high-level eXtensible Markup 

Language (XML) files. The NREL preprocessor then translates them into EnergyPlus input files 

(IDFs). The output of the optimization is a 5-TLCC versus Percent Energy Savings graph, see 

Figure 2-2, that includes one point for each building, and a curve that connects the minimum cost 

buildings starting at 0% savings (the baseline building) and proceeding to the building with 

maximum percent savings. 

Figure 2-2 Example Opt-E-Plus output: Climate zone 4C (Seattle, Washington) 

The buildings along the portion of this curve, which starts at the minimum cost building 

(5-TLCC intensity of ~135 $/ft2 and percent energy savings of ~45%) and continues toward

higher percent energy savings, are called Pareto Points. For such buildings, if one objective is 

improved, the other must deteriorate. For instance, for a given Pareto point, moving to a less 

expensive building necessitates that it will have a lower level of energy savings, and moving to a 

more energy-efficient building necessitates higher total life cycle costs. The set of Pareto Points

determines a Pareto Front, which in general is a curve that represents the most cost-effective 

pathway to achieving low-energy buildings (given the limitations of our input data and search 

algorithm). This is the portion of the black curve in Figure 2-2 from about 45% savings to 60% 

savings. 

2.4.1 Initialization

To set up the analysis, we apply methods to a custom defined high-level building model to create 

a code-compliant building for each desired location. These location-sensitive methods apply 

code minimum building constructions and other values specified by ASHRAE 90.1-2004 and 

ASHRAE 62-1999 (ASHRAE 1999; ASHRAE 2004a). Economizers are manually added to the 

baseline buildings in climate zones 3B, 3C, 4B, 4C, 5B, and 6B (see Section 2.3.2 for climate 

zone definitions). All the EDMs described in Section 3.4 are available in all climate zones. 
9

Although climate considerations could have allowed us, for instance, to eliminate the highest 

levels of insulation in Miami, all measures were retained to simplify the initialization procedures, 

and to ensure that all potentially useful measures were included. 

2.4.2 Execution

Opt-E-Plus searches for lowest cost designs starting from the baseline model at 0% energy 

savings, and proceeds to designs with higher and higher predicted energy savings. An iterative 

search algorithm is used to avoid an exhaustive search of all possible EDM combinations. Each 

iteration starts at the most recently found Pareto point, and then creates, simulates and analyzes 

all of the models that are single-EDM perturbations of that point. The algorithm stops when it 

cannot find additional Pareto points. Cost is measured in terms of 5-TLCC, which is described 

in Section 3.1.2.6, and is calculated using the economic data in Sections 3.1.2, 3.3, and 3.4. 

Even with the sequential search algorithm, an Opt-E-Plus search often requires numerous 

simulations. For this study, each optimization required 2,500 to 4,000 simulations, each of 

which took 9 to 21 minutes of computer time to complete. Such computational effort requires 

distributed computing. Opt-E-Plus manages two pools of simulations: local simulations (if the 

PC contains multiple cores) and those sent to a Linux cluster. The Linux cluster can, on average, 

run 64 simulations simultaneously. When the simulations are complete, the Opt-E-Plus database 

run manager specifies the next batch of simulations and distributes them based on the available 

resources.

2.5 Post-Processing Methodology

2.5.1 Basic

Once the search for the lowest cost designs is complete, we select a point along the Pareto front 

that satisfies our percent energy savings goal. All the EDMs besides photovoltaic (PV) panels 

are treated as discrete design choices that are either applied or not. The number of roof-mounted 

PV panels, on the other hand, is automatically selected to just reach the 50% energy savings 

goal, subject to a cap on the allowable roof coverage (see Section 3.4.3.6). 

Figure 2-2 shows an example Opt-E-Plus search with the selected building identified by an 

orange circle. In this case, PV was not needed to reach the target and the selected point was 

simulated during the normal course of running the search algorithm. The percent savings goal is 

exceeded by about 1%.

When PV is required to reach the 50% energy savings goal, the first Pareto front point beyond 

50% is used to determine exactly how much PV is needed to just reach the goal. The resulting 

model with reduced PV is run, and shows up on the Opt-E-Plus plot as a ‘+’ (see Figure 2-3). 

The selected point (again, identified by an orange circle), is identical to the first Pareto point 

after the long straight segment associated with adding PV at maximum roof coverage (near 58% 

energy savings in the figure), except that the PV coverage has been scaled back to achieve 50% 

energy savings. 
10

Figure 2-3 Example Opt-E-Plus output with PV post-processing: Climate zone 1A (Miami, Florida) 

2.5.2 Finding Families of Solutions

For most climate zones, this TSD presents a single low-energy model for each plug load 

scenario. However, we appreciate that one size does not fit all. Design teams are subject to 

constraints imposed by the owner and other stakeholders, and may be interested in alternative 

designs that also reach 50% energy savings. 

Although the standard Opt-E-Plus output appears to produce a number of models near the 50% 

target, those models are closely related to the Pareto front models and are thus not able to fully 

answer questions such as, “Is daylighting required to reach my target?” 

To address this issue, we created a new post-processing routine for Opt-E-Plus that creates new 

searches based on turning sets of EDMs off and on. For instance, to determine whether 

daylighting is required to reach the target, we remove daylighting controls and skylights from the 

selected point and from the search options. The resulting search will then either reach the energy 

target or not, and the best building design (determined in the same way as described in Section 

2.5.1) from that search is identified. 

Starting with the selected low-energy model, one new search is created for each strategy (each 

group of EDMs the user clusters together) used in that model. Then, if at least one of the new 

searches can reach the target, more searches can be created to see if the goal can be reached 

without combinations of two strategies. This process may be repeated as often as the user 

wishes, as long as new searches that reach the goal remain unexplored.

This analysis is computationally intensive, so it was not completed for all climate zones, and we 

conducted only the first iteration of searches. Section 0 describes the results of this analysis for a 

subset of climate zones that we feel represents the categories of climates in the full set: 1A, hot 

and humid; 3B, hot and arid; 4C, marine; 5A, cold and humid; and 8, very cold. 

2.6 External Review Process and Results

Our assumptions were reviewed by several members of the REA (DOE 2008a) and by several 

engineering firms. All retailers in the REA were invited to submit comments on a document that 

summarized our prototype model assumptions and our list of EDMs. NREL has contractual 
11

relationships with several engineering firms that were asked to review an earlier draft of this 

document that contained our assumptions (Section 3.0) and preliminary results (parts of Section 

4.0).

Everyone in the REA was invited to comment. Our request form was quite brief, but the e-mail 

request for review (see Appendix F), produced only a few responses. We were also able to 

obtain helpful information from NREL’s National Account partners. Both sources provided 

information about occupancy and HVAC schedules, LPDs, HVAC equipment, and refrigeration 

systems. 

An early draft of this report was reviewed by CxGBS, Speller Energy Consulting, and Moser 

Mayer Phoenix Associates. The comments we received led us to:

• Update the baseline exterior wall construction prices using recent data from the ASHRAE 

90.1 Envelope Subcommittee. 

• Correct the EDM window costs to reflect the inflation of the original data to 2008 dollars. 

• Investigate adding a tankless water heater EDM. In the end, we did not add one because its 

implementation would require a significant programming effort and hot water accounts for 

only about 0.5% of baseline energy use. 

• Modify the inputs for and the implementation of the ERV EDM. 
12

3.0 Model Development and Assumptions

This section documents the development of model inputs. Section 3.1 describes assumptions 

that apply to the entire study, including our economic assumptions and methodology. Section 

3.2 describes the programmatic characteristics of a typical grocery store and uses them to 

develop a high-level prototype model. Section 3.3 elaborates on Section 3.2 to define the 

EnergyPlus baseline models that provide a reference for determining percent savings and are 

minimally compliant with Standard 90.1-2004. Section 3.4 describes the list of EDMs used to 

create low-energy models. 

3.1 Analysis Assumptions

Most of Section 3.0 concerns the assembly of valid and useful building energy and cost models, 

component by component. Here we touch on two types of assumptions that color our entire 

analysis: the often implicit assumptions required to conduct building energy simulation studies, 

and our economic model. 

3.1.1 Integrity of Simulation Models

We made the following assumptions in this study: 

1. The models developed in this work represent typical grocery stores well enough to 

provide climate-specific guidance as to the kinds of design changes that should be 

considered first when plans for a high-performance grocery store are developed. 

2. These virtual buildings are well maintained and operated. 

In reality, the anticipated energy savings are often not achieved or erode over time because 

buildings are not properly commissioned, operated, or maintained. For example, economizer 

dampers are notorious for failing, and rooftop HVAC equipment must be shielded from adverse 

weather conditions such as hail to maintain performance. Periodic recommissioning finds and 

resolves some of these problems.

3.1.2 Economics

One outcome of this project is a list of cost-effective design recommendations. The objective 

function of interest is 5-TLCC, which is described in Section 3.1.2.6. 

3.1.2.1 Building Economic Parameters

Our statement of work mandates that the design recommendations be analyzed for cost 

effectiveness based on a five-year analysis period, which is assumed acceptable to a majority of 

developers and owners. The other basic economic parameters required for the 5-TLCC

calculation were taken from RSMeans and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

(Balboni 2008b; OMB 2008). 

This analysis uses the real discount rate, which accounts for the projected rate of general 

inflation found in the Report of the President’s Economic Advisors, Analytical Perspectives, and 

is equal to 2.3% for a five-year analysis period (OMB 2008). By using this rate, we do not have 

to explicitly account for energy and product inflation rates. 

Regional capital cost modifiers are used to convert national averages to regional values. These

are available from the RSMeans data sets and are applied before any of the additional fees listed 

in Table 3-1, three of which are also provided by RSMeans (Balboni 2008b). 
13

Table 3-1 Economic Parameter Values

Economic Parameter Value Data Source

Analysis Period 5 Years DOE

Discount Rate 2.3% OMB

O&M Cost Inflation 0% OMB

Gas Cost Inflation 0% OMB

Electricity Cost Inflation 0% OMB

Bond Fee 10% RSMeans

Contractor Fee 10% RSMeans

Contingency Fee 12% RSMeans

Commissioning Fee 0.5% Assumption

3.1.2.2 Energy Design Measure Cost Parameters

Each EDM has its own cost data. The categories for each are the same, but the units vary: 

• Units define how the EDM is costed (e.g. $/m2, $/kW cooling, $/each). 

• Expected life is the time (in years) that the EDM is expected to last. Once that period 

has expired, the EDM is replaced; that is, the full materials and installation costs are 

added to that year’s cash flows. 

• Capital cost is the per-unit cost of all materials and installation required for the EDM. 

• Fixed operation and maintenance (O&M) is a per-unit, per-year cost.

• Variable O&M is a per-unit, per-year cost.

We report fixed and variable O&M costs together as a single maintenance cost.

3.1.2.3 Costing Methodology

Unless otherwise stated, all costs are in 2008 dollars. Costs originally from another year are 

adjusted according to the Consumer Price Index inflation calculator (Labor 2009). 

The cost data used for the EDMs and the baseline walls, roofs, windows, lighting systems, and 

HVAC equipment are adapted from multiple sources and adjusted to 2008 dollars. The envelope 

costs were acquired from personal communications with the ASHRAE 90.1 Envelope 

Subcommittee (ASHRAE 2007a; ASHRAE 2008). The ABO Group developed a cost database 

for energy-efficient overhang designs (Priebe 2006). The HVAC cost data were generated by the 

RMH Group (RMH Group 2006), a mechanical design contractor who received price quotes on a 

range of HVAC system types and sizes. All other cost data, including maintenance costs, come 

from the RSMeans data set (Balboni 2008a; Balboni 2008b; Greene 2008; Mossman 2005; 

Plotner 2009; Waier 2008; Waier 2005), the PNNL AEDG TSDs (Liu et al. 2006; Liu et al. 

2007), and other sources (Emmerich et al. 2005; Roth et al. 2005; Westphalen et al. 1996). The 

cost data sources and values are listed explicitly throughout Section 3.3 and Section 3.4. 

3.1.2.4 Baseline Capital Costs

Cost estimates at early planning stages are not very accurate. This report also includes data on 

technologies that are not fully mature, so the reported costs may be even less accurate than usual. 
14

Nevertheless, we wanted to start with reasonable baseline costs, and so we adjusted our baseline 

cost per unit area to match that found for supermarkets in the 2008 RSMeans Square Foot Costs

book (Balboni 2008b). The adjustment is made before regional adjustments, contractor fees, and 

architecture fees are applied, excludes all refrigeration equipment, and results in an approximate 

baseline cost of $66.48/ft2

 ($715.58/m2) in 2008 dollars. This cost assumes stucco on concrete 

block, bearing exterior walls; a floor area of 45,000 ft2 (4,181 m2

); a perimeter of 866 ft (264 m); 

and a height of 20 ft (6.1 m). The cost is implemented in Opt-E-Plus, under a category that is not 

affected by any EDMs. The baseline capital cost is therefore fixed, thus enabling realistic 

estimates of the percent change in 5-TLCC when the low-energy models are compared to the 

baselines.

3.1.2.5 Utility Tariffs

One set of utility tariffs is used for all locations to make the results from each climate zone easier 

to compare. We chose Florida Power and Light’s 2008 General Service Demand (GSD-1) 

electricity tariff because of data availability, the closeness of Florida’s average commercial 

electricity rates to the national average, and the electricity demand of our models (generally 

within the required range of 20–500 kW) (EIA, 2009 #90; Florida Power & Light 2008 #95). 

The tariff is summarized in Table 3-2. The tax rate is a population-weighted average of state 

plus average county and city sales taxes from Sales Tax Clearinghouse (2009 #93) and U.S. 

Census Bureau (2009 #94). 

Table 3-2 Electricity Tariff

Tariff Name General Service Demand

Monthly Charge $33.10

Base Demand Charge $5.10/kW

Demand Capacity Charge $1.63/kW

Non-fuel Energy Charge $0.01392/kWh

Fuel Energy Charge $0.05564/kWh

Conservation Energy Charge $0.00133/kWh

Environmental Energy Charge $0.00038/kWh

Taxes 7.1%

A national average gas tariff was calculated by averaging the Energy Information Administration 

compilation of national average monthly prices for April 2006 through March 2009 (EIA 2007; 

EIA 2009). Multiple years were averaged together, rather than simply taking the last year’s 

worth of data, because recent prices are highly volatile. The resulting tariff and source data are 

reproduced in Table 3-3. While using a national-average tariff might lead to some design 

solutions that are suboptimal because of regional tariff variability, it allows us to isolate climate 

variability as a driving factor in designing buildings to save energy. For specific case studies, it 

is recommended that both regional tariff structures and incentives be considered in the economic 

side of the analysis.
15

Table 3-3 National Average Natural Gas Tariff and Source Data in $/MCF

Month 

Year

2006 2007 2008 2009 Tariff 

January – 11.15 11.01 11.04 11.07

February – 11.21 11.32 10.68 11.07

March – 11.79 11.81 10.1 11.23

April 11.57 11.49 12.44 – 11.83

May 11.61 11.48 13.24 – 12.11

June 11.09 11.86 14.39 – 12.45

July 10.98 11.61 15.45 – 12.68

August 11.2 11.16 14.04 – 12.13

September 11.16 10.9 13.02 – 11.69

October 10.05 10.9 11.83 – 10.93

November 11.05 11.19 11.45 – 11.23

December 11.61 11.02 11.32 – 11.32

3.1.2.6 Total Life Cycle Cost

Our objective is to simultaneously achieve 50% net site energy savings and minimize 5-TLCC. 

The 5-TLCC is the total expected cost of the whole building (capital and energy costs) over the 

five-year analysis period. The 5-TLCC uses the real discount rate to account for inflation of 

energy and O&M costs, instead of using the nominal discount rate paired with explicit estimates 

of energy and O&M inflation. 

The annual cash flow is summed over the analysis period to calculate the 5-TLCC. The annual 

energy use is assumed to remain constant. Equation 3-1 defines the calculation of the annual 

cash flows: 

eg

J

j

Cn CCn FOM n VOM n ++ CC 













 = ∑ ++ =0

Where:

Cn = cost in year n

J = total number of unique energy efficiency measures 

CCn = capital cost

FOMn = fixed O&M costs

VOMn = variable O&M costs

Cg = annual cost of gas consumption 

Ce = annual cost of electricity consumption 

The 5-TLCC is determined in Equation 3-2. 

( ) ∑= + =−

5

0 1

5 n n

n

d

C TLCC

(3-1)

(3-2)
16

Where:

5-TLCC = present value of the 5-TLCC

Cn = cost in year n

d = annual discount rate

3.2 Prototype Model

We surveyed a number of reports and datasets to develop typical grocery store characteristics 

and obtain energy performance estimates. These include: 

• 2003 Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) (EIA 2005) 

• DOE Commercial Building Research Benchmarks for Commercial Buildings (Deru et al. 

2008) 

• Energy Savings Potential for Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (Westphalen et al. 1996) 

• Methodology for Modeling Building Energy Performance Across the Commercial Sector

(Griffith et al. 2008). 

Each data source is described briefly; then the reasoning behind the prototype model 

assumptions is described in several functional groupings. The grocery store prototype models 

are summarized in Section 3.2.5. 

3.2.1 Program

This section addresses programmatic considerations that are not affected by Standard 90.1-2004: 

building size, space types, and internal loads.

3.2.1.1 Building Size

The size distribution of grocery stores built since 1970, according to the 2003 CBECS, is shown 

in Figure 3-1. The labels correspond to bin maxima. Only 30 CBECS grocery stores have been 

built since 1970. Nonetheless, those are most representative of the new construction we are 

trying to influence, and thus form the sole basis of the CBECS statistics we present.

Our prototype store is 45,000 ft2 (4,181 m2), a size that lies between the area-weighted mean and 

median of the 2003 CBECS post-1970 grocery stores, and matches that of the benchmark 

supermarket (Deru et al. 2008). 
17

Figure 3-1 Area-weighted histogram of post-1970 grocery store size

3.2.1.2 Space Types

This project adopts many aspects of the benchmark project supermarket model (Deru et al. 

2008). That work states that the geometry and thermal zones were originally set by Lawrence 

Berkeley National Laboratory; NREL updated the model to reflect the larger supermarket sizes 

common in new construction. The benchmark layout contains six space types, whose names and 

sizes are shown in Table 3-4. Our prototype contains a more detailed space breakdown than the 

benchmark model. It contains 14 space types, whose names and floor areas are shown in Table 

3-5. 

A more detailed layout provides a number of benefits. First, it results in a more accurate 

representation of an actual grocery store. In our model, each space type has a well-defined 

function, with correspondingly well-defined loads. Lumping different space types together into 

more general categories requires load averaging, which obscures the inputs to the model. 

Second, more specific characterization of space types results in greater flexibility in terms of 

how equipment is distributed and controlled. By subdividing the sales area, for instance, we are 

able to capture the effects of installing a vestibule and of combining the use of both windows and 

skylights to facilitate daylighting. As greater complexity is added to future iterations (such as the 

routing of exhaust air to facilitate ERV, for instance), details such as accurate space type 

characterization and organization become increasingly important. 
18

Table 3-4 Benchmark Project Supermarket Space Types

Space Type Floor Area (ft2) Floor Area 

(m2) 

Percent of 

Total 

Sales 25,029 2,325 56

Produce 7,658 711 17

Deli 2,419 225 5 

Bakery 2,251 209 5 

Dry Storage 6,694 622 15

Office 956 89 2 

Total 45,000 4,181 100

Table 3-5 TSD Grocery Space Types

Space Type Floor Area (ft2) Floor Area 

(m2) 

Percent of 

Total 

Main Sales 22,415 2,082 49.8

Perimeter Sales 2,312 215 5.1

Produce 7,657 711 17.0

Deli 2,419 225 5.4

Bakery 2,250 209 5.0

Enclosed Office 300 28 0.7

Meeting Room 500 47 1.1

Dining Room 500 47 1.1

Restroom 675 63 1.5

Mechanical Room 600 56 1.3

Corridor 532 49 1.2

Vestibule 300 28 0.7

Active Storage 4,544 422 10.1

Total 45,002 4,181 100.0

3.2.1.3 Internal Load Densities

Internal loads include the heat generated by occupants, lights, and appliances (plug and process 

loads). This section addresses the aspects of these loads not addressed in Standard 90.1, 

including peak occupant and plug load densities. 

3.2.1.3.1 Occupancy Density

Occupancy density values by space type are defined according to ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 

(ASHRAE 2004b). The mapping between each space type and the standard and the resulting 

occupancy density value are presented in Table 3-6. Values for space types without direct 

mapping to the standard were estimated. Restrooms were assumed to be a continuation of the 

sales areas, and thus assigned the corresponding occupancy density value. Mechanical rooms 
19

were assumed empty most of the time, and thus were assigned an occupancy density value of 

zero. The occupancy density value for the active storage zone was taken from the benchmark 

report (Deru et al. 2008). 

Table 3-6 Occupancy Density Mapping and Peak Values

Space Type Mapping to ASHRAE 62.1-2004

Occupancy Density

(#/1000 ft2) (#/100 m2) 

Main Sales Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Perimeter Sales Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Produce Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Deli Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Bakery Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Enclosed Office Offices::Office space 5 5.38

Meeting Room Offices::Conference/meeting 50 53.82

Dining Room Food & Beverage::Restaurant dining rooms 70 75.35

Restroom Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Mechanical Room CUSTOM VALUE 0 0.00

Corridor Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Vestibule Retail::Supermarket 8 8.61

Active Storage CUSTOM VALUE 3.33 3.59

3.2.1.3.2 Plug and Process Loads

Plug and process loads are notoriously difficult to estimate. Griffith et al. (2008) tried to 

reconcile the 2003 CBECS and Commercial End Use Survey (CEUS) data on such loads, settling 

on an area-weighted average peak electric plug load of 0.480 W/ft2 (5.13 W/m2) in the 2003 

CBECS grocery store models (with little variation—the loads ranged from 0.474 to 0.482 W/ft2

[5.10 to 5.19 W/m2

]). The gas process loads for those buildings correspond to the EUI reported 

by the Commercial End Use Survey and were 0.35 W/ft2 (3.74 W/m2) operating on a constant, 

always on schedule. 

The benchmark study has higher average electric and gas plug loads: 0.884 W/ft2 (9.52 W/m2

) 

and 0.384 W/ft2

 (4.14 W/m2), respectively. We use the benchmark study plug and process loads, 

because that study carefully modeled commercial kitchens (Deru et al. 2008). The peak plug and 

process loads are listed by space type in Table 3-7. 
20

Table 3-7 Peak Plug and Process Loads 

Space Type

Peak Electric 

Plug Load 

(W/ft2) 

Peak Electric 

Plug Load 

(W/m2) 

Peak Gas 

Process Load 

(W/ft2) 

Peak Gas 

Process Load 

(W/m2) 

Main Sales 0.50 5.4 0.00 0.00

Perimeter Sales 0.50 5.4 0.00 0.00

Produce 0.50 5.4 0.00 0.00

Deli 5.00 53.8 2.50 26.9

Bakery 2.50 26.9 5.00 53.8

Enclosed Office 0.75 8.1 0.00 0.00

Meeting Room 0.75 8.1 0.00 0.00

Dining Room 2.60 28.0 0.00 0.00

Restroom 0.10 1.1 0.00 0.00

Mechanical Room 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00

Corridor 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00

Vestibule 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.00

Active Storage 0.75 8.1 0.00 0.00

Average 0.88 9.5 0.38 4.1

3.2.1.4 Schedules

3.2.1.4.1 Operating Hours

The operating hours are defined according to ASHRAE 90.1-1989 (ASHRAE 1989) as 6:00 a.m. 

to 10:00 p.m., seven days per week. 

3.2.1.4.2 Occupancy Schedule

The occupancy schedule (see Table 3-8) is defined according to ASHRAE 90.1-1989 (ASHRAE 

1989), which was also used to establish the occupancy schedule for the benchmark grocery store 

(Deru et al. 2008). 
21

Table 3-8 Occupancy Schedule, in Fraction of Peak Occupancy

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Sundays,

Holidays, Other

1 0 0 0 

2 0 0 0 

3 0 0 0 

4 0 0 0 

5 0 0 0 

6 0 0 0 

7 0.10 0.10 0.10

8 0.10 0.10 0.10

9 0.20 0.20 0.10

10 0.50 0.50 0.10

11 0.50 0.60 0.20

12 0.70 0.80 0.20

13 0.70 0.80 0.40 

14 0.70 0.80 0.40 

15 0.70 0.80 0.40 

16 0.80 0.80 0.40 

17 0.70 0.80 0.40 

18 0.50 0.60 0.20 

19 0.50 0.20 0.10

20 0.30 0.20 0.10 

21 0.30 0.20 0.10

22 0.30 0.10 0.10

23 0 0 0 

24 0 0 0 

3.2.1.4.3 Lighting Schedule

The 2003 CBECS data indicate that almost no post-1970 grocery stores have independent 

lighting controls or sensors. However, all the surveyed grocery stores stated that an energy 

management control system controls the lighting, and 92% of the represented floor area is 

lighted with electronic ballast fixtures. Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 show the distribution of 

lighting percentage when the store is open and closed, respectively. These figures and the 

abundance of energy management control systems support a lighting schedule with significant 

reductions during unoccupied hours. The lighting schedule for this TSD is defined according to 

ASHRAE 90.1-1989 (ASHRAE 1989) and is listed in Table 3-9. 
22

Figure 3-2 Area-weighted histogram of post-1970 grocery store open hours lighting percentage 

Figure 3-3 Area-weighted histogram of post-1970 grocery store closed hours lighting percentage
23

Table 3-9 Lighting Schedule, in Fraction of Peak Lighting Density

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Sundays, 

Holidays, Other

1 0.05 0.05 0.05

2 0.05 0.05 0.05

3 0.05 0.05 0.05

4 0.05 0.05 0.05

5 0.05 0.05 0.05

6 0.05 0.05 0.05

7 0.20 0.10 0.10

8 0.20 0.10 0.10

9 0.50 0.30 0.10

10 0.90 0.60 0.10

11 0.90 0.90 0.40

12 0.90 0.90 0.40 

13 0.90 0.90 0.60 

14 0.90 0.90 0.60 

15 0.90 0.90 0.60 

16 0.90 0.90 0.60 

17 0.90 0.90 0.60 

18 0.90 0.90 0.40 

19 0.60 0.50 0.20

20 0.60 0.30 0.20 

21 0.50 0.30 0.20 

22 0.20 0.10 0.20 

23 0.05 0.05 0.05

24 0.05 0.05 0.05

Total Hours/Day 11.30 9.90 5.80
24

3.2.1.4.4 Plug and Process Load Schedule

Our plug and process load schedule was taken from the benchmark study (Deru et al. 2008) (see 

Table 3-10). 

Table 3-10 Plug and Process Load Schedule, in Fraction of Peak Load

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Sundays, 

Holidays, Other

1 0.20 0.15 0.15

2 0.20 0.15 0.15

3 0.20 0.15 0.15

4 0.20 0.15 0.15

5 0.20 0.15 0.15

6 0.20 0.15 0.15

7 0.40 0.30 0.30

8 0.40 0.30 0.30

9 0.70 0.50 0.30

10 0.90 0.80 0.30

11 0.90 0.90 0.60

12 0.90 0.90 0.60

13 0.90 0.90 0.80

14 0.90 0.90 0.80

15 0.90 0.90 0.80

16 0.90 0.90 0.80

17 0.90 0.90 0.80

18 0.90 0.90 0.60

19 0.80 0.70 0.40

20 0.80 0.50 0.40

21 0.70 0.50 0.40

22 0.40 0.30 0.40

23 0.20 0.15 0.15

24 0.20 0.15 0.15

Total Hours/Day 13.90 12.30 9.80

3.2.2 Form

This section completes the characterization of the prototype model’s shape and size by 

specifying aspect ratio, floor-to-floor and ceiling height, and fenestration amount and placement. 

3.2.2.1 Building Shape

Based on 2003 CBECS statistics (see Figure 3-4), the 45,000 ft2 (4,181 m2) prototype grocery 

store is a one-story rectangular building. The aspect ratio, footprint, and floor-to-floor height 
25

match those of the benchmark supermarket model: 1.5, 259.8 ft × 173.2 ft (79.2 m × 52.8 m), 

and 20 ft (6.1 m), respectively. The ceiling height is also 20 ft (6.1 m) – there is no drop ceiling 

or plenum. 

Figure 3-4 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store shape characteristics

3.2.2.2 Fenestration

The 2003 CBECS reports on several aspects of fenestration form. Figure 3-5 shows statistics on 

the number and distribution of windows. Figure 3-6 gives statistics on window shading (with 

awnings or overhangs), skylights, and percentage daylit floor area. These data indicate that our 

prototype store should have 10% or less of its wall area glazed, and that the glazing should be 

unevenly distributed. For our prototype, we adopt the typical glazing distribution for grocery 

stores, which is to install all of the glazing in the main entrance wall, the south façade in this 

case. Awnings and overhangs are common, but not dominant, so they are not included in the 

prototype. The baseline store does not include skylights or daylighting controls. 
26

Figure 3-5 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store fenestration amounts 

Figure 3-6 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store sunlight management

The supermarket model in Deru et al. (2008) has 1,880 ft2 (174 m2) of glazing on the front 

façade, for a total window-to-wall ratio (WWR) of 11%. This is slightly larger than what is 

supportable by CBECS, so this work uses an 8.1% WWR, which amounts to 1,400 ft2 (130 m2) 

of glazing. 

3.2.3 Fabric

This section specifies the types of envelope and interior constructions used in the prototype and 

baseline models. Specific fenestration constructions and insulation levels are listed in Section 
27

3.3.3, as Standard 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE 2004a) specifies the minimum performance of these 

components. 

3.2.3.1 Construction Types

The 2003 CBECS data for wall and roof construction types are shown in Figure 3-7. The 

prototype building has masonry wall construction (which includes the brick, stucco, and concrete 

construction categories) and a roof with all insulation above deck (which includes the built-up 

and plastic/rubber/synthetic sheeting construction categories). 

Figure 3-7 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store construction types

3.2.3.2 Interior Partitions and Mass

We assume that the interior partitions that separate zones are composed of 4-in. (0.1-m) thick 

steel-frame walls covered with gypsum board. Internal mass is modeled as 90,000 ft2 (8,361 m2) 

of 6-in. (0.15-m) thick wood. 

3.2.4 Equipment

This section specifies the types of HVAC, refrigeration and service water heating equipment 

used in the prototype and baseline models. Performance and cost data are discussed in Sections 

3.3.4.2 to 3.3.4.4. 

3.2.4.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning

According to the 2003 CBECS, all stores have some heating (and the vast majority are 100% 

heated) and all but 2.8% of sector floor area has some cooling. We therefore assume that the 

prototype is fully heated and cooled.

Figure 3-8 summarizes the 2003 CBECS statistics on the types of heating and cooling equipment 

used in grocery stores. All cooling is electric; the types of fuel used for heating are shown in 

Figure 3-9. Most stores (about 73% of the floor area) do not have secondary heating sources. 

Based on these findings, the prototype HVAC equipment consists of packaged rooftop units 

(RTUs) with natural gas furnaces for heating, and electric direct expansion (DX) coils with air-
28

cooled condensers for cooling. Based on industry feedback, grocery stores commonly control 

humidity to a dew point of 55°F (13°C), which, according to our thermostat set points (see 

Appendix B.5), corresponds to a relative humidity of approximately 55%. The standard 

dehumidification strategy is subcooling and superheat, where a reheat coil uses DX condenser 

waste heat (superheat) to reheat the subcooled, dehumidified air stream at zero additional energy 

cost (notwithstanding the pressure drop that occurs across the reheat coil). Accordingly, each 

RTU is equipped with a superheat coil and each thermal zone is equipped with a humidistat to 

monitor humidity. The units do not have variable air volume (VAV) systems, because the 2003 

CBECS reports that only 24% of grocery store floor area uses them. Economizers are applied 

per Standard 90.1-2004. 

Most stores (more than 60% of the floor area) do not attenuate their heating or cooling set points 

over the course of a day, see Figure 3-10. However, setup and setback are good operational 

practice, and Standard 90.1-2004 requires most HVAC system controls to be able to implement 

basic thermostat schedules. Our thermostat schedules are listed in Table B-6 and Table B-7. 

