NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-160

Community Profiles for 

North Pacific Fisheries –Alaska 

by

J. A. Sepez, B. D. Tilt, C. L. Package, H. M. Lazrus, and I. Vaccaro 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Alaska Fisheries Science Center

December 2005
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS 

The National Marine Fisheries Service's Alaska Fisheries Science Center 

uses the NOAA Technical Memorandum series to issue informal scientific and 

technical publications when complete formal review and editorial processing 

are not appropriate or feasible. Documents within this series reflect sound 

professional work and may be referenced in the formal scientific and technical 

literature. 

The NMFS-AFSC Technical Memorandum series of the Alaska Fisheries 

Science Center continues the NMFS-F/NWC series established in 1970 by the 

Northwest Fisheries Center. The NMFS-NWFSC series is currently used by 

the Northwest Fisheries Science Center. 

This document should be cited as follows: 

Sepez, J. A., B. D. Tilt, C. L. Package, H. M. Lazrus, and I. Vaccaro. 

2005. Community profiles for North Pacific fisheries - Alaska. U. S. 

Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-AFSC-160, 552 p. 

Reference in this document to trade names does not imply endorsement by 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. 
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-160

Community Profiles for 

North Pacific Fisheries –Alaska 

by

 J. A. Sepez, B. D. Tilt, C. L. Package, H. M. Lazrus, and I. Vaccaro 

Economic and Social Sciences Research Program 

Resource Ecology and Fisheries Management Division

Alaska Fisheries Science Center

7600 Sand Point Way N.E.

Seattle, WA 98115

www.afsc.noaa.gov

For additional copies or other information

contact Jennifer Sepez or Christina Package PH: (206)526-6546

 EMAIL: jennifer.sepez@noaa.gov; christina.package@noaa.gov

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., U.S. Navy (ret.), Under Secretary and Administrator

National Marine Fisheries Service

William T. Hogarth, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries 

December 2005
This document is available to the public through: 

National Technical Information Service 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

5285 Port Royal Road 

Springfield, VA 22161 

www.ntis.gov 
Notice to Users of this Document 

This document is being made available in .PDF format for the convenience of users; however, the 

accuracy and correctness of the document can only be certified as was presented in the original hard 

copy format. 

iii

ABSTRACT 

This document profiles 136 fishing communities in Alaska with basic information on social and 

economic characteristics. Various federal statutes, including the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation 

and Management Act and the National Environmental Policy Act, among others, require agencies to 

examine the social and economic impacts of policies and regulations. These profiles can serve as a 

consolidated source of baseline information for assessing community impacts in Alaska. 

The profiles are given in a narrative format that includes three sections: People and Place, 

Infrastructure, and Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries. People and Place includes information on 

location, demographics (including age and gender structure of the population, racial and ethnic make up), 

education, housing, and local history. Community Infrastructure covers current economic activity, 

governance (including city classification, taxation, Native organizations, and proximity to fisheries 

management and immigration offices) and facilities (transportation options and connectivity, water, waste, 

electricity, schools, police, and public accommodations). Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries details 

community activities in commercial fishing (processing, permit holdings, and aid receipts), recreational 

fishing, and subsistence fishing. To define communities, we relied on Census place-level geographies 

where possible, grouping communities only when constrained by fisheries data, yielding 128 individual 

profiles. Regional characteristics and issues are briefly described in regional introductions. 

The communities were selected by a process which assessed involvement in commercial fisheries 

using quantitative data from the year 2000, in order to coordinate with 2000 Census data. The quantitative 

indicators looked at communities that have commercial fisheries landings (indicators: landings, number of 

processors, number of vessels delivering to a community), communities that are the registered homeports 

of vessels participating in the fisheries, and communities that are home to documented participants in the 

fisheries (indicators: crew license holders, state and federal permit holders, and vessel owners). Where 

appropriate, the indicators were assessed as a ratio to the community’s population. Selection of a 

community was triggered by its surpassing a certain threshold in any one of the indicator categories, or in 

an aggregated category made up of the individual indicators. 

The Alaska communities selected and profiled in this document are: Adak, Akhiok, Akiachak, 

Akutan, Aleknagik, Alitak Bay, Anchor Point, Anchorage/Chugiak/Eagle River/Girdwood, Angoon, Atka, 

Bethel, Chefornak, Chignik (Bay), Chignik Lagoon, Chignik Lake, Clam Gulch, Clark’s Point, Cordova, 

Craig, Dillingham, Edna Bay, Eek, Egegik, Ekuk, Ekwok, Elfin Cove, Elim, Emmonak, Excursion Inlet, 

Fairbanks, False Pass, Fritz Creek, Galena, Goodnews Bay, Gustavus, Haines, Halibut Cove, Hobart Bay, 

Homer, Hoonah, Hooper Bay, Hydaburg, Igiugig, Iliamna, Ivanof Bay, Juneau/Douglas/Auke Bay, Kake, 

Karluk, Kasilof, Kenai, Ketchikan/Ward Cove, King Cove, King Salmon, Kipnuk, Klawock, Kodiak, 

Kokhanok, Koliganek, Kongiganak, Kotlik, Kwillingok, Larsen Bay, Levelock, Manokotak, Marshall, 

Mekoryuk, Metlakatla, Meyers Chuck, Naknek, Napakiak, Nelson Lagoon, New Stuyahok, Newhalen, 

Newtok, Nightmute, Nikiski, Nikolaevsk, Ninilchik, Nome, Old Harbor, Ouzinkie, Palmer, Pedro Bay, 

Pelican, Perryville, Petersburg, Pilot Point, Pilot Station, Platinum, Point Baker, Port Alexander, Port 

Alsworth, Port Graham, Port Heiden, Port Lions, Port Moller, Port Protection, Portage Creek, Prudhoe Bay, 

Quinhagak, Saint George, Saint Mary’s, Saint Paul, Sand Point, Scammon Bay, Seldovia, Seward, 

Shaktoolik, Sitka, Skwentna, Soldotna, South Naknek, Sterling, Tenakee Springs, Thorne Bay, Togiak, 

Toksook Bay, Tuntutuliak, Tununak, Twin Hills, Ugashik, Unalakleet, Unalaska/Dutch Harbor, Valdez, 

Wasilla, Whale Pass, Whittier, Willow, Wrangell, and Yakutat. 

v

CONTENTS 

ABSTRACT......................................................................................iii

1.0 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................1

1.1 Purpose.....................................................................................1

1.2 Related Projects.........................................................................3

1.3 Acknowledgements.......................................................................4

2.0 METHODS...........................................................................................4

2.1 Selection of Communities for Profiling..............................................5

2.2 Indicators and Selection Thresholds................................................7

2.3 Selected Communities..................................................................10

2.4 Profile Structure and Sources.........................................................14

2.5 Figures and Graphs....................................................................19

2.6 Community Comments.................................................................25

3.0 OVERVIEW.......................................................................................28

3.1 People and Place.........................................................................28

3.1.1 Location........................................................................................28

3.1.2 Demographic Profile......................................................................29

3.1.3 History..........................................................................................37

3.2 Infrastructure............................................................................39

3.2.1 Current Economy..........................................................................39

3.2.2 Governance....................................................................................39

3.2.3 Facilities........................................................................................44

3.3 Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries........................................45

3.3.1 Commercial Fishing......................................................................45

3.3.2 Sport Fishing...............................................................................56

3.3.3. Subsistence Fishing........................................................................57 

4.0 PROFILES 

4.1 Southeast Alaska....................................................................60

4.1.1 Southeast Alaska Regional Introduction.............................................61 

Angoon..................................................................................63 

Craig.....................................................................................67

Edna Bay......................................................................................71 

Gustavus.................................................................................80 

Haines....................................................................................84 

Hydaburg.................................................................................95 

City and Borough of Juneau (including Douglas, Auke Bay)......................98 

Ketchikan (including Ward Cove)......................................................108 

Klawock.................................................................................112 

Metlakatla...............................................................................116

Petersburg...............................................................................126 

Point Baker................................................................................131 

Port Protection..............................................................................137 

Elfin Cove.....................................................................................74 

Excursion Inlet..............................................................................78 

Hobart Bay..................................................................................89

Hoonah....................................................................................91

Kake...................................................................................104 

Meyers Chuck..............................................................................119 

Pelican...................................................................................122 

Port Alexander..............................................................................134 
vi

Sitka....................................................................................140 

Tenakee Springs................................................................................145 

Thorne Bay...........................

Yakutat..................................................................................159

...........................................................149 

Whale Pass......................................................................................152

Wrangell................................................................................155 

4.2 South Central Alaska..................................................................164

4.2.1 Anchorage/Matsu Sub-Regional Introduction.....................................165

Anchorage Municipality (including, Eagle River-Chugiak, Girdwood)........167 

Palmer....................................................................................175 

Skwentna................................................................................179

Wasilla...................................................................................182

Willow...................................................................................186

4.2.2 Kodiak Sub-Regional Introduction...................................................190 

Akhiok...................................................................................192

Karluk....................................................................................196

Ouzinkie.................................................................................211

Alitak Bay.....................................................................................195

Kodiak....................................................................................199 

Larsen Bay....................................................................................205 

Old Harbor..................................................................................208

Port Lions.....................................................................................214

4.2.3 Kenai Peninsula Sub-Regional Introduction........................................217

Anchor Point.................................................................................219 

Homer....................................................................................228

Nikolaevsk...............................................................................243 

Ninilchik.................................................................................246

Seldovia..................................................................................252

Soldotna..................................................................................261

Clam Gulch...................................................................................222 

Halibut Cove..................................................................................225

Kasilof....................................................................................232

Kenai......................................................................................235 

Nikiski....................................................................................239

Port Graham..................................................................................249

Seward....................................................................................256

Sterling...................................................................................264

4.2.4 Prince William Sound Sub-Regional Introduction.................................267

Cordova..................................................................................269

Fritz Creek...................................................................................274

Valdez....................................................................................278

Whittier..................................................................................283

4.3 South West Alaska.....................................................................287

4.3.1 Alaska Peninsula/Aleutian Islands Sub-Regional Introduction.................288 

Adak......................................................................................290 

Chignik (Bay)................................................................................301

Egegik....................................................................................318

Iliamna.................................................................................330 

Akutan....................................................................................294 

Atka.......................................................................................297 

Chignik Lagoon..............................................................................305

Chignik Lake.................................................................................309 

Dutch Harbor/Unalaska...................................................................313 

False Pass......................................................................................322 

Igiugig....................................................................................327

Ivanof Bay.....................................................................................333

King Cove......................................................................................335
vii

King Salmon.................................................................................339 

Kokhanok...............................................................................342

Levelock................................................................................344 

Naknek..................................................................................347 

Port Heiden................................................................................366

Port Moller................................................................................369

South Naknek.............................................................................382 

Nelson Lagoon............................................................................351

Newhalen................................................................................354

Pedro Bay..................................................................................357

Perryville.................................................................................359 

Pilot Point..................................................................................361

Port Alsworth..............................................................................364 