Figure 3-8 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store heating and cooling equipment 
29

Figure 3-9 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery stores’ main heating source 

Figure 3-10 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store setback and setup practices

3.2.4.2 Refrigeration

The prototype refrigeration system is adapted from the benchmark supermarket model system

(Deru et al. 2008), which is largely based on an example in Westphalen et al. (1996). There are 

four compressor racks: two low-temperature racks (serving frozen food cases, ice cream cases, 

and walk-in freezers), and two medium-temperature racks (serving meat cases, dairy/deli cases, 

and walk-in coolers). The heat from the compressor racks is rejected by air-cooled condensers. 

The types, sizes, and number of cases and walk-in units are listed in Table 3-11. Technical 

details and cost estimates are provided in Section 3.3.4.3. 
30

Table 3-11 Refrigerated Cases and Walk-In Units by Zone

Zone 

Name Case/Walk-in Type Case Length Number of Units Total Length or Area

Sales Island Single Deck Meat 12 ft (3.66 m) 13.9 167 ft (50.9 m)

Sales Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli 12 ft (3.66 m) 14.3 172 ft (52.4 m)

Sales Vertical Frozen Food with Doors 15 ft (4.57 m) 15.6 234 ft (71.3 m)

Sales Island Single Deck Ice Cream 12 ft (3.66 m) 12 36 ft (11.0 m)

Sales Walk-In Cooler (Medium Temperature) N/A 2 2,545 ft2 (236.4 m2) 

Sales Walk-In Freezer (Low Temperature) N/A 1 691 ft2 (64.2 m2) 

Produce Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli 12 ft (3.66 m) 8.8 106 ft (32.3 m)

Deli Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli 12 ft (3.66 m) 1.1 13.2 ft (4.0 m)

Deli Walk-In Cooler (Medium Temperature) N/A 1 115 ft2 (10.7 m2) 

Bakery Walk-In Cooler (Medium Temperature) N/A 1 57 ft2 (5.3 m2) 

3.2.4.3 Service Water Heating

Figure 3-11 summarizes much of the 2003 CBECS information on service water heating (SWH) 

in post-1970 grocery stores. No stores reported using instant hot water. Thus, our prototype 

model has a centralized natural gas water heater. The system size is determined based on 

(ASHRAE 2003) (see Section 3.3.4.4). 

Figure 3-11 Area-weighted histograms of post-1970 grocery store service water heating 

characteristics

3.2.5 Prototype Model Summary

This section summarizes the building characteristics that define the grocery store prototype 

model, which must specify characteristics that are not found in ASHRAE 90.1-2004 or 

ASHRAE 62.1-1999 (ASHRAE 1999; ASHRAE 2004a), but are needed to develop baseline and 
31

low-energy models. Many characteristics are summarized in Table 3-12, the space type sizes are 

in Table 3-13, and the floor plan is shown in Figure 3-12. 

Table 3-12 Grocery Store Prototype Model Characteristics and Data Sources 

Grocery Store 

Characteristic Grocery TSD Prototype Source 

Program

 Size 45,000 ft2 (4,181 m2) 2003 CBECS; 

DOE Benchmark Supermarket

 Space Types See Table 3-13. DOE Benchmark Supermarket; 

Assumption

 Operating Hours Monday through Sunday, 

6:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. ASHRAE 90.1-1989

 Occupancy See Table 3-6 for density; 

see Table 3-8 for schedule

ASHRAE 62.1-2004; 

ASHRAE 90.1-1989 

 Lighting See Table 3-9 for schedule ASHRAE 90.1-1989

 Plug and Process See Table 3-7 for density;

see Table 3-10 for schedule DOE Benchmark Supermarket

Form 

 Number of Floors 1 2003 CBECS

 Aspect Ratio 1.5 2003 CBECS; 

DOE Benchmark Supermarket

 Floor-to-Floor Height 20 ft (6.10 m) DOE Benchmark Supermarket

 Window Area 1400 ft2 (130 m2, 0.081 WWR) 2003 CBECS; Assumption

 Floor Plan See Figure 3-12 DOE Benchmark Supermarket; 

Assumption

Fabric

 Wall Type Mass (brick, stone, stucco or concrete) 2003 CBECS

 Roof Type All insulation above deck 2003 CBECS

 Interior Partitions 2 x 4 steel frame with gypsum boards Assumption

 Internal Mass 90,000 ft2 (8,360 m2) of 6” wood Assumption

Equipment

 HVAC System Type

Unitary rooftop units with DX coils, 

natural gas heating, and constant 

volume fans; Economizer as per 90.1

2003 CBECS

 HVAC Unit Size 10 tons (35 kW) cooling Assumption

 HVAC Controls No thermostat setback 2003 CBECS

 Refrigeration

2 medium-temperature and 2 lowtemperature compressor racks; aircooled condensers; cases and walk-in 

units listed in Table 3-11

DOE Benchmark Supermarket; 

Arthur D. Little Report

 Service Water Heating Natural gas heating with storage tank 2003 CBECS
32

Table 3-13 Space Types and Sizes in the Grocery Store Prototype Model

Space Type Name Floor Area (ft2) Floor Area 

(m2) 

Percent of 

Total 

Main Sales 22,415 2,082 49.8

Perimeter Sales 2,312 215 5.1

Produce 7,657 711 17.0

Deli 2,419 225 5.4

Bakery 2,250 209 5.0

Enclosed Office 300 28 0.7

Meeting Room 500 47 1.1

Dining Room 500 47 1.1

Restroom 675 63 1.5

Mechanical Room 600 56 1.3

Corridor 532 49 1.2

Vestibule 300 28 0.7

Active Storage 4,544 422 10.1

Total 45,002 4,181 100.0

Figure 3-12 Grocery store prototype model floor plan

N
33

3.3 Baseline Model

This section contains a topic-by-topic description of the baseline building models’ EnergyPlus 

inputs, including the building form and floor plate; envelope characteristics; internal loads; 

HVAC equipment efficiency, operation, control, and sizing; service water heating; and 

schedules. We also list the costs that were used by Opt-E-Plus to compute 5-TLCC. The 

baseline models were developed by applying the criteria in ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 and 

ASHRAE Standard 62.1-1999 (ASHRAE 1999; ASHRAE 2004a) to the prototype 

characteristics. (ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 explicitly references, and thereby includes, 

Standard 62.1-1999.) 

3.3.1 Program

3.3.1.1 Occupancy

The internal load derived from occupants is calculated assuming 120 W (409 Btu/h) of heat per 

person, which falls between the values listed for “seated, very light work” and “standing, light 

work; walking” in Chapter 30 of the ASHRAE 2005 Fundamentals Handbook (ASHRAE 2005). 

Occupant comfort is calculated assuming clothing levels of 1.0 clo October through April, and 

0.5 clo May through September; and an in-building air velocity of 0.66 ft/s (0.2 m/s). 

3.3.2 Form

The prototype characteristics, together with a few modeling assumptions, are used to generate 

the baseline models’ form and floor plate. Per Appendix G of ASHRAE 90.1-2004, overhangs 

are not included in the baseline models. 

Form and floor plate parameters are listed in Table 3-14. A rendering of the grocery store 

baseline model is shown in Figure 3-13, which shows an isometric view from the southwest. All 

parameters except glazing sill height are specified in the prototype model.

Table 3-14 Selected Baseline Modeling Assumptions

Model Parameters Value

Floor area 45,000 ft2 (4,181 m2) 

Aspect ratio 1.5

Ceiling height 20 ft (6.096 m)

Fraction of fenestration to gross wall area 8.1% 

Glazing sill height 3.609 ft (1.1 m)
34

Figure 3-13 Grocery store baseline model rendering: View from southwest 

3.3.3 Fabric

Based on the 2003 CBECS and engineering experience, we assume that grocery stores are 

typically constructed with mass exterior walls, built-up roofs, and slab-on-grade floors. These 

choices are further developed to meet the prescriptive design option requirements of ASHRAE 

90.1-2004 Section 5.5. Layer-by-layer descriptions of the exterior surface constructions were 

used to model the building thermal envelope in EnergyPlus. 

3.3.3.1 Exterior Walls

The baselines are modeled with mass wall constructions. The layers consist of stucco, concrete 

block, rigid isocyanurate insulation, and gypsum board. The assembly U-factors vary based on 

the climate zone and are adjusted to account for standard film coefficients. R-values for most of 

the layers are derived from Appendix A of ASHRAE 90.1-2004. Continuous insulation (c.i.) Rvalues are selected to meet the minimum R-values required in Section 5 of ASHRAE 90.1-2004. 

The baseline exterior walls’ performance metrics, including costs, are listed in Table 3-15 (see 

Table C-1 for metric units). The mass wall includes the following layers:

• Exterior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus)

• 1-in (2.5 cm) exterior stucco, 116 lb/ft3 (1858 kg/m3) 

• 8-in. (20.3 cm) heavy weight concrete block with solid grouted cores, 140 lb/ft3 (2243 

kg/m3) 

• Rigid insulation (R-value varies by climate) with 1-in. (2.5 cm) metal clips

• 0.5-in. (1.3 cm) thick gypsum board, 49 lb/ft3 (785 kg/m3) 

• Interior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus). 
35

The capital costs are based on personal communication with the ASHRAE 90.1 Envelope 

Subcommittee (ASHRAE 2008). The thermal performance of the interior and exterior air films 

are calculated with the EnergyPlus “detailed” algorithm for surface heat transfer film 

coefficients, which is based on linearized radiation coefficients separate from the convection 

coefficients determined by surface roughness, wind speed, and terrain. 

Table 3-15 Baseline Exterior Wall Constructions

Properties

Climate Zone

1 and 2 3 and 4 5 6 7 8 

Key

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

No c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-7.6 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-9.5 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-11.4 c.i.

Baseline 

Wall 

Construction, 

R-13.3 c.i.

U-Factor 

(Btu/h·ft2

·°F) 0.754 0.173 0.137 0.114 0.0975 0.0859

Capital Cost 

($/ft2

) $20.37 $21.06 $21.42 $21.68 $21.80 $21.86

3.3.3.2 Roofs

The baseline model roofs are built up, with rigid insulation above a structural metal deck. The 

layers consist of roof membrane, insulation, and metal decking. The assembly U-factors vary by 

climate zone and are adjusted to account for the standard film coefficients. R-values for most of 

the layers are derived from Appendix A of ASHRAE 90.1-2004. Insulation R-values for 

continuous insulations are selected to meet the minimum R-values required in Section 5 of 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004, which vary by climate zone. The thermal performance metrics and 

construction costs are listed by climate zone in Table 3-16 (see Table C-2 for metric units). The 

costs are estimated based on (Balboni 2008a) and assume: 

• A 60-mil (0.15-cm) thick, mechanically-fastened ethylene propylene diene monomer 

single-ply membrane 

• Polyisocyanurate insulation, including a tapered drainage piece finished with 7/16-in. 

(1.11-cm) strand board 

• 0.05-in. (0.13-cm) base flashing and edging around the perimeter of the roof. 

Table 3-16 Baseline Roof Constructions

Properties 

Climate Zone

1 through 7 8 

Key Baseline Roof Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof Construction, 

R-20 c.i.

U-Factor (Btu/h·ft2·°F) 0.0675 0.0506

Capital Cost ($/ft2) $8.69 $9.11

The prescriptive portion of Standard 90.1-2004 does not specify performance characteristics such 

as roof reflectance or absorption. Appendix G states that the reflectivity of reference buildings 

should be 0.3. We assume that the baseline roof ethylene propylene diene monomer membrane 

has a solar reflectance of 0.3, a thermal absorption of 0.9, and a visible absorption of 0.7. 
36

3.3.3.3 Slab-on-Grade Floors

The baseline buildings are modeled with slab-on-grade floors, made up of carpet pad over 8 in. 

(0.2 m) thick heavyweight concrete. A separate program, slab.exe, was used to model the 

ground coupling (DOE 2008b). It determines the temperature of the ground under the slab based 

on the area of the slab, the location of the building, and the type of insulation under or around the 

slab; and reports the perimeter ground monthly temperatures, the core ground monthly 

temperatures, and average monthly temperatures. For this analysis, the core average monthly 

temperatures are passed to EnergyPlus to specify the ground temperatures under the slab. 

3.3.3.4 Fenestration

The baseline grocery stores’ fenestration systems are modeled as three windows on the façade 

totaling 1,400 ft2 (130 m2) of glazing area. Windows are collected into a single object per zone 

and frames are not explicitly modeled to reduce model complexity and make the EnergyPlus 

simulations run faster. However, the U-factors and solar heat gain coefficients (SHGCs) are 

whole-assembly values that include frames. Those performance criteria were set to match the 

requirements of Appendix B of ASHRAE 90.1-2004. If a particular climate zone has no 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 SHGC recommendation, its SHGC value is set to that of the previous (next 

warmest) climate zone. 

The multipliers from the visible light transmittance (VLT) table, Table C3.5 in ASHRAE 90.1-

2004 Appendix C (ASHRAE 2004a), are used to calculate VLT values for the baseline windows. 

An iterative process is used to refine the material properties in the layer-by-layer descriptions to 

just match the required assembly performance level. The baseline window constructions and 

costs are summarized in Table 3-17 (see Table C-3 for metric units). The costs are based on 

personal communication with the ASHRAE 90.1 Envelope Subcommittee (ASHRAE 2007a). 

Table 3-17 Baseline Window Constructions 

Properties 

Climate Zone

1 and 2 3 and 4 5 and 6 7 8 

Key

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

SHGC 0.250 0.390 0.490 0.490 0.490

VLT 0.250 0.495 0.622 0.490 0.490

U-Factor (Btu/h·ft2·°F) 1.21 0.570 0.570 0.570 0.460

Capital Cost ($/ft2) $44.00 $47.23 $46.65 $47.23 $49.97 

Fixed O&M Cost ($/ft2) $0.22 $0.22 $0.22 $0.22 $0.22

Some of the recommended designs for 50% energy savings include skylight-facilitated 

daylighting. Four of the skylight construction choices match the fenestration performance 

criteria outlined in Appendix B of ASHRAE 90.1-2004. These baseline skylight constructions 

are summarized in Table 3-18 (see Table C-4 for metric units). Costs based on personal 

communication with the ASHRAE 90.1 Envelope Subcommittee are also listed (ASHRAE 

2007a). 
37

Table 3-18 Baseline Skylight Constructions

Property 

Climate Zone

1 through 3 4 through 6 7 8 

Key

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

SHGC 0.36 0.490 0.490 0.490

VLT 0.457 0.622 0.490 0.490

U-Factor (Btu/h·ft2·°F) 1.22 0.690 0.690 0.580

Capital Cost ($/ft2) $46.28 $47.23 $47.22 $51.04

Fixed O&M Cost ($/ft2) $0.22 $0.22 $0.22 $0.22

3.3.3.5 Infiltration

Building air infiltration is addressed indirectly in ASHRAE 90.1-2004 through requirements for 

building envelope sealing, fenestration, door air leakage, etc. The air infiltration rate is not 

specified. This analysis assumes that the peak infiltration rate is 0.268 air changes per hour 

(ACH) during operating hours, when the HVAC system is on and customers are entering and 

leaving the store. At night, when the HVAC system is off and the doors are closed, we assume 

that the infiltration rate reduces to 0.086 ACH (see Appendix B.4 for the hourly infiltration 

schedule). Infiltration through a surface is dependent on the pressure gradient acting on the 

surface. We calculated pressure gradients for each of the four walls according to the following 

assumptions: 

• A constant 8 mph (3.6 m/s) wind blows directly into the front of the store. 

• The wind creates a constant, uniform, positive pressure (0.023 in. w.c. [5.8 Pa]) on the 

front wall and a constant, uniform, negative pressure of equal magnitude (0.023 in. w.c. 

[5.8 Pa]) on the back wall 

• The wind exerts no external pressure on the side walls. 

• When the HVAC system is on, the building is pressurized to 0.016 in. w.c. (4 Pa) above 

the ambient air pressure.

• When the HVAC system is off, the building is not pressurized with respect to the outside 

air. 

The resulting pressures (magnitudes and directions) acting on each exterior wall during operating 

and non-operating hours are listed in Table 3-19 and Table 3-20, respectively (see Table C-5 and 

Table C-6 for metric units), and presented graphically in Figure 3-14. 
38

Table 3-19 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Operating Hours

Exterior Wall

Resultant Pressure Gradient

Magnitude (in. w.c.) Direction

Front 0.007 Infiltration

Back 0.039 Exfiltration

Side 0.016 Exfiltration

Table 3-20 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Non-Operating Hours 

Exterior Wall

Resultant Pressure Gradient

Magnitude (in. w.c.) Direction

Front 0.023 Infiltration

Back 0.023 Exfiltration

Side 0 NA

Figure 3-14 Building flow balance diagram 

Front Wall

Back Wall

Side

Wall

Side

Wall

HVAC Pressure

Wind Pressure

Net Pressure
39

Pressure gradients driving infiltration are used to calculate infiltration rates for the building. The 

envelope infiltration rate is derived from CIBSE-T23 building tightness specifications for good 

construction practice (CIBSE 2000). The infiltration through the sliding doors is modeled using 

the door opening event modeling of Yuill et al. (2000). Pressure gradients driving exfiltration 

are used to calculate exfiltration rates, which have implications in regards to the flow of air 

available for ERV. See Section 3.4.3.4.2 for more detail.

3.3.4 Equipment

This section describes the performance and cost of our baseline buildings’ lighting, HVAC and 

refrigeration equipment.

3.3.4.1 Lighting

3.3.4.1.1 Interior

The baseline interior LPD for each space type is derived using the space-by-space method 

described in ASHRAE 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE 2004a). The mapping between each space type and 

the standard, and the resulting baseline LPDs are presented in Table 3-21. For the location of 

each space type, see Figure 3-12. 

Table 3-21 Baseline Lighting and Occupancy Loads by Space Type

Space Type Mapping to ASHRAE 90.1-2004 LPD (W/ft2) LPD (W/m2) 

Main Sales Sales area 1.7 18.3

Perimeter Sales Sales area 1.7 18.3

Produce Sales area 1.7 18.3

Deli Food preparation 1.2 12.9

Bakery Food preparation 1.2 12.9

Enclosed Office Office-enclosed 1.1 11.8

Meeting Room Conference/meeting/multi-purpose 1.3 14.0

Dining Room Dining area 0.9 9.7

Restrooms Restrooms 0.9 9.7

Mechanical Room Electrical/mechanical 1.5 16.1

Corridor Corridor/transition 0.5 5.4

Vestibule Corridor/transition 0.5 5.4

Active Storage Active Storage 0.8 8.6

Whole Building 1.5 16.2

The baseline cost of the lighting system is modeled as $10.51/ft2 ($34.48/m2, $6,996/kW) for 

capital costs, and $0.12/ft2∙yr ($0.38/m2∙yr, $77.24/kW∙yr) for maintenance, where kW refers to 

the total installed lighting power. The material and installation costs are estimated based on 

(Balboni 2008b); the maintenance costs are estimated using (Plotner 2009). Thus the baseline 

capital costs are approximately $473,000, and the baseline maintenance costs are about 

$5,220/yr.
40

3.3.4.1.2 Exterior

The baseline grocery stores have 1 W/ft (3.28 W/m) of exterior façade lighting, per ASHRAE 

90.1-2004, Table 9.4.5 (ASHRAE 2004a). The model does not include a parking lot or parking 

lot lighting. 

3.3.4.2 HVAC Systems and Components

3.3.4.2.1 System Type and Sizing

This TSD assumes packaged single-zone (PSZ) unitary heating and cooling equipment, based on 

the 2003 CBECS. These systems are modeled by placing an autosized PSZ system with a 

constant volume fan, DX cooling, and gas-fired furnace in each thermal zone (the disjoint 

rectangles in Figure 3-12). To apply ASHRAE 90.1-2004, we develop performance data 

consistent with 10-ton, 4,000 cfm (1.88 m3/s) RTUs, under the assumption that the larger zones 

would be served by multiple units. 

We use the design-day method to autosize the cooling capacity of the DX cooling coil and the 

heating capacity of the furnace in the packaged RTUs. The design-day data for all 16 climate 

locations are developed from (ASHRAE 2005). In those data sets, we base the heating design 

condition on 99.6% annual percentiles, and the cooling design condition on 0.4% annual 

percentiles. The internal loads (occupancy, lights, and plug loads) were scheduled as zero on the 

heating design day, and at their peak on the cooling design day. A 1.2 sizing factor was applied 

to all autosized heating and cooling capacities and air flow rates. Because EnergyPlus autosizes 

HVAC equipment according to sensible load, additional sizing factors needed to be applied in 

humid climates to zones with large outdoor air requirements to handle the large latent loads.

3.3.4.2.2 Outside Air

Ventilation rates by zone are defined according to ASHRAE Standard 62-1999 (ASHRAE 

1999). The mapping between each space type and the standard and the resulting ventilation rate 

are presented in Table 3-22. Rates for spaces without direct mapping to the standard were 

estimated. ASHRAE 62-1999 requires 50 cfm (24 L/s) of OA per toilet for restrooms, and we 

assume an area of roughly 48 ft2

 (4.5 m) per toilet. Mechanical rooms were assigned a 

ventilation rate of zero, based on the assumption that they are unoccupied most of the time. 

OA intake follows the same schedule as the HVAC system, which turns on an hour before the 

store is occupied in the morning and turns off when the store closes in the evening. The HVAC 

system also runs intermittently during off hours to adhere to the off hours temperature 

requirements. 
41

Table 3-22 Baseline Minimum Ventilation Rates

Space Type Mapping to ASHRAE 62-1999 Ventilation per Person Ventilation per Area

cfm/person L/s∙person cfm/ft2 L/ s∙m2 

Main Sales Retail::Basement and street – – 0.30 1.50 

Perimeter Sales Retail::Basement and street – – 0.30 1.50 

Produce Retail::Basement and street – – 0.30 1.50

Deli Food & Beverage::Kitchens 15.0 7.5 – – 

Bakery Food & Beverage::Kitchens 15.0 7.5 – – 

Enclosed Office Offices::Office space 20.0 10.0 – – 

Meeting Room Offices::Conference rooms 20.0 10.0 – – 

Dining Room Food & Beverage::Dining rooms 20.0 10.0 – – 

Restrooms CUSTOM VALUE – – 1.04 5.20

Mechanical Room CUSTOM VALUE – – 0.00 0.00

Corridor Public Spaces::Corridors & utilities – – 0.05 0.25

Vestibule Public Spaces::Corridors & utilities – – 0.05 0.25

Active Storage Retail::Shipping and receiving – – 0.15 0.75

3.3.4.2.3 Economizers

In accordance with ASHRAE 90.1-2004, Section 6.5.1, an economizer is required in climate 

zones 3B, 3C, 4B, 4C, 5B, 5C, and 6B for systems between 65,000 Btu/h (19 kW) and 135,000 

Btu/h (40 kW) cooling capacity. Therefore, the 10-ton (120,000 Btu/h, 35.16 kW) baseline 

RTUs include economizers in these climate zones only. 

3.3.4.2.4 Minimum Efficiency

The code-minimum efficiency for cooling equipment is determined based on cooling system type 

and size. To apply ASHRAE 90.1-2004, we assume baseline RTUs with 10 tons cooling and 

4,000 cfm (1.88 m3

/s) air flow. ASHRAE 90.1-2004 requires single packaged unitary air 

conditioners of this size (between 65,000 Btu/h [19 kW] and 135,000 Btu/h [40 kW]) and with 

nonelectric heating units to have a minimum EER of 10.1. The gas-fired furnace efficiency 

levels were set to 80% to match the efficiency requirements for gas heating. 

The ASHRAE 90.1-2004 minimum EER values include fan, compressor, and condenser power. 

EnergyPlus, however, models compressor and condenser power separately from fan power. We 

assume EER and compressor/condenser coefficient of performance (COP) values, and then use 

them to calculate fan efficiency. As stated above, the EER is 10.1. We assume a 

compressor/condenser COP of 3.69, based on publically available industrial spec sheets for EER 

10.1 units. 

3.3.4.2.5 Fan Power Assumptions

We assume that the package RTU contains only a supply fan, and no return or central exhaust 

fans. The constant volume supply fan energy use is determined from three primary input 

parameters: system-wide EER, compressor/condenser COP, and total static pressure drop. 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 specifies maximum fan motor power, which, together with static pressure 

drop, can be used to determine fan efficiency and compressor/condenser COP for a given EER. 
42

We choose to deviate from this practice to obtain a more realistic split between fan and 

compressor/condenser power; we recognize, however, that our fan efficiencies are better than 

code minimum. 

The total supply fan static pressure drops are based on the 10-ton units modeled in Liu et al. 

(2007) plus 50% more supply and return ductwork. Table 3-23 (see Table C-7 for metric units) 

summarizes the breakdown of the fan total static pressure for the baseline RTU. The 10-ton unit 

without an economizer has a total fan static pressure of 1.53 in. w.c. (381 Pa); those with 

economizers have a total static pressure of 1.62 in. w.c. (404 Pa). 

Table 3-23 Baseline Fan System Total Pressure Drops

Component 

Package Rooftop, Constant 

Volume, 10-ton, 4000 cfm, no 

Economizer (in. w.c.)

Package Rooftop, Constant 

Volume, 10-ton, 4000 cfm, with 

Economizer (in. w.c.)

Internal Static Pressure Drop 0.67 0.76

External Static Pressure Drop 0.86 0.86

Total Static Pressure Drop 1.53 1.62

*Used friction rate of 0.1 in. w.c./100 ft (25 Pa/30 m) for the baseline duct pressure drop. 

We back out the baseline total fan efficiency from the 10.1 EER requirement, the static pressures 

just listed, and a combined compressor and condenser COP of 3.69. This calculation proceeds in 

three steps:

1. Determine the portion of the EER dedicated to the supply fan by subtracting out the 

compressor/condenser contribution:

After converting EER and COP to units of tons of cooling per kilowatt of electricity, we

find that the supply fan uses 0.235 kW (0.8 kBtu/hr) of electricity for every ton of 

cooling. 

coolington EER COP

kW powerfan 516.312 −=

2. Determine the nameplate motor power per supply air volume: 

Assuming 400 cfm per ton of cooling (0.054 (m3/s)/kW), the fan power per volumetric 

unit of air is 0.788 hp/1000 cfm (1245 W/(m3/s)). This is well within the Standard 90.1-

2004 requirement that units with less than 20,000 cfm (9.44 m3/s) have fans with 

nameplate motor power less than 1.2 hp/1000 cfm (1896 W/(m3/s)). 

1341

400

1

1000 = ⋅ ⋅ cfm

coolington

coolington

kW powerfan

cfm

hpmotor

3. Calculate fan efficiency:

The fan efficiency is equal to the total static pressure (using the external static pressure 

value specified by the ARI standard) divided by the nameplate motor power per supply 

air volume, in compatible units. Thus, the RTUs without economizers have a fan 

efficiency of 30.6%; those with economizers require an efficiency of 32.4%. 
43

3.3.4.2.6 Summary and Costs

This report uses HVAC system cost data prepared for NREL by the RMH Group (2006). The 

10-ton RTUs described in that report have EER values of 9.0, 10.4, and 11.0. The baseline unit 

costs are assumed to be the same as the lowest efficiency unit’s even though the EER of our 

baseline unit is higher (10.1 instead of 9.0). This cost is $8,478 plus $1.89/cfm ($4,005/(m3/s)) 

for ductwork materials and installation. Assuming 400 cfm per ton of cooling (0.054 

(m3/s)/kW), the cost of ductwork for a 10-ton unit is $7,560, and the total system capital cost is 

$1603.75/ton of cooling ($456.13/kW). The cost of an economizer, including controls and an 

additional relief hood, is given as $1002 for a 10-ton unit, that is, an extra $100.20/ton of cooling 

($28.48/kW). Maintenance costs for the 10-ton unit are $160/yr for fixed O&M plus $1,240/yr 

for repair and replacement costs: $140/ton∙yr ($39.87/kW∙yr) total. Table 3-24 (see Table C-8

for metric units) summarizes the primary HVAC performance characteristics and cost data for 

the baseline grocery stores. 

Table 3-24 Baseline HVAC Models Summary

HVAC Input

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline 

PSZ DX, Furnace, No 

Economizer 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline 

PSZ DX, Furnace, With 

Economizer 

System EER 10.1 10.1

COP of Compressor/Condenser 3.69 3.69

Heating Efficiency 80% 80%

Fan Power 0.788 hp/1000 cfm 0.788 hp/1000 cfm

Fan Static Pressure 1.53 in. w.c. 1.62 in. w.c.

Fan Efficiency 30.6% 32.4%

Economizers None Included

Capital Cost ($/ton cooling) $1,604 $1,704

O&M Cost ($/ton cooling·yr) $140 $140

3.3.4.3 Refrigeration

This section augments the Section 3.2.4.2 refrigeration system description with performance and 

cost data.

3.3.4.3.1 Refrigerated Cases

Four types of refrigerated cases are modeled: Island Single-Deck Meat, Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli, 

Vertical Frozen Food with Doors, and Island Single-Deck Ice Cream. The energy models for 

these cases are developed from publically available manufacturers’ data; the costs are estimated 

from industry quotes and RSMeans (Waier 2005). The baseline lighting levels for each case are

somewhat arbitrary, in line with a personal communication indicating that installed lighting 

varies tremendously from customer to customer. The rated performance conditions for all cases 

are 75°F (24°C) and 55% relative humidity, per ARI Standard 1200-2002 (ARI 2002). 

Table 3-25 (see Table C-9 for metric units) summarizes the performance and cost data of the 

baseline refrigerated cases. The rated capacity is the cooling load of the case at rated conditions, 

which includes fan, lighting, anti-sweat heater power, and heat transfer from the store. The heat 

transfer can be decomposed into an infiltration load caused by the mixing of store and case air, 

transfer from the surrounding air through the case walls, and radiant heat transfer. The 
44

infiltration load includes sensible and latent components. The infiltration ratio is the proportion 

of the rated capacity caused by infiltration; the latent heat ratio is the proportion of the rated 

capacity caused by the latent component. EnergyPlus uses the latent heat ratio directly to 

calculate latent load; we use the infiltration ratio to reduce the baseline EnergyPlus case credit 

schedules during the summer design day. In Section 3.4.3.5.1 the infiltration ratio is used to 

estimate the effects of adding night covers or case doors. 

The operating temperature is the temperature inside the case. The restocking load and schedule 

attempt to model the periodic additional cooling loads that result from placing new product in the 

cases. These loads are estimated by assuming the average specific heat and density of the 

product, the temperature difference of the product before and after loading, the proportion of 

case volume filled with product, and volumetric proportion of product restocked per day. These 

inputs are summarized in Table 3-26 (see Table C-10 for metric units). 

Time-off defrost always uses all allotted defrost time. Electric defrost with temperature 

termination may end early, depending on the relative humidity of the store. Whenever we use 

temperature termination, this feature is modeled in EnergyPlus with the case temperature method 

and the coefficients provided in Howell and Adams (1991) for horizontal and vertical cases, see 

the EnergyPlus documentation for Case:Refrigerated (DOE 2008b). 
45

Table 3-25 Baseline Refrigerated Case Characteristics

Characteristic Island SingleDeck Meat 

Multi-Deck 

Dairy/Deli

Vertical Frozen 

Food with Doors

Island SingleDeck Ice Cream

Rated Capacity (Btu/h·ft) 770 1500 538 740

Operating Temperature (°F) 28.5 41.0 –1.5 –13.0

Latent Heat Ratio 0.361 0.241 0.061 0.147

Infiltration Ratio 0.686 0.579 0.152 0.412

Fan Power (Btu/h·ft) 38.7 42.6 40.9 29.0

Lighting Power (Btu/h·ft) 0 215 92.8 255

Anti-Sweat Heater Power 

(Btu/h·ft) 37.0 0 259 135

Defrost Type Time-off Time-off

Electric with 

temperature 

termination

Electric with 

temperature 

termination

Defrost Power (Btu/h·ft) 0 0 1311 1032

Maximum Defrost Time (min) 45 42 46 60

Drip-Down Time (min) 8 8 15 15

Defrost Start Time(s)

6:00 a.m.

2:00 p.m.

10:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m.

7:00 a.m.

1:00 p.m.

7:00 p.m.

10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m.

Restocking Load (Btu/h·ft) and 

Schedule

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

325 from

9:00 a.m. to 

12:00 p.m.

16.0 from

6:00 p.m. to 

9:00 p.m.

27.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

Materials Cost ($/ft) $753.28 $583.02 $647.71 $773.94

Table 3-26 Refrigerated Case Restocking Assumptions

Case Type

Case 

Volume/ft 

(ft3/ft)

Volume 

Filled by 

Product 

(%)

Volume of 

Product 

Restocked 

(%)

Specific 

Heat of 

Product 

(Btu/lb∙°F)

Density of 

Product 

(lb/ft3) 

Temp. 

Difference 

(°F)

Daily 

Restocking 

Load 

(Btu/ft∙day)

Island Single-Deck 

Meat 1.67 30 20 0.75 60 43 194

Multi-Deck 

Dairy/Deli 13.1 50 40 0.75 62 8 975

Vertical Frozen 

Food with Doors 13.5 50 5 0.50 57 5 48.1

Island Single-Deck 

Ice Cream 6.35 70 10 0.65 57 5 82.3

3.3.4.3.2 Walk-In Coolers and Freezers

Under the assumption that walk-in coolers and freezers are already designed for energy 

efficiency, we directly adopt the benchmark project models for these units, and do not develop 
46

EDMs for these units. For completeness, their performance characteristics are summarized in 

Table 3-27. See Section 3.3.4.3.1 for a discussion of the listed characteristics.

Table 3-27 Walk-In Cooler and Freezer Characteristics

Characteristic

Walk-In Cooler 

(IP Units)

Walk-In Freezer 

(IP Units)

Walk-In Cooler 

(SI Units)

Walk-In Freezer 

(SI Units)

Rated Capacity 

(Btu/h·ft or W/m) 480.0 640.0 461.5 615.4

Operating Temperature 

(°F or °C) 36 -10 2.2 -23.3

Latent Heat Ratio 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Fan Power (Btu/h·ft or W/m) 101 109 97.1 105

Lighting Power 

(Btu/h·ft or W/m) 27.30 27.30 26.25 26.25

Anti-Sweat Heater Power 

(Btu/h·ft or W/m) 0 0 0 0 

Defrost Type Electric Electric Electric Electric

Defrost Power 

(Btu/h·ft or W/m) 532.26 791.58 511.8 761.15

Max. Defrost Time (min) 20 20 20 20

Drip-Down Time (min) 10 10 10 10

Defrost Start Time(s) 11:00 a.m. 

11:00 p.m.

11:00 a.m. 

11:00 p.m.

11:00 a.m. 

11:00 p.m.

11:00 a.m. 

11:00 p.m.

Restocking Load 

(Btu/ft or kJ/m)

1,489 on 

Tuesdays and 

Fridays; 690.4 

all other days

1,489 on 

Tuesdays and 

Fridays; 690.4 

all other days

5,155 on 

Tuesdays and 

Fridays; 2,390 

all other days

5,155 on 

Tuesdays and 

Fridays; 2,390 

all other days

3.3.4.3.3 Compressor racks

EnergyPlus assumes that compressor racks can always satisfy the case load connected to them. 

It also models compressor racks and their associated condensers as one unit. Air-cooled 

condensers are assumed for the baseline models. 

The COPs at rated conditions (104°F [40°C] condensing temperature) are assumed to be 2.5 and 

1.3 for the medium- and low-temperature racks, respectively, based on Westphalen et al. (1996). 

The fan power for each rack is estimated using the sum of the rated case loads connected to that 

rack, the rated rack COPs, and the statistic that 55% and 7% of the refrigeration electricity in a 

typical grocery store is used to power the compressors and the condenser fans, respectively 

(Westphalen et al. 1996). This results in a total of 19,000 W (64,831 Btu/hr) of condenser fan 

power, with 11,860 W (40,468 Btu/hr) for the medium-temperature racks, and 7,140 W (24,363 

Btu/hr) for the low-temperature racks. 

The variation of COP and condenser fan power with temperature is modeled using the 

normalized curves in the EnergyPlus Supermarket example files. Overall, the low-temperature 

rack COPs are modeled as
47

( ) 2 COP = − + 0004.00377.07603.15.1 TT , 

and the medium-temperature rack COPs are

( ) 2 COP = − + 0004.00377.07603.18.2 TT , 

where T is the condensing (outdoor) temperature in °C. The fan power for the low-temperature 

racks is 

Pfan 0286.0 PT ,ratedfan ⋅= , 

and the medium-temperature racks use

( ) Pfan += 02.03.0 PT ,ratedfan . 

The cost of the racks and condensers is based on the cost of an entire refrigeration system ($1 

million to $1.1 million) and the percentage of that cost that is dedicated to compressor racks, 

condensers, and installation, as described in Westphalen et al. (1996). The compressor and 

condenser equipment is 16% of the total cost, which, after applying a 38% increase for inflation 

(to 2008 dollars), is $220,200. The total installation cost comes out to $288,000. After 

subtracting $33,000 for case and walk-in installation, $255,300 is attributed to compressor rack 

and condenser installation. Thus, the total capital cost of the racks and condensers is $475,500. 

Finally, Westphalen et al. (1996) estimated $83/100 ft2∙yr ($8.93/m2∙yr) to maintain the 

refrigeration system. After converting to 2008 dollars and multiplying by the size of the store, 

we estimate $46,450/yr for O&M costs for the whole system.

3.3.4.4 Service Water Heating

The baseline service water heating system for the grocery stores is a gas-fired storage water 

heater that meets the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 requirements. We assume a thermal efficiency of 

80% to meet the requirements for units with rated input power greater than 75,000 Btu/h (22 

kW) and expending less than 4000 Btu/h∙gal (309.7 kW/m3). 

The baseline grocery stores’ peak hot water consumption rate is modeled as 116 gph (0.44 m3/h), 

based on the statement in (ASHRAE 2003) that grocery stores typically use 300–1000 gal 

(1.136–3.785 m3) hot water per day. The storage tank has a volume of 250 gal (0.95 m3). The 

consumption schedule as a fraction of peak load is shown in Table B-8. It dictates the use of 768 

gpd (2,907 L/d) on weekdays, 800 L/d (3,028 lpd) on Saturdays, and 532 gpd (2,014 L/d) on 

Sundays. The hot water outlet temperature is assumed to be 110oF (43.3oC). The water heater 

set point is 140oF (60oC).

3.4 Energy Design Measures

The optimization algorithm described in Section 2.4 determines which EDMs are applied to the 

baseline models to create low-energy models that meet the 50% energy savings target. This 

section contains a topic-by-topic description of the EDMs under consideration. They fall into the 

following categories: 

• Reduced LPD and occupancy controls 

• PV electricity generation

• Varying levels of façade glazing and skylights 

• Overhangs to shade the façade glazing
48

• Daylighting controls

• Enhanced opaque envelope insulation 

• Window and skylight glazing constructions 

• Reduced infiltration via the installation of an air barrier and/or vestibule 

• Higher efficiency HVAC equipment 

• Higher efficiency fans

• Demand controlled ventilation (DCV) 

• ERVs

• Economizers 

• Higher efficiency refrigerated cases

• Evaporatively cooled refrigeration condensers. 

The low-energy building models are built by perturbing the baseline models with the efficiency 

measures described below. Any aspect of the building previously discussed but not mentioned is 

constant across all models.

We were not able to include all efficiency measures of interest in this analysis. For a discussion 

of items that could be included in a subsequent study, see Section 5.0. 

3.4.1 Form

3.4.1.1 Fenestration

These EDMs change the amount of horizontal and vertical glazing on the building. None has an 

inherent cost; instead, each determines the amount of glazing. Window and skylight costs are 

calculated by multiplying the glazing areas (as determined by the baseline glazing amount and 

these EDMs) by the cost per unit area of the selected glazing types (see Section 3.4.2.3).

3.4.1.1.1 Front Façade Windows

One EDM reduces the amount of façade fenestration by 50%. This results in a reduction in the 

south façade WWR from 26.9% to 13.5%. The sill height for this EDM is consistent with that of 

the baseline building. 
49

3.4.1.1.2 Skylights

Another set of EDMs adds skylights to the baseline building. Skylights can be added to all zones 

except the perimeter sales zones and the vestibule zone (see Figure 3-15). The skylight EDMs 

result in 2%, 3%, or 4% coverage of the roof area in the applicable zones.

3.4.1.2 Overhangs

Roof-framed overhangs were added assuming a 0.82 ft (0.25 m) offset from the top of each 

window, and a projection factor of 0.5 to 1.1, in steps of 0.2. This yields four EDMs, which 

were all priced at $10.09/ft2

 ($108.63/m2) of overhang in 2008 dollars (ABO Group 2006). The 

size of each overhang was determined using the height of the window, the offset, and the 

projection factor. For instance, a 3-ft (0.91-m) wide, 2-ft (0.61-m) tall window, a 0.25-ft (0.076-

m) offset, and a projection factor of 1.1 yields a 2.475-ft (0.75-m) deep by 3-ft (0.91-m) wide 

overhang. 

3.4.2 Fabric

3.4.2.1 Exterior Walls

The mass wall EDMs are shown in Table 3-28 (see Table C-11 for metric units), along with 

capital costs that are based on personal communication with the ASHRAE 90.1 Envelope 

Subcommittee (ASHRAE 2008). Construction method, insulation material and insulation 

thickness are listed independently for each exterior wall construction to provide sufficient means 

for comparison. 

The interior insulation construction is the baseline construction (see Section 3.3.3.1). Its layers 

are:

• Exterior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus)

• 1-in (2.5 cm) exterior stucco, 116 lb/ft3

 (1858 kg/m3) 

• 8-in. (20.3 cm) heavyweight concrete block with solid grouted cores, 140 lb/ft3 (2243 

kg/m3) 

• Rigid insulation (varying R-value) with 1-in. (2.5 cm) metal clips

• 0.5-in. (1.3 cm) thick gypsum board, 49 lb/ft3 (785 kg/m3) 

• Interior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus)

The exterior insulation construction has a different insulation location and slightly different layer 

materials and thicknesses from those reported above. The latter differences stem from the fact 

that the exterior insulation construction is representative of the most recent ASHRAE 90.1 

Envelope Subcommittee data, whereas the interior insulation construction was developed from 

an earlier data set. The layers of the exterior insulation construction are: 

• Exterior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus)

• 0.75-in (1.9 cm) exterior stucco, 120 lb/ft3 (1920 kg/m3) 

• Rigid insulation (varying R-value) 

• 7.625-in. (20.1 cm) light weight concrete block with partially grouted cores, 38 lb/ft3 (609 

kg/m3) 

• 1-in. (2.5 cm) metal clips with air

• 0.5-in. (1.3 cm) thick gypsum board, 49 lb/ft3

 (785 kg/m3) 

• Interior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus)
50

The brick cavity construction consists of two “skin” layers, in this case an exterior brick layer 

and an interior concrete block layer, separated by a hollow space (cavity) that can be filled with 

insulation. Cavity walls are more expensive to build, but provide better sound and heat 

insulation and have a higher resistance to rain penetration. The layers of the brick cavity 

construction are identical to those of the exterior insulation construction, except that the stucco 

layer is replaced with brick: 

• Exterior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus)

• 3.625-in (9.2 cm) medium-weight brick, 110 lb/ft3

 (1760 kg/m3) 

• Rigid insulation (varying R-value) 

• 7.625-in. (20.1 cm) light weight concrete block with partially grouted cores, 38 lb/ft3 (609 

kg/m3

) 

• 1-in. (2.5 cm) metal clips with air

• 0.5-in. (1.3 cm) thick gypsum board, 49 lb/ft3 (785 kg/m3) 

• Interior air film (calculated by EnergyPlus)

Table 3-28 Exterior Wall EDMs

Insulation

R-value,

Nominal 

Assembly

U-Factor 

(Btu/h·ft2·°F)

Construction 

Method

Insulation

Material

Insulation

Thickness 

(in)

Capital

Cost 

($/ft2) 

R-5.7 c.i. 0.1754 Interior Insulation Isocyanurate 1.3 $21.06

R-9.5 c.i. 0.1053 Interior Insulation Isocyanurate 2.2 $21.68

R-13.3 c.i. 0.0752 Interior Insulation Isocyanurate 3.1 $21.86

R-15.0 c.i. 0.0532 Exterior Insulation Polystyrene Extruded 3 $22.42

R-19.5 c.i. 0.0430 Exterior Insulation Polyisocyanurate 3 $22.75

R-22.5 c.i. 0.0372 Brick Cavity Polyurethane Foam 3.75 $28.35

R-28.5 c.i. 0.0303 Brick Cavity Polyurethane Foam 4.75 $28.83

3.4.2.2 Roofs

The insulation above deck roof EDMs are shown in Table 3-29 (see Table C-12 for metric units), 

along with capital costs that are estimated based on (Balboni 2008a). The construction of the 

EDM roofs in the EnergyPlus models is identical to that of the baseline roofs, except for the 

amount of c.i. and the possible addition of high albedo (cool) roof membranes. Thus, the roofs 

are described by the R-value of the c.i. and the presence or absence of a cool roof. 

The high albedo/cool roofs have a Solar Reflective Index of 78 and an outer layer with a thermal 

absorption of 0.9, a solar reflectivity of 0.7, and a visible absorption of 0.3. 
51

Table 3-29 Roof EDMs

EDM Key U-Factor 

(Btu/h·ft2·°F)

Capital Cost 

($/ft2) 

R-20 c.i. 0.0507 $5.43

R-20 c.i. with cool roof 0.0507 $5.43

R-25 c.i. 0.0405 $5.82

R-25 c.i. with cool roof 0.0405 $5.82

R-30 c.i. 0.0332 $6.25

R-30 c.i. with cool roof 0.0332 $6.25

R-35 c.i. 0.0289 $6.64

R-35 c.i. with cool roof 0.0289 $6.64

R-40 c.i. 0.0229 $7.20

R-50 c.i. 0.0201 $7.60

R-60 c.i. 0.0161 $8.43

R-75 c.i. 0.0134 $9.29

R-95 c.i. 0.0109 $10.13

3.4.2.3 Fenestration

3.4.2.3.1 Front Façade Windows

Table 3-30 (see Table C-13 for metric units) lists the seven window EDMs, including a short 

description, performance data, and cost data. The set is selected from a list of glazing systems 

compiled by the ABO Group to provide a good mix of available performances (Priebe 2006). 

Table 3-30 South Fenestration Construction EDMs

EDM Key SHGC VLT U-Factor 

(Btu/h·ft2·°F)

Capital 

Cost 

($/ft

2

) 

Fixed O&M 

Cost 

($/ft2·yr)

Single pane with clear glass 0.810 0.881 1.08 $37.40 $0.21

Single pane with pyrolytic low-e 0.710 0.811 0.745 $40.70 $0.21

Double pane with low-e and argon 0.564 0.745 0.264 $44.00 $0.21

Double pane with low-e2 and argon 0.416 0.750 0.235 $50.60 $0.21

Double pane with low-e2 and tinted glass 0.282 0.550 0.288 $50.60 $0.21

Triple layer with low-e polyester film 0.355 0.535 0.215 $59.75 $0.21

Quadruple layer with low-e polyester films 

and krypton 0.461 0.624 0.136 $62.59 $0.21
52

3.4.2.3.2 Skylights

Several skylight EDMs are similarly chosen from a list of constructions provided by the 

ASHRAE 90.1 Envelope Subcommittee (ASHRAE 2007a) in an attempt to select high/low Ufactors and high/low SHGCs, see Table 3-31 (Table C-14 for metric units). 

Table 3-31 Skylight Fenestration Construction EDMs

EDM Key SHGC VLT U-Factor 

(Btu/h·ft2·°F)

Capital 

Cost 

($/ft2) 

Fixed O&M 

Cost 

($/ft2·yr)

Single pane with high solar gain 0.610 0.672 1.22 $47.22 $0.24

Single pane with medium solar gain 0.250 0.245 1.22 $51.22 $0.24

Single pane with low solar gain 0.190 0.174 1.22 $51.22 $0.24

Double pane with high solar gain 0.490 0.622 0.580 $45.68 $0.24

Double pane with low-e and high 

solar gain 0.460 0.584 0.451 $45.78 $0.24

Double pane with medium solar gain 0.390 0.495 0.580 $57.70 $0.24

Double pane with low-e and medium 

solar gain 0.320 0.406 0.451 $63.17 $0.24

Double pane with low solar gain 0.190 0.241 0.580 $58.83 $0.24

Double pane with low-e and low 

solar gain 0.190 0.240 0.451 $63.54 $0.24

3.4.2.4 Infiltration

The infiltration EDMs reduce the baseline infiltration rate by applying an envelope air barrier or 

a front entrance vestibule. The air barrier is assumed to reduce the envelope infiltration from 

0.040 to 0.016 ACH, based on CIBSE-T23 building tightness specifications for good or best 

construction practice, respectively (CIBSE 2000). The cost of the air barrier is estimated at 

$1.40/ft2 ($15.07/m2) of exterior wall area (Emmerich et al. 2005). A vestibule is assumed to 

reduce the front door infiltration from 0.228 to 0.142 ACH, based on the door opening event 

modeling of Yuill et al. (2000). The cost of this EDM is assumed to be that of replacing two 8-ft 

(2.44-m) tall sliding doors having a total surface area of 120 ft2

 (11.15 m2) with four, 7-ft (2.13-

m) tall sliding doors (adding the vestibule requires a second set of doors) having a total surface 

area of 210 ft2

 (19.51 m2) and adding 30 linear feet (9.14 m) of interior walls (based on a 15-ft. 

[4.6-m] deep vestibule), corresponding to an additional interior wall area of 600 ft2 (55.74 m2). 

According to that assumption, the cost associated with adding a vestibule is $5,853 (Waier 

2008). 

3.4.3 Equipment

3.4.3.1 Daylighting Controls

The daylighting EDM adds light sensors and dimming controls to zones with windows or 

skylights. Skylights or windows (depending on the source of daylighting for the zone) are not 

added by this EDM, rather, the EDM impact and cost are dependent on how many skylights or 

windows are installed.
53

Each zone has access to, at most, one daylighting source. As depicted in Figure 3-15, most of 

the store only receives daylight from skylights, which may or may not be included in a given 

model. The front zones containing windows are limited to a depth of 15 ft. to ensure good 

sidelighting of those zones. 

There is one light sensor per zone, placed in the center at a height of 2.95 ft (0.90 m) from the 

floor. For zones daylit by skylights, the sensor is placed between two skylights (if the skylight is 

directly above the center). The dimming controls are continuous; they start dimming when the 

lighting set point is exceeded, linearly decreasing until the lighting set point is met or the input 

power decreases to 30% of its maximum (where the light output is 20% of its maximum), 

whichever comes first.

Based on feedback from retailers, we chose a daylighting set point of 46.5 fc (500 lux). The cost 

of this set point system is $0.38/ft2

 ($4.10/m2) of daylit area (Liu et al. 2007). 

Figure 3-15 Potential daylight sources for each zone 

3.4.3.2 Interior Lighting

Two whole-building LPD reductions are considered: 30% and 47%. For the sales areas, this 

corresponds to LPDs of 1.20 W/ft2

 (12.9 W/m2) and 0.90 W/ft2 (9.7 W/m2), respectively. 

The baseline system is modeled as T12 lamps with electronic ballasts in a basic luminaire with 

40.3 ft2 (3.74 m2

) per fixture. The ballast factor is 0.85, and the luminaire efficiency is 0.90. 

The first EDM (30% reduction) corresponds to Super T8s, ballast factors of 0.88, and a luminaire 

efficiency of 0.93. This system covers 44.6 ft2 (4.15 m2) with a single fixture, and has an 

incremental capital cost of $82/kW of lighting power reduction. The total incremental cost is 

N

Active Storage

Main Sales

Windows

Skylights

Enclosed

Office

Mechanical

Room

Restroom

Deli

Bakery

Produce

Perimeter Sales Perimeter Sales

Meeting

Room

Dining

Room Corridor

Vestibule
54

thus $1,663, because the EDM reduces the lighting power installed in the store from 67.6 kW to 

47.3 kW. 

The second EDM system can be realized with some combination of luminaires that do not direct 

any light upwards, and modest reductions in lighting levels. For instance, with Super T8s and 

ballast factors of 0.88, a basic luminaire (with 17% of the light directed upward) results in an 

LPD of 1.19 W/ft2 (12.8 W/m2) at 49 fc (527 lux), and 0.72 W/ft2 (7.8 W/m2) at 30 fc (323 lux). 

On the other hand, a more directed luminaire requires just 1.06 W/ft2 (11.4 W/m2) to achieve 49 

fc (527 lux), and 0.64 W/ft2 (6.9 W/m2) for 29 fc (312 lux). We model the 47% reduction (0.90 

W/ ft2) as costing an additional $225/kW of lighting power reduction over the first EDM. Thus, 

the total incremental cost of EDM 2 over baseline is $4,249. 

The first EDM maintenance costs are the same as the baseline case: $5,222/yr. The second EDM 

includes an increase in the cost of changing out a lamp, but a decrease in the number of lamps 

and in the frequency of lamp change-outs (from 5 years in the baseline and first EDM scenarios 

to 5.5 years) resulting in maintenance costs of $3,156/yr. 

Each LPD EDM includes a 1% LPD reduction based on the inclusion of occupancy sensors in all 

of the back-of-store zones (storage, restrooms, office, etc.). The whole-building LPD reduction 

of 1% is calculated by assuming that the sensors achieve 10% savings in the areas where they are 

installed. Because those areas comprise just 17% (7,651 ft2 [711 m2

]) of the building and have 

lower LPDs than the sales floor, one arrives at a conservative whole-building LPD reduction of 

approximately 1%. 

The cost of one occupancy sensor is $150, including materials and labor (Greene 2008). The 

cost of a power pack, which powers the occupancy sensors and activates the lighting control 

relay, is $63.50. Two sensors and one power pack are required for every 1000 ft2 (93 m2) (Roth 

et al. 2005), such that the approximate cost of this EDM is $0.36/ft2

 ($3.88/m2).

In Opt-E-Plus, the lighting costs are expressed in dollars per installed kilowatt. Each EDM

results in fewer installed kilowatts, so the baseline and marginal costs are summed on a whole 

building basis, then divided by the actual installed kilowatts to arrive at the EDM cost. The 

resulting EDM LPDs and costs are shown in Table 3-32 (see Table C-15 for metric units). 

Table 3-32 Lighting Power Density EDMs

EDM Key LPD

(W/ft2) 

Capital Cost 

($/kW)

Capital Cost 

($/ft2) 

Fixed O&M Cost 

($/kW·yr)

Fixed O&M Cost 

($/ft2·yr)

Baseline 1.50 $6,996 $10.51 $77.24 $0.12 

30% LPD reduction 1.05 $10,234 $10.76 $110.34 $0.12

47% LPD reduction 0.80 $13,653 $10.87 $88.07 $0.07

3.4.3.3 HVAC Systems and Components

3.4.3.3.1 Direct Expansion Coil Efficiency

Possible DX coil efficiency improvements are developed from publically available industry spec 

sheets for 10-ton unitary DX units with constant volume supply fans over an EER range of 10.1 

to 12.3. These data suggest that the COP of the 10-ton RTUs, which includes compressor and 

condenser, but not supply fan, power, can be improved as much as 20% over the baseline of 

3.69. Thus, we have two EDMs that improve DX coil efficiency: a 10% increase in COP that 

increases capital cost by $61.43/ton cooling ($17.47/kW); and a 20% increase in COP that 
55

increases capital cost by $123.94/ton cooling ($35.25/kW). The incremental cost for these 

improvements is taken as the cost to upgrade from the baseline model to each of the two higher 

efficiency units mentioned in Section 3.3.4.2.6: from 9.0 to 10.4 EER and from 9.0 to 11.0 EER, 

respectively (RMH Group 2006). 

3.4.3.3.2 Higher Efficiency Fans

The baseline HVAC unit has an EER of 10.1, a COP of 3.69, and a total static pressure drop of 

1.53 in. w.c. (381 Pa) (without an economizer). We use those specifications to calculate a 

baseline fan efficiency of 30.6%. We set our EDM fan efficiency to 63%, which, according to 

industry data, is near the upper bound for RTU fan efficiency. The cost of the EDM for 

increased fan efficiency is assumed to be 10% of the baseline HVAC system capital cost, that is, 

an additional $160.38/ton cooling ($45.61/kW). This cost premium is roughly based on the 

incremental cost of upgrading from a constant volume supply fan to a VAV supply fan 

(Mossman 2005). 

3.4.3.3.3 Economizers

In this analysis, economizers can be combined with any available HVAC system. They are 

controlled with a mix of dry bulb temperature (OA of 36o–66oF [2o–19oC]), and enthalpy limits 

(OA less than 14 Btu/lb [32,000 J/kg]). An economizer increases system cost by $100.20/ton 

cooling ($28.48/kW), adds 0.09 in. w.c. (22.4 Pa) of static pressure, and replaces gravity 

dampers with motorized dampers.

The DX coil efficiency, fan efficiency, and economizer EDMs are implemented together as 

HVAC system EDMs. A summary of the available systems is presented in Table 3-33 (see 

Table C-16 for metric units). 

3.4.3.4 Outside Air

This report considers two options beyond code-minimum for reducing OA loads: carbon dioxide 

(CO2) DCV, and energy recovery from exhaust air. 

3.4.3.4.1 Demand Controlled Ventilation

The CO2 DCV EDM is modeled by matching the outdoor air schedules (by person and by area) 

to the occupancy schedules using the Ventilation:Mechanical object in EnergyPlus. A motorized 

OA damper is applied with DCV to prevent unwanted OA from entering. The cost of installing 

DCV is equal to the cost of installing one CO2 sensor per RTU, since the RTUs should be able to 

implement DCV without major modification. The cost of one sensor is $185.50, such that DCV 

has a capital cost of $18.55/ton cooling ($5.28/kW) (Greene 2008). 

3.4.3.4.2 Energy Recovery Ventilators

ERVs with sensible effectiveness of 60% or 80% and latent effectiveness 10 percentage points 

lower are available as EDMs. For each ERV unit, Table 3-34 (see Table C-17 for metric units) 

lists the associated pressure drop and implementation cost, which vary with effectiveness.
56

Table 3-33 HVAC System EDMs

EDM Key 

Cooling 

COP 

(Ratio)

Heating 

Efficiency 

(%)

Economizer Motorized 

Damper 

Fan 

Efficiency 

(%)

Fan Static 

Pressure 

(in. w.c.)

Capital

Cost 

($/ton) 

Fixed O&M 

Cost 

($/ton·yr) 

Baseline without economizer 3.69 80.0 No No 30.6 1.53 $1,603.75 $140.18 

10% increased COP 4.06 80.0 No No 30.6 1.53 $1,665.18 $140.18

Baseline with economizer 3.69 80.0 Yes Yes 32.4 1.62 $1,703.89 $140.18

20% increased COP 4.43 80.0 No No 30.6 1.53 $1,727.69 $140.18

Baseline COP with efficient fan 3.69 80.0 No No 63.0 1.53 $1,747.31 $140.18

10% increased COP with 

economizer 4.06 80.0 Yes Yes 32.4 1.62 $1,765.31 $140.18

10% increased COP with 

efficient fan 4.06 80.0 No No 63.0 1.53 $1,808.74 $140.18

20% increased COP with 

economizer 4.43 80.0 Yes Yes 32.4 1.62 $1,827.83 $140.18

Baseline COP with economizer 

and efficient fan 3.69 80.0 Yes Yes 64.8 1.62 $1,847.48 $140.18

20% increased COP with 

efficient fan 4.43 80.0 No No 63.0 1.53 $1,871.25 $140.18

10% increased COP with 

economizer and efficient fan 4.06 80.0 Yes Yes 64.8 1.62 $1,908.91 $140.18

20% increased COP with 

economizer and efficient fan 4.43 80.0 Yes Yes 64.8 1.62 $1,973.46 $140.18
57

Table 3-34 Energy Recovery EDMs

EDM Key

Sensible 

Effectiveness 

(%)

Latent 

Effectiveness 

(%)

Pressure Drop

(in. w.c.) 

Capital Cost

($/unit) 

Capital Cost

($)

Low effectiveness 60.0 50.0 0.42 $7,927 $15,854

High effectiveness 80.0 70.0 0.60 $11,465 $22,930

 

In general, more effective ERVs have higher pressure drops. The pressure drops listed in Table 

3-34 (see Table C-17 for metric units) are based on internal data, which predict the pressure drop 

through one side of the high effectiveness energy recovery wheel at 1 in. w.c (249 Pa). Based on 

the fact that air passes through the wheel twice (once when it enters the store as unconditioned 

OA and once when it leaves the store as conditioned return air), and on the assumption of 

roughly 30% OA, an overall pressure drop of 0.6 in. w.c. (150 Pa) is applied to the 

implementation of high effectiveness ERV. The pressure drop for the low effectiveness ERV 

unit (0.42 in. w.c. [105 Pa]) is scaled according to our internal ERV data.

The modeling of ERV in EnergyPlus assumes that the exhaust air stream, which powers the 

ERVs, is equal in magnitude to the OA intake. For this assumption to be valid, the building must 

be airtight and all the exhaust air must be usable. Neither is generally the case for a grocery 

store, so we performed an air flow balance calculation to determine the fraction of OA that 

would be available for energy recovery. The air flow balance can be defined as follows.

OA

DEAOA EA FERV

−− =

where,

FERV = the fraction of OA available for energy recovery 

DEA = the amount of dedicated exhaust air from which energy cannot be recovered 

EA = the amount of air that leaves the building through exfiltration, which is driven by 

HVAC and wind pressurization. 

Infiltrated air is intentionally omitted from this equation because unconditioned air cannot be 

used for energy recovery. All air quantities are measured in units of flow (cfm or m3

/s). 

For a grocery store, DEA comprises restroom and kitchen exhaust. Per Table 3-22, restroom 

DEA was given a value of 1.04 cfm/ft2

 (0.005 (m3/s)/m

2

), which amounts to a total flow rate of 

approximately 700 cfm (0.33 m3/s). Kitchen DEA was estimated using the ASHRAE 2003 

HVAC Applications Handbook (ASHRAE 2003)and validated by industry feedback. A detailed 

breakdown of DEA by space type is presented in Table 3-35 (see Table C-18 for metric units). 

(3-3)
58

Table 3-35 Dedicated Exhaust by Space Type

Space 

Type Equipment ASHRAE 

Classification Quantity ASHRAE 

Prescription

DEA

(cfm)

Restroom Toilet Toilet 675 ft2 1.04 cfm/ft2 700

Bakery Rack Oven Oven: Light Duty 7.0 ft. 200 cfm/ft 1400

Deli Revolving Oven Oven: Light Duty 2.7 ft 200 cfm/ft 540

Deli Fryer Fryer: Medium Duty 4.5 ft. 300 cfm/ft 1350

Total 3990

EA is calculated according to the pressurization analysis described in Section 3.3.3.5. From the 

exfiltration pressure gradients in Table 3-19, we estimated a peak exfiltration rate of 0.212 ACH 

(3,174 cfm [1.5 m3/s]) during operating hours, when the HVAC system is on (ERV units operate 

only when the HVAC system is on). ASHRAE 62-1999 requires 12,930 cfm (6.1 m3/s) of OA 

intake, such that FERV for the baseline grocery store is 0.45. With the application of infiltration 

reduction EDMs (addition of envelope air barrier and vestibule), FERV increases to 0.50. The 

appropriate value for FERV is achieved by adding (in EnergyPlus) idealized, energy free exhaust 

fans to each zone to exhaust the fraction of OA not available for ERV ( − FERV 1 ).

The cost of implementing the least effective ERV unit is adapted from the cost of 4,000 cfm (1.9 

m3/s) ERVs given by (Greene 2008). Our assumption is that two units could serve the entire 

building (up to 6,465 cfm [3.1 m3

/s]) of air is available for energy recovery).

3.4.3.5 Refrigeration Equipment

This TSD includes EDMs for the refrigerated cases and the refrigeration condensers. We 

emphasize the refrigerated cases, because the primary criterion for their selection is typically not 

energy efficiency. There is one EDM for the compressor rack/condenser systems: evaporatively 

cooled condensers.

3.4.3.5.1 Refrigerated Cases

Several EDMs are available for each refrigerated case type. Most are not single changes, but are 

combinations of one or more of the following recommendations: 

• High-efficiency fans

• Reduced lighting power 

• Anti-sweat heater controls 

• High-efficiency anti-sweat heaters

• Alternative defrost systems. The medium-temperature cases use time-off defrost or 

electric defrost with temperature termination. The low-temperature cases use electric 

defrost with temperature termination or hot gas defrost with temperature termination.