Saint George...............................................................................370 

Saint Paul...................................................................................374 

Sand Point..................................................................................378 

Ugashik...................................................................................386

4.3.2 Western Alaska Sub-Regional Introduction.........................................389

Akiachak.................................................................................391

Aleknagik................................................................................394 

Bethel.....................................................................................397

Dillingham...............................................................................405 

Eek........................................................................................409 

Ekwok....................................................................................414

Hooper Bay................................................................................424

Kongiganak..............................................................................433

Kotlik.....................................................................................436

Manokotak............................................................................441 

Marshall.................................................................................444

Napakiak..............................................................................451 

Platinum..................................................................................465

Portage Creek.............................................................................467 

Quinhagak...............................................................................470

Scammon Bay.............................................................................478 

Togiak....................................................................................481

Tuntutuliak..............................................................................488 

Tununak..................................................................................491

Chefornak................................................................................400 

Clark’s Point...............................................................................402 

Ekuk.......................................................................................411

Emmonak................................................................................417

Goodnews Bay.............................................................................421 

Kipnuk....................................................................................427

Koliganek................................................................................430

Kwigillingok.............................................................................439 

Mekoryuk................................................................................447

New Stuyahok.............................................................................454 

Newtok...................................................................................457

Nightmute................................................................................459

Pilot Station................................................................................462 

Saint Mary’s...............................................................................474 

Toksook Bay...............................................................................485 

Twin Hills..................................................................................494 

4.4 Northern Alaska..................................................................497

4.4.1 Northern Alaska Regional Introduction.............................................498

Elim....................................................................................501

Nome...................................................................................504

Prudhoe Bay................................................................................508 
viii

Shaktoolik..............................................................................510 

Una l akle et.............................................................................513

4.5 Interior Alaska...............................................................................517

4.5.1 Interior Alaska Regional Introduction....................................................518

Fa irbanks..............................................................................520

Ga l ena..................................................................................524

5.0 REFERENCES...................................................................................528 

6.0APPENDICES.........................................................................................537

6.1 Appendix A: Authors........................................................................538

6.2 Appendix B: Combined, Unrecognizable, and Subsumed Communities..543

6.3 Appendix C: Glossary of Abbreviations...............................................547

7.0 INDEX of Communities.......................................................................549
ix

TABLES AND FIGURES 

Table 2.2 Descriptive Statistics for Indicators Across 396 Alaskan Communities.........................7 

Table 2.3 Communities and Selection Criteria...................................................................11

Figure 2.5-1Employment Structure Alaska.......................................................................20 

Figure 2.5-3 Population Structure Alaska.........................................................................21

Figure 2.5-6 Racial Structure Alaska...............................................................................22

Figure 2.5-8 Ethnic Structure Alaska...............................................................................23

Figure 2.5-10 Percentage Living in Group Quarters Alaska...................................................24

Figure 2.5-11 Percentage Living in Group Quarters United States...........................................24

Figure 2.6 Responses to Request for Review by Type of Respondent........................................26

Table 3.1.2-1 Census Places in Alaska and California by population size, and cumulative percent...30

Table 3.1.2-3 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Black Percentage of Population........................32

Table 3.1.2-5 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Asian Percentage of Population........................33 

Table 3.1.2-6 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander Percentage 

Figure 2.5-2 Employment Structure United States..............................................................20

Figure 2.5-4 Population Structure United States.................................................................21

Figure 2.5-5 Population Structure World..........................................................................21

Figure 2.5-7 Racial Structure United States.......................................................................22

Figure 2.5-9 Ethnic Structure United States.......................................................................23

Figure 3.1.1 Selected Communities Involved in Fishing in Alaska............................................29

Table 3.1.2-2 Top Ten Profiled Communities by White Percentage of Population........................31

Table 3.1.2-4 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Native Percentage of Population........................32

of Population...........................................................................................................34

Table 3.1.2-8 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Male Percentage of Population.........................35

Table 3.1.2-9 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Female Percentage of Population......................36 

Table 3.1.2-10 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Lowest Age Median of Population...................36 

Table 3.1.2-11 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Highest Age Median of Population...................37 

Figure 3.2.2 Selected Communities Showing Boroughs.........................................................40

Table 3.2.2-2 Percent of Profiled Communities Compared to Percent of All Alaska Communities by 

Table 3.1.2-7 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Hispanic Percentage of Population.....................34 

Table 3.2.2-1 Profiled Communities by Type of Incorporation................................................41

Type of Incorporation.......................................................................................42 

Table 3.3.1 Top Ten Species by landings (weight) in the state.................................................49 

Table 3.3.1-2 Top Ten Species by landings (value) in the state................................................50 

Table 3.3.1-3 Top Ten Communities by landings (ex-vessel weight)..........................................51

Table 3.3.1-6 Top Ten Communities by Processing (Value)....................................................53

Table 3.3.1-7 Profiled communities with more than three processors........................................54

Table 3.3.2 Top Ten Communities by Sport Fishing License Sales...........................................56

Table 3.3.3 Top ten list of communities by per capita yearly harvest of subsistence resources.........58

Table 3.3.1-4 Top 10 Communities by Landings (ex-vessel value)............................................52

Table 3.3.1-5 Top Ten Communities by Processing (Tons).....................................................53

1.0 INTRODUCTION 

1.1Purpose 

This document profiles 136 Alaska communities significantly involved in commercial 

fisheries in Alaska, including state waters, and federal waters in the Bering Sea, the 

Aleutian Islands, and the Gulf of Alaska. For the purposes of this project, these areas are 

collectively referred to as the North Pacific. This volume will be followed by a document 

(in preparation) that profiles additional communities that are involved in North Pacific 

fisheries and are located in Washington, Oregon, California and other states. 

Fishing Communities in Law and Policy 

A variety of federal laws make clear the imperative for the National Marine Fisheries 

Service to consider the human communities that are involved in fisheries. 

National Standard Eight of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act (MSFCMA) states: 

Conservation and management measures shall, consistent with the conservation requirements 

of this Act (including the prevention of overfishing and rebuilding of overfished stocks), take 

into account the importance of fishery resources to fishing communities in order to (A) 

provide for the sustained participation of such communities, and (B) to the extent practicable, 

minimize adverse economic impacts on such communities. 

In addition, the National Environmental Policy Act requires that agencies assess the 

impacts of major federal actions on the environment, including the human environment. 

Typically, an Environmental Impact Statement will include a description of the social 

environment, and an assessment of the impacts of alternative policy choices on that 

environment. 

Other laws and policies mandating attention to impacts on human communities 

include Executive Order 12898 on Environmental Justice, which directs agencies to 

assess impacts that may disproportionately affect low income and minority populations, 

Executive Order 12866 on Regulatory Planning and Review, which requires agencies to 

assess the costs and benefits of proposed regulations and alternatives, and the Regulatory 

Flexibility Act (RFA), which requires agencies to assess impacts of proposed policies on 

regulated small entities, meaning small businesses, organizations, and governmental 

jurisdictions as defined in the RFA and the Small Business Act.1 

1

 “’Small businesses’ are defined in section 3 of the Small Business Act, 15 U.S.C. . 632, and in the SBA's 

regulations at 13 C.F.R. . 121.201 (2002). 5 U.S.C. . 601(3). ‘Small organizations’ are any not-for-profit 

enterprises that are independently owned and operated and not dominant in their fields (for example, 

private hospitals and educational institutions). 5 U.S.C. . 601(4). ‘Small governmental jurisdictions’ are 

governments of cities, counties, towns, townships, villages, school districts, or special districts with a 

population of less than 50,000. The size standard used by the Small Business Administration to define 

small businesses varies by industry; however, the SBA uses the "fewer than 500 employees" cut off when 

making an across-the-board classification.” Quoted from the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity 

Commission Regulatory Flexibility Act Procedures posted at 

http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/regflexibilityact.html . 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
2

In order to facilitate implementation of these laws, and improve available 

information on affected communities, the National Marine Fisheries Service is currently 

engaged in a nation-wide effort to profile fishing communities. Analysis of social 

impacts often uses a geographic scale larger than the community, such as county or 

region, to analyze the data because that is the geographic level at which much of the data 

is available, and because the resources are not available to conduct an analysis with finer 

geographical resolution. Detailed analysis at the community level usually focuses on 

those communities which are most likely to experience the most significant impacts -- an 

approach that is entirely appropriate given the limited time allotted to most impact 

assessments. Thus, there are dozens of communities which may be impacted by policy 

matters that cannot be analyzed on an individual basis. Because the North Pacific already 

has regional economic profiles,2 and detailed community-level profiles of some places 

most heavily involved in federal fisheries,3 the profiles given here may be particularly 

useful in providing basic information on some of the fishing communities not included in 

these other reports. 

Fishing Community Profiles 

The profiles of Alaskan fishing communities in this document are part of this 

national endeavor, and form the first phase of the Alaska Fisheries Science Center’s 

efforts. A second phase, in which communities outside of Alaska involved in North 

Pacific fisheries, will be undertaken in 2004-5 as described in Section 1.2. Selected 

information from these profiles will be entered into the national database, which will be 

updated on a regular basis. 

The fisheries considered in these profiles include both state and federal fisheries 

in the commercial, recreational and subsistence sectors. From the perspective of a 

community dependent on or engaged in fishing, whether a particular fishery is under state 

or federal jurisdiction is of less importance to the health and resilience of the community 

than the strength and sustainability of the fishery itself. Furthermore, it can sometimes be 

challenging to identify from available databases whether a documented fish delivery was 

taken under a state or federal fishery, particularly where there are parallel seasons for the 

same species and gear types, and much of the available information concerning 

involvement in fisheries is not fishery-specific. Finally, this combined state and federal 

approach is the recommended method for the national profiling project, so the Alaska 

Fisheries Science Center profiles will be compliant with the larger effort. 

The communities profiled in the document were selected by a quantitative 

assessment method described in detail below. Due to practicalities, this method was 

based entirely on commercial fisheries data. However, recognizing that in the life of a 

2

 "Regional Profiles in the North Pacific Groundfish Fisheries" prepared for the National Marine Fisheries 

Service and the North Pacific Fishery Management Council by Northern Economics, Inc. and EDAW, Inc. 

posted at http://www.fakr.noaa.gov/npfmc/misc_pub/NorthernEconomics/RegionalProfile.pdf 

3

 Community-level profiles are included in the Social Impact Assessment sections of various NMFS 

Environmental Impact Statements, e.g., Alaska Groundfish Fisheries Revised DRAFT Programmatic 

Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, September 2003 posted at 

http://www.fakr.noaa.gov/sustainablefisheries/seis/intro.htm. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
3

community, recreational and subsistence fishing may be of great importance socially, 

culturally, and economically, these community profiles include information on 

recreational and subsistence fishing activities as part of the narrative. In future efforts, 

indicators of recreational and subsistence fisheries will be quantified and included in the 

selection process, as well as maintained in the narrative. 