• Adding night covers or doors, or switching to a vertical case with doors. 

The performance and cost data for each baseline and EDM case are presented in Table 3-36

through Table 3-39 (see Table C-19 through Table C-22 for metric units). The relative costs of 

the EDM cases compared to the baseline cases are determined using data from Waier (2005), 

Westphalen et al. (1996), and industry quotes. Most of the table entries are described in Section 

3.3.4.3.1. We now describe the new entries and EDM-specific details.
59

In the brief descriptions of the EDMs found in the table headings, high-efficiency fans are listed 

as Eff. Fans, anti-sweat heater controls are listed as A-S Controls, and groups of measures are 

identified and referred to using the notations #1, #2, and #3. The rated capacities reflect the 

impact of reduced fan, lighting, and anti-sweat heater power, but do not reflect schedule or 

control changes. Values that differ from the baseline are highlighted in green. 

Anti-sweat heater controls are modeled using the EnergyPlus “dewpoint method”, which 

assumes that the actual anti-sweat heater power is equal to the power at rated conditions 

multiplied by the ratio

dp rated case

dp store case

TT

TT

−

−

,

, , 

where Tdp,store is the dew point of the store, Tdp,rated is the dew point at rated conditions, and Tcase

is the operating temperature of the refrigerated case. The cost is modeled assuming one sensor 

for every 30-36 ft (9-11 m) of cases.

In EnergyPlus, case credits refer to the sensible and latent heat that is transferred from the 

thermal zone to the refrigerated case. The credits are adjusted for temperature and humidity 

using polynomial curve fits. Case credit schedules allow further modulation via the specification 

of what proportion of the standard credits should be applied at a given time. The schedules are 

typically used to model doors and other types of devices that reduce a refrigerated case’s 

infiltration load. Because the rated capacities of the models with doors already include the 

effects of door openings, the baseline cases and most of the EDM cases have a case credit 

schedule that is always equal to 1.0. However, the single-deck meat case EDMs with night 

covers and doors are modeled with case credit schedules.

The nighttime loads of the single-deck meat cases with night covers and doors are set to the 

minimum possible value, which is obtained by subtracting the fraction of the sensible and latent 

loads caused by infiltration from 1.0. The infiltration load is equal to the infiltration ratio times 

the rated capacity; the total sensible and latent loads are equal to the rated capacity minus all the 

electrical equipment loads. The night cover EDM models the placement of insulated panels over 

the refrigerated case openings. Thus, the daytime case credits are set to 1.0 and the schedule is 

set to the average of the daytime and nighttime values during the employee-only transition hours. 

The sliding door EDM has a daytime case credit schedule based on the assumption that the doors 

are open for 10 seconds 6 times per hour. 

For cases with light-emitting diodes (LEDs), the maximum lighting power is listed in the tables, 

but the implemented power is equal to half this value to model the effects of occupancy sensors.

It is difficult to find accurate data on the energy delivered to refrigerated cases by hot gas defrost. 

Based on the EnergyPlus documentation, we assume that the total energy delivered during the 

hot gas defrost cycle is equal to that delivered by an electric defrost cycle. Because hot gas 

defrost cycles are typically shorter than the corresponding electric defrost cycles, the listed 

defrost powers are higher in the former case. Hot gas defrost is achieved by rerouting hot gases 

coming off of the compressors, so there is no extra energy penalty, as there is with electric 

defrost, for generating the heat used to defrost the coils. 
60

The total length of each case category stays constant when the EDMs are applied, except when 

the single-deck ice cream cases are replaced with efficient vertical door models. In this situation, 

based on the useful volumes of the two types of cases, we assume that only 0.659 ft (0.2 m) of 

efficient vertical cases are required for every 1 ft (0.35 m) of baseline single-deck cases.
61

Table 3-36 Island Single-Deck Meat Case EDMs

Characteristic Baseline Electric 

Defrost 

#1: Eff. Fans 

and A-S 

Controls 

#1 with

Electric 

Defrost 

#2: #1 and 

Covered at 

Night 

#2 with 

Electric 

Defrost 

#3: #1 and 

Sliding 

Doors 

#3 with 

Electric 

Defrost 

Rated Capacity (Btu/h·ft) 770 770 756 756 756 756 756 756

Operating Temperature (°F) 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5 28.5

Latent Heat Ratio 0.361 0.361 0.367 0.367 0.367 0.367 0.367 0.367

Infiltration Ratio 0.686 0.686 0.698 0.698 0.698 0.698 0.698 0.698

Fan Power (Btu/h·ft) 38.7 38.7 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0

Lighting Power (Btu/h·ft) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Anti-Sweat Heater Power 

(Btu/h·ft) 37.0 37.0 37.0 37.0 37.0 37.0 79.7 79.7

Anti-Sweat Heater Control Method None None Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Defrost Type Time-off Electric w/

Temp. Term. Time-off

Electric w/

Temp. 

Term. 

Time-off Electric w/

Temp. Term. Time-off Electric w/ Temp. Term.

Defrost Power (Btu/h·ft) 0 427 0 427 0 427 0 427

Maximum Defrost Time (min) 45 40 45 40 45 40 45 40

Drip-Down Time (min) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 

Defrost Start Time(s) 

6:00 a.m.

2:00 p.m.

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 2:00 

p.m. 10:00 

p.m.

6:00 a.m.

2:00 p.m.

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 2:00 

p.m. 10:00 

p.m.

6:00 a.m. 2:00 

p.m. 10:00 

p.m.

6:00 a.m. 2:00 

p.m. 10:00 

p.m.

Restocking Load (Btu/h·ft) and 

Schedule

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

65 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

Case Credit Schedule All Days, 1.0 All Days, 1.0 All Days, 1.0 All Days, 1.0

Night, 0.24; 

Open Hrs, 

1.0

Night, 0.24; 

Open Hrs, 1.0

Night, 0.19; 

Open Hrs, 

0.20

Night, 0.19; 

Open Hrs, 0.20

Capital Cost ($/ft) $753.28 $758.14 $794.64 $800.85 $813.25 $818.10 $910.36 $915.21

Maintenance Cost ($/ft·yr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $18.50 $18.50 $0.00 $0.00

 
62

Table 3-37 Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli Case EDMs

Characteristic Baseline Baseline with 

Electric Defrost

#1: Eff. Fans 

and Standard 

Lighting

#1 with Electric 

Defrost

Replace w/ Eff. 

Vertical Door 

Model

Rated Capacity (Btu/h·ft) 1500 1500 1285 1285 272

Operating Temperature (°F) 41.0 41.0 41.0 41.0 2.8

Latent Heat Ratio 0.241 0.241 0.281 0.281 0.100

Infiltration Ratio 0.579 0.579 0.676 0.676 0.250

Fan Power (Btu/h·ft) 42.6 42.6 19.9 19.9 12.6

Lighting Power (Btu/h·ft) 215 215 23.9 23.9 62.1

Anti-Sweat Heater Power 

(Btu/h·ft) 0 0 0 0 79.7

Anti-Sweat Heater Control 

Method None None None None Dewpoint 

Method

Defrost Type Time-off Electric w/ 

Temp. Term. Time-off Electric w/ Temp. Term.

Electric w/ 

Temp. Term.

Defrost Power (Btu/h·ft) 0 341 0 341 445

Maximum Defrost Time (min) 42 32 42 32 30

Drip-Down Time (min) 8 8 8 8 20

Defrost Start Time(s)

1:00 a.m., 

7:00 a.m., 

1:00 p.m., 

7:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m., 

7:00 a.m., 

1:00 p.m., 

7:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m., 

7:00 a.m., 

1:00 p.m., 

7:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m., 

7:00 a.m., 

1:00 p.m., 

7:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m.

Restocking Load (Btu/h·ft) and 

Schedule

325 from

9:00 a.m. to 

12:00 p.m.

325 from

9:00 a.m. to 

12:00 p.m.

325 from

9:00 a.m. to 

12:00 p.m.

325 from

9:00 a.m. to 

12:00 p.m.

312.5 from

9:00 a.m. to 

12:00 p.m.

Capital Cost ($/ft) $583.02 $595.27 $498.43 $510.69 $749.55
63

Table 3-38 Vertical Frozen Food with Doors Case EDMs

Characteristic Baseline

Baseline with 

Hot Gas 

Defrost

#1: Eff. Fans 

and A-S 

Controls

#1 with Hot 

Gas Defrost

#2: #1, Eff. 

A-S Heaters 

and LEDs

#2 with Hot 

Gas Defrost

Rated Capacity (Btu/h·ft) 538 538 510 510 317 317

Operating Temperature (°F) –1.5 –1.5 –1.5 –1.5 –1.5 –1.5

Latent Heat Ratio 0.061 0.061 0.064 0.064 0.103 0.103

Infiltration Ratio 0.152 0.152 0.160 0.160 0.257 0.257

Fan Power (Btu/h·ft) 40.9 40.9 12.6 12.6 12.6 12.6

Lighting Power (Btu/h·ft) 92.8 92.8 92.8 92.8 62.1 62.1

Anti-Sweat Heater Power 

(Btu/h·ft) 259 259 259 259 97 97

Anti-Sweat Heater Control 

Method None None Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint

Method

Defrost Type

Electric w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Electric w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Electric w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/

Temp. 

Term.

Defrost Power (Btu/h·ft) 1311 2491 1311 2491 1311 2491

Maximum Defrost Time 

(min) 46 24 46 24 46 24

Drip-Down Time (min) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Defrost Start Time(s) 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m.

Restocking Load (Btu/h·ft) 

and Schedule

16.0 from

6:00 p.m. to 

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

16.0 from

6:00 p.m. to 

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

16.0 from

6:00 p.m. to 

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

Capital Cost ($/ft) $647.71 $656.61 $682.85 $691.76 $803.22 $812.48
64

Table 3-39 Island Single-Deck Ice Cream Case EDMs

Characteristic Baseline

Baseline with 

Hot Gas 

Defrost

#1: Eff. Fans, 

A-S Control 

and No 

Lighting

#1 with Hot 

Gas Defrost

Replace with 

Eff. Vert. 

Model, Elec. 

Def.

Replace with 

Eff. Vert. 

Model, Hot 

Gas

Rated Capacity (Btu/h·ft) 740 740 474 474 341 341

Operating Temperature (°F) –13.0 –13.0 –13.0 –13.0 –6.5 –6.5

Total Length (ft) 120 120 120 120 79 79

Latent Heat Ratio 0.147 0.147 0.230 0.230 0.111 0.111

Infiltration Ratio 0.412 0.412 0.643 0.643 0.280 0.280

Fan Power (Btu/h·ft) 29.0 29.0 18.7 18.7 12.6 12.6

Lighting Power (Btu/h·ft) 255 255 0 0 62.1 62.1

Anti-Sweat Heater Power 

(Btu/h·ft) 135 135 135 135 97.1 97.1

Anti-Sweat Heater Control 

Method None None Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Defrost Type

Electric w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Electric w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Electric w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Defrost Power (Btu/h·ft) 1032 3079 1032 3079 1310 2491

Maximum Defrost Time

(min) 60 20 60 20 46 24

Drip-Down Time (min) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Defrost Start Time(s) 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m.

Restocking Load (Btu/h·ft) 

and Schedule

27.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

27.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

27.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

27.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

27.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

27.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

Capital Cost ($/ft) $773.94 $776.42 $681.33 $683.46 $803.22 $812.48

3.4.3.5.2 Compressor Racks and Condensers

Commercial refrigeration compressor racks and condensers are designed for energy efficiency. 

We therefore limit our efforts in this area to replacing air-cooled condensers with evaporatively 

cooled condensers. Other possible measures are discussed in Section 5.0. 

Evaporative condensers apply water to the air-cooled heat exchanger coils to lower the outside 

coil temperature, and thus improve efficiency. We assume that the outside coil temperature is 

equal to the wet bulb temperature of the air, and that evaporative cooling is available at all times 

in all climates.

Installing evaporative instead of basic air-cooled condensers costs $9,741 less on a whole-store 

basis, but requires $4,941/yr more in maintenance costs (Westphalen et al. 1996). Split evenly 

across the four racks, we obtain a per-rack capital cost of $116,445 and a maintenance cost of
65

$12,849/yr. For reference, the baseline per-rack capital cost is $118,881, and the baseline 

maintenance cost is $11,613/yr. 

3.4.3.6 Photovoltaic Panels

Ignoring any electricity tariff changes associated with varying amounts of PV, 5-TLCC and the 

amount of electricity generated by the PV panels vary linearly with panel area. We thus include 

a single PV EDM, and then use a post-processing step to determine the PV panel area needed to 

reach 50% energy savings. 

We assume the following for all cases: 

• The panels are 10% efficient. 

• The DC to AC inverters are 90% efficient. 

• The panels are installed flat on the roof. 

• The PV efficiency does not degrade with increasing temperature. 

• The panels do not shade the roof. 

• The cost is $6.65 for materials and $1.16 for installation per installed Watt based on the 

price of a 10-kW, grid-connected system (Greene 2008) minus the 30% Federal Tax 

Credit that is available through 2016 (DSIRE 2009). 

• The EDM used by Opt-E-Plus covers 60% of the net roof area (total area minus skylight 

area) with PV panels and is sized assuming 1000 W/m2 incident solar radiation. 
66

4.0 Results

This section describes simulation results for a number of building models. Section 4.1 describes 

the baseline models, both the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 (ASHRAE 2004a) baselines that serve as the 

standard for our percent energy savings calculations, and ASHRAE 90.1-2007 (ASHRAE 

2007b) baselines that are provided for reference purposes (for individuals wishing to compare 

the two and to see what 50% energy savings versus 90.1-2004 means when it is replaced by 

90.1-2007). Section 4.2 describes the selected low-energy models for each climate zone, and 

compares their energy and economic performance to the baseline. The low-energy models are 

described by enumerating which EDM perturbations were applied to the baseline model to arrive 

at the low-energy model. Finally, Section 4.3 briefly describes some alternative low-energy 

models for selected climate zones. These models are not described in full, but we report whether 

we were able to achieve the 50% energy savings goal without certain strategies. 

In this section, we use the following metrics to report performance:

• Net site EUI. This is reported in MJ/m2·yr or kBtu/ft2·yr. It is the whole-building net 

site yearly energy use (Section 2.2.1) divided by the building floor area. 

• 5-TLCC intensity. This is reported in $/m2 or $/ft2. It is the 5-TLCC divided by the 

building floor area. It represents the total cost of the building for a five-year analysis 

period (see Section 3.1.2.6). 

• Electricity intensity. This is reported in kWh/m2·yr or kWh/ft2·yr and is the yearly 

electricity consumption divided by the building floor area.

• Natural gas intensity. This is reported in kWh/m2·yr or Therms/ft2·yr and is the yearly 

natural gas consumption divided by the building floor area.

• PV power intensity. This is reported in kWh/m2·yr or kWh/ft2·yr and is the yearly 

electricity production of the PV panels divided by the building floor area.

• Capital cost. This is reported in $/m2 or $/ft2 and is the total cost for materials, 

installation, fees, and commissioning divided by the building floor area.

• Min/max monthly electricity demand. This is reported in kW and is the net electricity 

demand, taking credit for electricity produced by PV, computed for each month of the 

annual simulation. 

• Min/max monthly load factor. This is the average net monthly electricity demand (net 

kWh divided by the number of hours in the month) divided by the overall net monthly 

electricity demand. 

4.1 Baseline Models 

This section summarizes the energy and economic performance of the baseline models described 

in Section 3.3. 

4.1.1 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Models: Performance

The energy and cost intensities of the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 baseline models are shown in Table 

4-1 to Table 4-3. The EUIs vary substantially across the climate zones, such that the difficulty in 
67

achieving 50% energy savings and the amount of energy saved in doing so vary by climate zone. 

Costs vary in response to climate-specific constructions, equipment, and thermal loads. 

Table 4-1 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Model Performance: Humid Climates

Units Metric

Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

SI

EUI (MJ/m2

·yr) 2,780 2,930 2,620 2,800 2,920 3,100

5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,630 1,660 1,570 1,580 1,580 1,590

Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 695 685 532 514 499 496

Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 79.0 130 195 264 312 364

Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,260 1,280 1,240 1,250 1,250 1,250

IP

EUI (kBtu/ft2

yr) 245 258 231 246 257 273

5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 152 154 146 146 147 148

Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 64.5 63.6 49.5 47.8 46.4 46.1

Natural Gas Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr) 0.250 0.413 0.619 0.835 0.989 1.15

Capital Cost ($/ft2) 117 119 116 116 116 116

N/A Max. Elec. Demand (kW) 562 622 467 479 477 467

Min. Load Factor 0.589 0.506 0.608 0.560 0.565 0.520

Table 4-2 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Model Performance: Arid Climates

Units Metric

Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

SI

EUI (MJ/m2

·yr) 2,350 2,360 2,370 2,530 2,690 2,920

5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,540 1,530 1,540 1,550 1,560 1,570

Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 538 494 506 486 480 474

Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 116 163 154 216 267 337

Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,230 1,230 1,240 1,240 1,240 1,240

IP

EUI (kBtu/ft2

yr) 207 208 209 223 237 257

5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 143 142 143 144 145 146

Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 50.0 45.9 47.0 45.2 44.6 44.0

Natural Gas Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr) 0.368 0.517 0.488 0.684 0.845 1.07

Capital Cost ($/ft2) 114 114 115 115 115 116

N/A Max. Elec. Demand (kW) 437 398 420 389 393 385

Min. Load Factor 0.643 0.618 0.641 0.632 0.616 0.619
68

Table 4-3 ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline Model Performance: Marine and Cold Climates

Units Metric

Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8 

SI

EUI (MJ/m2

·yr) 2,500 2,680 3,280 3,820

5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,530 1,550 1,600 1,680

Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 464 462 474 467

Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 230 284 437 595

Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,230 1,240 1,260 1,300

IP

EUI (kBtu/ft2

yr) 220 236 289 337

5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 142 144 149 156

Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 43.1 42.9 44.0 43.4

Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.729 0.900 1.38 1.89

Capital Cost ($/ft2) 114 115 117 121

N/A Max. Elec. Demand (kW) 362 375 450 353

Min. Load Factor 0.642 0.611 0.555 0.675

4.1.2 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Models: Performance

For comparison, we also constructed baseline models that satisfy ASHRAE 90.1-2007 and 

ASHRAE 62.1-2004 (ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2007 explicitly references, and thereby includes, 

Standard 62.1-2004). The differences between the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 and ASHRAE 90.1-

2007 baselines are the window, wall, and roof performance requirements, and the OA 

requirements. The OA requirements differ in structure and amount: starting in 2004, ASHRAE 

62.1 started specifying OA requirements per area and per person in many space types. ASHRAE 

62-1999 (the ventilation standard corresponding to ASHRAE 90.1-2004), on the other hand, 

specifies OA requirements as either per area or per person. For instance, in applying ASHRAE 

62.1-2004 instead of ASHRAE 62-1999 for a grocery sales zone, the ventilation prescription 

changes from a flat per area requirement of 0.30 cfm/ft2 (0.0015 (m3/s)/m2) to a combined per 

area and per person requirement of 0.12 cfm/ft2 (0.0006 (m3/s)/m2) and 7.5 cfm/person (0.0038 

(m3/s)/person), where the number of people is taken as the peak occupancy of that zone. 

For completeness, the 90.1-2007 baseline windows, walls, and roofs are summarized in Table 

4-4 to Table 4-7. The OA requirements are summarized in Table 4-8. To compare to the 90.1-

2004 values, please see Table 3-15 to Table 3-18, and Table 3-22. 
69

Table 4-4 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Exterior Wall Constructions

Properties

Climate Zone 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 and 8

Key 

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

No c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-7.6 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-9.5 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-11.4 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-13.3 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-15.2 c.i.

U-Factor 

(Btu/h·ft2

·°F) 0.754 0.173 0.137 0.114 0.0975 0.0859 0.0756

Capital Cost 

($/ft2) $20.37 $21.06 $21.42 $21.68 $21.80 $21.86 $21.97

Table 4-5 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Roof Constructions

Properties Climate Zone

1 2 through 8 

Key Baseline Roof Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof Construction, 

R-20 c.i.

U-Factor (Btu/h·ft2·°F) 0.0675 0.0506

Capital Cost ($/ft2) $8.69 $9.11

Table 4-6 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Window Constructions

Properties 

Climate Zone

1 through 3 4 through 6 7 and 8 

Key

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

SHGC 0.390 0.400 0.450

VLT 0.495 0.508 0.450

U-Factor (Btu/h·ft2·°F) 0.570 0.550 0.450

Capital Cost ($/ft2) $47.23 $47.57 $47.23

Fixed O&M Cost ($/ft2) $0.22 $0.22 $0.22
70

Table 4-7 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Skylight Constructions

Property 

Climate Zone

1 and 2 3 4 through 6 7 8 

Key

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

SHGC 0.360 0.390 0.490 0.680 0.710

VLT 0.457 0.490 0.622 0.680 0.710

U-Factor (Btu/h·ft2·°F) 1.22 0.690 0.690 0.690 0.580

Capital Cost ($/ft2) $46.28 $48.91 $47.24 $45.90 $50.46

Fixed O&M Cost ($/ft2) $0.22 $0.22 $0.22 $0.22 $0.22

Table 4-8 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Minimum Ventilation Rates

Space Type Mapping to ASHRAE 62.1-2004 Ventilation per Person Ventilation per Area

cfm/person L/s∙person cfm/ft2 L/ s∙m2 

Main Sales Retail::Sales 7.5 3.8 0.12 0.60

Perimeter Sales Retail::Sales 7.5 3.8 0.12 0.60

Produce Retail::Sales 7.5 3.8 0.12 0.60

Deli CUSTOM VALUE* – – 0.34 1.70

Bakery CUSTOM VALUE* – – 0.34 1.70

Enclosed Office Office Buildings::Office space 5.0 2.5 0.06 0.30

Meeting Room Offices::Conference/meeting 5.0 2.5 0.06 0.30

Dining Room Food & Beverage::Restaurant dining rooms 7.5 3.8 0.18 0.90

Restrooms CUSTOM VALUE 7.5 3.8 0.06 0.30

Mechanical Room CUSTOM VALUE – – 0.00 0.00

Corridor General::Corridors – – 0.06 0.30

Vestibule General::Corridors – – 0.06 0.30

Active Storage General::Storage rooms – – 0.12 0.60

*The ventilation rate for the kitchen zones (deli, bakery) is set to fill half of the exhaust requirement specified by 

ASHRAE 62.1-2004. It is assumed that the rest of the exhaust is pulled from other zones.
71

The performance of the ASHRAE 90.1-2007 baseline models is summarized in Table 4-9 to

Table 4-11. 

Table 4-9 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Model Performance: Humid Climates

Units Metric

Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

SI

EUI (MJ/m2

·yr) 2,650 2,740 2,460 2,580 2,650 2,780

5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,700 1,730 1,650 1,650 1,660 1,660

Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 666 652 520 504 490 488

Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 70.9 110 164 212 245 284

Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,340 1,370 1,330 1,340 1,340 1,340

IP

EUI (kBtu/ft2

yr) 234 241 217 227 233 245

5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 158 161 153 153 154 155

Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 61.9 60.6 48.3 46.8 45.5 45.3

Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.225 0.348 0.520 0.672 0.778 0.900

Capital Cost ($/ft2) 125 127 124 124 125 125

N/A Max. Elec. Demand (kW) 541 594 450 468 456 451

Min. Load Factor 0.598 0.525 0.627 0.585 0.569 0.537

Table 4-10 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Model Performance: Arid Climates

Units Metric

Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

SI

EUI (MJ/m2

·yr) 2,260 2,290 2,280 2,380 2,490 2,650

5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,620 1,620 1,620 1,630 1,640 1,640

Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 522 489 500 483 476 469

Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 105 147 134 178 216 266

Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,320 1,320 1,330 1,330 1,330 1,340

IP

EUI (kBtu/ft2

yr) 199 201 201 209 219 233

5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 151 150 151 151 152 153

Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 48.5 45.4 46.4 44.8 44.2 43.5

Natural Gas Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr) 0.332 0.465 0.424 0.565 0.684 0.844

Capital Cost ($/ft2) 123 123 123 124 124 124

N/A

Max. Elec. Demand (kW) 420 388 407 371 370 369

Min. Load Factor 0.653 0.643 0.653 0.634 0.639 0.639
72

Table 4-11 ASHRAE 90.1-2007 Baseline Model Performance: Marine and Cold Climates

Units Metric

Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8 

SI

EUI (MJ/m2

·yr) 2,360 2,480 2,890 3,360

5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,610 1,630 1,670 1,680

Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 460 459 467 465

Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 195 230 337 469

Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,320 1,330 1,340 1,340

IP

EUI (kBtu/ft2

yr) 208 218 255 296

5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 150 151 155 156

Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 42.7 42.6 43.4 43.2

Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.619 0.730 1.07 1.49

Capital Cost ($/ft2) 123 123 125 124

N/A Max. Elec. Demand (kW) 352 362 429 351

Min. Load Factor 0.653 0.629 0.583 0.673

4.1.3 Comparison to CBECS

To compare the EUIs of the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 and ASHRAE 90.1-2007 baseline models to 

the 2003 CBECS data, we use climate zone weighting factors from (Deru et al. 2008) to calculate 

average baseline EUIs, electricity intensities, and natural gas intensities for each numerical 

climate zone. The weightings are shown in Table 4-12; the resulting EUIs, electricity intensities, 

and natural gas intensities are depicted graphically in Figure 4-1 to Figure 4-3, where they are 

compared against the corresponding values from the 2003 CBECS survey. Only supermarkets 

built since 1980, or built since 1970 and renovated since 1980, which were occupied for the full 

survey year are used: 28 CBECS buildings match that description. The climate zone for each is 

determined by following the procedure described in Griffith (Griffith et al.). No CBECS 

buildings are located in climate zones 1, 6, or 8. Climate zones 3 and 5 are best represented, 

with 9 and 12 CBECS buildings, respectively. 
73

Table 4-12 Retail Building Climate Zone Weighting Factors

ASHRAE Climate Zone Weighting Factor

1A 80.57

2A 570.62

2B 125.71

3A 648.97

3B-CA 607.32

3B-NV 97.03

3C 27.85

4A 1,137.03

4B 35.98

4C 129.68

5A 1,144.83

5B 288.69

6A 321.90

6B 4.94

7 45.22

8 2.93

Figure 4-1 EUI comparison for baseline and CBECS survey buildings 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Site Energy Use Intensity (kBtu/ft2 yr)

ASHRAE/DOE Climate Zone

90.1-2004 90.1-2007 CBECS 2003
74

Figure 4-2 Electricity use intensity comparison for baseline and CBECS survey buildings 

Figure 4-3 Natural gas intensity comparison for baseline and CBECS survey buildings 

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Electricity Use Intensity (kWh/ft2 yr)

ASHRAE/DOE Climate Zone

90.1-2004 90.1-2007 CBECS 2003

0.000

0.200

0.400

0.600

0.800

1.000

1.200

1.400

1.600

1.800

2.000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Natural Gas Use Intensity (Therm/ft2 yr)

ASHRAE/DOE Climate Zone

90.1-2004 90.1-2007 CBECS 2003
75

4.1.4 Discussion

There is reasonable agreement between our data and the 2003 CBECS for annual EUI, but much 

less so for natural gas use intensity. Our baseline models use consistently more natural gas than 

was reported for the 28 CBECS buildings. Only 18 of the CBECS buildings report using natural 

gas as their primary heating source, so that alone may account for the natural gas discrepancy. 

Some other discrepancies also stand out (electricity use in climate zone 7, our buildings having a 

higher overall EUI than the CBECS buildings), but we chose not to pursue this line of 

investigation in depth, in part because of the nature of the CBECS data (small sample sizes of 

unverifiable survey data).

The ASHRAE 90.1-2007 baseline models use less energy than the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 baseline 

models, with much of the savings coming from reduced natural gas consumption. This result is 

to be expected since the improvements of ASHRAE 90.1-2007 over ASHRAE 90.1-2004 are in 

areas (envelope insulation and ventilation) that are more critical for heating mode than for 

cooling mode. 

The improved energy performance of the ASHRAE 90.1-2007 baselines comes at the expense of 

an increase in capital cost. This is due to the fact that ASHRAE 90.1-2007 requires better 

insulated, and thus costlier, opaque envelope and fenestration constructions than those required 

by ASHRAE 90.1-2004. Although ASHRAE 90.1-2007 requires a lower ventilation rate in sales 

areas than does ASHRAE 90.1-2004, the resulting reduction in overall HVAC system size in the 

90.1-2007 baseline models did not lower capital costs enough to offset the increase in costs of 

the opaque envelope and fenestration constructions. 

The energy savings provided by the updates required to satisfy ASHRAE 90.1-2007 were not 

enough to offset the associated increase in capital cost, resulting in larger 5-TLCC values for the 

ASHRAE 90.1-2007 baseline models than for the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 baseline models (except 

in climate 8).

As ASHRAE 90.1 evolves to require more and more energy efficiency, it will become 

increasingly difficult to achieve the same percent energy savings targets. This point is discussed 

further in Section 5.1.1, which contains a general discussion of alternative metrics that might be 

of interest for future AEDG work. 

4.2 Selected Low-Energy Models

The models described in this section meet the goal of 50% energy savings over ASHRAE 90.1-

2004. The models are assembled by applying a number of the EDMs to the baseline models 

described in Section 3.3. The models are chosen according to the procedures outlined in 

Sections 2.4 and 2.5.1. 

4.2.1 Description

The selected low-energy models are described in terms of the EDMs chosen to achieve 50% 

energy savings. These choices are summarized for each climate zone in Table 4-13 to Table

4-15. The data reveal that several options were chosen in all climate zones, namely:

• South façade WWR is reduced by 50%, likely because opaque constructions are less 

expensive than fenestration constructions and have better insulation properties. 
76

• Vestibules are added to the front entrance. In the baseline models, 85% of infiltrated air 

enters the store through the front entrance. Adding a vestibule is a relatively inexpensive 

way to significantly reduce infiltration through the front entrance.

• HVAC RTUs are equipped with efficient fans.

• LPD is reduced by 47%, and occupancy sensors are installed in the active storage, 

mechanical room, restroom, and office zones.

• Daylighting sensors (with 46.5 fc [500 lux] set points) are installed. Note that skylights 

are not included in every climate zone. In the absence of skylights, daylighting controls 

are installed only in the zones adjacent to the south façade fenestration (within 15 ft [4.6 

m] of the view glass).

• Baseline frozen food and ice cream refrigerated cases are replaced with efficient, vertical 

models with doors and hot gas defrost. 

• Baseline dairy/deli refrigerated cases are replaced with efficient, vertical models with 

doors. 

• Baseline meat display cases are replaced with models with efficient fans, anti-sweat 

heater controls, electric defrost, and sliding doors. 

Two EDMs were not chosen for any location: 

• Shaded overhangs above the windows on the south façade. 

• Replacing the refrigeration system air-cooled condensers with evaporative ones. 

Some general trends noted are:

• Skylights are chosen in warm climates only (zones 1 through 4), likely because colder 

climates receive too little sun for the energy saved by daylighting to compensate for the 

increase in capital costs and reduction in insulation associated with skylights. In all cases 

where skylights are installed, high solar gain constructions are selected. This is likely 

because high solar gain skylights also have the highest VLT values, which maximize 

daylighting performance.

• Fenestration constructions with poor insulation properties are selected in the hottest 

climates, possibly to counteract the effects of the refrigerated cases. All selected 

skylights have double-pane constructions (most also have low-e and argon), except that 

selected in climate zone 1A, which has single-pane construction. All selected windows 

are double pane with low-e and argon, except those selected in climates 1A (baseline 

construction) and 2B (single pane, clear). 

• In general, baseline opaque constructions (exterior walls and roofs) are selected. 

Exceptions mostly occur at climate extremes, as expected: exterior wall constructions 

with better insulation properties are selected in the hottest climates (1A, 2A, and 2B); a 

roof construction with better insulation properties is selected in the coldest climate (8). 

An unexpected exception occurs in climate zone 4C. However, examining the Pareto 

front for the 4C optimization reveals that higher cost, lower yield EDMs (such as opaque 

construction EDMs) needed to be implemented to reach 50% savings without PV. 

• Infiltration reduction EDMs are almost universally selected. Vestibules are chosen for all 

climates. Envelope air barriers (which reduce infiltration by eliminating cracks) are 
77

selected in all humid, cold, and marine climates, and in all but the warmest arid climates 

(2B and 3B-CA).

• Twenty percent increased COP is selected for RTUs in all except the coldest climate (8), 

likely because too little cooling is needed in such a cold climate to justify the cost 

associated with upgrading RTU COPs. 

• Economizers are not selected in any humid or cold climates, as expected. They are 

selected in all marine climates and in all hot and warm arid climates except 3B-NV.

• Because of a modeling artifact (see Section 5.1.3), DCV and ERV could be selected 

individually, but not in combination. ERV is selected in all colder climates (5 through 8) 

and in all humid climates except 1A. DCV is selected in all climates in which ERV was 

not selected, including in all hot and warm arid climates except 3B-NV, and in all marine 

climates. The current trends show that ERV should be most effective in humid and cold 

climates, but we expect that DCV and ERV would work well in combination in many 

cases, such that DCV and ERV would have been selected in more climates were it not for 

the modeling artifact.
78

Table 4-13 Selected Low-Energy Models: Humid Climates

Category Subcategory EDM Type Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

Form 

Fenestration

Skylight 

Fraction

2% roof area in 

non-sidelit 

zones

3% roof area in 

non-sidelit 

zones

3% roof area in 

non-sidelit 

zones

None None None

South 

Window 

Fraction

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

50% of baseline 

glazing

50% of baseline 

glazing

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

Shading Shading 

Depth None None None None None None

Fabric

Fenestration

Skylights

Single pane 

with high solar 

gain

Double pane 

with low-e and 

high solar gain

Double pane 

with low-e and 

high solar gain

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

South 

Windows

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Infiltration Infiltration

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Tighter envelope 

and front door 

vestibule.

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Opaque 

Constructions

Walls

Mass_ASHRAE 

90.1 2008_pg 

c.i. mtl frame 

ext ins R-22.6

Mass_ASHRAE 

90.1 2008_pg 

c.i. mtl frame ext 

ins R-22.6

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-7.6 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-9.5 c.i.

Roof

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.
79

Category Subcategory EDM Type Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

Equipment

Energy 

Generation PV 14% of net roof area

None None None None None

HVAC 

System System

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

20% 

increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

Lighting

Daylighting 

Controls

500 lux set 

point 500 lux set point 500 lux set point

500 lux set 

point

500 lux set 

point

500 lux set 

point

LPD

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

Outdoor Air

DCV Installed None None None None None

ERV None 70% effective 50% effective 50% effective 50% effective 50% effective

Refrigeration

Low Temp

Ice Cream

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient 

vertical door 

model, hot gas 

defrost

Replace with 

efficient 

vertical door 

model, hot gas 

defrost

Replace with 

efficient 

vertical door 

model, hot gas 

defrost

Frozen 

Food

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot 

gas defrost

#2 with hot 

gas defrost

Low Temp. 

Rack Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline

Med Temp

Dairy/Deli

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient 

vertical door 

model

Replace with 

efficient 

vertical door 

model

Replace with 

efficient 

vertical door 

model

Meat 

Display

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

Med. Temp. 

Rack Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline
80

Table 4-14 Selected Low-Energy Models: Arid Climates

Category Subcategory EDM Type Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

Form 

Fenestration

Skylight 

Fraction

2% roof area in 

non-sidelit 

zones

2% roof area in 

non-sidelit 

zones

3% roof area in 

non-sidelit 

zones

2% roof area in 

non-sidelit 

zones

None None

South 

Window 

Fraction

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

50% of baseline 

glazing

50% of baseline 

glazing

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

50% of 

baseline 

glazing

Shading Shading 

Depth None None None None None None

Fabric

Fenestration

Skylights

Double pane 

with high solar 

gain

Double pane 

with high solar 

gain

Double pane 

with low-e and 

high solar gain

Double pane 

with low-e and 

high solar gain

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

South 

Windows

Single pane 

with clear glass

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Double pane 

with low-e and 

argon

Infiltration Infiltration Front door 

vestibule

Front door 

vestibule

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Tighter 

envelope and 

front door 

vestibule.

Opaque 

Constructions

Walls

Mass_ASHRAE 

90.1 2008_pg 

c.i. mtl frame 

ext ins R-18.1

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-7.6 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-9.5 c.i.

Roof

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof 

Construction, 

R-15 c.i.
81

Category Subcategory EDM Type Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

Equipment

Energy 

Generation PV None None None None None None

HVAC 

System System

20% increased 

COP with 

economizer 

and efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

economizer and 

efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

economizer 

and efficient 

fan

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

20% increased 

COP with 

efficient fan

Lighting

Daylighting 

Controls

500 lux set 

point 500 lux set point 500 lux set point 500 lux set point

500 lux set 

point

500 lux set 

point

LPD

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD 

reduction and 

occupancy 

sensors

Outdoor Air

DCV Installed Installed None Installed None None

ERV None None 50% effective None 50% effective 50% effective

Refrigeration

Low Temp

Ice Cream

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model,

hot gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model, 

hot gas defrost

Replace with 

efficient 

vertical door 

model, hot gas 

defrost

Frozen 

Food

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

#2 with hot gas 

defrost

Low Temp. 

Rack Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline

Med Temp

Dairy/Deli

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Replace with 

efficient vertical 

door model

Meat 

Display

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

#3: #1 plus 

sliding doors

Med. Temp. 

Rack Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline
82

Table 4-15 Selected Low-Energy Models: Marine and Cold Climates

Category Subcategory EDM Type Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8

Form

Fenestration

Skylight 

Fraction

3% roof area in nonsidelit zones4% roof area in non-sidelit 

zones

None None

South Window 

Fraction

50% of baseline 

glazing 50% of baseline glazing 50% of baseline glazing

50% of baseline 

glazing

Shading Shading Depth None None None None

Fabric

Fenestration

Skylights Double pane with low-e 

and high solar gain

Double pane with low-e 

and high solar gain

Baseline Skylight 

Construction

Baseline Skylight 

Construction

South 

Windows

Double pane with low-e 

and argon

Double pane with low-e 

and argon

Double pane with low-e 

and argon

Double pane with lowe and argon

Infiltration Infiltration Tighter envelope and 

front door vestibule.

Tighter envelope and front 

door vestibule.

Tighter envelope and 

front door vestibule.

Tighter envelope and 

front door vestibule.

Opaque 

Constructions

Walls Baseline Wall 

Construction, R-5.7 c.i.

Mass_ASHRAE 90.1 

2008_pg c.i. mtl frame ext 

ins R-22.6

Baseline Wall 

Construction, R-11.4 

c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-13.3 c.i.

Roof Baseline Roof 

Construction, R-15 c.i. R-40 c.i. Baseline Roof Construction, R-15 c.i. R-25 c.i.

Equipment

Energy 

Generation PV None None None None

HVAC System System

20% increased COP 

with economizer and 

efficient fan

20% increased COP with 

economizer and efficient 

fan

20% increased COP 

with efficient fan

Baseline COP with 

efficient fan

Lighting

Daylighting 

Controls 500 lux set point 500 lux set point 500 lux set point 500 lux set point

LPD

47% LPD reduction 

and occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD reduction and 

occupancy sensors

47% LPD reduction 

and occupancy 

sensors

47% LPD reduction 

and occupancy 

sensors

Outdoor Air

DCV Installed Installed None None

ERV None None 50% effective 50% effective
83

Category Subcategory EDM Type Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8

Refrigeration

Low Temp

Ice Cream

Replace with efficient 

vertical door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with efficient 

vertical door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with efficient 

vertical door model, hot 

gas defrost

Replace with efficient 

vertical door model,

hot gas defrost

Frozen Food #2 with hot gas defrost #2 with hot gas defrost #2 with hot gas defrost #2 with hot gas 

defrost

Low Temp. 

Rack Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline

Med Temp

Dairy/Deli Replace with efficient 

vertical door model

Replace with efficient 

vertical door model

Replace with efficient 

vertical door model

Replace with efficient 

vertical door model

Meat Display #3: #1 plus sliding 

doors #3: #1 plus sliding doors #3: #1 plus sliding doors

#3: #1 plus sliding 

doors

Med. Temp. 

Rack Baseline Baseline Baseline Baseline
84

4.2.2 Performance

The energy performance of the selected low-energy models is summarized in Table 4-16 to 

Table 4-18, and depicted graphically in Figure 4-4. The tables report several whole-building 

metrics; the figure depicts site energy use broken out into end uses. The data shown in the figure 

are also listed in table form in Appendix D. 

Table 4-16 Selected Low-Energy Model Energy Performance: Humid Climates

Building Name Metric

Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

Low-Energy Percent Energy 

Savings 50.0% 50.9% 51.6% 51.0% 51.3% 51.4%

Baseline (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 2,780 2,930 2,620 2,800 2,920 3,100

Low-Energy (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 1,390 1,440 1,270 1,370 1,420 1,510

Baseline (SI units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 695 685 532 514 499 496

Low-Energy (SI units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 370 344 266 262 248 243

Baseline (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 79.0 130 195 264 312 364

Low-Energy (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 38.8 56.4 85.8 120 147 175

Low-Energy (SI units) PV Power Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 22.4 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Baseline (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 245 258 231 246 257 273

Low-Energy (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 123 127 112 121 125 133

Baseline (IP units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 64.5 63.6 49.5 47.8 46.4 46.1

Low-Energy (IP units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 34.4 32.0 24.7 24.3 23.0 22.6

Baseline (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr) 0.250 0.413 0.619 0.835 0.989 1.15

Low-Energy (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr) 0.123 0.179 0.272 0.379 0.465 0.556

Low-Energy (IP units) PV Power Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 2.08 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
85

Table 4-17 Selected Low-Energy Model Energy Performance: Arid Climates

Building Name Metric

Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

Low-Energy Percent Energy 

Savings 50.7% 50.1% 53.9% 50.3% 53.2% 52.9%

Baseline (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 2,350 2,360 2,370 2,530 2,690 2,920

Low-Energy (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 1,160 1,180 1,100 1,260 1,260 1,370

Baseline (SI units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 538 494 506 486 480 474

Low-Energy (SI units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 259 251 238 224 228 222

Baseline (SI units) Natural Gas 

Intensity (kWh/m2

yr) 116 163 154 216 267 337

Low-Energy (SI units) Natural Gas 

Intensity (kWh/m2

yr) 63.1 76.2 66.5 125 121 160

Low-Energy (SI units) PV Power Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Baseline (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 207 208 209 223 237 257

Low-Energy (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 102 104 96.4 111 111 121

Baseline (IP units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 50.0 45.9 47.0 45.2 44.6 44.0

Low-Energy (IP units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 24.1 23.3 22.1 20.8 21.2 20.6

Baseline (IP units)

Natural Gas 

Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr)

0.368 0.517 0.488 0.684 0.845 1.07

Low-Energy (IP units)

Natural Gas 

Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr)

0.200 0.241 0.211 0.395 0.384 0.506

Low-Energy (IP units) PV Power Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
86

Table 4-18 Selected Low-Energy Model Energy Performance: Marine and Cold Climates

Building Name Metric

Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8 

Low-Energy Percent Energy 

Savings 51.2% 50.9% 52.1% 52.4%

Baseline (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 2,500 2,680 3,280 3,820

Low-Energy (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 1,220 1,320 1,570 1,820

Baseline (SI units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 464 462 474 467

Low-Energy (SI units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 220 213 223 212

Baseline (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 230 284 437 595

Low-Energy (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 119 153 213 294

Low-Energy (SI units) PV Power Intensity 

(kWh/m2

yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Baseline (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 220 236 289 337

Low-Energy (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 107 116 138 160

Baseline (IP units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 43.1 42.9 44.0 43.4

Low-Energy (IP units) Electricity Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 20.4 19.8 20.8 19.7

Baseline (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr) 0.729 0.900 1.38 1.89

Low-Energy (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity 

(Therms/ft2

yr) 0.376 0.486 0.674 0.933

Low-Energy (IP units) PV Power Intensity 

(kWh/ft2

yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
87

Figure 4-4 Energy intensity by end use for baseline and selected low-energy models
88

The economic performance of the selected low-energy models is summarized in Table 4-19 to 

Table 4-21. 

Table 4-19 Selected Low-Energy Model Costs: Humid Climates

Building Name Metric

Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

Baseline (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,630 1,660 1,570 1,580 1,580 1,590

Low-Energy (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,710 1,690 1,560 1,540 1,550 1,550

Baseline (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,260 1,280 1,240 1,250 1,250 1,250

Low-Energy (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,500 1,470 1,370 1,350 1,350 1,350

Baseline (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 152 154 146 146 147 148

Low-Energy (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 159 157 145 143 144 144

Baseline (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 117 119 116 116 116 116

Low-Energy (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 139 137 127 125 126 126

Table 4-20 Selected Low-Energy Model Costs: Arid Climates

Building Name Metric

Arid

2B 3BCA

3BNV 4B 5B 6B

Baseline (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,540 1,530 1,540 1,550 1,560 1,570

Low-Energy (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,500 1,460 1,540 1,470 1,520 1,530

Baseline (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,230 1,230 1,240 1,240 1,240 1,240

Low-Energy (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,320 1,280 1,370 1,290 1,340 1,350

Baseline (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 143 142 143 144 145 146

Low-Energy (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 139 135 143 137 141 142

Baseline (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 114 114 115 115 115 116

Low-Energy (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 122 119 127 120 125 125
89

Table 4-21 Selected Low-Energy Model Costs: Marine and Cold Climates

Building Name Metric

Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8 

Baseline (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,530 1,550 1,600 1,680

Low-Energy (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,460 1,590 1,550 1,610

Baseline (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,230 1,240 1,260 1,300

Low-Energy (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,290 1,410 1,360 1,410

Baseline (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 142 144 149 156

Low-Energy (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 136 148 144 150

Baseline (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 114 115 117 121

Low-Energy (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 120 131 126 131

The electricity demand performance of the selected low-energy models is summarized in Table 

4-22 to Table 4-24. 

Table 4-22 Selected Low-Energy Model Electricity Demand: Humid Climates

Building 

Name Metric

Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

Baseline Monthly Max Electric 

Demand [min-max] (kW)

485–

562

458–

622

327–

467

307–

479

296–

477

291–

467

LowEnergyMonthly Max Electric 

Demand [min-max] (kW)

252–

284

243–

331

172–

256

157–

284

151–

282

147–

275

Baseline Monthly Electrical Load 

Factor [min-max]

0.589–

0.683

0.506–

0.648

0.608–

0.677

0.560–

0.701

0.565–

0.731

0.520–

0.741

LowEnergyMonthly Electrical Load 

Factor [min-max]

0.546–

0.688

0.435–

0.646

0.502–

0.655

0.446–

0.615

0.440–

0.629

0.457–

0.635

Table 4-23 Selected Low-Energy Model Electricity Demand: Arid Climates

Building 

Name Metric

Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

Baseline Monthly Max Electric 

Demand [min-max] (kW)

333–

437

327–

398

314–

420

298–

389

299–

393

289–

385

LowEnergyMonthly Max Electric 

Demand [min-max] (kW)

155–

233

156–

208

146–

235

135–

220

151–

225

148–

220

Baseline Monthly Electrical Load 

Factor [min-max]

0.643–

0.695

0.618–

0.689

0.641–

0.680

0.632–

0.715

0.616–

0.719

0.619–

0.748

LowEnergyMonthly Electrical Load 

Factor [min-max]

0.587–

0.698

0.569–

0.680

0.585–

0.660

0.583–

0.677

0.547–

0.629

0.537–

0.640
90

Table 4-24 Selected Low-Energy Model Electricity Demand: Marine and Cold Climates

Building 

Name Metric

Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8 

Baseline Monthly Max Electric 

Demand [min-max] (kW) 292–362 286–375 289–450 291–353

LowEnergyMonthly Max Electric 

Demand [min-max] (kW) 144–196 140–202 144–260 143–216

Baseline Monthly Electrical Load 

Factor [min-max] 0.642–0.729 0.611–0.738 0.555–0.743 0.675–0.746

LowEnergyMonthly Electrical Load 

Factor [min-max] 0.575–0.676 0.548–0.675 0.500–0.638 0.571–0.641

4.2.3 Discussion

The economic performance data indicate that achieving the 50% energy savings goal in grocery 

stores is largely cost effective. Because of the upgraded and additional constructions and 

equipment associated with the implementation of the EDM selections, the low-energy buildings 

have higher capital costs than their corresponding baseline buildings. In most cases, though, 

those costs are paid back through energy savings. The low-energy buildings cost less than or the 

same as (based on 5-TLCC and our other economic parameters) the baseline buildings in all 

climate zones except for 1A (where PV was needed to reach the energy goal, likely because of a 

modeling artifact [as discussed in the bulleted list, below]), 2A, and 4C. However, the lowenergy models require putting doors on a number of refrigerated cases. Stores not willing to put 

more products behind glass may be unable to reach high levels of energy efficiency. In many 

cases, ERV played an important role in reaching 50% energy savings. 

Several modeling errors were uncovered near the end of the month-long super-computer 

simulation runs. These errors affect both the baseline and low-energy model results and to 

varying degrees, but were discovered too late in the process to be remedied. Whereas we feel 

that these errors have not fundamentally changed the results of the overall analysis, we include 

them here for completeness: 

• A costing bug in Opt-E-Plus resulted in an underestimation of HVAC capital costs. The 

size of the HVAC system in the largest zone (main sales) was taken as the total cost of 

the HVAC system for the whole building. 

• Costs for infiltration reduction measures, which were calculated per zone based on the 

total number of zones, were not updated when the number of zones was reduced from 18 

to 14. 

• A costing bug in Opt-E-Plus resulted in an overestimation of the cost of ERV by an order 

of magnitude. Each of the 14 zones was assigned an ERV cost equivalent to what the 

cost of ERV for the entire building should have been. It appears that ERV was not 

selected in climate zone 1A due to this bug. In climate zone 1A, the ratio of energy 

savings provided to incremental cost was slightly higher for PV than for ERV, such that 

PV was selected before (and instead of) ERV. This likely would not have happened were 

it not for the ERV costing bug. Therefore, we strongly recommend that ERV still be 

considered in zone 1A. Further, in all cases in which ERV was selected, the low-energy 
91

model building costs are significantly overestimated. The fact that ERV was still deemed 

a sufficiently cost-effective EDM to be selected in those cases is a testament to the 

significant energy savings that ERV can provide in certain climate zones.

• The cost of shaded overhangs was not updated for the inflation that occurred between 

2006 and 2008. Shaded overhangs were not selected in any climate zone, however, so 

this error had no effect on the overall analysis. 

• The cost of meat display refrigeration case maintenance was not updated for the inflation 

that occurred between 2005 and 2008. 

• High effectiveness ERV was assigned the same pressure drop (0.42 in. w.c. [105 Pa]) as 

low effectiveness ERV. High effectiveness ERV should have been assigned a pressure 

drop of 0.7 in. w.c. (150 Pa), according to the assumption that higher effectiveness ERV 

would result in a larger pressure drop. 

• The cost of the R-15 roof construction was not updated according to the new roof 

construction calculations. 

• An EnergyPlus requirement associated with the allowable ratio between OA intake and 

exhaust fan flow rate for ERV operation prevented DCV and ERV from being selected in 

combination as EDMs. With DCV installed, OA intake in one or more zones reduces to 

the point that the ratio of OA intake to exhaust fan flow rate reaches a threshold value for 

ERV control in EnergyPlus that results in a fatal error. 

• Exhaust Fan ACH values were incorrectly entered at 80% of their calculated values. This 

increased the air available for energy recovery by 10%.

• Finally, the original configuration of the HVAC RTUs with the desuperheat option for 

reheat did not properly control nighttime relative humidity. At night, the RTUs were 

only cycled to meet the dry bulb temperature set point; the humidistat set point (55%) 

was ignored. 

4.3 Alternative Low-Energy Models

The methodology described in Section 2.5.2 is used to find alternative designs that also reach 

50% energy savings for a subset of the climate zones. Each design is found with a new search 

designed to determine whether a specific high-performance strategy is required to meet the 

energy savings goal. 

For this algorithm, a strategy is an EDM category or set of categories that can be turned off or 

on. To turn a strategy off means to set each EDM category to its baseline value. To turn a 

strategy on means to fix each EDM category to the value taken in a selected low-energy model. 

The strategy definitions used in this work are summarized in Table 4-25. Each strategy is a set 

of one or more EDM types. 

In what follows, the PV strategy was treated differently from the others. In particular, the PV 

EDM defines an upper limit on the amount of PV. Then for any selected points that achieve the 

50% energy savings target with PV, we calculated the actual amount of PV required to reach the 

target and reran the selected model after making just that change. Models that included PV and 

still did not reach the target were marked as unsuccessful.

The algorithm used to find alternative models that meet the target is computationally intensive, 

requiring 63% to 281% of the effort of the original search. For this reason, we only ran it in five 

climate zones: 1A (Miami, Florida), 3B-NV (Las Vegas, Nevada), 4C (Seattle, Washington), 5A 
92

(Chicago, Illinois), and 8 (Fairbanks, Alaska). We also ran only one iteration of the algorithm, 

which means that each new search was generated directly from the selected low energy models 

described in Section 4.2 by removing a single strategy. 

Table 4-25 High Performance Building Strategies as used in the Algorithm for Identifying 

Alternative Low-Energy Models

Strategy Name EDM Type See Section

Infiltration Infiltration 0

Elec. Lighting LPD 3.4.3.2

Daylighting Daylighting controls 3.4.3.1

Skylight Fraction 3.4.1.1.2

Window Area South Window Fraction 3.4.1.1.1

Window Shading Shading Depth 3.4.1.2

Wall Insulation Walls 3.4.2.1

Roof Insulation Roof 3.4.2.2

Fenestration Types

South Windows 3.4.2.3.1

Skylights 0

HVAC System 3.4.3.3

DCV DCV 3.4.3.4.1

ERV ERV 3.4.3.4.2

Frozen Food Cases Frozen Food 3.4.3.5.1

Ice Cream Cases Ice Cream 3.4.3.5.1

Meat Cases Meat Display 3.4.3.5.1

Dairy/Deli Cases Dairy/Deli 3.4.3.5.1

Refrig. Racks Low Temp. Rack 0

Med. Temp. Rack 0

PV PV 3.4.3.6

4.3.1 Results

The bulk of the results are listed in Appendix E. Here we walk through the results for one 

climate zone, and summarize the overall results in a few tables.

4.3.1.1 Example Results for One Building

By starting with the selected low-energy model, removing a strategy from both the model and the 

search, and then restarting the search, one ends up with two new models of interest: the new start 

point, and the new selected point. The results reported in Appendix E summarize both for every 

strategy used in the original selected models. 

After a brief summary of the computational effort required for the searches, the next two items in 

each subsection of Appendix E, a figure and an accompanying table, provide information on the 
93

new selected points. For convenience, here we reproduce those items for climate zone 5A, see

Figure 4-5 and Table 4-26. 

The figure represents each low-energy model as a node. Circular nodes meet the 50% energy 

savings goal; octagonal nodes do not. Nodes outlined in gold contain PV; black nodes do not. 

The root node (the top circle labeled 00) represents the selected low-energy model described in 

Section 4.2. Each child node represents a model chosen in the same way as the root node, but 

from a new search that excluded the indicated strategy from the search options, and that started 

from the model defined by removing that strategy from the root node.

The accompanying table further summarizes the low-energy models represented in the figure. 

The two are linked by the node labels 00, 01, 02, etc. The first row repeats a subset of the 

performance data listed above for the original selected low-energy model, and adds to that an 

explicit listing of which strategies were used in that model. For example, the original lowenergy model chosen for Chicago, Illinois applies at least one infiltration EDM, an electric 

lighting EDM, and some aspect of daylighting (controls, skylights, or both). 

The subsequent rows summarize the new low-energy models. Each one excludes one of the 

strategies used by the original selected model. In some cases, the new low-energy models use 

strategies that were not used in the original model. This is to be expected since different actions 

must be taken to reach the 50% goal in the absence of the excluded strategy. Sometimes those 

actions are more extreme measures taken within the confines of one of the strategies used in the 

original model, but at other times entirely new strategies are introduced.

The performance data allow interested parties to screen all of the models that reach the 50% goal 

against several criteria, including some that are not used directly in the search. Recall that the 

search simultaneously minimizes net site energy and lifetime cost. To these, the table adds PV 

energy, capital cost, and peak demand.

The results in Appendix E also summarize the new start points as they relate to the original lowenergy model. Those two points only differ by one strategy (any PV effects are removed) such 

that the difference in their performance data can be interpreted as sensitivity data and answers 

the question, “How much impact does the given strategy have on the EUI of the selected lowenergy model?” The table that summarizes this data for climate zone 5A is reproduced in Table 

4-27. Except for Equivalent PV, each reported quantity is the result of taking the value of the 

listed performance metric for the original low-energy model and subtracting that for the new start 

point (original model minus the indicated strategy). Thus, in most cases we expect EUI Savings 

to be a positive number. 

Equivalent PV is provided as an alternative valuation for the given strategy. For each location, 

we use EnergyPlus to calculate the annual amount of energy produced per unit area of PV 

assuming horizontal orientation, 10% cell efficiency, 90% inverter efficiency, and the insolation 

data provided in the appropriate TMY2 weather file. It is then possible to convert the EUI 

savings provided by a strategy to an equivalent area of PV panels. Although equivalent to EUI 

savings, equivalent PV gives readers a more tangible way to think about a given level of energy 

savings and provides an alternative cost metric (a maximum allowable capital cost) once a 

realistic PV cost is chosen. With incentives and more PV production capacity coming online, we 

have heard of costs as low as $2.50-$5 per Watt of PV capacity; installed capacity is about 100 

W/m2

. 
94

Figure 4-5 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Chicago, Illinois grocery store 

Node 00 represents the original low-energy model. The other nodes represent the result of searches formed by taking Node 00 and removing the 

indicated strategy. Models that include PV are in gold. Any models that do not reach the 50% energy savings goal are indicated by octagons.

Table 4-26 Summary of the Chicago, Illinois Low Energy Models 

Node numbers correspond to Figure 4-5. An ‘X’ under a strategy name indicates that the strategy is used in the model.

Node

Infiltration

Elec. Lighting 

Daylighting 

Window Area 

Wall Insulation 

Roof Insulation

Fenestration 

Types

HVAC 

DCV 

ERV 

Frozen Food 

Cases 

Ice Cream Cases 

Meat Cases 

Dairy/Deli Cases 

Net Site Energy PV Energy Lifetime Cost Capital Cost 

Peak Demand 

(kW)

Energy Savings 

(%)

MJ/m2

·yr 

kBtu/ft2

·yr 

MJ/m2

·yr 

kBtu/ft2

·yr 

$/m2

$/ft2

$/m2

$/ft2

0 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,421 125.0 0 0.0 1,546 143.59 1,352 125.59 282 51.3 

1 X X X X X X X X X X 1,419 124.9 0 0.0 1,576 146.37 1,381 128.30 289 51.4 

2 X X X X X X X X X X 1,436 126.3 0 0.0 1,567 145.60 1,367 127.03 278 50.8 

3 X X X X X X X X X X 1,424 125.3 0 0.0 1,546 143.60 1,352 125.56 283 51.2 

4 X X X X X X X X X X 1,420 125.0 0 0.0 1,551 144.10 1,357 126.07 281 51.4 

5 X X X X X X X X X X 1,426 125.5 0 0.0 1,546 143.66 1,352 125.63 281 51.2 

6 X X X X X X X X X X 1,407 123.8 0 0.0 1,579 146.73 1,379 128.12 314 51.8 

7 X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,460 128.4 26 2.3 1,676 155.72 1,484 137.91 237 50.0 

8 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,460 128.5 26 2.2 1,772 164.65 1,568 145.70 268 50.0 

9 X X X X X X X X X X 1,407 123.8 0 0.0 1,582 146.99 1,386 128.78 289 51.8 

10 X X X X X X X X X X 1,435 126.3 0 0.0 1,591 147.84 1,398 129.88 265 50.8 

11 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,582 139.2 265 23.3 2,292 212.96 2,090 194.21 301 45.8 
95

Table 4-27 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for 

Chicago, Illinois 

Strategy 

Search 

No.

EUI Savings Lifetime Cost 

Savings

Capital Cost 

Savings Equivalent PV

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 m2 ft2

Infiltration 00 71.5 6.29 2.70 0.25 –2.26 –0.21 626.0 6,738

Elec. Lighting 01 60.4 5.32 11.19 1.04 –2.19 –0.20 528.9 5,693

Daylighting 02 2.6 0.23 0.13 0.01 –0.31 –0.03 23.1 249

Window Area 03 –1.0 –0.09 5.50 0.51 5.18 0.48 –8.5 –91

Fenestration 

Types 04 5.0 0.44 0.78 0.07 0.47 0.04 43.6 469

HVAC 05 55.2 4.86 6.32 0.59 –4.11 –0.38 483.5 5,204

ERV 06 219.7 19.34 –58.38 –5.42 –70.34 –6.53 1,923.1 20,700

Frozen Food 

Cases 07 244.6 21.52 14.99 1.39 –12.25 –1.14 2,140.5 23,040

Ice Cream Cases 08 58.3 5.13 9.13 0.85 2.94 0.27 510.1 5,491

Meat Cases 09 120.2 10.58 0.69 0.06 –7.99 –0.74 1,051.8 11,321

Dairy/Deli Cases 10 622.1 54.74 41.31 3.84 –9.51 –0.88 5,443.9 58,598

4.3.1.2 Summary Tables

Table 4-28 lists the number of low-energy models found for each climate zones to which the 

analysis was applied. Since some models did not reach 50% savings, the number of models that 

did is also listed. The rest of the data indicates the range of performances seen in those models 

that did reach the energy savings goal. These data are provided to give the reader an idea of the 

amount of diversity present in the sets of alternative designs. 

Table 4-29 attempts to summarize the value of the high performance design strategies across 

climate zones. Each cell is shaded to indicate whether the given metric always improves (green), 

sometimes improves (gray), or always degrades (orange) in response to the addition of the 

indicated strategy. 

Table 4-28 Summary of Each Climate Zone’s Low-Energy Models

Climate 

Zone

No. of 50% 

Models/Total 

No. of Models

PV Energy Intensity 

Range 

(50% Models)

5-TLCC Intensity 

Range 

(50% Models)

Capital Cost 

Intensity Range 

(50% Models)

Maximum 

Electricity 

Demand Range 

(50% Models)

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 kW

1A 12/13 73–317 6.4–27.9 1,707–

2,121

158.56–

197.00

1,490–

1,901

138.42–

176.62 284–328

3B-NV 11/12 0–143 0.0–12.6 1,473–

1,789

136.81–

166.20

1,296–

1,604

120.43–

149.06 229–252

4C 13/14 0–214 0.0–18.8 1,556–

2,128

144.52–

197.68

1,375–

1,945

127.72–

180.66 185–221

5A 11/12 0–26 0.0–2.3 1,546–

1,772

143.59–

164.65

1,352–

1,568

125.56–

145.70 237–314

8 12/13 0–127 0.0–11.2 1,611–

2,130

149.64–

197.92

1,404–

1,930

130.47–

179.26 170–243
96

Table 4-29 Sensitivity Analysis Summary by Strategy 

Green (orange) indicates that the strategy always improves (degrades) the performance metric.

Strategy 

No. of 

Data 

Points 

EUI Savings Range 5-TLCC Savings 

Range

Capital Cost Savings 

Range

Equivalent PV 

Range

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 m2 ft2

Infiltration 5 23.5 to 

154.5

2.07 to 

13.60

–4.59 

to 8.11

–0.43 to 

0.75

–6.31 to 

0.54

–0.59 to 

0.05

141.5 to 

2,161

1,523 to 

23,262

Elec. 