Faces of the Fisheries 

Approximately ten years ago, the North Pacific Fishery Management Council 

published Faces of the Fisheries, a document which profiled communities in Alaska, 

Washington, and Oregon involved in commercial fisheries in the North Pacific. The 

present document may be considered a partial update of Faces of the Fisheries. As with 

that document, our purpose was to focus on communities involved with commercial 

fisheries. Because the selection and analysis of communities relies on population data 

from the U.S. Census, it is proposed that the narrative portion of this document be 

updated again when new population and demographic information becomes available 

following the 2010 Census. Fisheries information, which is available annually and will 

be updated annually, is being maintained in a separate database which is in preparation. 

1.2 Related Projects 

Many communities involved in fisheries in the North Pacific are not located in 

Alaska. In 2004, the AFSC and the NWFSC will undertake a joint project to profile 

communities in Washington, Oregon, California and other states that are involved in 

commercial fisheries. In addition to descriptions of the communities, the profiles will 

include descriptions of local involvement in both North Pacific and West Coast fisheries. 

In addition, the Alaska Fisheries Science Center is involved in creating more indepth profiles of significant fishing communities, based on rapid assessment procedures 

and ethnographic fieldwork in a limited number of communities. 

Other Regional Offices and Science Centers are also in the process of profiling 

communities involved in commercial fisheries. Eventually, NMFS will create a national 

database of fishing community information that will be updated on a regular basis. 

The profiling of communities involved in fishing is related to, but is not 

necessarily the same as, the designation of Fishing Communities according to the 

definitions of the MSFCMA. The process for designating MSFCMA Fishing 

Communities is at present being discussed by NMFS social science staff. It will likely 

bear similarities to the process used in this project to decide which communities to 

profile, but it will also have significant differences. The results of the MSFCMA Fishing 

Communities designation process may have an effect on which communities are selected 

for profiling when this document is updated. 

Finally, there are a number of projects that have been undertaken by Councils, 

Commissions, and other fisheries management and information groups which involve 

narrative profiling of fishing communities. These include the just-released West Coast 

Marine Fishing Communities by Jennifer Langdon-Pollock of the Pacific States Marine 

Fisheries Commission (funded by NMFS and the Pacific Fisheries Management 

Council), the 2001 New England’s Fishing Communities by Madeleine Hall-Arber et al. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
4

at the MIT Sea Grant Program, funded by the Marine Fisheries Initiative (MARFIN) of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, and the 2004 Mid-Atlantic Fishing Communities 

by Bonnie McCay et al.. 

1.3 Acknowledgements 

This project could not have been completed without the generous assistance of a 

number of people and institutions. The Alaska Fisheries Science Center (AFSC) 

provided funding, staff time, and support services for this project. Pacific States Marine 

Fisheries Commission provided personnel, administrative support, and expertise, under a 

cooperative agreement with AFSC. The Alaska Fisheries Information Network 

(AKFIN), provided data and advice. The staff of the North Pacific Fisheries 

Management Council provided support and advice. The Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission, the Alaska Department of Community and Economic Development and the 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game provided an extensive amount of data through both 

online sources and by filling special requests. These institutions also provided advice and 

clarification when needed. The Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference also provided 

data in response to a request. The University of Washington’s Ph.D. program in 

Environmental Anthropology provided personnel, and access to UW resources. 

In addition, the team wishes to acknowledge the following people who provided 

advice or assistance to the project: Susan Abbott-Jamieson, Wanetta Ayers, Patricia Clay, 

Dave Colpo, Jane DiCosimo, Jim Fall, Ron Felthoven, Peter Fricke, Ed Glazier, Terry 

Hiatt, Palma Ingles, Nicole Kimball, Jennifer Langdon-Pollock, Chuck McCallum, Marc 

Miller, Peggy Murphy, Karma Norman, Amanda Poole, Suzanne Russell, Chang Seung, 

Joe Terry and Gale Vick. Special thanks are due for the editing assistance of Gary 

Duker, Laura Licona, and James Lee. These individuals helped inform and improve this 

work, but the authors alone are responsible for any errors contained herein. 

2.0 METHODS 

The task of preparing a document about the Alaskan communities involved in 

North Pacific fisheries, an area of vast scale and diversity, was a daunting one, and one 

whose complexity is reflected in the research methods we used. We were fortunate in that 

the fisheries of the North Pacific, large and lucrative as they are, have a wealth of 

information about them. Our task was to compile these disparate sources of information 

in order to produce a document that could serve as a baseline of data for policy analysts 

and decision-makers, and a starting point for social scientists conducting more complex 

analytical research. This section explains exactly what we did, how we did it, and what 

data sources we used. In many cases, online data sources accessible to any researcher 

were used, and these are cited in this section in the footnotes. In other cases, specific data 

requests were made to agencies in order to obtain the necessary information. This section 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
5

also discusses some of the methodological challenges our team encountered during the 

course of the project, and how we resolved them. 

2.1 Selection of Communities for Profiling 

There are hundreds of communities in Alaska involved in commercial fishing 

worthy of being profiled. We decided to use quantitative selection criteria in order to 

reduce the number of communities to be profiled to a manageable list consisting of those 

with the most involvement in commercial fisheries. We chose a wide array of 

quantitative indicators that measure a variety of types of involvement in fisheries, and 

selected those communities which rose above the designated threshold in any one of the 

indicators. 

A MSFCMA Fishing Community is a place-based community that is 

"...substantially dependent on or substantially engaged in the harvest or processing of 

fishery resources to meet social and economic needs, and includes fishing vessel owners, 

operators, and crew and United States fish processors...” While this definition includes 

commercial, recreational, and subsistence fishing, data on recreational and subsistence 

fishing were not available early enough in the selection process to be incorporated. The 

profiled communities were selected on the basis of their involvement with commercial 

fishing. Information on recreational and subsistence fisheries was added to the 

community narratives and will be accounted for in the selection of communities for 

Volume II, and for updates to this document. 

The selection of Alaska communities to be profiled used eight different types of 

quantitative indicators about involvement in commercial fisheries (detailed below in 

Section 2.2). The indicators showed communities that have commercial fisheries 

landings (landings, number of processors, number of vessels delivering to a community), 

communities that are the registered homeports of vessels participating in the fisheries, 

and communities that are home to documented participants in the fisheries (crew license 

holders, state and federal permit holders, and vessel owners). Data from 2000 were used 

because they could be matched with Census 2000 population and demographics data. 

The data sets used were those which were available to us and appeared to be 

informative about some aspect of community involvement in commercial fisheries. The 

thresholds were set at a level which would reasonably include communities that had a 

significant level of involvement in commercial fisheries. Many of the indicators were 

calculated as a ratio to the total population of the community as stated by the 2000 U.S. 

Census, with .15 per capita4 set as the threshold for profiling.5 Means for indicators 

4

 In some cases, this .15 threshold is a percent. In other cases (e.g., where the numerator is vessels and the 

denominator is population) the threshold is not properly a percent but rather a ratio or a per capita value. 

5

 We used SF 1 population counts of all persons. These counts sometimes differ from SF 3 population 

estimates, which come from the “population and housing long-form” collected by the US Bureau of the 

Census from a 1 in 6 sample and weighted to represent the total population. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
6

(other than the aggregate indicator) varied between 0 and .13,6 so in every case the .15 

threshold was selecting for above average communities. A community which met or 

exceeded the threshold for any single indicator was selected. 

The selection procedure did not account for differences between dependence on 

and engagement in fishing, but future projects will. This was in part because NMFS 

guidance is still being revised on the meaning and application of these terms as contained 

in the MSFCMA, and in part because the fishery-specific information necessary for 

evaluating engagement separately had not been collected with the original dataset. Our 

expectation is that the procedure captured most Alaska communities that would qualify as 

engaged or dependent on the basis of commercial fisheries. 

Census Place-Level Communities 

An important aspect of this project is that it compiles data at the community level. 

However, it is not always clear what counts as a community, and what a community’s 

boundaries are. For the purposes of generating a list of communities from which to select, 

we generally considered as communities those localities listed as such in the various 

other databases we used. For the purposes of profiling, we generally treated as a 

community any location that the U.S. Census 2000 treats as a “place,”7 – either an 

incorporated community or a “census designated place” for unincorporated areas that are 

nonetheless recognized as place-level communities by the Census. Exceptions are noted 

below. 

Of course, much of the data in the databases on which we relied is taken from 

forms filled out by persons who are not concerned with issues of place or community. 

Thus, every database includes both a creative array of spellings of community names, 

which needed to be standardized in order to correctly count the data by community, and a 

variety of communities which are not recognized as such by the Census. For spelling 

issues, the USGS Geographical Names Information System was the final arbiter for 

disagreements. Zip code information, where available in the data, was particularly 

helpful in determining whether two communities had similar names, or one community 

had multiple spellings. For the permit data, spelling corrections were carried out by 

AKFIN. For all other data, spelling adjustments were carried out by the Alaska Fisheries 

Science Center. 

Communities listed in the fisheries information databases which were not 

considered as “places” by the Census -- and therefore did not have data for a place-level 

population -- were generally not included in the selection procedure. Some of these 

“communities,” such as “Bristol Bay,” arise in the data because a person recorded 

something other than a recognized community as their residence, or in the case of 

“Bristol Bay,” listed it as the homeport of their vessel. In other cases, the community or 

 Standard deviations varied from 1 to 22, with the standard deviation being higher than the mean in every 

case. Since the numbers used were full counts rather than the product of sampling procedures, the higherthan-the-mean standard deviations simply indicate a large amount of variation between communities. 

7

 “Place” refers to one of the geographies used by the US Census Bureau, which include geographies 

generally larger than place, such as state and county, and geographies generally smaller than place, such as 

tract and block group. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 

6
7

sub-community has been subsumed by a larger “place” in the U.S. Census. Where this 

latter situation was detected prior to the selection procedures, fisheries data for subcommunities were combined with fisheries data for the Census place-level community 

for the purpose of selection. More detailed information on these particular communities 

and situations is included in Appendix B. 

2.2 Indicators and Selection Thresholds 

The following procedures were used for each of the indicators to generate the list 

of communities. Together, these indicators produced data for 396 communities in 

Alaska, of which 249 had Census populations. Descriptive statistics for the indicators 

(i.e. ranges, means and standard deviations) showed a great deal of variation between 

communities, as illustrated in Table 2.1.1.8 Exceeding the threshold for any single 

indicator, including the aggregate indicator, was sufficient to trigger selection as a 

community to be profiled. 

1. Landings, Processors, and Number of Vessels Delivering. 

A) Tons of Landings. We collected landings data for all species combined 

delivered to shore-based processors in the community, based on state fish tickets. 

Landings were indicated in tons, except for communities with fewer than four processors 

where the landings data is confidential. For these communities, a -1 in the data we 

received indicated that there was some amount of landings, but the specific amount is 

confidential, while a 0 indicated that there were actually no landings recorded. 

B) Number of Processors. We collected data on the number of shoreside 

processors in the community that filed fish tickets with the state in 2000. 