Lighting 5 26.3 to 

132.9

2.31 to 

11.69

2.74 to 

36.59

0.25 to 

3.40

–8.10 to 

16.59

–0.75 to 

1.54

269.8 to 

945.9

2,904 to 

10,181

Daylighting 5 1.8 to 

60.7

0.16 to 

5.35

–23.40 

to 0.13 

–2.17 to 

0.01

–28.83 to

–0.31 

–2.68 to 

–0.03

23.1 to 

432.4

249 to 

4,654

Window 

Area 5 –1.0 to 

4.1

–0.09 to 

0.36

3.78 to 

5.85

0.35 to 

0.54

3.57 to 

5.18

0.33 to 

0.48

–9.1 to 

29.5

–98 to 

317

Wall 

Insulation 2 23.1 to 

33.4

2.03 to 

2.94

–37.72 

to 

–35.99

–3.50 to 

–3.34

–40.43 to 

–39.28

–3.76 to 

–3.65

236.9 to 

237.6

2,550 to 

2,558

Roof 

Insulation 2 41.0 to 

42.4

3.60 to 

3.73

–70.21 

to 

–2.41

–6.52 to

–0.22

–72.90 to 

–4.86

–6.77 to 

–0.45

420.4 to 

592.7

4,525 to 

6,379

Fenestration 

Types 5 5.0 to 

16.3

0.44 to 

1.43

–0.66 

to 2.56

–0.06 to 

0.24

–1.19 to 

1.58

–0.11 to 

0.15

41.5 to 

131.2

446 to 

1,412

HVAC 5 16.7 to 

207.2

1.47 to 

18.23

3.98 to 

20.78

0.37 to 

1.93

–5.49 to 

–1.74

–0.51 to 

–0.16

233 to 

1,474

2,510 to 

15,872

DCV 2 28.3 to 

33.7

2.49 to 

2.97

–5.10 

to 

–1.49

–0.47 to 

–0.14

–5.34 to 

–1.95

–0.50 to 

–0.18

240.1 to 

290.9

2,585 to 

3,131

ERV 3 78.5 to 

471.7

6.91 to 

41.51

–65.56 

to 

–45.14

–6.09 to 

–4.19 –70.34 –6.53 472.9 to 6,597

5,090 to 

71,010

Frozen 

Food Cases 5 236 to 

263

20.81 to 

23.14

14.24 

to 

17.16

1.32 to 

1.59

–12.60 to 

–12.14

–1.14 to 

–1.13

1,583 to

3,636

17,041 to 

39,145

Ice Cream 

Cases 5 57.9 to 

62.5

5.10 to 

5.50

9.08 to 

9.59

0.84 to 

0.89

2.85 to 

3.27

0.26 to 

0.30

358.4 to 

873.6

3,858 to 

9,404

Meat Cases 5 62.9 to 

174.9

5.53 to 

15.39

–0.49 

to 4.02

–0.05 to 

0.37

–8.11 to 

–6.09

–0.75 to 

–0.57

447.6 to 

2445.6

4,817 to 

26,325

Dairy/Deli 

Cases 5 466 to 

740

41.0 to 

65.2

34.33 

to 

45.96

3.19 to 

4.27

–11.73 to 

 –6.20 

–1.09 to 

–0.58

3,142 to 

10,361

33,820 to 

111,531

4.3.2 Discussion

The algorithm described here and in Section 2.5.2 allowed us to identify 11 to 13 low-energy 

models for each of the five climate zones analyzed in this manner. Each model meets the 50% 

energy savings goal in a significantly different way, concretely demonstrating that there are 

multiple ways to meet most energy efficiency goals. Furthermore, because different EDMs 

provide different performance in terms of 5-TLCC, capital cost, and electricity demand changes 

per unit of energy savings, the performance of the models are significantly different when 

compared using those criteria (and likely any others of interest that are not reported here). 

Perhaps the most significant finding of this exercise is that dairy/deli cases are a game-changing 

energy drain on grocery stores—under our analysis assumptions, it was not possible to reach the 

50% goal in any climate without mitigating this source of energy consumption. From another 
97

perspective, replacing open (no door) dairy/deli cases with closed door models was equivalent to 

adding 33,820 ft2 to 111,531 ft2 (3,142 m2 to 10,361 m2 or approximately 314 kW to 1,036 kW 

nameplate capacity) of PV panels. No other strategy was found to be required in any climate. 

The necessity of using PV to reach the 50% goal varied across climates. It was used in every 

low-energy model for Miami, and in nine of the twelve goal-fulfilling models found for Seattle, 

but in just 1-2 of the other climates’ designs. Whether or not PV is needed is in some ways a 

surrogate for how easy it is to reach the 50% goal in a given climate. For instance, there must be 

other, cheaper ways to reduce energy use in Las Vegas, since one would generally expect PV to 

be quite effective there.

As in the original search, the two modeling errors related to ERV had a significant effect on our 

findings. In particular, ERV and DCV could not be implemented simultaneously, so each 

climate zone’s models mostly use one or the other. In addition, the artificially high cost of ERV 

may have artificially kept it from being added to the Miami and Seattle stores even when DCV 

was removed. 

For the sake of brevity, we are not providing detailed descriptions of each low-energy model 

found in this study or poring through our data to answer admittedly interesting questions such as 

“What is the relationship between the high performance strategies and maximum electricity 

demand?” The main contribution of this work is to demonstrate a new methodology that enables 

users to generate a number of significantly different designs that meet a common energy 

efficiency goal.

4.4 Addressing Known Issues

Due to the large number of simulation runs required for this analysis, time constraints did not 

allow us to rerun full optimizations after discovering the modeling errors listed in Section 4.2.3. 

Those errors have since been addressed however, and we feel that it is worth presenting a set of 

modified results to illustrate their effects on the analysis. Most of the modeling errors affected 

costs and EDM selection order rather than the final list of chosen EDMs. The exceptions to this 

rule are related to the ERV EDMs: the ERV costing bug, which overpriced ERV by an order of 

magnitude; and the ERV-DCV interaction bug, which prevented ERV and DCV from being 

selected simultaneously. In some cases, it appeared that PV was erroneously selected instead of 

ERV. In others, it seemed as though the selection of either ERV or DCV was prevented by the 

presence of the other. In an attempt to predict what the results of the optimizations would have 

been in the absence of these modeling errors, we took the following steps: 

1. Removed any ERV, DCV, or PV EDMs from the selected low-energy model.

2. Fixed the remaining EDM selections.

3. Performed an abbreviated optimization over the ERV, DCV, and PV EDMs to determine 

corrected low-energy models. 

In climate zone 1A, DCV and PV were removed from the selected building (from the original 

optimization) in favor of 50% ERV. Similarly, in climate zones 2B, 3B-CA, 3C, and 4B, DCV 

was removed in favor of 50% ERV. In climate zones 3A and 3B-NV, 50% ERV was replaced 

with DCV. In climate zone 4C, more EDMs were allowed to vary based on the peculiar results 

from the original optimization: in the corrected model, the skylights were removed and windows 

and roofs were downgraded to constructions with less insulation. 
98

Addressing the modeling errors resulted in baseline models with higher EUIs (due to the energy 

cost of controlling humidity at night), capital costs, and TLCCs (due to the previous 

underestimation of HVAC and roofing costs). It also resulted in low-energy models with even 

better economic performance relative to their corresponding baselines than was seen in the 

original analysis. Detailed energy and economic performance data for the models selected from 

the abbreviated optimizations are presented in Appendix F. 
99

5.0 Suggestions for Future Work

In this section we outline several types of improvements recommended for future AEDG work. 

5.1.1 Problem Formulation

The current problem formulation could be adapted to make the 50% AEDG/TSD guide more 

useful in the future. Energy savings is currently defined against a baseline (ASHRAE Standard 

90.1) that is changing steadily over time (see Section 4.1.4). Unless the 90.1-2004/62-1999 

baseline is used in perpetuity, it may be advantageous to use a different energy metric. One 

possible approach would be to use targets based on EUI levels rather than percent savings. 

Eventually, a net EUI of zero will be the goal. Some work would be required to determine how 

or if the EUI goals should vary across climate zones on the way to net zero energy use. A 

consideration of the Pareto front as a whole would give a sense of the effort required to achieve 

different EUIs on the way to net zero. Several key features for guiding the choice of absolute 

EUI goals are illustrated in Figure 5-1, which shows results for Miami (Climate Zone 1A). 

Notice that the graph uses EUI on the x-axis rather than percent energy savings. “BL” designates 

the baseline point as defined in this study. The other points labeled on the Pareto Front are: 

1) The minimum 5-TLCC design 

2) The “knee” of the Pareto front, before the cost escalates dramatically due to inclusion of 

PV in the design 

3) A design equal in 5-TLCC cost to the baseline building 

4) The 50% energy savings building identified as the low-energy model in this study 

5) A design meeting an arbitrary net 100 kBtu/ft2 target (could be any target down to, or 

even past net zero EUI)

Figure 5-1 Key Pareto curve features to provide absolute EUI targets
100

An additional consideration is that there are often a number of building design options that are 

clustered around 50% energy savings; choosing a single “solution” is somewhat arbitrary, given 

uncertainties in modeling assumptions and inputs. The “family enumeration” analysis used in 

this study is an effort to start down the road of identifying multiple solution sets for providing 

more general design guidance. 

5.1.2 Economic Data

It is important to weigh capital and maintenance costs versus future energy costs, both for the 

whole building and for individual EDMs. However, doing so is difficult. Today’s costs for 

basic building materials, new technologies, and energy are constantly moving targets; energy

costs cannot be predicted with reasonable accuracy; economic parameters such as discount rates 

and acceptable payback periods vary by building owner; and one goal of the Energy Alliances is 

to provide enough buying power to drive the underlying economics, thereby rendering the 

current costs moot.

Several approaches that address one or more of these problems are: 

1. Ignore economics in all general analyses. Instead, work with a specified set of EDMs 

that are deemed reasonably mature and cost effective. Recommend only EDMs that have 

an appreciable impact on energy use.

2. Integrate algorithms and methodologies that can deal with data uncertainties into Opt-EPlus, and exercise them by providing ranges or probability distributions, rather than 

single values, for highly uncertain economic and performance parameters. 

3. Develop automatic or industry-assisted methods for obtaining up-to-date cost data on 

well-established items such as basic construction materials, common HVAC 

technologies, and utility tariffs. For more uncertain costs, that is, new technology and 

future energy costs, develop methods for handling uncertainty information, exercising 

different scenarios, and calculating what the cost would have to be for the item to be cost 

effective.

5.1.3 Energy Modeling

A number of EDMs were not included in this report due to limitations in EnergyPlus or Opt-EPlus, lack of reliable input data, or the added simulation time that would have been required. 

Measures we feel deserve increased attention are:

• Alternative HVAC systems. For simplicity, we assumed that all HVAC needs were 

supplied with 10-ton DX RTUs. DX RTUs are by far the most common HVAC systems 

used in grocery stores, but they are not necessarily the best choice. Future studies could 

consider the use of centralized systems, radiant heating and cooling, thermal storage 

systems, ground source heat pumps, and other technologies. Also, to obtain true 

comparisons with a baseline building that uses RTUs, the dynamics of each system 

should be modeled more accurately, especially at part load conditions. This would 

require developing much more accurate input data for models of HVAC systems and 

their controls. Adding such capability would require a large effort, both from the Opt-EPlus team, and in acquiring accurate measured data. 
101

• Integrated HVAC and refrigeration. The heating loads in grocery stores, which are 

exacerbated by refrigerated cases, could be partially offset by using waste heat from the 

compressors for space heating. Several HVAC types could be used to do this. Such 

integration may be necessary to achieve 70% and 100% net site energy savings. 

• Air flow models. Right now, our EnergyPlus models assume that air masses in different 

thermal zones are isolated from one another. Modeling air transfers between zones 

would increase the accuracy of our models and allow us to better study design features 

such as vestibules. For instance, infiltration through the front entrance is currently 

divided on an area-weighted basis between the vestibule and the main sales area, based 

on the assumption that the air would pass through the vestibule and into the main sales 

area. According to that division, most of the air infiltrating through the front entrance is 

applied directly to the main sales area. In reality, vestibules are equipped with dedicated 

HVAC units that precondition the air before it passes through to the rest of the store. A 

more accurate model (EnergyPlus’s AirFlowNetwork) would allow us to capture the 

significance of using the vestibule to precondition infiltrated air.

• Reduced static pressure drops via better RTU and ductwork design. We did not 

undertake a detailed study of the range of possible internal and external static pressures, 

so we did not attempt to define an EDM along these lines. Industry feedback suggested 

that we may be able to reduce our total static pressure by 50%, but we have yet to verify 

that suggestion by matching it to available equipment. Reliable information about 

standard and best practice static pressures would be a welcome addition to the next study. 

• Direct and indirect evaporative cooling. We attempted to model indirect evaporative 

cooling in the RTUs, but were unsatisfied with the modeling results. We could not 

dynamically model the effects of bypassing the indirect evaporative cooler when it was 

not needed, so we are uncertain of our previous finding (Hale et al. 2008a) that 

evaporative cooling should not be used in any climate zone. The EnergyPlus modeling 

methods and the input data need to be refined. 

• Alternative service hot water systems. We did not model solar or instantaneous hot 

water systems. Including these technologies would require modifications to the Opt-EPlus platform to handle sizing and design issues, and would only affect about 0.5% of 

baseline energy use. 

• Plug and process load EDMs. Although a plug and process load EDM was included in the 

previous version of this report, it was removed from this year’s analysis because there were 

too few credible inputs about performance and implementation cost. A detailed study of plug 

and process loads and their reduction measures in grocery stores should be undertaken to 

answer questions about realistic performance metrics and costs for possible EDMs.

• Secondary loop refrigeration. An emerging trend in commercial refrigeration is the use 

of a secondary refrigerant loop on the case side of the system. The primary driver for this 

change is the subsequent reduction in refrigerant charge. Whether these systems can be 

more energy efficient than traditional systems is unclear, but some studies show that they 

can be as efficient, and substantially reduce climate change and ozone-depleting effects.

• Multiple compressor types. The efficiency of compressors varies significantly with 

condensing temperature, and the shapes of compressor efficiency curves differ depending 

on the compressor type. The next grocery store study should develop the input data 

needed to model several types of compressors, determine which type should be used in 

which climate zone, and compare that determination to current practice. 
102

• Under-case HVAC return air. Pulling HVAC return air under refrigerated cases is a 

common practice for reducing the amount of cold air that enters the refrigerated case 

isles. Reliable input data are needed to model this HVAC system feature and quantify its 

benefits.

• Desiccant-based humidity control. Unlike earlier work (Hale et al. 2008a), this TSD 

enforces a humidity set point using humidistats and reheat coils fed by DX condenser 

waste heat (superheat). The next step is to explore advanced dehumidification strategies 

such as desiccant-based humidity control.

• Walk-in coolers and freezers. A redesign of walk-in coolers and freezers would 

probably not save significant energy, but their quantity, distribution, and input data 

should be revisited. 

• Alternative business models. If more groceries were delivered after being ordered 

online or over the phone, some sales space could be replaced with storage space, and 

some refrigerated cases could be replaced with walk-in cooler capacity. Alternatively, 

building grocery stores with smaller footprints provides faster shopping trips and less 

energy use at the expense of reducing customer choice. Such design measures are well 

beyond the scope of this study, but could have a large impact on grocery store design and 

sector energy efficiency.

We also recommend that the following model inputs be re-evaluated or validated: 

• Whole-building pressurization analysis. The model inputs for infiltration and ERV are 

based on a whole-building pressurization analysis (see Section 3.3.3.5), which depends 

heavily on a number of simple assumptions. The EnergyPlus AirFlowNetwork should be 

used to determine the validity of those assumptions. 

• Infiltration. The whole-building pressurization analysis (through which infiltration 

inputs were developed) was based on driving pressures associated with HVAC 

pressurization and wind speed. To strengthen the analysis, stack effect should be 

factored in. Stack effect was omitted from the current analysis because of its strong 

dependence on ambient temperature, which varies by seasonal and location. Updates will 

likely need to be made to EnergyPlus to accommodate stack effect analysis.

5.1.4 Search Algorithms

Opt-E-Plus currently uses a sequential search routine to approximate the Pareto front associated 

with two design objectives. This search algorithm has advantages of efficiency and dual-criteria 

optimization, but also has several drawbacks in the context of this study: 

• The search routine is heuristic, and therefore not guaranteed to find the true Pareto curve.

• We were not interested in the Pareto curve per se, but in designs that achieve 50% energy 

savings cost effectively. Our computation time would have been better used fleshing out 

multiple designs that meet this criterion, rather than tracing out the entire Pareto front.

• The EDMs are all discrete choices. Continuous methods could be used to expedite the 

determination of design features by initially using continuous variables such as R-values, 

and only later determining the actual construction or product. 
103

• There is no way to express or use uncertainty information such as cost or performance 

variable ranges.

The next generation of Opt-E-Plus should be equipped with better search routines that address 

varying numbers of objective functions (0, 1, 2, etc.), use continuous variables in early iterations, 

and propagate uncertainty information. 

5.1.5 Advanced Energy Design Guide Format

The current AEDGs are meant to provide easily accessible design recommendations that can be 

incorporated into real-world projects. However, these guides do not respond to the needs and 

desires of specific projects, and are thus unable to provide truly integrated designs. If the 

development of low-energy design recommendations were automated with technologies such as

Opt-E-Plus, it would be possible to offer direct Web- or software-based assistance to building 

projects. One possible path would be to use the TSD process to develop a list of acceptable 

EDMs for a given building type. An AEDG would then be a portal through which designers 

could select EDMs that are acceptable to their specific projects, enter basic geometric 

information, and obtain a customized set of recommendations. 
104

6.0 Conclusions

This report finds that achieving 50% energy savings is possible for grocery stores in each U.S. 

climate zone. Reaching 50% is cost-effective in all climate zones, both in terms of capital costs 

and 5-TLCC. However, these findings depend on a willingness to put doors on a number of 

refrigerated cases—stores not willing to do this may be unable to reach high levels of energy 

efficiency cost effectively. Our findings confirm that ASHRAE 90.1-2007 provides energy 

savings over ASHRAE 90.1-2004, but subject to increased capital and lifetime costs. (Only in 

climate zone 8 did reduced energy use balance out the additional capital costs within the fiveyear analysis period.) 

A methodology for identifying a diverse set of low-energy designs is introduced and applied in 

five climate zones. Eleven to thirteen models, each differing by the presence or absence of at 

least one type of EDM (for instance, increased wall insulation) were automatically identified for 

each climate zone. The algorithm also yields perturbation information on the cost and energy 

savings provided by EDM categories used in the original low-energy design. An equivalent PV 

metric is calculated based on these results; our intention is for this to be used as an alternative 

valuation of energy efficient design changes. 

A number of modeling errors skewed the results of our original optimizations over the complete 

set of EDMs. The original results indicated that the low-energy models would require a larger 

initial capital investment than the corresponding baseline models and that the climate zone 1A 

and 2A stores would not be able to save enough energy to offset those higher capital costs within 

the five-year analysis period. By correcting the modeling errors and performing abbreviated 

optimization runs to determine which of ERV, DCV, and PV should actually be included in each 

low-energy model, we were able to show that 50% energy savings can be achieved cost 

effectively in terms of both lifetime and capital cost.

The 50% recommendations presented in this TSD are intended to serve as starting points for 

project-specific analyses. The recommendations are not meant for specific design guidance for 

an actual project because of project-specific variations in economic criteria and EDMs. Projectspecific analyses are also recommended because they can account for site-specific rebate 

programs that may improve the cost-effectiveness of certain efficiency measures. 

For both sector-wide studies and individual projects, the approach used in this study has several 

advantages: it allows for the exploration of thousands of different building design options in an 

efficient manner, and economic considerations are explicitly considered so that the most costefficient solutions can be identified. The design features explored by the analysis can be tailored 

to match the energy savings target and climate zone, and a new methodology for identifying 

multiple designs that meet a common target provides additional flexibility. 
105

7.0 References

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ASHRAE (2006). "ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 169-2006, Weather Data for Building Design 

Standards." Atlanta, Georgia: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers, Inc. 

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ASHRAE (2008). "ASHRAE 90.1 Envelope Subcommittee Construction Costs."); pp. 

Balboni, B., ed. (2008a). Assemblies Cost Data. RSMeans. Kingston, MA: RSMeans.

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108

Appendix A. Space Types and ASHRAE Standards

The mapping between our space types and ASHRAE Standards 62.1-1999 and 62.1-2004 is 

listed in Table A-1. The mapping between our spaces types and ASHRAE Standards 90.1-2004 

and 90.1-2007 is listed in Table A-2. 

Table A-1 Mapping Between Analysis Space Types and ASHRAE Standard 62.1

Space Type Mapping to ASHRAE 62.1-1999 Mapping to ASHRAE 62.1-2004

Main Sales Retail::Basement and street Retail::Sales

Perimeter Sales Retail::Basement and street Retail::Sales

Produce Retail::Basement and street Retail::Sales

Deli Food & Beverage::Kitchens CUSTOM VALUE*

Bakery Food & Beverage::Kitchens CUSTOM VALUE*

Enclosed Office Offices::Office space Office Buildings::Office space

Meeting Room Offices::Conference rooms Offices::Conference/meeting

Dining Room Food & Beverage::Dining rooms Food & Beverage::Restaurant dining rooms

Restrooms CUSTOM VALUE CUSTOM VALUE

Mechanical Room CUSTOM VALUE CUSTOM VALUE

Corridor Public Spaces::Corridors & utilities General::Corridors

Vestibule Public Spaces::Corridors & utilities General::Corridors

Active Storage Retail::Shipping and receiving General::Storage rooms

Table A-2 Mapping Between Analysis Space Types and ASHRAE Standard 90.1

Space Type Mapping to ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Mapping to ASHRAE 90.1-2007

Main Sales Sales area Sales area

Perimeter Sales Sales area Sales area

Produce Sales area Sales area

Deli Food preparation Food preparation

Bakery Food preparation Food preparation

Enclosed Office Office-enclosed Office-enclosed

Meeting Room Conference/meeting/multi-purpose Conference/meeting/multi-purpose

Dining Room Dining area Dining area

Restrooms Restrooms Restrooms

Mechanical Room Electrical/mechanical Electrical/mechanical

Corridor Corridor/transition Corridor/transition

Vestibule Corridor/transition Corridor/transition

Active Storage Active Storage Active Storage
109

Appendix B. Baseline Schedules

The following schedules are a combination of prototype characteristics, assumptions, and the 

retail building schedule sets available in ASHRAE 90.1-1989 (ASHRAE 1989). Schedules are 

presented as fractions of peak, unless otherwise noted. The entries for total hours/day, etc. are 

the equivalent number of peak hours during the given time period. For instance, the total 

lighting load for the year can be calculated by multiplying the peak load density by the value 

given for total hours/year. 

B.1 Occupancy

The occupancy schedule for all zones, as described in Section 3.2.1.4.2, is shown in Table B-1. 

Table B-1 Occupancy Schedule

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 0 0 1 0 0 

2 0 0 1 0 0 

3 0 0 1 0 0 

4 0 0 1 0 0 

5 0 0 1 0 0 

6 0 0 1 0 0 

7 0.10 0.10 1 0 0.10

8 0.10 0.10 1 0 0.10

9 0.20 0.20 1 0 0.10

10 0.50 0.50 1 0 0.10

11 0.50 0.60 1 0 0.20

12 0.70 0.80 1 0 0.20

13 0.70 0.80 1 0 0.40 

14 0.70 0.80 1 0 0.40 

15 0.70 0.80 1 0 0.40 

16 0.80 0.80 1 0 0.40 

17 0.70 0.80 1 0 0.40 

18 0.50 0.60 1 0 0.20 

19 0.50 0.20 1 0 0.10

20 0.30 0.20 1 0 0.10 

21 0.30 0.20 1 0 0.10

22 0.30 0.10 1 0 0.10

23 0 0 1 0 0 

24 0 0 1 0 0 

Total 

Hours/Day 7.60 7.60 24.00 0.00 3.40

Total 

Hours/Week 49.00
110

B.2 Lighting

Each zone in the baseline models uses the lighting schedule developed in Section 3.2.1.4.3 and 

shown in Table B-2. 

Table B-2 Lighting Schedule 

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

2 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

3 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

4 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

5 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

6 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

7 0.20 0.10 1 0 0.10

8 0.20 0.10 1 0 0.10

9 0.50 0.30 1 0 0.10

10 0.90 0.60 1 0 0.10

11 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.40

12 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.40 

13 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60 

14 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60 

15 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60 

16 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60 

17 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60 

18 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.40 

19 0.60 0.50 1 0 0.20

20 0.60 0.30 1 0 0.20 

21 0.50 0.30 1 0 0.20 

22 0.20 0.10 1 0 0.20 

23 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

24 0.05 0.05 1 0 0.05

Total 

Hours/Day 11.30 9.90 24.00 0.00 5.80

Total 

Hours/Week 72.20
111

B.3 Plug and Process Loads

Each zone in the baseline models uses the equipment schedules shown in Table B-3, which were 

developed in Section 3.2.1.4.4. 

Table B-3 Plug and Process Load Schedule 

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

2 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

3 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

4 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

5 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

6 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

7 0.40 0.30 1 0 0.30

8 0.40 0.30 1 0 0.30

9 0.70 0.50 1 0 0.30

10 0.90 0.80 1 0 0.30

11 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60

12 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60

13 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.80

14 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.80

15 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.80

16 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.80

17 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.80

18 0.90 0.90 1 0 0.60

19 0.80 0.70 1 0 0.40

20 0.80 0.50 1 0 0.40

21 0.70 0.50 1 0 0.40

22 0.40 0.30 1 0 0.40

23 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

24 0.20 0.15 1 0 0.15

Total 

Hours/Day 13.90 12.30 24.00 0.00 9.80

Total 

Hours/Week 91.60
112

B.4 Infiltration and HVAC

The infiltration schedule is tied to the HVAC schedule in that it is on at peak value when the 

HVAC system is running. When the HVAC system is off, infiltration reduces to a fraction of 

peak value, based on changes in building pressurization and front entrance door opening 

frequency. The HVAC schedule is set to turn on one hour before occupancy each day to allow 

the system to bring the space conditions within operating limits during occupancy. The baseline 

model HVAC and infiltration schedules are listed in Table B-4 and Table B-5, respectively. 

Table B-4 HVAC Schedule

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 0 0 0 0 0 

2 0 0 0 0 0 

3 0 0 0 0 0 

4 0 0 0 0 0 

5 0 0 0 0 0 

6 1 1 1 1 1 

7 1 1 1 1 1 

8 1 1 1 1 1 

9 1 1 1 1 1 

10 1 1 1 1 1 

11 1 1 1 1 1 

12 1 1 1 1 1 

13 1 1 1 1 1 

14 1 1 1 1 1 

15 1 1 1 1 1 

16 1 1 1 1 1 

17 1 1 1 1 1 

18 1 1 1 1 1 

19 1 1 1 1 1 

20 1 1 1 1 1 

21 1 1 1 1 1 

22 1 1 1 1 1 

23 0 0 0 0 0 

24 0 0 0 0 0 

Total 

Hours/Day 17.00 17.00 17.00 17.00 17.00

Total 

Hours/Week 119.00
113

Table B-5 Infiltration Schedule

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 0.32 0.32 0.32 1 0.32

2 0.32 0.32 0.32 1 0.32

3 0.32 0.32 0.32 1 0.32

4 0.32 0.32 0.32 1 0.32

5 0.32 0.32 0.32 1 0.32

6 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

7 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

8 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

9 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

10 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

11 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

12 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

13 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

14 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

15 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

16 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

17 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

18 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

19 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

20 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

21 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

22 1.00 1.00 1.00 1 1.00

23 0.32 0.32 0.32 1 0.32

24 0.32 0.32 0.32 1 0.32

Total 

Hours/Day 19.24 19.24 19.24 24.00 19.24

Total 

Hours/Week 134.68
114

B.5 Thermostat Set Points

Each zone in the baseline models uses the heating and cooling schedules shown in Table B-6 and 

Table B-7, respectively, which list temperatures in oC. The HVAC systems have dual 

thermostatic control based on dry bulb temperature in the zones. The thermostat set points are 

70oF (21oC) for heating and 75oF (24oC) for cooling. Thermostat setup to 86oF (30oC) and 

setback to 60.1oF (15.6oC) is included in the models. 

Table B-6 Heating Set Point Schedule (oC)

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

2 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

3 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

4 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

5 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

7 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

8 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

9 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

10 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

11 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

12 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

13 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

14 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

15 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

16 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

17 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

18 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

19 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

20 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

21 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

22 21.0 21.0 15.6 21.0 21.0

23 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6

24 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.6
115

Table B-7 Cooling Set Point Schedule (oC)

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

2 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

3 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

4 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

5 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

6 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

7 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

8 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

9 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

10 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

11 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

12 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

13 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

14 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

15 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

16 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

17 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

18 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

19 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

20 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

21 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

22 24.0 24.0 24.0 30.0 24.0

23 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0

24 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
116

B.6 Service Water Heating

The service water heating schedules are adopted from ASHRAE 90.1-1989, and are shown in 

Table B-8. 

Table B-8 Service Water Heating Schedule 

Hour Weekdays Saturdays Summer 

Design

Winter 

Design

Sundays, 

Holidays, 

Other

1 0.04 0.11 0.04 0.11 0.07

2 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.07

3 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.08 0.07

4 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.06

5 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.06

6 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.06 0.06

7 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.07 0.07

8 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.10 

9 0.23 0.24 0.23 0.24 0.12

10 0.32 0.27 0.32 0.27 0.14

11 0.41 0.42 0.41 0.42 0.29

12 0.57 0.54 0.57 0.54 0.31

13 0.62 0.59 0.62 0.59 0.36

14 0.61 0.60 0.61 0.60 0.36

15 0.50 0.49 0.50 0.49 0.34

16 0.45 0.48 0.45 0.48 0.35

17 0.46 0.47 0.46 0.47 0.37

18 0.47 0.46 0.47 0.46 0.34

19 0.42 0.44 0.42 0.44 0.25

20 0.34 0.36 0.34 0.36 0.27

21 0.33 0.29 0.33 0.29 0.21

22 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.16

23 0.13 0.16 0.13 0.16 0.10 

24 0.08 0.13 0.08 0.13 0.06

Total 

Hours/Day 6.62 6.90 6.62 6.90 4.59

Total 

Hours/Week 44.59
117

Appendix C. Metric Unit Tables

Table C-1 Baseline Exterior Wall Constructions (SI Units)

Properties 

Climate Zone

1 and 2 3 and 4 5 6 7 8 

Key 

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

No c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-5.7 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-7.6 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-9.5 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-11.4 c.i.

Baseline Wall 

Construction, 

R-13.3 c.i.

U-Factor 

(W/m2

·K) 4.28 0.98 0.78 0.65 0.55 0.49 

Capital Cost 

($/m2

) $219.26 $226.69 $230.56 $233.36 $234.65 $235.30

Table C-2 Baseline Roof Constructions (SI Units)

Properties 

Climate Zone

1 through 7 8 

Key Baseline Roof Construction, 

R-15 c.i.

Baseline Roof Construction, 

R-20 c.i.

U-Factor (W/m2·K) 0.38 0.29 

Capital Cost ($/m2) $93.54 $98.06

Table C-3 Baseline Window Constructions (SI Units)

Properties 

Climate Zone

1 and 2 3 and 4 5 and 6 7 8 

Key

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

Baseline 

Window 

Construction

SHGC 0.250 0.390 0.490 0.490 0.490

VLT 0.250 0.495 0.622 0.490 0.490

U-Factor (W/m2·K) 6.87 3.24 3.24 3.24 2.61

Capital Cost ($/m2) $473.61 $508.38 $502.14 $508.38 $537.87

Fixed O&M Cost ($/m2) $2.37 $2.37 $2.37 $2.37 $2.37
118

Table C-4 Baseline Skylight Constructions (SI Units)

Property 

Climate Zone

1 through 3 4 through 6 7 8 

Key

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

Baseline 

Skylight 

Construction

SHGC 0.36 0.490 0.490 0.490

VLT 0.457 0.622 0.490 0.490

U-Factor (Btu/h·ft2·°F) 6.93 3.92 3.92 3.29

Capital Cost ($/ft2) $498.15 $508.38 $508.27 $549.39

Fixed O&M Cost ($/ft2) $2.37 $2.37 $2.37 $2.37

Table C-5 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Operating Hours (SI Units)

Exterior Wall

Resultant Pressure Gradient

Magnitude (Pa) Direction

Front 1.8 Infiltration

Back 9.8 Exfiltration

Side 4.0 Exfiltration

Table C-6 Pressures Acting on Exterior Walls During Non-Operating Hours (SI Units)

Exterior Wall

Resultant Pressure Gradient

Magnitude (Pa) Direction

Front 5.8 Infiltration

Back 5.8 Exfiltration

Side 0 NA

Table C-7 Baseline Fan System Total Pressure Drops (SI Units)

Component 

Package Rooftop, Constant 

Volume, 10-ton, 4000 cfm, 

no Economizer (Pa) 

Package Rooftop, Constant 

Volume, 10-ton, 4000 cfm, 

with Economizer (Pa) 

Internal Static Pressure

Drop 167 189

External Static Pressure

Drop 214 214

Total Static Pressure 

Drop

381 404

*Used friction rate of 25 Pa/30 m for the baseline duct pressure drop. 
119

Table C-8 Baseline HVAC Models Summary (SI Units)

HVAC Input

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline 

PSZ DX, Furnace, No 

Economizer 

ASHRAE 90.1-2004 Baseline 

PSZ DX, Furnace, With 

Economizer 

System EER 10.1 10.1

COP of Compressor/Condenser 3.69 3.69

Heating Efficiency 80% 80%

Fan Power 1,245 W/(m3/s) 1,245 W/(m3/s)

Fan Static Pressure 381.1 Pa 403.5 Pa

Fan Efficiency 30.6% 32.4%

Economizers None Included

Capital Cost ($/kW cooling) $456.20 $484.64

O&M Cost ($/kW cooling·yr) $39.82 $39.82

Table C-9 Baseline Refrigerated Case Characteristics (SI Units)

Characteristic Island SingleDeck Meat

Multi-Deck 

Dairy/Deli

Vertical Frozen 

Food with Doors

Island SingleDeck Ice Cream

Rated Capacity (W/m) 740 1442 517 712

Operating Temperature (°C) -1.9 5.0 -18.6 -25.0

Latent Heat Ratio 0.361 0.241 0.061 0.147

Infiltration Ratio 0.686 0.579 0.152 0.412

Fan Power (W/m) 37.2 41.0 39.3 27.9

Lighting Power (W/m) 0 207 89 245

Anti-Sweat Heater Power (W/m) 36 0 249 130

Defrost Type Time-off Time-off

Electric with 

temperature 

termination

Electric with 

temperature 

termination

Defrost Power (W/m) 0 0 1261 992

Maximum Defrost Time (min) 45 42 46 60

Drip-Down Time (min) 8 8 15 15

Defrost Start Time(s)

6:00 a.m.

2:00 p.m.

10:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m.

7:00 a.m.

1:00 p.m.

7:00 p.m.

10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m.

Restocking Load (W/m) and 

Schedule

62.5 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

313 from

9:00 a.m. to 

12:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to 

9:00 p.m.

26.3 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

Materials Cost ($/m) $2,471 $1,913 $2,125 $2,539
120

Table C-10 Refrigerated Case Restocking Assumptions (SI Units)

Case Type

Case 

Volume/ft 

(m3/m) 

Volume 

Filled by 

Product 

(%)

Volume of 

Product 

Restocked 

(%)

Specific 

Heat of 

Product 

(kJ/kg∙K) 

Density of 

Product 

(kg/m3) 

Temp. 

Difference 

(°C) 

Daily 

Restocking 

Load 

(W/m) 

Island Single-Deck 

Meat 0.16 30 20 3.1 960 23.9 28.0

Multi-Deck 

Dairy/Deli 1.22 50 40 3.1 992 4.4 140.6

Vertical Frozen 

Food with Doors 1.25 50 5 2.1 912 2.8 6.9

Island Single-Deck 

Ice Cream 0.59 70 10 2.7 912 2.8 11.9

Table C-11 Exterior Wall EDMs (SI Units)

Insulation

R-value,

Nominal 

Assembly

U-Factor 

(W/m·K) 

Construction 

Method

Insulation

Material

Insulation

Thickness 

(cm) 

Capital

Cost 

($/m2) 

R-5.7 c.i. 0.996 Interior Insulation Isocyanurate 3.3 $226.69

R-9.5 c.i. 0.598 Interior Insulation Isocyanurate 5.6 $233.36

R-13.3 c.i. 0.427 Interior Insulation Isocyanurate 7.9 $235.30

R-15.0 c.i. 0.302 Exterior Insulation Polystyrene Extruded 7.6 $241.33

R-19.5 c.i. 0.244 Exterior Insulation Polyisocyanurate 7.6 $244.88

R-22.5 c.i. 0.211 Brick Cavity Polyurethane Foam 9.5 $305.16

R-28.5 c.i. 0.172 Brick Cavity Polyurethane Foam 12.1 $310.32
121

Table C-12 Roof EDMs (SI Units)

EDM Key U-Factor (W/m·K) Capital Cost ($/m2) 

R-20 c.i. 0.288 $58.45

R-20 c.i. with cool roof 0.288 $58.45

R-25 c.i. 0.230 $62.65

R-25 c.i. with cool roof 0.230 $62.65

R-30 c.i. 0.189 $67.27

R-30 c.i. with cool roof 0.189 $67.27

R-35 c.i. 0.164 $71.47

R-35 c.i. with cool roof 0.164 $71.47

R-40 c.i. 0.130 $77.50

R-50 c.i. 0.114 $81.81

R-60 c.i. 0.091 $90.74

R-75 c.i. 0.076 $100.00

R-95 c.i. 0.062 $109.04

Table C-13 South Fenestration Construction EDMs (SI Units)

EDM Key SHGC VLT U-Factor 

(W/m·K) 

Capital 

Cost 

($/m2) 

Fixed O&M 

Cost 

($/m2·yr)

Single pane with clear glass 0.810 0.881 6.13 $402.57 $2.26

Single pane with pyrolytic low-e 0.710 0.811 4.23 $438.09 $2.26

Double pane with low-e and argon 0.564 0.745 1.50 $473.61 $2.26

Double pane with low-e2 and argon 0.416 0.750 1.33 $544.65 $2.26

Double pane with low-e2 and tinted 

glass 0.282 0.550 1.64 $544.65 $2.26

Triple layer with low-e polyester film 0.355 0.535 1.22 $643.14 $2.26

Quadruple layer with low-e polyester 

films and krypton 0.461 0.624 0.77 $673.71 $2.26
122

Table C-14 Skylight Fenestration Construction EDMs (SI Units)

EDM Key SHGC VLT U-Factor 

(W/m·K) 

Capital 

Cost 

($/m2) 

Fixed O&M 

Cost 

($/m2·yr)

Single pane with high 

solar gain 0.610 0.672 6.93 $508.27 $2.58

Single pane with medium 

solar gain 0.250 0.245 6.93 $551.33 $2.58

Single pane with low 

solar gain 0.190 0.174 6.93 $551.33 $2.58

Double pane with high 

solar gain 0.490 0.622 3.29 $491.70 $2.58

Double pane with low-e 

and high solar gain 0.460 0.584 2.56 $492.77 $2.58

Double pane with 

medium solar gain 0.390 0.495 3.29 $621.08 $2.58

Double pane with low-e 

and medium solar gain 0.320 0.406 2.56 $679.96 $2.58

Double pane with low 

solar gain 0.190 0.241 3.29 $633.24 $2.58

Double pane with low-e 

and low solar gain 0.190 0.240 2.56 $683.94 $2.58

 Table C-15 Lighting Power Density EDMs (SI Units)

EDM Key LPD 

(W/m2) 

Capital Cost 

($/kW)

Capital Cost 

($/m2) 

Fixed O&M Cost 

($/kW·yr)

Fixed O&M Cost 

($/m2·yr)

Baseline 16.2 $6,996 $113.13 $831.40 $1.31

30% LPD reduction 11.3 $10,234 $115.82 $1,187.69 $1.31

47% LPD reduction 8.6 $13,653 $117.00 $947.98 $0.80
123

Table C-16 HVAC System EDMs (SI Units)

EDM Key

Cooling 

COP 

(Ratio)

Heating 

Efficiency 

(%)

Economizer Motorized 

Damper 

Fan 

Efficiency 

(%)

Fan Static 

Pressure 

(Pa) 

Capital

Cost 

($/kW) 

Fixed O&M 

Cost 

($/kW·yr)

Baseline without 

economizer 3.69 80.0 No No 30.6 381.1 $456.13 $39.87

10% increased COP 4.06 80.0 No No 30.6 381.1 $473.60 $39.87

Baseline with 

economizer 3.69 80.0 Yes Yes 32.4 403.5 $484.61 $39.87

20% increased COP 4.43 80.0 No No 30.6 381.1 $491.38 $39.87

Baseline COP with 

efficient fan 3.69 80.0 No No 63.0 381.1 $496.96 $39.87

10% increased COP 

with economizer 4.06 80.0 Yes Yes 32.4 403.5 $502.08 $39.87

10% increased COP 

with efficient fan 4.06 80.0 No No 63.0 381.1 $514.43 $39.87

20% increased COP 

with economizer 4.43 80.0 Yes Yes 32.4 403.5 $519.86 $39.87

Baseline COP with 

economizer and 

efficient fan

3.69 80.0 Yes Yes 64.8 403.5 $525.45 $39.87

20% increased COP 

with efficient fan 4.43 80.0 No No 63.0 381.1 $532.21 $39.87

10% increased COP 

with economizer and 

efficient fan

4.06 80.0 Yes Yes 64.8 403.5 $542.92 $39.87

20% increased COP 

with economizer and 

efficient fan

4.43 80.0 Yes Yes 64.8 403.5 $561.28 $39.87
124

 Table C-17 Energy Recovery EDMs (SI Units)

EDM Key

Sensible 

Effectiveness 

(%)

Latent 

Effectiveness 

(%)

Pressure Drop

(Pa) 

Capital Cost

($/unit) 

Capital Cost

($)

Low effectiveness 60.0 50.0 105 $7,927 $15,854

High effectiveness 80.0 70.0 150 $11,465 $22,930

 

 Table C-18 Dedicated Exhaust by Space Type (SI Units)

Space 

Type Equipment ASHRAE 

Classification Quantity ASHRAE 

Prescription

DEA

(m3/s) 

Restroom Toilet Toilet 62.7 m2 0.0053 (m3/s)/m2 0.33

Bakery Rack Oven Oven: Light Duty 2.1 m 0.31 (m3/s)/m 0.66

Deli Revolving Oven Oven: Light Duty 0.8 m 0.31 (m3/s)/m 0.25

Deli Fryer Fryer: Medium Duty 1.4 m 0.46 (m3/s)/m 0.64

Total 1.88
125

Table C-19 Island Single-Deck Meat Case EDMs (SI Units)

Characteristic Baseline Electric 

Defrost 

#1: Eff. Fans 

and A-S 

Controls 

#1 with 

Electric 

Defrost 

#2: #1 and 

Covered at 

Night 

#2 with 

Electric 

Defrost 

#3: #1 and 

Sliding 

Doors 

#3 with 

Electric 

Defrost 

Rated Capacity (W/m) 740 740 727 727 727 727 727 727

Operating Temperature (°C) –1.9 –1.9 –1.9 –1.9 –1.9 –1.9 –1.9 –1.9

Latent Heat Ratio 0.361 0.361 0.367 0.367 0.367 0.367 0.367 0.367

Infiltration Ratio 0.686 0.686 0.698 0.698 0.698 0.698 0.698 0.698

Fan Power (W/m) 37.2 37.2 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0 24.0

Lighting Power (W/m) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Anti-Sweat Heater Power 

(W/m) 35.5 35.5 35.5 35.5 35.5 35.5 76.6 76.6

Anti-Sweat Heater Control 

Method None None Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Defrost Type Time-off Electric w/ 

Temp. Term. Time-off

Electric w/ 

Temp. 

Term.

Time-off Electric w/ 

Temp. Term. Time-off Electric w/ Temp. Term.

Defrost Power (W/m) 0 411 0 411 0 411 0 411

Maximum Defrost Time (min) 45 40 45 40 45 40 45 40

Drip-Down Time (min) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 

Defrost Start Time(s)

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

6:00 a.m. 

2:00 p.m. 

10:00 p.m.

Restocking Load (W/m) and 

Schedule

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

62 from

1:00 p.m. to 

4:00 p.m.

Case Credit Schedule All Times, 

1.0

All Times, 

1.0 All Times, 1.0 All Times, 

1.0

Night, 0.24; 

Open Hrs,

1.0

Night, 0.24; 

Open Hrs, 

1.0

Night, 0.19; 

Open Hrs, 

0.20

Night, 0.19; 

Open Hrs, 

0.20

Capital Cost ($/m) $2,471.42 $2,487.32 $2,607.11 $2,624.13 $2,668.16 $2,684.07 $2,986.73 $3,002.64

Maintenance Cost ($/m·yr) $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $60.69 $60.69 $0.00 $0.00

 
126

Table C-20 Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli Case EDMs (SI Units)

Characteristic Baseline Baseline with Electric 

Defrost 

#1: Eff. Fans and 

Standard Lighting #1 with Electric Defrost Replace w/ Eff. Vertical Door Model

Rated Capacity (W/m) 1442 1442 1236 1236 262

Operating 

Temperature (°C) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 2.8

Latent Heat Ratio 0.241 0.241 0.281 0.281 0.100

Infiltration Ratio 0.579 0.579 0.676 0.676 0.250

Fan Power (W/m) 41.0 41.0 19.1 19.1 12.1

Lighting Power (W/m) 207 207 23 23 59.7

Anti-Sweat Heater 

Power (W/m) 0 0 0 0 76.6

Anti-Sweat Heater 

Control Method None None None None Dewpoint Method

Defrost Type Time-off Electric w/ Temp. 

Term. Time-off Electric w/ Temp. Term. Electric w/ Temp. Term.

Defrost Power (W/m) 0 328 0 328 428

Maximum Defrost 

Time (min) 42 32 42 32 30

Drip-Down Time (min) 8 8 8 8 20

Defrost Start Time(s) 1:00 a.m., 7:00 a.m., 

1:00 p.m., 7:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m., 7:00 a.m., 

1:00 p.m., 7:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m., 7:00 a.m., 

1:00 p.m., 7:00 p.m.

1:00 a.m., 7:00 a.m., 1:00 

p.m., 7:00 p.m. 1:00 a.m.

Restocking Load 

(W/m) and Schedule

312.5 from

9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m.

312.5 from

9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m.

312.5 from

9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m.

312.5 from

9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m.

312.5 from

9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m.

Capital Cost ($/m) $1,912.75 $1,953.01 $1,635.25 $1,675.51 $2,459.16
127

Table C-21 Vertical Frozen Food with Doors Case EDMs (SI Units)

Characteristic Baseline Baseline with Hot 

Gas Defrost

#1: Eff. Fans and A-S 

Controls 

#1 with Hot Gas 

Defrost 

#2: #1, Eff. A-S 

Heaters and 

LEDs

#2 with Hot Gas 

Defrost 

Rated Capacity 

(W/m) 517 517 490 490 305 305

Operating 

Temperature (°C) –18.6 –18.6 –18.6 –18.6 –18.6 –18.6

Latent Heat Ratio 0.061 0.061 0.064 0.064 0.103 0.103

Infiltration Ratio 0.152 0.152 0.160 0.160 0.257 0.257

Fan Power (W/m) 39.4 39.4 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1

Lighting Power 

(W/m) 89.2 89.2 89.2 89.2 59.7 59.7

Anti-Sweat Heater 

Power (W/m) 249 249 249 249 93.4 93.4

Anti-Sweat Heater 

Control Method None None Dewpoint Method Dewpoint Method Dewpoint 

Method Dewpoint Method

Defrost Type Electric w/ Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ Temp. 

Term.

Electric w/ Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ Temp. 

Term.

Electric w/ 

Temp. Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. Term.

Defrost Power (W/m) 1260 2395 1260 2395 1260 2395

Maximum Defrost 

Time (min) 46 24 46 24 46 24

Drip-Down Time 

(min) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Defrost Start Time(s) 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m.

Restocking Load 

(W/m) and Schedule

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

15.4 from

6:00 p.m. to

9:00 p.m.

Capital Cost ($/m) $2,125.02 $2,154.24 $2,240.35 $2,269.57 $2,635.25 $2,665.59
128

Table C-22 Island Single-Deck Ice Cream Case EDMs (SI Units)

Characteristic Baseline

Baseline with 

Hot Gas 

Defrost 

#1: Eff. Fans, 

A-S Control and 

No Lighting

#1 with Hot Gas 

Defrost 

Replace with 

Eff. Vert. Model, 

Elec. Def.

Replace with 

Eff. Vert. Model, 

Hot Gas

Rated Capacity (W/m) 712 712 456 456 328 328

Operating Temperature (°C) –25.0 –25.0 –25.0 –25.0 –21.4 –21.4

Total Length (m) 36.6 36.6 36.6 36.6 24.1 24.1

Latent Heat Ratio 0.147 0.147 0.230 0.230 0.111 0.111

Infiltration Ratio 0.412 0.412 0.643 0.643 0.280 0.280

Fan Power (W/m) 27.9 27.9 18.0 18.0 12.1 12.1

Lighting Power (W/m) 246 246 0 0 59.7 59.7

Anti-Sweat Heater Power (W/m) 130 130 130 130 93.4 93.4

Anti-Sweat Heater Control Method None None Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Dewpoint 

Method

Defrost Type Electric w/ Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. Term.

Electric w/ Temp. 

Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. Term.

Electric w/ 

Temp. Term.

Hot Gas w/ 

Temp. Term.

Defrost Power (W/m) 992 2961 992 2961 1260 2395

Maximum Defrost Time (min) 60 20 60 20 46 24

Drip-Down Time (min) 15 15 15 15 15 15

Defrost Start Time(s) 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m.

Restocking Load (W/m) and Schedule

26.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

26.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

26.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

26.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

26.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

26.4 from

7:00 a.m. to 

10:00 a.m.

Capital Cost ($/m) $2,539.17 $2,547.31 $2,235.31 $2,242.33 $2,635.25 $2,665.59
129

Appendix D. Energy Use Data by End Use

Table D-1 Energy Use Intensity Decomposed by End Use 

Baseline and selected low-energy models only. All numbers are in kBtu/ft2

. 

Electricity Natural Gas

PV 

Power Cooling Interior Lighting

Exterior 

Lighting 

Plug 

Loads Fans Refrig. Heating Process Loads

Water 

Heating 

1A Baseline 0.0 42.4 19.0 0.3 14.1 28.8 116.0 16.7 6.2 2.1 

1A Low-Energy -7.1 31.6 5.5 0.3 14.1 10.5 55.5 3.9 6.2 2.1 

2A Baseline 0.0 35.9 19.0 0.3 14.1 37.9 110.0 32.4 6.2 2.7 

2A Low-Energy 0.0 25.5 5.1 0.3 14.1 13.3 50.8 9.0 6.2 2.7 

3A Baseline 0.0 13.6 19.0 0.3 14.1 17.6 104.0 52.5 6.2 3.2 

3A Low-Energy 0.0 11.6 5.2 0.3 14.1 6.8 46.4 17.8 6.2 3.2 

4A Baseline 0.0 10.9 19.0 0.3 14.1 17.8 101.0 73.7 6.2 3.7 

4A Low-Energy 0.0 9.1 9.6 0.3 14.1 6.6 43.4 28.0 6.2 3.7 

5A Baseline 0.0 7.3 19.0 0.3 14.1 18.9 98.6 88.6 6.2 4.0 

5A Low-Energy 0.0 6.6 9.6 0.3 14.1 6.7 41.3 36.3 6.2 4.0 

6A Baseline 0.0 6.7 19.0 0.3 14.1 19.5 97.6 105.0 6.2 4.3 

6A Low-Energy 0.0 6.0 9.6 0.3 14.1 6.8 40.3 45.0 6.2 4.3 

2B Baseline 0.0 11.4 19.0 0.3 14.1 16.6 109.0 28.2 6.2 2.4 

2B Low-Energy 0.0 9.1 5.9 0.3 14.1 5.6 47.1 11.4 6.2 2.4 

3B-CA Baseline 0.0 6.0 19.0 0.3 14.1 13.6 103.0 42.4 6.2 3.1 

3B-CA Low-Energy 0.0 6.5 6.1 0.3 14.1 5.1 47.6 14.8 6.2 3.1 

3B-NV Baseline 0.0 6.3 19.0 0.3 14.1 16.3 104.0 39.8 6.2 2.8 

3B-NV Low-Energy 0.0 7.2 5.6 0.3 14.1 6.2 42.0 12.1 6.2 2.8 

4B Baseline 0.0 3.4 19.0 0.3 14.1 18.2 99.2 58.6 6.2 3.6 

4B Low-Energy 0.0 3.6 6.3 0.3 14.1 6.8 40.0 29.7 6.2 3.6 

5B Baseline 0.0 2.5 19.0 0.3 14.1 19.7 96.6 74.3 6.2 4.0 

5B Low-Energy 0.0 3.4 9.6 0.3 14.1 6.9 38.1 28.1 6.2 4.0 

6B Baseline 0.0 1.5 19.0 0.3 14.1 20.6 94.6 96.1 6.2 4.4 

6B Low-Energy 0.0 2.6 9.6 0.3 14.1 7.1 36.8 40.0 6.2 4.4 

3C Baseline 0.0 1.5 19.0 0.3 14.1 14.0 98.2 63.1 6.2 3.6 

3C Low-Energy 0.0 1.4 5.5 0.3 14.1 4.8 43.6 27.8 6.2 3.6 

4C Baseline 0.0 1.3 19.0 0.3 14.1 15.2 96.5 79.9 6.2 3.9 

4C Low-Energy 0.0 1.3 5.5 0.3 14.1 5.2 41.1 38.5 6.2 3.9 

7A Baseline 0.0 3.3 19.0 0.3 14.1 19.5 94.0 127.0 6.2 4.9 

7A Low-Energy 0.0 3.2 9.6 0.3 14.1 6.6 37.1 56.3 6.2 4.9 

8A Baseline 0.0 1.7 19.0 0.3 14.1 21.1 92.0 177.0 6.2 5.5 

8A Low-Energy 0.0 1.9 9.6 0.3 14.1 6.8 34.4 81.6 6.2 5.5 
130

Table D-2 Percent of Energy Use Intensity Devoted to Each End Use

Baseline and selected low-energy models only. All numbers are a percent of Site EUI (sum of the 

corresponding row in Table D-1, excluding PV Power). 

Electricity Natural Gas

PV 

Power Cooling Interior Lighting

Exterior 

Lighting 

Plug 

Loads Fans Refrig. Heating Process Loads

Water 

Heating 

1A Baseline 0.0 17.3 7.7 0.1 5.7 11.7 47.2 6.8 2.5 0.9 

1A Low-Energy -5.5 24.3 4.2 0.2 10.9 8.1 42.8 3.0 4.8 1.6 

2A Baseline 0.0 13.9 7.4 0.1 5.5 14.7 42.6 12.5 2.4 1.0 

2A Low-Energy 0.0 20.1 4.0 0.2 11.1 10.5 40.0 7.1 4.9 2.1 

3A Baseline 0.0 5.9 8.2 0.1 6.1 7.6 45.1 22.8 2.7 1.4 

3A Low-Energy 0.0 10.4 4.7 0.3 12.6 6.1 41.6 16.0 5.6 2.9 

4A Baseline 0.0 4.4 7.7 0.1 5.7 7.2 40.9 29.9 2.5 1.5 

4A Low-Energy 0.0 7.5 7.9 0.2 11.7 5.4 35.9 23.2 5.1 3.0 

5A Baseline 0.0 2.8 7.4 0.1 5.5 7.4 38.4 34.5 2.4 1.6 

5A Low-Energy 0.0 5.3 7.7 0.2 11.3 5.4 33.0 29.0 5.0 3.2 

6A Baseline 0.0 2.5 7.0 0.1 5.2 7.1 35.8 38.5 2.3 1.6 

6A Low-Energy 0.0 4.5 7.2 0.2 10.6 5.2 30.4 33.9 4.7 3.3 

2B Baseline 0.0 5.5 9.2 0.1 6.8 8.0 52.6 13.6 3.0 1.1 

2B Low-Energy 0.0 8.9 5.8 0.3 13.8 5.5 46.1 11.2 6.1 2.3 

3B-CA Baseline 0.0 2.9 9.1 0.1 6.8 6.5 49.6 20.4 3.0 1.5 

3B-CA Low-Energy 0.0 6.2 5.8 0.3 13.6 4.9 45.9 14.3 6.0 3.0 

3B-NV Baseline 0.0 3.0 9.1 0.1 6.8 7.8 49.8 19.1 3.0 1.3 

3B-NV Low-Energy 0.0 7.5 5.8 0.3 14.6 6.4 43.6 12.5 6.4 2.9 

4B Baseline 0.0 1.5 8.5 0.1 6.3 8.2 44.6 26.3 2.8 1.6 

4B Low-Energy 0.0 3.2 5.7 0.3 12.8 6.1 36.2 26.9 5.6 3.2 

5B Baseline 0.0 1.1 8.0 0.1 6.0 8.3 40.8 31.4 2.6 1.7 

5B Low-Energy 0.0 3.1 8.6 0.3 12.7 6.2 34.4 25.4 5.6 3.6 

6B Baseline 0.0 0.6 7.4 0.1 5.5 8.0 36.8 37.4 2.4 1.7 

6B Low-Energy 0.0 2.1 7.9 0.2 11.6 5.9 30.4 33.0 5.1 3.6 

3C Baseline 0.0 0.7 8.6 0.1 6.4 6.4 44.6 28.7 2.8 1.6 

3C Low-Energy 0.0 1.3 5.1 0.3 13.2 4.4 40.7 25.9 5.8 3.3 

4C Baseline 0.0 0.6 8.0 0.1 6.0 6.4 40.8 33.8 2.6 1.6 

4C Low-Energy 0.0 1.1 4.7 0.2 12.2 4.5 35.4 33.2 5.4 3.3 

7A Baseline 0.0 1.2 6.6 0.1 4.9 6.8 32.6 44.1 2.2 1.7 

7A Low-Energy 0.0 2.3 6.9 0.2 10.2 4.8 26.8 40.7 4.5 3.5 

8A Baseline 0.0 0.5 5.6 0.1 4.2 6.3 27.3 52.5 1.8 1.6 

8A Low-Energy 0.0 1.2 6.0 0.2 8.8 4.2 21.4 50.9 3.9 3.4 
131

Appendix E. Alternative Low-Energy Model and Sensitivity Analysis Results

Please see Section 4.3.1.1 for an explanation of the figures and tables that follow. 

E.1 Climate Zone 1A (Miami, Florida)

Computational Effort. Original search: 2,681 EnergyPlus simulations, 39 days of CPU time. Enumeration of additional models: 12 new 

searches; 4,511 new simulations; 397 total and 376 new simulations per search on average. 

Alternative Low-Energy Models

Figure E-1 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Miami, Florida, grocery store 

Node 00 represents the original low-energy model. The other nodes represent the result of searches formed by taking Node 00 and removing the indicated strategy. 

Models that include PV are in gold. Any models that do not reach the 50% energy savings goal are indicated by octagons.
132

Table E-1 Summary of the Miami, Florida, Low-Energy Models

Node numbers correspond to Figure E-1. An ‘X’ under a strategy name indicates that the strategy is used in the model.

Node

Infiltration

Elec. Lighting

Daylighting

Window Area

Wall Insulation

Roof Insulation

Fenestration Types

HVAC

DCV

ERV

Frozen Food Cases

Ice Cream Cases

Meat Cases

Dairy/Deli Cases

Net Site 

Energy PV Energy Lifetime Cost Capital Cost

Peak Demand (kW)

Energy Savings (%)

MJ/2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr 

$/m2

$/ft2

$/m2

$/ft2

00 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 81 7.1 1,713 159.18 1,497 139.04 284 50.0

01 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 126 11.1 1,788 166.12 1,571 145.96 290 50.0

02 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 200 17.6 1,953 181.45 1,729 160.6 327 50.0

03 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 142 12.5 1,811 168.26 1,594 148.07 295 50.0

04 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 82 7.2 1,720 159.83 1,503 139.67 289 50.0

05 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 114 10 1,733 160.99 1,515 140.74 294 50.0

06 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 73 6.4 1,707 158.56 1,490 138.42 284 50.0

07 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 288 25.3 2,078 193.03 1,856 172.44 328 50.0

08 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 115 10.1 1,765 163.95 1,551 144.05 294 50.0

09 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 317 27.9 2,121 197 1,901 176.62 309 50.0

10 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 139 12.3 1,819 169.01 1,602 148.81 294 50.0

11 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,392 122.5 132 11.7 1,792 166.5 1,576 146.45 290 50.0

12 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,578 138.9 332 29.2 2,158 200.53 1,925 178.86 344 43.3
133

Sensitivity Analysis by Strategy

Table E-2 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Miami, Florida 

Savings numbers are calculated between the selected low-energy model (with PV removed as necessary), and the model created by removing the 

indicated strategy. Equivalent PV areas are calculated assuming a 0.1 cell efficiency and a 0.9 inverter efficiency, and the EnergyPlus algorithm for 

determining the annual amount of electricity produced given building geometry and local weather conditions.

Strategy

Search 

No. 

EUI Savings Lifetime Cost Savings Capital Cost Savings Equivalent PV 

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 m2 ft2

Infiltration 01 67.6 5.95 8.11 0.75 0.54 0.05 481.0 5,177

Elec. Lighting 02 132.9 11.69 36.59 3.40 16.59 1.54 945.9 10,181

Daylighting 03 60.7 5.35 –7.25 –0.67 –15.31 –1.42 432.4 4,654

Window Area 04 4.1 0.36 4.22 0.39 3.65 0.34 29.5 317

Wall Insulation 05 33.4 2.94 –35.99 –3.34 –40.43 –3.76 237.6 2,558

Fenestration Types 06 5.8 0.51 –0.66 –0.06 –1.19 –0.11 41.5 446

HVAC 07 207.2 18.23 20.78 1.93 –5.49 –0.51 1,474.6 15,872

DCV 08 33.7 2.97 –5.10 –0.47 –5.34 –0.50 240.1 2,585

Frozen Food Cases 09 236.5 20.81 14.33 1.33 –12.14 –1.13 1,683.7 18,123

Ice Cream Cases 10 57.9 5.10 9.59 0.89 3.27 0.30 412.3 4,438

Meat Cases 11 62.9 5.53 –0.49 –0.05 –6.09 –0.57 447.6 4,817

Dairy/Deli Cases 12 466.0 41.01 34.33 3.19 –8.22 –0.76 3,316.9 35,702
134

E.2 Climate Zone 3B-NV (Las Vegas, Nevada)

Computational Effort. Original search: 2,852 EnergyPlus simulations, 30 days of CPU time. Enumeration of additional models: 11 new 

searches; 3,716 new simulations; 350 total and 338 new simulations per search on average.

Alternative Low-Energy Models

Figure E-2 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Las Vegas, Nevada, grocery store 

Node 00 represents the original low-energy model. The other nodes represent the result of searches formed by taking Node 00 and removing the 

indicated strategy. Models that include PV are in gold. Any models that do not reach the 50% energy savings goal are indicated by octagons.
135

Table E-3 Summary of the Las Vegas, Nevada, Low-Energy Models 

Node numbers correspond to Figure E-2. An ‘X’ under a strategy name indicates that the strategy is used in the model.

Node

Infiltration

Elec. Lighting

Daylighting

Window Area

Wall Insulation

Roof Insulation

Fenestration Types

HVAC

DCV

ERV

Frozen Food Cases

Ice Cream Cases

Meat Cases

Dairy/Deli Cases

Net Site 

Energy PV Energy Lifetime Cost Capital Cost

Peak Demand (kW)

Energy Savings (%)

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

$/m2

$/ft2

$/m2

$/ft2

00 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,095 96.4 0 0 1,538 142.90 1,367 126.97 235 53.9

01 X X X X X X X X X X 1,119 98.4 0 0 1,534 142.47 1,360 126.38 243 52.9

02 X X X X X X X X X X 1,148 101.0 0 0 1,541 143.16 1,359 126.21 249 51.6

03 X X X X X X X X X X 1,138 100.2 0 0 1,515 140.73 1,338 124.29 252 52.1

04 X X X X X X X X X X 1,099 96.7 0 0 1,544 143.44 1,372 127.45 237 53.7

05 X X X X X X X X X X 1,111 97.8 0 0 1,541 143.14 1,368 127.11 244 53.2

06 X X X X X X X X X X 1,187 104.4 42 3.7 1,612 149.75 1,432 133.02 249 50.0

07 X X X X X X X X X X 1,174 103.3 0 0 1,473 136.81 1,296 120.43 241 50.6

08 X X X X X X X X X X 1,187 104.4 143 12.6 1,789 166.20 1,604 149.06 247 50.0

09 X X X X X X X X X X 1,155 101.6 0 0 1,547 143.76 1,370 127.23 243 51.4

10 X X X X X X X X X X 1,169 102.9 0 0 1,568 145.67 1,390 129.16 229 50.7

11 X X X X X X X X X X 1,199 105.6 385 33.9 2,146 199.34 1,970 182.99 254 49.5
136

Sensitivity Analysis by Strategy

Table E-4 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Las Vegas, Nevada 

Savings numbers are calculated between the selected low-energy model (with PV removed as necessary), and the model created by removing the 

indicated strategy. Equivalent PV areas are calculated assuming 0.1 cell efficiency and a 0.9 inverter efficiency, and the EnergyPlus algorithm for 

determining the annual amount of electricity produced given building geometry and local weather conditions.