Table 2.2 Descriptive Statistics for Indicators Across 396 Alaskan Communities 

Indicator Range Mean Standard Deviation 

1A. Tons of landings Descriptive statistics not valid because landings data 

for communities below the state confidentiality 

threshold of 4 processors was not collected. These 

communities were marked with a -1 to differentiate 

them from communities with 0 landings. 

1B. Number of Processors 0-13 0.46 1.71 

1C. Number of Vessels Delivering 0-946 33 128 

2. % Vessels Homeported 0-1.47 .10 .19 

3. % Vessel Owner Residences 0-1.69 .08 .16 

4. % Crew Licenses 0-.56 .00 .11 

5A. % Registered State Permits 0-1.80 .13 .22 

5B. % Fished State Permits 0-.97 .07 .13 

6. % State Setnet Permits 0-.23 .02 .04 

7. % Federal Vessel Permits 0-.13 .00 .01 

8. % Aggregated Indicators 0-6.38 .50 .76 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
8

C). Number of Vessels Delivering. We collected data on the number of unique 

vessels that delivered to processors in the community, based on state fish ticket data. 

In 2000 in Alaska, the three data sets, 1A, 1B, and 1C, apply to a co-extensive set 

of communities (i.e. each community which has landings also has a processor as well as 

some number of fishing vessels delivering, and no community had activity in just one or 

two of these indicators without the others), allowing the three to be treated as a single 

complex.9 We did not detect any communities with processors that did not also have 

landings, although it is possible that some fish were landed in one community, and then 

processed in another. Future assessments may include a separate indicator for processing 

based on data other than shoreside processor fish tickets. Communities with any activity 

in this complex of indicators were selected for profiling. 

2. Vessel Homeport Data. We summed the number of vessels homeported in each 

community in 2000. This number was then divided by the community’s population in 

2000. Communities above the threshold ratio of .15 (i.e. greater than or equal to .15 

vessels homeported per capita) were selected for profiling.10 

3. Vessel Owner Residence Data. We summed the number of vessels registered to 

an owner residing in each community in 2000. The number of vessels with owners in 

each community was divided by the community’s population in 2000. Communities 

above the threshold (i.e. greater than or equal to .15 vessels owned per capita) were 

selected for profiling. 

4. Crew License Data. We summed crew licenses issued in 2000 for each 

community, according to ADF&G crew license records. The number of crew licenses in a 

community was divided by its population in 2000, according to the U.S. Census. 

Communities above the threshold of .15 (i.e. 15% of the population held a crew license) 

were selected for profiling. 

5. State Fishing Permit Data. 

A) AKFIN provided us with a custom report summing by community the number 

of registered state-issued gear operator (i.e. commercial fishing) permits in 2000.11 The 

number of registered permits in each community was divided by its population in 2000 to 

obtain ratio of permits to population. Communities above the threshold of .15 (i.e. 

9

 In some regions of the United States, landings may occur in communities which have no processing 

plants. The fish are then trucked to another community where they are processed. Thus, the list of 

communities with some activity in 1A might not be the same as the communities showing activity in 

indicator 1B. In theory, there should not be any communities which indicate landings, but do not have any 

vessels delivering those landings. However, due to the normal error found in an extremely large database, 

it could be theoretically possible to find such a situation in the data. 

10 It should be noted that the designation of a home port is not necessarily linked to location or usage 

patterns of the vessel. It is simply any location designated by the owner at vessel registration. Future 

selection processes will not involve this indicator. 

11 Because unique gear operator permit numbers were used, the number of permits does not necessarily 

equal the number of permit holders. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
9

greater than or equal to .15 registered state-issued fishing permits per capita) were 

selected for profiling. 

B) The report also summed by community the number of state-issued fishing 

permits that were actually fished in 2000, based on cross-referencing with fish ticket 

records of landings. The number of fished permits in each community was divided by its 

population to obtain a ratio of fished permits to population. Communities above the 

threshold of .15 (i.e. greater than or equal to .15 fished permits per capita) were selected 

for profiling. 

6. State Setnet Permit Data. The AKFIN report also summed by community the 

number of state-issued setnet fishing permits in 2000. This data was treated separately 

from the gear operator permit data because it was provided that way by AKFIN, and 

because unlike other fisheries, setnet operations do not necessarily require a vessel. The 

number of setnet permits in each community was divided by its population in 2000 to 

obtain a ratio of permits to population. Communities above the threshold of .15 (i.e. 

greater than or equal to .15 setnet permits per capita) were selected for profiling. Data 

on active versus inactive setnet permits was not provided by AKFIN.12 

7. Federal Vessel Permit Data. The AKFIN report also summed the number of 

federal vessel permits registered to residents of the community. This number was then 

divided by the 2000 population to obtain the number of federal vessel permits per capita. 

It should be noted that no communities in Alaska had values above the .15 threshold. 

This does not mean that the .15 threshold is inappropriate for this indicator, but rather 

that concentrations of these permits are found in Washington and Oregon. The same 

procedure applied to Washington and Oregon community data does produce communities 

that rise above the threshold. This reflects the structure of these federal fisheries, 

compared to the state-permitted fisheries. 

8. Aggregated Indicators. Aggregate indicators can help to select communities 

that are close to the threshold in a number of indicators, but never rise above the mark in 

any particular indicator. We created a formula which aggregated the six indicators that 

had applied the .15 threshold (numbers two through seven) as follows: 

(Vessel Homeport Data [2] + Vessel Owner Residence Data [3] + Crew 

License Data [4] + State Fishing Permit Data [5A+5B] + State Setnet Permit 

Data [6] + Federal Vessel Permit Data [7]) ÷ Census 2000 population [SF1] 

The mean of the aggregated indicator values, .50, was used as the selection threshold. 

Two communities which did not exceed the threshold for any single indicator were added 

as a result of applying the aggregate indicator (Napakiak at .57 and Pilot Station at .51) 

12 Using indicators 4, 5, and 6 as selection criteria likely resulted in some individuals being counted more 

than once, since it is possible for an individual to be both a licensed crew member and a state permit holder. 

At present, it is not possible to track unique individuals across these different databases. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
10

2.3 Selected Communities 

Communities which met or exceeded the threshold in any one of the indicators 

were selected for profiling. Whether a community met or exceeded the threshold for one, 

many, or all of the indicators did not affect the amount of attention devoted to profiling it 

in this project. All communities, once selected by the above procedures, were given the 

same treatment. 

The selection procedures generated a list of 120 communities. By the time the 

final data was received and the final selection procedure implemented, the project team 

had already profiled 16 communities which met an earlier version of the selection 

criteria, but did not meet the final selection criteria. The earlier procedure was instituted 

before the profiling team had access to the permit and crew data, and was based solely on 

landings, processing plants, vessels delivering fish, vessels homeported, and vessel owner 

residences. This data was divided into different fisheries (crab, groundfish, sablefish, 

halibut, salmon, herring, scallops, and combined-federal), and communities were selected 

if they had a value of five or more for any one of the indicators in any one of the 

fisheries. The standard of selecting communities with a value of five or higher for any 

indicator was applied prior to our receiving the data and is a common method used at the 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center for reducing data. 

This original procedure was superseded by the one described above when we 

acquired the crew license and permit data sets, and when it became questionable whether 

the data allowed for reliable or meaningful divisions by the fisheries selected, and 

whether using a threshold based on a data value, rather than a ratio to population, was a 

valid method for ascertaining which communities had the most significant involvement in 

commercial fisheries. With a threshold set by an absolute number (a direct count from 

the data), rather than by a relative number (a ratio derived as indicator/population), it is 

easier for large communities, such as Fairbanks, Palmer, and Wasilla, to qualify because 

of their comparatively large population bases. The final selection procedure, based on 

per capita values, does not contain this bias.13 Because the profiles for these communities 

were already written, they have been included in this document, for a total of 136 

communities. All selected communities, along with a description of which selection 

criteria they met, are listed in Table 2.3. 

13 This “bias” in favor of large communities may not be a bias at all when specifically measuring 

engagement. It would depend on the specific fishery. However, the consensus on the meaning and 

measure of engagement was reached after this project was essentially completed. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
�������� �� � � �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

11

Table 2.3 Communities and selection criteria. 

����� �� ����������� ��� ��������� ���������

��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� �� ��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ������ ������ ��� �� ���� � ���� ��� �� ���� �� ��� �� ���� � ������� ����� ������������ ���� ������������ ���� ������������ ������� �� ������ ��������� ��������� �������� ��� �� ���� ������� ��� �� ����� ����� �� � �� �������� ���� ��������� ���������� ��� ������ ���� �������� �� �� ��� �������� �� �� ��� ������ ������� ������ �� �� ��� �� �� ���� ��� ��� �������� �������� ��� ��������� ���� ������� ���������� ������� ���� ������� ������ ���� ������� ���� ������� ���� ������� �������

��������� ��� ������ �� � ��� �� �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� � �� ��

���� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� �� ��� ��� � ��� ������� �� �� � � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���������� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ��� �

������ �� � � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� � �� ����� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� � �� ������ �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� � �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� �� � ��

���� ����� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������ �� �� � ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� �� ���� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� �

����� � �� �� ��

���� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ������ �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� ���� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� � �� ��� �� � � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� ����� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� � ����� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� �� ����� ��

�������� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�������� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� � �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� ���� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������ ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ �� �� ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ���� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ������ ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� � ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

Table 2.3 Communites and Selection Criteria

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
�������� �� � � �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

� ��

�� ��

�

12

������ ��� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� � �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� ���� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

Table 2.3 Communities and selection criteria.

����� �� ����������� ��� ��������� ��������� ������ ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

���� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� �� ���� � ������ �� � ��� �� � � ���� �������� � ��� �� � � �������� � ��� �� � � �� ���� � ������� ���� ��� �� ������� ��� �� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ������ ������ ��� �� ���� � ���� ��� �� ���� �� ��� �� ���� � ������� ����� ������������ ���� ������������ ���� ������������ ������� �� ������ ��������� � ��� �� ����� ������ ����� � ���� ���� �� ��������� �������� ��� �� ���� ������� �� ���� ������ �� ��� ������� ���� ���� ���� �� ��� �� �� ������� ��� ���������� ��� ������ ���� �������� �� �� ��� �������� �� �� ��� ������ ������� ������ �� �� ��� �� �� ���� ��� ��� �������� �������� ��� ��������� ���� ������� ���������� ����� ��� ��� ������� ���� ���� ������� ��� ���� ������� �������� ���� ������� ���� � ���� ���� ���� ������ � ������� ���� � �������

�������� �� �������� ��� ������ �� � ��� �� ��� �� � � � � � � � � � � � �� � �� �� ����� ����� � � � ���� � � � ���� � � � ���� � � � ���� � � ���� � � ���� � � ����� �� �� � ���� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� �� � ������ ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��� �� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������ ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� � ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� �� ��� � �� � ��� ���� �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������ �� �� � � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� �� ���� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��������� � �� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������ �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� ��� �� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ��� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������ �� � � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� � �� ����� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� � �� ������ �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����������� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� � �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ����� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� �� � �������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ����� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ �� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������ �� �� � ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ������ �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��� �� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� �� ���� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������

��� �

�� �

� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������ �������� ��� �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� ����

����� ���� ��� �

�� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� � � � � ����� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� �

����� ������� � � � ��� ���� ����� ��� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ���� ����� ������� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � � �� ���� �� ��� � ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ����� ���� ��� � �� �� ����� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��

���� �� ���� ���� �� � � �� �� � ����� �� � � � ����� ���� ������� ������ ��� ������ �� �� ���� ���� ����� ������ �

��� �� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��� �� �

��

���� �� �� �� ���� ����� ��� ���� ����� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������ � �� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ����� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������ �� � �� ��� �� � � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��� �� �� ��� �

�� �� ����� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���������� ���� �� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ �� � ���� � �� �� ���� ���� � � �� ��� ���� ��� ������ ����� � � ���� ��� ���� �� ���������� ��� � ��� ��

��� ���� �����

�� � �� �

� �� �

�� ����� �� ��� �

� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� �� � ��� ���� �� � ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ �� �� ��� �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� � ������ � ������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

� ��� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ��� �������� �� �� �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

����������������� ��� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � � �� ����

�� �� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��� ���� ������ � �� � � �� � � ���� ���� �� ����� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�������� ��

�� �� �� � � � ������� ����� ��� ��

���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� ������ �� ��� ��� � � � � � ���� ���� ���� ����

����� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� � �� �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� ������ ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ ���� �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ����

�������� ����� �� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������� ������������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��

� � ��������� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� �� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� ������ �� �

�� �� �� � ��� ���� ��

����� ��� ���� ���� � ��

� �� ���� ���� ����� � �� � ����� ����� ��� ���� � ����� ������ �� ���� ���� ������� ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� � �� ��� ���� � �� �� � ����� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ����� ������ ��

��� ����� ���� �

���� �� ���� ���� ���� �� �� � ���� �� ��� � � � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� � �� ���� ���� ���� � �� � � � � �� ���� �� �� � �� �� ���� ���� ������� ����� ������ � � ����� � � ������ ����� � � �������� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� ������� ��� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ����� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

����� �� �� ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� ��� ������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ���� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� � ���� ���� ���� �

���

���

� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

� �������� �� �� �

���� ������ ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ����� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ����

� �

����

���� ���� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� ���� ���� ��� �� � ��� ��� ���� ���� ���� � ����� ������ ��� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� ����� �

Table 2.3 Communites and Selection Criteria

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
�������� �� � � �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�� �

�

13 ���� ������� �� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������� ����� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� ����� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� � ������ � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

Table 2.3 Communities and selection criteria. ����� �� ����������� ��� ��������� ��������� �� �� � ����� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� � ���� � �� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� �� ���� �

� �� ��� ��� �� � � ������� ��� �� � ��� ���� ���� �� �� � � ���� ��� ���� ���� ��� �� � � �������� ��� �� �������� � ��� �� ����� �� � ��� �� ���� � ��� �� ���� � ������ ������ ��� �� ���� � ���� ��� �� ���� �� ��� �� ���� � ������� ����� ������������ ���� ������������ ���� ������������ ������� �� ������ ��������� ��������� �������� ��� �� ���� ������� ��� �� ����� ����� �� � �� �������� ���� ��������� �� ������� � � ������ �� �� ���� ��� ������� ��� � ���� ��� ������������� ���� ���� �������� ������ �� ��� �������� ������ �� ��� ������� ���������� ������ �� ��� ���� ���� �������� �������� ��� ��������� ���� ������� ���������� ������� ���� ������� ������ ���� ������� ���� ������� ���� ������� � ���� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������ ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� ��� � � �����

��������� ��� ������ �� � ��� �� �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� � �� ��

� �� � �� � �� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������������ �� ����� �� �� �� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

� �� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ��� �� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������ ��� � ���� ���� �������� ��� � � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����������� ��� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ����� ������ �� �� � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

����� �� �� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� �� �� �� �� ����� �� � ������� ����� ��� �� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � �� �� �� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ ���������� ��� � ����� � � ������� � ������� � ������� � ������ � � ������ � ������� �� �� ������� � ������� � � ����� � �������� ���� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� ���� � ����� � ����� � �� ��� � � � ���� � ������ � � ����� � � ���� � � � �

� � � � �� �� � � � � � ���� �� ���� ��� ���� �� � ����� �� � �� ��� � � � � �� �� � � � ���� �� ������ � � ������ � �� ��� � � � �

�� � � �� �� ��� �������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������������� ���� � �� � ��� �� � ������� � ����� �� �� � ��� � ������� � ����� ���� � �� ���� � � �� � ���� �� � � � ��� � �� � � � ��� �� �� � � � �� �� � � ������ � ���� �� �� ��� � � � ������ � ������ � � ������ � � �� �� � � ������� � � � ��� �� ����� �� ��� �� ��� �� � �� � �� ��� �� � �� ��� � � � � �� �� � � � ��� �� � �� ��� �� � �� ����� � � � �� ��� �� � �� ��� �� � � ������� � ���� � � � �� ��� �� ������� ���� ��� �� ������ �� ����� � �� ��� �� ������� � � � ��� �� � ������ ���� � �� ������ �� � � �� ��� �� �� ������ �� ������������� ������ �� ������� � ������ � ������� � ������� � �� � �� � �� ����� � ��� � � ������� �� ������� � ������� � ��������� ����� �� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ �� ��� ��� �� � ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���������� ���� � ���� �� � � � ���� � � � ����� � ������ ������� ����� � � � ��� �� � ����� �� ������ �� �� �� � � �� � �� �� � ��

����� ���� � � ���� � �� � � � � ����� � � � � ����� ������� � ������ ������� � ����� � � � � ��� �� � ���� � � � � � ���� � � �� � ��

� ��� ������� ��� � �� ��� � ��� ����� �� � ������� � ����� � � � ��� �� � ����� �� � �� �� � ������ � ������� �� � ����� ��

� � �� � � ������ � ������� � �� ����� �������� � � ���� ��� ������� � ������ ������� � � ����� �� � ������� � ����� ��

����� ����� ���� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� � �� ������ ��� �� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

���� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������� ������ �� ����� ���������� ����������� ���� ����� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������������ ��������� �� � ���� ���� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� ���� ������� ���� ���� ������ �� ����� ������ �� ���� ���� ���� �������� ���� ���� �� ��� ��� ���� �� ��� ��� ���� �� ��� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ����������� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� �����

���� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� �

������� ������ �� ��� ��� ����������� �� ���������� ���� ����� ������� ����� � � ����� � � ������ ������ ���� �� ��� ���� �� ����� � � � �� � � �� ���� ��� �� ��������� ��������� ���� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����

��� �� ���� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � ������� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����

�� ������� �� �� �� ���� ������� � ������� � ������� � �� ��� �� � � � ������� � �� ����� � �� ��� �� � �� ��� �� �

������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� � � ����������� ����� ����� ����������� �� �������� �� ��� ������� ��� ��� ���� ��� ������� �� ������� �� �������� ��������� �������� ��� ��������� ��� ����� ������������ ��� ��� ���� �������� ���� ������� ���� ������ ��� ���� ���� ��� ������ �������� �������� ���� �������� ������� ����� ����������� �� �������� �� ��� ������� ��� ��� ��������� ������������� �� �������� ��������� �������� ��� ��������� ��� ����� ������������ ��� ��� ���� �������� ���� ������� ���� ������ ��� ���� ���� ��� ��������� �������� ����� ���� �� � �� � �� � � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

��� ����������� ����� ���� ��������� �� �������� �� ��� ������� ��� ���������� �� �������� ��������� �������� �� ��������� ��� ���� ���������� ��� ��� ���� �������� �� ������� ���� ������ ��� ���� ������ ���� ��� ��������� �������� ��� �� �� ����� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

����� �� ����������� ���� �������� ����� �� ������� ��������� ������� ��� �������� ���� ��������� ������ ��� ����� ��������� �������� ���� ������������

����� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� � ����� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� �� ����� ��

�������� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�������� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��� �� �� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� �� ���� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ��������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� � �� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� �� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

�� ���� ��� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

������ ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������ �� �� ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ���� ��� � ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ����� ������ ��� � �� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ������� �� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �������� ��� � � ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �� � ��� �� ��� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� �

Table 2.3 Communites and Selection Criteria

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
14

2.4 Profile Structure and Sources 

Each community profile contains three sections: People and Place, Infrastructure, 

and Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries. People and Place describes the location, 

history, and basic demographic structure of the community. Infrastructure offers a 

picture of the current economic situation, the structure of governance, and the facilities of 

the community. Finally, Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries details the nature and 

level of community involvement in commercial, sport, and subsistence fishing. Below, 

we outline how we compiled and used the data for each of these sections. We also discuss 

some of the methodological challenges we encountered along the way, and how we 

sought to resolve them. 

People and Place. It was our intention to situate each community in time and 

space by providing information not only on the current condition of the community but 

also on its historical development. Each community is first described in terms of 

geographic location and demographics, followed by a brief account of local history. We 

used data from the U.S. Bureau of the Census14 and the Alaska Department of 

Community and Economic Development (DCED),15 as well as scholarly and popular 

works, to provide a rounded picture of each community. 

The depth of information available at the community level was highly variable 

from place to place. A wealth of information is available, for example, about urban 

centers such as Anchorage and Juneau, while information about smaller and more remote 

communities is less readily available. This is reflected in the level of detail with which 

we were able to portray the history and development of each community. 

Infrastructure. The infrastructure section is an overview of the economic, 

governmental, and physical infrastructures that support the community. The description 

of the current economy is useful for understanding where fishing stands in relation to 

other economic opportunities in a community, and predicting how a community might be 

affected when faced with a change in fishing patterns. Physical infrastructure -- as the 

foundation of a logistical basis for supporting both economic and social activities -- is 

also indicative of how a community may respond to change. Governance structures can 

vary tremendously within Alaska, with city, borough, Native village, and state interests 

each represented by separate entities. 

For data on the current economic conditions in each community we consulted the 

U.S. Bureau of the Census, as well as the Alaska Department of Community and 

14 We used Census data for the year 2000. The data specific to Alaska has been organized geographically 

by the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development. 

See: http://labor.state.ak.us/research/cgin/cenmaps/statemap.htm. The original Census data is available at 

the US Census Bureau’s American FactFinder site, http://factfinder.census.gov/home/saff/main.html. 

15 The Alaska Department of Community and Economic Development provides perhaps the most 

comprehensive information about the social and economic characteristics of Alaskan communities, 

boroughs, and census areas. The DCED home page is located at: http://www.dced.state.ak.us/home.htm. 

The community database online can be found at: 

http://www.dced.state.ak.us/cbd/commdb/CF_COMDB.htm#. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
15

Economic Development. The DCED also provided detailed information on the physical 

facilities in each community, including marine, sea and land-based facilities. Facilities 

information includes data on basic support systems such as roads, airports, docks, water, 

and electricity, as well as institutions which support the community such as schools, 

clinics, and public safety offices. This information was supplemented by data from the 

Bering Sea Communities and Fisheries Organization,16 a project conducted by the 

Tanadgusix Native Corporation, which often had information on non-profit organizations 

performing quasi-governmental tasks (social services, etc.). In addition, individual 

chambers of commerce, particularly for the larger communities, were consulted regarding 

local businesses and employment structures. 