Strategy

Search 

No. 

EUI Savings Lifetime Cost Savings Capital Cost Savings Equivalent PV 

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 m2 ft2

Infiltration 01 23.5 2.07 -4.59 -0.43 -6.31 -0.59 141.5 1,523

Elec. Lighting 02 52.7 4.64 2.74 0.25 -8.10 -0.75 317.3 3,415

Daylighting 03 43.0 3.78 -23.40 -2.17 -28.83 -2.68 258.7 2,784

Window Area 04 3.7 0.32 5.85 0.54 5.15 0.48 22.2 239

Fenestration Types 05 16.3 1.43 2.56 0.24 1.58 0.15 98.0 1,055

HVAC 06 136.0 11.96 11.27 1.05 -1.98 -0.18 818.5 8,810

ERV 07 78.5 6.91 -65.56 -6.09 -70.34 -6.53 472.9 5,090

Frozen Food Cases 08 263.0 23.14 17.16 1.59 -12.26 -1.14 1,583.2 17,041

Ice Cream Cases 09 59.5 5.24 9.31 0.86 2.85 0.26 358.4 3,858

Meat Cases 10 100.4 8.84 0.12 0.01 -7.83 -0.73 604.7 6,508

Dairy/Deli Cases 11 521.9 45.93 37.95 3.53 -7.77 -0.72 3,142.0 33,820
137

E.3 Climate Zone 4C (Seattle, Washington) 

Computational Effort. Original search: 2,852 EnergyPlus simulations, 30 days of CPU time. Enumeration of additional models: 13 new 

searches; 1,808 new simulations; 154 total and 139 new simulations per search on average.

Alternative Low-Energy Models

Figure E-3 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Seattle, Washington, grocery store 

Node 00 represents the original low-energy model. The other nodes represent the result of searches formed by taking Node 00 and removing the 

indicated strategy. Models that include PV are in gold. Any models that do not reach the 50% energy savings goal are indicated by octagons.
138

Table E-5 Summary of the Seattle, Washington, Low-Energy Models 

Node numbers correspond to Figure E-3. An ‘X’ under a strategy name indicates that the strategy is used in the model.

Node

Infiltration

Elec. Lighting

Daylighting

Window Area

Wall Insulation

Roof Insulation

Fenestration Types

HVAC

DCV

ERV

Frozen Food Cases

Ice Cream Cases

Meat Cases

Dairy/Deli Cases

Net Site 

Energy PV Energy Lifetime Cost Capital Cost

Peak Demand (kW)

Energy Savings (%)

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

$/m2

$/ft2

$/m2

$/ft2

00 X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,318 116.0 0 0.0 1,593 148.02 1,414 131.37 202 50.9

01 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 25 2.2 1,656 153.82 1,476 137.13 189 50.0

02 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 2 0.2 1,605 149.15 1,418 131.72 213 50.0

03 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 11 1.0 1,602 148.80 1,419 131.79 215 50.0

04 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,317 115.9 0 0.0 1,597 148.37 1,418 131.70 206 50.9

05 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,341 118.0 0 0.0 1,556 144.52 1,375 127.72 204 50.0

06 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 17 1.5 1,564 145.32 1,384 128.61 195 50.0

07 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,331 117.1 0 0.0 1,595 148.22 1,416 131.52 199 50.4

08 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 4 0.3 1,606 149.22 1,421 132.06 221 50.0

09 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 4 0.4 1,602 148.86 1,423 132.22 200 50.0

10 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 214 18.8 2,128 197.68 1,945 180.66 206 50.0

11 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 35 3.0 1,686 156.66 1,505 139.82 193 50.0

12 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,342 118.1 108 9.5 1,857 172.50 1,680 156.07 185 50.0

13 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,727 152.0 226 19.9 2,212 205.51 2,005 186.25 211 35.7
139

Sensitivity Analysis by Strategy

Table E-6 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Seattle, Washington 

Savings numbers are calculated between the selected low-energy model (with PV removed as necessary), and the model created by removing the 

indicated strategy. Equivalent PV areas are calculated assuming a 0.1 cell efficiency and a 0.9 inverter efficiency, and the EnergyPlus algorithm for 

determining the annual amount of electricity produced given building geometry and local weather conditions.

Strategy

Search 

No. 

EUI Savings Lifetime Cost Savings Capital Cost Savings Equivalent PV 

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 m2 ft2

Infiltration 01 48.8 4.29 2.33 0.22 –1.02 –0.09 500.7 5,389

Elec. Lighting 02 26.3 2.31 6.52 0.61 –2.17 –0.20 269.8 2,904

Daylighting 03 35.1 3.09 –19.62 –1.82 –24.98 –2.32 360.3 3,878

Window Area 04 –0.9 –0.08 3.78 0.35 3.57 0.33 –9.1 –98

Wall Insulation 05 23.1 2.03 –37.72 –3.50 –39.28 –3.65 236.9 2,550

Roof Insulation 06 41.0 3.60 –70.21 –6.52 –72.90 –6.77 420.4 4,525

Fenestration Types 07 12.8 1.12 2.10 0.19 1.57 0.15 131.2 1,412

HVAC 08 27.7 2.43 3.98 0.37 –2.03 –0.19 283.9 3,056

DCV 09 28.3 2.49 –1.49 –0.14 –1.95 –0.18 290.9 3,131

Frozen Food Cases 10 237.7 20.91 14.24 1.32 –12.24 –1.14 2,439.4 26,257

Ice Cream Cases 11 58.6 5.16 9.08 0.84 2.90 0.27 601.6 6,475

Meat Cases 12 131.8 11.60 1.03 0.10 –8.05 –0.75 1,352.9 14,562

Dairy/Deli Cases 13 641.8 56.48 45.89 4.26 –6.20 –0.58 6,587.5 70,908
140

E.4 Climate Zone 5A (Chicago, Illinois) 

Computational Effort. Original search: 2,929 EnergyPlus simulations, 31 days of CPU time. Enumeration of additional models: 11 new 

searches; 6,580 new simulations; 643 total and 598 new simulations per search on average. 

Alternative Low-Energy Models

Figure E-4 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Chicago, Illinois, grocery store 

Node 00 represents the original low-energy model. The other nodes represent the result of searches formed by taking Node 00 and removing the 

indicated strategy. Models that include PV are in gold. Any models that do not reach the 50% energy savings goal are indicated by octagons.
141

Table E-7 Summary of the Chicago, Illinois Low-Energy Models 

Node numbers correspond to Figure E-4. An ‘X’ under a strategy name indicates that the strategy is used in the model.

Node

Infiltration

Elec. Lighting

Daylighting

Window Area

Wall Insulation

Roof Insulation

Fenestration Types

HVAC

DCV

ERV

Frozen Food Cases

Ice Cream Cases

Meat Cases

Dairy/Deli Cases

Net Site 

Energy PV Energy Lifetime Cost Capital Cost

Peak Demand (kW)

Energy Savings (%)

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

$/m2

$/ft2

$/m2

$/ft2

00 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,421 125.0 0 0.0 1,546 143.59 1,352 125.59 282 51.3

01 X X X X X X X X X X 1,419 124.9 0 0.0 1,576 146.37 1,381 128.30 289 51.4

02 X X X X X X X X X X 1,436 126.3 0 0.0 1,567 145.60 1,367 127.03 278 50.8

03 X X X X X X X X X X 1,424 125.3 0 0.0 1,546 143.60 1,352 125.56 283 51.2

04 X X X X X X X X X X 1,420 125.0 0 0.0 1,551 144.10 1,357 126.07 281 51.4

05 X X X X X X X X X X 1,426 125.5 0 0.0 1,546 143.66 1,352 125.63 281 51.2

06 X X X X X X X X X X 1,407 123.8 0 0.0 1,579 146.73 1,379 128.12 314 51.8

07 X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,460 128.4 26 2.3 1,676 155.72 1,484 137.91 237 50.0

08 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,460 128.5 26 2.2 1,772 164.65 1,568 145.70 268 50.0

09 X X X X X X X X X X 1,407 123.8 0 0.0 1,582 146.99 1,386 128.78 289 51.8

10 X X X X X X X X X X 1,435 126.3 0 0.0 1,591 147.84 1,398 129.88 265 50.8

11 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,582 139.2 265 23.3 2,292 212.96 2,090 194.21 301 45.8
142

Sensitivity Analysis by Strategy

Table E-8 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Chicago, Illinois 

Savings numbers are calculated between the selected low-energy model (with PV removed as necessary), and the model created by removing the 

indicated strategy. Equivalent PV areas are calculated assuming a 0.1 cell efficiency and a 0.9 inverter efficiency, and the EnergyPlus algorithm for 

determining the annual amount of electricity produced given building geometry and local weather conditions.

Strategy

Search 

No. 

EUI Savings Lifetime Cost Savings Capital Cost Savings Equivalent PV 

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 m2 ft2

Infiltration 00 71.5 6.29 2.70 0.25 –2.26 –0.21 626.0 6,738

Elec. Lighting 01 60.4 5.32 11.19 1.04 –2.19 –0.20 528.9 5,693

Daylighting 02 2.6 0.23 0.13 0.01 –0.31 –0.03 23.1 249

Window Area 03 –1.0 –0.09 5.50 0.51 5.18 0.48 –8.5 –91

Fenestration Types 04 5.0 0.44 0.78 0.07 0.47 0.04 43.6 469

HVAC 05 55.2 4.86 6.32 0.59 –4.11 –0.38 483.5 5,204

ERV 06 219.7 19.34 –58.38 –5.42 –70.34 –6.53 1,923.1 20,700

Frozen Food Cases 07 244.6 21.52 14.99 1.39 –12.25 –1.14 2,140.5 23,040

Ice Cream Cases 08 58.3 5.13 9.13 0.85 2.94 0.27 510.1 5,491

Meat Cases 09 120.2 10.58 0.69 0.06 –7.99 –0.74 1,051.8 11,321

Dairy/Deli Cases 10 622.1 54.74 41.31 3.84 –9.51 –0.88 5,443.9 58,598
143

E.5 Climate Zone 8 (Fairbanks, Alaska) 

Computational Effort. Original search: 3,992 EnergyPlus simulations, 29 days of CPU time. Enumeration of additional models: 12 new 

searches; 11,225 new simulations; 999 total and 935 new simulations per search on average. 

Alternative Low-Energy Models

Figure E-5 Visualization of original and alternative low-energy models for the Fairbanks, Alaska, grocery store 

Node 00 represents the original low-energy model. The other nodes represent the result of searches formed by taking Node 00 and removing the 

indicated strategy. Models that include PV are in gold. Any models that do not reach the 50% energy savings goal are indicated by octagons.
144

Table E-9 Summary of the Fairbanks, Alaska, Low Energy Models 

Node numbers correspond to Figure E-5. An ‘X’ under a strategy name indicates that the strategy is used in the model.

Node

Infiltration

Elec. Lighting

Daylighting

Window Area

Wall Insulation

Roof Insulation

Fenestration Types

HVAC

DCV

ERV

Frozen Food Cases

Ice Cream Cases

Meat Cases

Dairy/Deli Cases

Net Site 

Energy PV Energy Lifetime Cost Capital Cost

Peak Demand (kW)

Energy Savings (%)

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

MJ/m2

·yr

kBtu/ft2

·yr

$/m2

$/ft2

$/m2

$/ft2

00 X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,821 160.2 0 0.0 1,613 149.87 1,409 130.92 216 52.4

01 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,787 157.3 0 0.0 1,647 152.99 1,444 134.16 218 53.3

02 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,853 163.1 0 0.0 1,623 150.76 1,407 130.72 239 51.5

03 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,823 160.4 0 0.0 1,613 149.88 1,409 130.89 214 52.3

04 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,823 160.4 0 0.0 1,619 150.40 1,414 131.40 211 52.3

05 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,863 164.0 0 0.0 1,611 149.64 1,404 130.47 210 51.3

06 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,829 160.9 0 0.0 1,615 150.00 1,410 131.01 209 52.2

07 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,838 161.7 0 0.0 1,618 150.32 1,408 130.76 225 51.9

08 X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1,912 168.3 127 11.2 2,130 197.92 1,930 179.26 170 50.0

09 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,900 167.2 0 0.0 1,657 153.93 1,434 133.21 243 50.3

10 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,883 165.7 0 0.0 1,622 150.73 1,412 131.19 219 50.8

11 X X X X X X X X X X X 1,807 159.0 0 0.0 1,644 152.72 1,438 133.59 193 52.7

12 X X X X X X X X X X X X 2,046 180.0 179 15.8 2,420 224.84 2,198 204.16 195 46.5
145

Sensitivity Analysis by Strategy

Table E-10 Sensitivity Analysis for the Strategies Used in the Selected Low-Energy Model for Fairbanks, Alaska 

Savings numbers are calculated between the selected low-energy model (with PV removed as necessary), and the model created by removing the 

indicated strategy. Equivalent PV areas are calculated assuming a 0.1 cell efficiency and a 0.9 inverter efficiency, and the EnergyPlus algorithm for 

determining the annual amount of electricity produced given building geometry and local weather conditions.

Strategy

Search 

No. 

EUI Savings Lifetime Cost Savings Capital Cost Savings Equivalent PV 

MJ/m2·yr kBtu/ft2·yr $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 m2 ft2

Infiltration 01 154.5 13.60 6.93 0.64 –2.05 –0.19 2,161.2 23,262

Elec. Lighting 02 32.3 2.85 9.58 0.89 –2.23 –0.21 452.2 4,867

Daylighting 03 1.8 0.16 0.12 0.01 –0.31 –0.03 25.0 269

Window Area 04 2.0 0.18 5.78 0.54 5.14 0.48 28.0 301

Roof Insulation 05 42.4 3.73 –2.41 –0.22 –4.86 –0.45 592.7 6,379

Fenestration Types 06 7.9 0.69 1.48 0.14 0.99 0.09 110.1 1,185

HVAC 07 16.7 1.47 4.87 0.45 –1.74 –0.16 233.2 2,510

ERV 08 471.7 41.51 –45.14 –4.19 –70.34 –6.53 6,597.0 71,010

Frozen Food Cases 09 260.0 22.88 16.64 1.55 –12.23 –1.14 3,636.7 39,145

Ice Cream Cases 10 62.5 5.50 9.33 0.87 2.86 0.27 873.6 9,404

Meat Cases 11 174.9 15.39 4.02 0.37 –8.11 –0.75 2,445.6 26,325

Dairy/Deli Cases 12 740.8 65.19 45.96 4.27 –11.73 –1.09 10,361.6 111,531
146

Appendix F. Corrected Results from Abbreviated Optimization

The corrected energy performance of the selected low-energy models from the abbreviated optimizations described in Section 4.4 is 

summarized in Table F-1 to Table F-3. 

Table F-1 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Energy Performance: Humid Climates

Building Name Metric

Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

Low-Energy Percent Energy Savings 52.7% 54.6% 50.6% 53.7% 53.5% 53.2%

Baseline (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 3,150 3,310 2,800 2,990 3,100 3,280

Low-Energy (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 1,490 1,500 1,390 1,380 1,440 1,540

Baseline (SI units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 788 780 572 548 527 524

Low-Energy (SI units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 362 333 254 242 228 223

Baseline (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 86.4 140 207 282 333 389

Low-Energy (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 51.1 84.3 131 141 172 204

Low-Energy (SI units) PV Power Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Baseline (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 277 291 247 263 273 289

Low-Energy (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 131 132 122 122 127 135

Baseline (IP units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 73.2 72.4 53.1 50.9 49.0 48.7

Low-Energy (IP units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 33.7 30.9 23.6 22.5 21.2 20.7

Baseline (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.274 0.442 0.657 0.893 1.06 1.23

Low-Energy (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.162 0.267 0.416 0.449 0.544 0.646

Low-Energy (IP units) PV Power Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
147

Table F-2 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Energy Performance: Arid Climates

Building Name Metric

Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

Low-Energy Percent Energy Savings 53.9% 51.8% 53.9% 50.6% 55.9% 54.9%

Baseline (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 2,460 2,510 2,480 2,660 2,840 3,080

Low-Energy (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 1,130 1,210 1,140 1,320 1,250 1,390

Baseline (SI units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 564 526 528 510 504 496

Low-Energy (SI units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 240 242 222 209 207 201

Baseline (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 118 172 161 230 286 359

Low-Energy (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 74.4 94.3 95.9 156 142 185

Low-Energy (SI units) PV Power Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Baseline (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 216 221 218 234 250 271

Low-Energy (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 99.7 107 101 116 110 122

Baseline (IP units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 52.4 48.8 49.0 47.3 46.8 46.0

Low-Energy (IP units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 22.3 22.5 20.6 19.4 19.2 18.6

Baseline (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.376 0.544 0.511 0.728 0.906 1.14

Low-Energy (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.236 0.299 0.304 0.495 0.449 0.585

Low-Energy (IP units) PV Power Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
148

Table F-3 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Energy Performance: Marine and Cold Climates

Building Name Metric

Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8 

Low-Energy Percent Energy Savings 51.6% 50.3% 53.4% 53.1%

Baseline (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 2,630 2,830 3,470 4,060

Low-Energy (SI units) EUI (MJ/m2·yr) 1,270 1,410 1,620 1,900

Baseline (SI units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 487 483 495 487

Low-Energy (SI units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 210 208 203 192

Baseline (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 243 302 468 640

Low-Energy (SI units) Natural Gas Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 143 182 246 337

Low-Energy (SI units) PV Power Intensity (kWh/m2yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Baseline (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 231 249 305 357

Low-Energy (IP units) EUI (kBtu/ft2yr) 112 124 142 168

Baseline (IP units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 45.2 44.9 46.0 45.3

Low-Energy (IP units) Electricity Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 19.6 19.3 18.9 17.8

Baseline (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.769 0.956 1.48 2.03

Low-Energy (IP units) Natural Gas Intensity (Therms/ft2yr) 0.453 0.578 0.780 1.07

Low-Energy (IP units) PV Power Intensity (kWh/ft2yr) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
149

The corrected economic performance of the selected low-energy models from the abbreviated optimizations described in Section 4.4 is 

summarized in Table F-4 to Table F-6. 

Table F-4 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Costs: Humid Climates

Building Name Metric

Humid

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A

Baseline (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,820 1,860 1,710 1,710 1,720 1,730

Low-Energy (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,600 1,620 1,550 1,510 1,520 1,520

Baseline (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,410 1,440 1,370 1,370 1,370 1,370

Low-Energy (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,390 1,410 1,350 1,330 1,330 1,330

Baseline (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 169 173 159 159 160 161

Low-Energy (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 149 151 144 141 141 141

Baseline (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 131 134 127 127 128 128

Low-Energy (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 129 131 126 123 124 124
150

Table F-5 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Costs: Arid Climates

Building Name Metric

Arid

2B 3B-CA 3B-NV 4B 5B 6B

Baseline (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,670 1,660 1,670 1,670 1,690 1,700

Low-Energy (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,500 1,490 1,510 1,500 1,490 1,490

Baseline (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,350 1,340 1,360 1,350 1,360 1,360

Low-Energy (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,330 1,310 1,340 1,330 1,320 1,320

Baseline (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 155 154 155 155 157 158

Low-Energy (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 139 138 140 140 138 139

Baseline (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 125 125 126 126 126 127

Low-Energy (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 123 122 124 124 122 122

Table F-6 Selected Low-Energy Model Corrected Costs: Marine and Cold Climates

Building Name Metric

Marine Cold

3C 4C 7 8 

Baseline (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,650 1,670 1,730 1,750

Low-Energy (SI units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/m2) 1,490 1,490 1,520 1,530

Baseline (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,340 1,350 1,370 1,370

Low-Energy (SI units) Capital Cost ($/m2) 1,320 1,310 1,330 1,320

Baseline (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 153 155 161 163

Low-Energy (IP units) 5-TLCC Intensity ($/ft2) 139 139 141 142

Baseline (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 124 125 128 127

Low-Energy (IP units) Capital Cost ($/ft2) 123 122 123 123
151

Appendix G. General Merchandise and Grocery Store Technical 

Support Documents: Summary and Information 

Request

The freely available series of Advanced Energy Design Guides (AEDGs) developed by 

ASHRAE, AIA, IES, USGBC and DOE is supported by technical analysis conducted by 

NREL or Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. The guides currently target 30% energy 

savings over ASHRAE 90.1-2004—the next set will target 50% energy savings. 

For the past year and a half, NREL has been working to develop 50% energy savings 

recommendations for retail and grocery stores. Last year’s work (medium box retail and 

grocery stores) established the basic methodology for identifying cost-effective design 

packages that achieve this goal in each of 15 climate zones. The results are promising, 

but the analysis input data need a thorough external review to ensure our final 

recommendations are accurate and useable.

This is where you, as an REA member, come in: We would like you to review our energy 

modeling inputs. The following pages list our primary assumptions about the layout and 

operation of prototypical retail and grocery stores (prototype models), plus perturbations 

of the prototypical designs (EDMs) that we believe (1) some retailers would be 

comfortable with, and 2) may improve energy efficiency in one or more climate zones. 

Lists of specific questions and information requests are included, but please feel free to 

comment on any item of interest or raise other issues.

We hope you will participate so we can provide the REA and the broader community 

with useful, climate-specific design recommendations for retail and grocery stores. To 

submit your comments, please either send them to Adam Hirsch (adam.hirsch@nrel.gov) 

and Matt Leach (matt.leach@nrel.gov), or e-mail Adam and Matt to set up a time to 

convey your feedback directly over the phone.
152

Table G-1 TSD Prototype Characteristics and Related Questions*

Store 

Characteristic Grocery General Merchandise Questions

Program

Size 45,002 ft2 40,500 ft2

Space Types See Table G-2.

Operating Hours

Sun. through Thursday

6 a.m. to 10 p.m.,

Friday and Saturday

6 a.m. to 12 a.m.

Monday through Saturday

9 a.m. to 9 p.m.,

Sunday 10 a.m. to 6 p.m.

Peak 

Occupancy 8 people/1000 ft2

. 15 people/1000 ft2. 

How does occupancy vary 

throughout the day/week? How 

does occupancy affect energy 

scheduling/usage?

Lighting 15%/50%/95% on during

unoccupied/staff-only/operating hours.

Is this a good model of lighting 

loads?

Plug and 

Process See Table G-3. How do plug and process loads vary throughout the day?

Form

Number

of Floors 1 1 

Aspect Ratio 1.5 1.25

Floor-to-Floor 

Height 20 ft 20 ft

Window Area 1400 ft2 (0.08 WWR) 1,000 ft2 (0.056 WWR)

Floor Plan See Figure . See Figure .

Fabric

Wall Type

Either concrete block with interior insulation (finished with 

drywall) or exterior insulation (finished with stucco); or a 

concrete block cavity wall (finished with brick), depending on 

climate zone.

What types of wall constructions 

are acceptable? What 

considerations affect wall 

construction selection? 

Roof Type All insulation above deck

Interior 

Partitions 2 x 4 steel frame with gypsum boards

Internal Mass 45,000 ft3 of wood Do you have rough estimates of 

your stores’ contents?

Equipment

HVAC System Unitary rooftop units with DX coils, natural gas heating, and 

constant volume fans.

Are other types of HVAC systems 

considered or used?

HVAC 

Unit Size

10 tons cooling

Are other size units used? Are 

units sized differently for different 

parts of the store or for stores in 

different locations?

HVAC Controls No thermostat setback. Setback during

unoccupied hours.

Is thermostat setback used? If so, 

what is the methodology used to 

determine the setback?

Refrigeration

4 compressor racks

(2 med-temp, 2 low-temp); 

air-cooled condensers; 

cases and walk-in units listed 

in Table G-4.

N/A

Where are compressors and 

condensers located? Is waste heat 

recovered from the refrigeration 

system? Is HVAC return air routed 

under the refrigerated cases?

Service

Hot Water Natural gas heating with storage tank

* All comments on any aspect of the prototypes are welcome.
153

Table G-2 Space Types and Sizes in the Prototype Models

Zone Name

Grocery General Merchandise

Floor Area (ft2) Percent of Total Floor Area (ft2) Percent of Total

Main Sales 22,415 49.8 30,375 75.0

Perimeter Sales 2,611 5.8 4,100 10.1

Produce 7,657 17.0 N/A N/A

Deli 2,419 5.4 N/A N/A

Bakery 2,250 5.0 N/A N/A

Enclosed Office 300 0.7 300 0.7

Meeting Room 500 1.1 500 1.2

Dining Room 500 1.1 500 1.2

Restroom 675 1.5 625 1.5

Mechanical Room 600 1.3 200 0.5

Corridor 532 1.2 450 1.1

Vestibule N/A N/A 400 1.0

Active Storage 4,544 10.1 3,050 7.5

Total 45,002 100.0 40,500 100.0

Table G-3 Peak Plug (Electric) and Process (Gas) Loads in the Prototype Models

Zone Name

Grocery General Merchandise: 

Low Plug Load

General Merchandise: 

High Plug Load

Peak Plug 

Load (W/ft2) 

Peak Process 

Load (W/ft2) 

Peak Plug Load 

(W/ft2) 

Peak Plug Load 

(W/ft2) 

Main Sales 0.50 0.00 0.20 1.20

Perimeter Sales 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.40

Produce 0.50 0.00 N/A N/A

Deli 5.00 2.50 N/A N/A

Bakery 2.50 5.00 N/A N/A

Enclosed Office 0.75 0.00 0.75 0.75

Meeting Room 0.75 0.00 0.75 0.75

Dining Room 2.60 0.00 2.60 2.60

Restroom 0.10 0.00 0.10 0.10

Mechanical Room 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Corridor 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Vestibule N/A N/A 0.00 0.00

Active Storage 0.75 0.00 0.75 0.75

Average 0.88 0.38 0.30 1.05
154

Table G-4 Grocery Prototype: Refrigerated Cases and Walk-In Units by Zone

Zone Name Case/Walk-in Type Case Length Number of 

Units

Total Length or 

Area 

Main Sales Island Single Deck Meat 12 ft 9 108 ft

Main Sales Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli 12 ft 13 156 ft

Main Sales Vertical Frozen Food with Doors 15 ft 18 270 ft

Main Sales Island Single Deck Ice Cream 12 ft 10 120 ft

Main Sales Walk-In Cooler (Med Temp) N/A 2 2,818 ft2

Main Sales Walk-In Freezer (Low Temp) N/A 1 1,003 ft2

Produce Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli 12 ft 8 96 ft

Deli Multi-Deck Dairy/Deli 12 ft 1 12 ft

Deli Walk-In Cooler (Med Temp) N/A 1 127 ft2

Bakery Walk-In Cooler (Med Temp) N/A 1 63 ft2

Figure G-1 Grocery prototype floor plan
155

Figure G-2 General merchandise prototype floor plan
156

Table G-5 Energy Design Measure (EDM) Information Requests

Priority Store 

Types*

EDM

Category

FY 2008

Assumptions

Information

Requests

High

GM, Gro Plug Loads 10% overall reduction possible; 

very high costs.

Possible plug load reduction 

strategies (novel or proven).

GM, Gro Energy Recovery 

Ventilation (ERV)

2000 cfm unit(s) with 60%-80% 

sensible effectiveness, 50%-70% 

latent effectiveness.

Experience with or thoughts on 

designing ERV systems for large 

one-story buildings.

GM, Gro Envelope 

Infiltration

An envelope air barrier reduces 

envelope infiltration from 0.24 to 

0.05 ACH.

Infiltration levels and sources in 

typical construction; proven 

reduction strategies.

GM, Gro Daylighting 400 lux (37 fc) and 600 lux (56 fc) 

set points.

Acceptable daylighting set points 

in lux or foot-candles (fc).

GM, Gro Vertical 

Fenestration

Amount of fenestration on front 

façade can be changed ± 20% 

from 1000 ft2 (general 

merchandise) and 1400 ft2

(grocery) baselines.

Range of acceptable fenestration 

amounts (WWR) for each façade; 

acceptability of adding clerestory 

(high) windows to back of store for 

daylighting storage areas, etc.

Gro Refrigerated 

Cases

Reduced display lighting; added 

efficient fan motors, defrost and 

anti-sweat heater controls; added 

doors to cases.

Strategies that render doors more 

acceptable; lighting preferences.

Gro Refrigeration 

System

Evaporative condensers. Experience with evaporative 

condensers; decision criteria 

pertaining to compressor type;

interest in particular secondary 

loop systems.

Medium

GM, Gro Electric Lighting

Sales floor lighting power densities 

of 1.36 W/ft2 (20% below code) 

and 1.02 W/ft2 (40% below code).

Typical lighting configurations;

best practice/state-of-the-art 

configurations.

GM, Gro Entranceway 

Infiltration

Adding a main entrance vestibule 

reduces infiltration through the 

door from 0.082 to 0.054 ACH.

Whether vestibules are used, and 

if not, why not; preferred vestibule 

designs.

GM, Gro Static Pressure 

Drop

Not included. Typical ductwork designs for 

rooftop units; minimum length of 

ductwork runs to and from rooftop 

units.

GM, Gro Envelope

Static construction types with 

different levels of insulation.

List of acceptable and/or 

interesting construction assemblies 

for walls and roofs.

GM, Gro HVAC 

More efficient rooftop units with DX 

cooling and natural gas heating.

Alternative HVAC systems that 

retailers are interested in pursuing 

or have considered already.

Gro HVAC 

See above. HVAC/Refrigeration integration 

strategies retailers have pursued 

or would like evaluated.

GM, Gro

Demand 

Controlled 

Ventilation (DCV)

Modeled by having outside air 

requirements follow the occupancy 

schedules.

Experience with using DCV in real 

stores. 

GM, Gro Overhangs

Framed overhangs offset 0.82 ft 

from the top of each window; 

projection factor of 0.1 to 1.5.

Current use and acceptability of 

overhangs; preferred materials for 

overhangs.

Low

GM, Gro Photovoltaics

Possible to cover 30% of the area 

not used by skylights with PV. 

Percent of roof area available for 

photovoltaic (PV) panels and 

skylights.

GM, Gro Horizontal 

Fenestration

Skylights are preferred daylighting 

method.

Preferences concerning skylights 

and skylight alternatives.

* GM = General Merchandise, Gro = Grocery
F1147-E(10/2008)

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1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY)

September 2009

2. REPORT TYPE

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3. DATES COVERED (From - To)

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Grocery Store 50% Energy Savings Technical Support Document

5a. CONTRACT NUMBER

DE-AC36-08-GO28308

5b. GRANT NUMBER

5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER

6. AUTHOR(S)

Matthew Leach, Elaine Hale, Adam Hirsch, and Paul Torcellini 

5d. PROJECT NUMBER

NREL/TP-550-46101

5e. TASK NUMBER

BEC71204

5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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REPORT NUMBER

NREL/TP-550-46101

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13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 Words)

This report documents technical analysis for grocery stores aimed at providing design guidance that achieves wholebuilding energy savings of at least 50% over ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. It documents the modeling and 

integrated analysis methods used to identify cost-effective sets of recommendations for different locations; 

demonstrates sets of recommendations that meet or exceed the 50% goal; establishes methodology for providing a 

family of solutions, as opposed to a single solution, that meet the 50% goal as a means of exploring the relative 

importance of specific design strategies; demonstrates the dependence of the percent energy savings metric on the 

building standard used to establish the baseline; and explores the effect of floor area on energy use intensity.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

energy savings; grocery store; ashrae standard; energy interaction

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