We faced several challenges during the process of combining data from these 

disparate sources. Information on unemployment from the DCED, for example, 

occasionally did not match the information reported by the U.S. Census. In these cases, 

we opted to use the U.S. Census information, since DCED reports were extrapolations of 

the original census data. We report both the percentage of unemployed workers and the 

percentage not in the labor force (not seeking work) in order to provide as complete a 

picture as possible of unemployment for each community. 

Descriptions of physical and even social infrastructure may have a tendency to 

treat communities in isolation. However, the ways in which a community is connected to 

other places is a critical element of how it functions. Connectivity or isolation can affect 

language, culture, trade, tourism, health, opportunity, and quality of life – though it is not 

always possible to say in what manner, as individuals differ in what they consider 

desirable. Connectivity or isolation can also be difficult to measure, as actual travel is 

always more than a matter of mere distances. Cost, for example, may be more 

prohibitive of travel than distance. Weather patterns and landing/docking facilities may 

also affect connectivity/isolation. If a community’s air strip is inaccessible due to 

visibility or storm conditions for days at a time, price and distance may have less effect 

on participation in out-of-town business than weather windows. 

We provide estimates of distance between individual communities and 

Anchorage, the central economic hub in Alaska, with the assumption that access to urban 

power centers is an important part of participation in North Pacific Fisheries, and that 

Anchorage is the most consistent and influential locus (though not the only one) of 

fisheries governance. Juneau, the state capital, is also important in this respect, but is less 

of an economic center. Seattle is also very important, except that, from some Southeast 

locations, most air trips to Seattle probably go through Anchorage. 

More important than distance, in many ways, is cost of travel. Travelocity17 and 

Expedia,18 on-line travel planning services, provided information on the cost of air travel 

between each community and Anchorage; costs were based on travel during September, 

2003. For communities that were selected for profiling later in the process, travel costs 

16 The Bering Sea Communities and Fisheries Organization promotes community development and 

provides resources and networking opportunities for Native communities throughout Alaska. Their home 

page is located at: http://www.beringsea.com. 

17 Travelocity’s home page is located at: http://www.travelocity.com. 

18 Expedia’s home page is located at: http://www.expedia.com. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
16

were calculated based on travel during November and December, 2003. Although 

Anchorage is not the only place one might need to travel to participate in governance or 

other aspects of fisheries management, it is such a travel hub for the state that costs for 

continuing on to locations such as Seattle or Washington, DC may be assumed to be 

uniform. 

In addition to distance and travel information to Anchorage, we provide the 

location of the nearest offices of three governmental organizations important to the 

fishing industry: NOAA Fisheries (National Marine Fisheries Service),19 the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game,

20 and the U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services,21 formerly known as Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS). As the 

key bodies regulating fisheries, access to NOAA and ADF&G can help with the flow and 

clarification of information (from research reports to grounds closures), as well as 

influencing a community’s enfranchisement in a regulatory system. In addition, the 

location of permanent or semi-permanent U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services can affect the labor practices of industry, particularly the seafood processing 

sector, through level and intensity of monitoring, and may also affect use of local services 

by undocumented residents. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries. In nearly every case, the section on 

involvement in North Pacific fisheries is the longest and most detailed for each 

community. It was our goal to provide the most comprehensive information possible on 

commercial, sport, and subsistence fishing practices for each community, based on 

available data. Characterization of fisheries is both in terms of the nature and degree of 

involvement. The commercial fishing section contains information on vessel owners, 

crew members, commercial licenses by species and gear type, as well as information on 

landings and processing activities. Much of this information was compiled from Alaska’s 

Commercial Fisheries Entries Commission (CFEC) database.22 

We also reported on two recent programs designed to provide assistance to 

distressed sectors of the fishing industry, as these were indicative to some extent of the 

relative importance of two major issues facing numerous Alaska communities: falling 

salmon prices and Steller sea lion protection measures. We disclosed amounts received 

19 NOAA Fisheries’ Alaska Regional Office (http://www.fakr.noaa.gov/default.htm), provides a list of all 

branch offices in Alaska. 

20 The Alaska Department of Fish and Game, http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/. 

21 The U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services, formerly Immigration and Naturalization 

Services, http://uscis.gov/graphics/aboutus/thisisimm/index.htm, although the website does not post a 

complete list of field offices. Our list of Alcan, Anchorage, Dutch Harbor, Eagle, Fairbanks, Haines, 

Ketchikan, Kodiak, Nome, and Skagway was obtained through a personal communication with the Dutch 

Harbor office, June 2003. 

22 The Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission is an agency responsible for promoting the sustained-yield 

management of Alaska’s fishery resources by regulating entry into the fisheries. CFEC provides logs of all 

fishing permits issued by the State of Alaska. Such a permit is required to land fish at a shore-based 

processor, even if the fish were taken in a federally-regulated fishery. The CFEC Internet address is: 

http://www.cfec.state.ak.us/. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
17

by communities through the salmon disaster/revitalization funds provided by the State of 

Alaska in July 2003,23 and Stellar Sea Lion Mitigation Funds provided by the U.S. 

Congress through the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference (SWAMC).24 It should 

be noted, however, that each of these programs gave larger amounts of money to entities 

that were not communities, such as boroughs, or in the case of SWAMC, individuals and 

firms. These amounts are not reported. 

The sport fishing section outlines the major sport species in each community, as 

well as sport license sales and charter and guiding services. The Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game (ADF&G) provided the data for this section.25 We used guide business 

data from 2002, since 2000 data was not available and 2003 data was incomplete at the 

time of writing. 

The subsistence fishing section, based on data from the Subsistence Division of 

ADF&G, 26 provides a breakdown of subsistence activities in each community, including 

per capita harvests, percentage of households using subsistence resources, and the 

composition of subsistence harvests. Data is also noted regarding community eligibility 

for the new halibut subsistence program administered by NOAA, 27 and the number of 

subsistence salmon permits issued by the state.28 

Our team encountered various challenges while compiling data for the fisheries 

section. Many of the difficulties arose from the volume and complexity of CFEC data. 

Crew member counts for each community, for example, were reported differently by 

CFEC and ADF&G. This is because the CFEC matches individual crew license 

applications with permit holder data, and eliminates crew license holders who are also 

permit holders. In other words, the CFEC data attempts to eliminate double counting of 

permit-holding licensed crew members. We began working with the CFEC data for the 

year 2000, but it was removed from online access during the course of the project and 

CFEC was not able to provide us with the original data. We were able to obtain the 

original ADF&G crew license database for 2000, and began working with this data – 

replacing all earlier entries in order to achieve uniformity. Thus, in our community 

23 Amounts are posted at http://www.intrafish.com/images/salmonrevit.jpg 

24 Information on the amounts disbursed to communities under the Stellar Sea Lion Mitigation Program 

was not posted on the web, but was provided by Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference in response to a 

request for the data. 

25 The ADF&G Division of Sport Fish Registered Sport Fishing Guide Business lists are posted at 

http://www.sf.adfg.state.ak.us/statewide/sfguides/html/index.cfm. Data on Sport Fish Licenses for 2000 

was obtained on CD by request to ADF&G Division of Sport Fish, RTS. 

26 The ADF&G Division of Subsistence Community Profile Database is available for download at 

http://www.subsistence.adfg.state.ak.us/geninfo/publctns/cpdb.cfm. 

27 Federal Register Volume 68, No. 72, Tuesday, April 15, 2003, pp. 18157 - 18159 

28 ADF&G. 2001. Alaska Subsistence Fisheries 1999 Annual Report. Division of Subsistence, Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game, Juneau, Alaska. Available for download at 

http://www.subsistence.adfg.state.ak.us/geninfo/publctns/articles.cfm. Year 2000 report was not online at 

time of data collection, but is available now at same website. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
18

profiles, an individual that held both a commercial gear operator (fishing) permit and a 

crew license was counted as both a permit holder and a licensed crew member. 

In addition, the commercial fishing section of each profile contains an accounting 

of commercial gear operator permits in two different manners: those that are registered to 

community members (based on CFEC permit files) and those that were actually fished by 

community residents (based on fish ticket records). On occasion, the number of permits 

fished is greater than the number of permits issued. This is because “permit holders” are 

counted once by CFEC at the end of the season, while “permits fished” includes everyone 

who fished at any time during the course of the season. A higher number of fished 

permits than issued permits may be due to one of the following factors: 1) one or more 

permits were revoked during the course of the season, resulting in a lower count of permit 

holders at the season’s end; or 2) one or more permits were used by multiple fishermen 

under a temporary permitting system or permit transfer system. 

Another issue for the team was that certain types of fisheries-related data in 

Alaska are confidential under NOAA Administrative Order 216-100 and Alaska Statue 

16.05.815. The agreement between NMFS and ADF&G regarding the release of data 

obtained from state fish tickets requires at least four individuals or firms for a given 

statistic in order for that statistic to be made public. Some of the communities profiled in 

this document therefore contain no data on fish landings. In such cases, the profile 

indicates that one or two or three processors are present but contains a statement such as, 

“In accordance with confidentiality regulations, data for fish landings in the community 

is unavailable.” 

The subsistence fishing section brought unique challenges of its own. First, a 

shifting policy environment due to conflict between the State and the Federal 

governments has made the accounting of subsistence practices difficult. Federal authority 

was extended over subsistence management on federal waters in Alaska in 1999 under 

Title VIII of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA). An 

interagency Federal Subsistence Board is managing most federal subsistence fishing, 

except for subsistence halibut, which, as a marine species, is now regulated by NMFS in 

conjunction with the North Pacific Fishery Management Council. Thus, subsistence 

fishing in a given community may be taking place under any of three jurisdictions: the 

State of Alaska, the Federal Subsistence Board, and the National Marine Fisheries 

Service. 

In addition, because separate management of subsistence on federal lands is 

relatively new, some of the programs and regulations are still being developed. For 

example, the NMFS registration for subsistence halibut permits was underway as this 

document was being composed, and so it would not have been accurate to report on the 

number of permits issued per community, as the number was changing on an almost daily 

basis. Also, several communities profiled in this document—including Adak and 

Ninilchik—are in the process of appealing federal decisions governing their access to 

subsistence resources. 

Finally, we relied on the quantitative characterization of subsistence harvesting 

provided by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game’s Division of Subsistence 

electronic Community Profile Database (CPDB). The CPDB provided adequate data for 

most of our selected communities; however, the data was collected during different years 

for different communities. Where more than one year of data was available for a 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
19

community, we used the year designated as most representative of the community’s 

practices by ADF&G. In addition, ADF&G subsistence data is often lacking for a given 

community – and this is particularly true for the communities selected in Western Alaska, 

where subsistence uses are known to be high. In some cases, additional data on wild food 

harvests were found in Wolfe (1997).29 Finally, it should be noted that the subsistence 

database contains harvest information for resources taken under a variety of regulations, 

including subsistence regulations, commercial fishery removals, and in some cases, 

recreational regulations (e.g., as per Fall et al. 2000). There is legitimate scholarly and 

policy debate over whether such harvests may all be considered subsistence. Although 

the CPDB uses the terminology of subsistence, it is probably more accurate to say that it 

reports on “home use” (J. Fall, ADF&G Division of Subsistence, personal 

communication 2003). In some, but not all, communities, home use and subsistence use 

are essentially the same. 

Combined Communities 

It is important to note that many communities in this document are extremely 

intertwined socially and economically with neighboring communities. It is also the case 

that community boundaries are defined and recognized differently by different agencies, 

and in different situations. We found that two of our most important data sources, the 

U.S. Census and the Alaska CFEC did not always correspond in their treatment of 

intertwined communities. Thus, for some communities, the CFEC listed separate 

fisheries information for two nearby places, while the US Census gives place-level 

information that treats the two as one. In addition, we also encountered communities 

which were named in non-CFEC fisheries data (e.g. fish tickets or vessel registrations), 

but for which no Census information was available. We dealt with these cross-agency 

community designation disparities and other data gaps, on a case-by-case basis. More 

detailed information on each case is available in Appendix B. 

2.5 Figures and Graphs 

In addition to the narrative community profiles, each community has an 

associated set of figures that are graphical displays of demographic data. There are five 

per community, each displaying data that is also included in the narrative section, and a 

sixth graph for communities with group housing. The five graphs in each community are 

for the following social indicators: employment structure, population structure, race, 

ethnicity, and group housing. All of the data for the graphs comes from the 2000 U.S. 

Census. A brief description of the types of information conveyed in each graph follows, 

along with a graph with the information for Alaska and for the United States. These may 

be referred to later in order to provide context for the graphs for each community. 

29 Available online at http://www.subsistence.adfg.state.ak.us/download/nutri97.pdf. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
20

o Employment Structure - A pie chart displays information about employment, 

including percentages for employed, unemployed, armed services personnel, and 

persons not seeking employment. 

Figure 2.5-1Employment Structure Alaska 

2000 Employment Structure 

Alaska Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces 

4% 

Employed 

61% 

Unemployed 

6% 

Not Seeking 

29% 

Figure 2.5-2 Employment Structure United States 

2000 Employment Structure 

United States Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces 

1% 

Employed 

59% 

Unemployed 

4% 

Not Seeking 

36% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
21

o Population Structure – a bi-directional bar chart indicating both age (in 10 year 

intervals) and gender (male = left bars, female = right bars) of the population, 

known as a “population pyramid.” Many of the population pyramids in fishing 

communities show a distinct bulge of working-age males that is unusual when 

compared to more typical population pyramids. For comparison of general 

shapes, the population pyramids for the State of Alaska, the United States, and the 

World are reproduced below. World population is included because it best 

exemplifies the theoretical population structure against which other structures can 

be compared. The State and national structures are included because they provide 

relevant geographical units against which a particular community may be 

compared. Because many Alaska villages had very small populations, we used 10 

year intervals, which create smoother diagrams. The diagrams below, created 

from very large populations, use 5 year intervals. 

Figure 2.5-3 Population Structure Alaska Figure 2.5-4 Population Structure United States 

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 

Percent 

0-4 

5-9 

10-14 

15-19 

20-24 

25-29 

30-34 

35-39 

40-44 

45-49 

50-54 

55-59 

60-64 

65-69 

70-74 

75-79 

80-84 

85+ 

Age 

Alaska 

4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 

Percent 

0-4 

5-9 

10-14 

15-19 

20-24 

25-29 

30-34 

35-39 

40-44 

45-49 

50-54 

55-59 

60-64 

65-69 

70-74 

75-79 

80-84 

85+ 

Age 

USA 

Data Source: Census 2000 as analyzed by the Social Data Source: Census 2000 as analyzed by the Social 

Science Analysis Network (SSDAN), CensusScope Science Analysis Network (SSDAN), CensusScope 

Figure 2.5-5 Population Structure World 

8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 

0-4 

5-9 

10-14 

15-19 

20-24 

25-29 

30-34 

35-39 

40-44 

45-49 

50-54 

55-59 

60-64 

65-69 

70-74 

75+ 

Age 

World 

Percent 

Data Source: Oxford Concise Atlas of the World, 2001 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
22

o Race – taken from U.S. Census data, using their mandated minimum five 

categories: American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Black or African American, 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and White. For space reasons in the 

graphs, we shorten three of the terms as follows: Native (for American Indian or 

Alaska Native), Black (for Black or African American), and Pacific Islander (for 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander). 

Figure 2.5-6 Racial Structure Alaska 

2000 Racial Structure 

Alaska Data source: US Census 

Other Two or more 2% 

4% 

White 

68% 

Black 

4% 

Pacific Islander 

1% 

races 

5% 

Asian 

Native 

16% 

Figure 2.5-7 Racial Structure United States 

2000 Racial Structure 

United States Data source: US Census 

White 

75% 

Pacific Islander 

0% 

Asian 

4% Native 

1% 

Black 

12% 

Other 

6% Two or more 

races 

2% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
23

o Ethnicity – the U.S. Census Bureau has designated Hispanic or Latino identity as 

an ethnic rather than a racial category. Federal agencies are required to comply 

with Census standards in reporting this information.30 Thus, the two possible 

ethnicities, shortened for space reasons in the charts to Hispanic and nonHispanic, are reported in a pie-chart format separate from Race. Hispanics and 

Latinos may be of any race. 

Figure 2.5-8 Ethnic Structure Alaska 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Alaska Data source: US Census 

Hispanic 

4% 

Non-hispanic 

96% 

Figure 2.5-9 Ethnic Structure United States 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

United States Data source: US Census 

Hispanic 

13% 

Non-hispanic 

87% 

30 See http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/race/racefactcb.html for an explanation of the 

categories and standards. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
24

o Group Housing – information on group housing is only reported for communities 

where group housing exists. Any community without a group housing chart may 

be assumed to consist of 100% non-group housing. Group housing is reported in 

a multi-parameter bar chart (% group housing and % non-group housing) for both 

the 1990 and 2000 Census. Since the vast majority of group housing indicated in 

these graphs is corporate-sponsored housing for seafood industry workers, change 

between 1990 and 2000 may indicate changes in the seafood processing industry. 

In these charts, “non-group housing” includes single and multi-family households, 

military housing, and institutional (schools, hospitals) housing. 

Figure 2.5-10 Percentage Living in Group Quarters Alaska 

% Group Quarters 

Alaska Data source: US Census 

120 

100 

80 

3.8

96.2

3.1

96.9

Non-group quarters 60 

Group quarters 

40 

20 

0 

1990 2000 

Figure 2.5-11 Percentage Living in Group Quarters United States 

% Group Quarters 

United States Data source: US Census 

120 

100 

80 

2.7

97.3

2.8

98.2

Non-group quarters 60 

Group quarters 

40 

20 

0 

1990 2000 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
25

2.6 Community Comments 

After drafting the Alaska community profiles, the profiling team made a 

substantial effort to solicit comments and suggestions for improvement to the draft from 

within NOAA and from representatives of the communities profiled. Initially, the draft 

introduction and methods section, along with a few example profiles, were circulated 

within NOAA for internal review. Comments were also sought from other social 

scientists. The introduction and methods section was then revised in response to these 

comments, and this second draft was mailed to a series of contacts within the 

communities profiled, along with the relevant community profile, asking for their 

comments, corrections, and other suggested changes. 

The process of requesting comments from communities began with the 

formulation of a list of official contacts within the community, compiled from the State 

of Alaska Department of Community and Economic Development’s Community 

Database Online, as well as from the Bering Sea Fishermen’s Association Community 

Development Quota Website, and internet searches for additional information. We 

included governmental bodies, such as city governments and village councils, as well as 

quasi-governmental resource management bodies such as village Native corporations, 

regional Native corporations, and Community Development Quota (CDQ) groups. The 

goal was to involve a broad representation of any particular community, through official 

representative bodies, without creating an overwhelming task. The ability to locate 

contact information for the organizations was also a factor in compiling the list. 

Unfortunately, no contact information of any kind was located for 15 communities.31 A 

total of 296 separate organizations were contacted by mail for the remaining 121 

communities included in the profiling effort. 

In only 29 of the 136 communities was it possible to contact all five types of 

organizations. About two-thirds (68.4%) of the communities were not part of CDQ 

groups, about one-third (33.1%) of the communities were part of neither a village Native 

corporation nor a regional Native corporation, 27.9% of the communities did not have a 

village council active in the community, and 19.1% did not have a city government of 

any kind operating in the community. 

An initial letter was sent out to the list of community contacts to inform them of 

the project and to alert them that the profiles would soon be mailed to their community 

for comments. The letter requested that if the recipient was not the correct person to 

review the profiles, that the correct person and contact information be indicated to the 

profiling team. Many contact people requested, by telephone, mail, email or fax, that the 

profiles be sent to someone else in the community. In response, we updated the contact 

list as appropriate. The letter had the additional effect of alerting other people in the 

communities to the project and the request for comments, and many of these people 

requested information or copies of the profiles. 

Some weeks following, the profiles were mailed to the revised list of community 

contacts. The profiles were sent with their corresponding graphs, along with the 

introduction and methods section, a pre-addressed and pre-stamped return envelope, and 

31 Alitak Bay, Auke Bay (included in Juneau profile and mailed to Juneau contacts), Clam Gulch, 

Excursion Inlet, Fritz Creek, Girdwood (included in Anchorage profile and mailed to Anchorage contacts), 

Halibut Cove, Hobart Bay, Kasilof, Meyers Chuck, Nikolaevsk, Port Moller, Prudhoe Bay, Sterling, and 

Ward Cove (included in Ketchikan profile and mailed to Ketchikan contacts). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
26

an accompanying cover letter. Comments received by February 2005 were incorporated 

into the document, at which time the final text was sent through the AFSC publications 

process. 

Comments were received by mail, email, fax, and telephone from a total of 44 

separate organizations representing 52 communities. Thus, of the 296 organizations from 

which we solicited comments, the response rate was 15%, and information was received 

about 43% of the 121 communities contacted. 

Respondents included city governments, village councils, village corporations, 

two CDQ groups (one group commented on four communities and the other gave general 

comments) and one regional Native corporation (which commented on five 

communities), as well as an unsolicited regional non-profit Native organization and two 

other unsolicited regional non-profit organizations. As shown in Figure 1, the largest 

number of comments were received from city governments and from village councils; 

following were the village Native corporations, other organizations, CDQ groups, and the 

regional Native corporations. Some of the comments were returned to us without any 

form of identification and it is not known who responded. For the most part comments 

were only received from one organization in each community; however in some cases a 

few organizations in a community responded with comments (three communities had 

comments from two organizations and three communities had comments from three 

organizations). 

Figure 2.6 Responses to Request for Review by Type of Respondent.

∗ 

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

City 

Village Council 

Regional Corp. 

Other Org. 

Village Corp. 

CDQ group 

Unknown 

Types of respondents 

Number of r

e

spons

es 

Review of the profiles was apparently taken on by community members in a 

variety of different ways: at least one community presented the profile at their City 

∗

 In several organizations multiple members in the same organization submitted their comments, which we 

considered one response by that organization. Comments were also in some cases received for multiple 

communities from one organization (i.e. for CDQ groups and Regional Corporations with interests in many 

communities) which was considered one response as well for the purposes of representation in a graphical 

form. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
27

Council Meeting and addressed the needed corrections at that time; others, it appears, 

passed the profile around to a few people within the organization or community in 

general; and some provided their city’s visitor’s guide as an information source. However 

the communities chose to deal with the process of providing of comments, they were 

immensely helpful. 

Overall, the reaction to the profiles project was positive and those community 

members who responded appeared to be enthusiastic about the profiling effort and 

appreciative of the opportunity to give suggestions. The content of the comments ranged 

from indicating that there were no corrections to be made, to providing a complex 

description of how subsistence in the village is affected by regulations, and providing 

whole sections to add to the profile from an already existing source. Some comments 

included a detailed review of the profile text, indicating such things as incorrect names, 

whereas others included few or no suggestions, and still others did not pertain directly to 

the text. 

For the majority of comments, the corrections suggested were to the data elements 

included in the facilities and governance sections, specifically correcting such things as 

village school information, the type of garbage collection/disposal, barge service, harbor 

information, lodging, the borough the community is included in, number of city council 

members or type of government, heating method, health care center, taxes, plumbing, 

transportation, and so on. These comments were particularly welcomed by the profiling 

team, since our limited resources sometimes prevented us from gathering information in 

this level of detail. Corrections were also included for such things as misspellings, the 

year a particular event occurred, general history, sport fishing information (such as 

species and lodges), businesses located in the community, processor information, and 

changes to commercial fishing permit information. 

Disagreements with the Census data (demographics and employment) were 

expressed somewhat frequently, as were problems with the aggregation of fishing data 

for multiple communities as presented by the Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(CFEC). In such cases, data from published sources were still relied upon, even if 

changes were suggested, in order to maintain the same standard for all profiles. These 

comments prompted us to check our sources, and numerical changes were made only if a 

recording error had been made; however in some cases the qualitative description was 

changed based on the comments received. 

The comments provided were incorporated into the text using the editors’ best 

judgment. Community members were considered experts on their own communities; 

however, in a few cases the suggested changes or additions could not be made for reasons 

of length or uniformity. For suggestions regarding facilities, governance, and history, 

community members’ comments were in most cases directly incorporated. The types of 

comments that could not be incorporated tended to be general suggestions for the 

complete document which were not feasible given the scope, time frame, and resources 

of the project. A number of these general suggestions were constructive and will be 

noted for future profiling efforts. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
3.0 OVERVIEW 

Our goal in this project was to select communities for profiling from the whole of 

Alaskan communities. With the exception of three communities that had fish landings but 

no Census Place-level populations,1 selected communities had to first have some fishery 

data associated with them in the Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (CFEC) or 

ADF&G fish ticket database, and second be recognized as a “Place” by the Census in 

2000. The 2000 Census reports a total of 349 “Places” in Alaska; these are cities, towns, 

and communities with populations. Of these, 248 had commercial fishery data associated 

with them.

2

 This was the total pool of Alaskan communities involved in North Pacific 

commercial fisheries from which we selected communities for inclusion in the profile 

project. Applying the selection criteria described in the Methods section of this 

document, we selected 120 communities for profiling. In addition, we had already 

profiled 16 other communities as described in the Methods section, for a total of 136 

community profiles. Of that 136, three were not recognized as Places by the Census. As 

a result, of the 349 Census-recognized Places in Alaska in 2000, 71% (248) were 

involved to some degree in commercial fishing, and just over half of these (133, or 38% 

of Census-recognized Places) were profiled in this document. 

These numbers say several things about the nature of community involvement in 

commercial fishing in Alaska. First, the breadth of commercial fishery involvement is 

significant. More than two-thirds of communities in the state were involved in 

commercial fishing-related activities with some CFEC or ADF&G data associated with 

them. Second, it is striking that more than one-third of Alaskan communities were 

involved enough in fishing to meet the selection criteria for this project. This substantial 

degree of participation points toward the significance of fishery-related activity to the 

overall economy and social organization of Alaska. 

This section of the profile document is meant to serve as an overview of the 

communities selected for this project. It provides aggregate information for these 

communities as well as a context in which to interpret this information. 

3.1 People and Place 

3.1.1. Location 

Vast in scale and diverse in latitude and topography, Alaska exhibits tremendous 

variation in its climate, from maritime climatic zones in the Gulf of Alaska to arctic zones 

in the far north. All regions, however, are influenced to some extent by storms from the 

North Pacific Ocean as they move eastward from Asia. There is also a great deal of 

variability in Alaska’s weather from one year to the next, primarily due to the shifting 

path of the jet stream. 

Climate, topography and latitude all have an influence on the ecology of Alaska’s 

different regions, and these ecological differences in turn determine the species 

composition of fish and patterns of human use. Alaska’s ecology produces a variety of 

fish, including 436 species: 52 freshwater or anadromous species and 384 saltwater 

species (Armstrong 1996). From pelagic species to estuarine species to freshwater fish 

1

 Alitak Bay, Ekuk, and Port Moller. 2

 An additional 147 communities had some fishery data associated with them but were not recognized as

“Places” by the Census in 2000. Three of these communities (Port Moller, Ekuk, and Alitak Bay) were

selected for inclusion in the profiles project because they had recorded fish landings. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 

28
living in inland lakes and streams, Alaska produces a huge volume of aquatic life. The 

people who live in Alaska—Native groups whose ancestral history in the region stretches 

back thousands of years, and newly arrived residents alike—have co-evolved with 

Alaska’s marine life, and have come to depend on it for their livelihoods. 

Figure 3.1.1 shows the location of the 136 Alaskan communities selected for 

profiling in this document. Their geographical dispersion reflects several phenomena. 

From an ecological perspective, these communities, with a few exceptions, are located on 

or near the coastline where dependence on marine resources might be expected to be 

high. Their locations also reflect historical patterns of settlement, first by Alaska Natives 

and, beginning in the 18th century, by Europeans. 

Figure 3.1.1 Selected Communities Involved in Fishing in Alaska 

Map by Angie Grieg, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NMFS 

3.1.2 Demographic Profile 

The communities we selected for profiling all share in common a reliance on 

fishery-related activities, but they represent a vast range of diverse demographic, socioeconomic and historical conditions. In terms of size, some communities, like Anchorage, 

are large municipalities that serve as regional economic hubs, while other communities 

are relatively isolated and have only a few dozen inhabitants. There are 145 city 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 

29
governments in Alaska3

 and 16 organized boroughs (Bockhorst 2001). A First Class 

City, or Home Rule City, must have at least 400 permanent residents. A city may 

incorporate as Second Class if it has 25 voters. In the rest of the United States, the 

difference between a 400-person and a 25-person (voter) community would hardly be 

recognized, since both communities would be considered quite small. But in Alaska, 400 

residents is relatively substantial. Of the 349 Census communities (Places) in Alaska, 

63% (221 communities) have fewer than 400 residents, with 6% (21 communities) 

having fewer than 25 residents (see Table 3.1.2-1). Other States – California is given 

below as a comparative example – have a very small percentage of their populations 

living in communities of less than 400. 

Table 3.1.2-1 Census Places in Alaska and California by population size, and cumulative percent. 

Population 

≤25 

25-400 

Census Places 

in Alaska 

21 

200 

Cumulative 

% 

6% 

63% 

Census Places in 

California 

(for comparative 

purposes) 

10 

89 

Cumulative % 

1% 

9% 

400-12,000 125 99% 579 63% 

12,000+ 3 100% 403 100% 

The 249 communities for which there is both a Census place-level population and 

a record of commercial fisheries data are distributed similarly to the Alaska Census 

places. Sixty percent (150 communities) have fewer than 400 residents with 4% (10 

communities) having fewer than 25. Places with populations under 12,000 comprise 99% 

of the 249 Alaska communities involved in commercial fisheries. Of the 128 Census 

places profiled, 56.3% (72 communities) have fewer than 400 residents, and 5.5% (7 

communities) have fewer than 25 residents. Places with populations under 12,000 

comprise 96.9% of the 128 Census places profiled in this document. 

One of the most important stories that emerges from these community profiles is 

how quickly many Alaskan communities have experienced demographic change. 

Population numbers in certain communities have swelled in recent years, a trend that is in 

large measure driven by fishery-related activities. Unalaska, for example, transformed 

itself from a community of less than 200 in 1970 into a booming small city of more than 

4,000 residents in 2000. This dramatic transformation coincided with the MagnusonStevens Fisheries Management and Conservation Act’s “Americanization” of the 

groundfish fleet in North Pacific waters and the subsequent growth of the fish processing 

industry, both onshore and at sea. Communities in Southeast Alaska underwent a similar 

transformation in response to the growth of the international market in salmon, which has 

been tempered in recent years by foreign competition. In general, communities that have 

experienced rapid population growth have also seen an influx of racial and ethnic 

minorities—particularly Asians and Latinos—as the fishing industry has become a global 

3

 Incorporated cities are automatically recognized by the Census as Places. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 

30
enterprise that draws labor from around the world. By contrast, many Native 

communities that participate in commercial fishing have lived in situ for centuries and 

have maintained relatively stable populations since the beginning of the U.S. Census 

data. Some communities have experienced population decline in recent years as local 

economic conditions (especially those recently influenced by global trends) make getting 

by more difficult and opportunities elsewhere draw residents away. 

When considering a snapshot of the nation’s population as provided by the 

decennial U.S. Census, the population is segmented into racial categories (White, Black, 

Alaska Native or American Indian, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 

Some Other Race, and Two or More Races) as well as ethnic categories (Hispanic or 

Non-Hispanic). The profiles supply this snapshot for each selected Alaskan community, 

which is followed by a historical account of the community which helps explain and 

contextualize the contemporary composition of the specific communities’ populations. 

In 2000 about 75.1% of the United States was White, according to the U.S. 

Census. By comparison, about 69.3% of the population of Alaska was White. For the 

communities profiled in this document, the average percentage of White residents was 

approximately 39.2%, with a range from 0% to 100% (see Table 3.1.2-2). Approximately 

38% of the profiled communities had a population that was more than 50% White in 

2000. Many of the profiled communities with the highest percentages of White residents 

are located in Southeast Alaska or on the Kenai Peninsula, both areas which had a large 

boom of White settlers partly because of resource extraction—Southeast Alaska in the 

late 1800s and early 1900s, and the Kenai Peninsula in the 1950s. Today, both areas are 

also the densest sites of sport fishing in the state, providing sport lodges and a plethora of 

guiding services. 

Table 3.1.2-2 Top Ten Profiled Communities by White Percentage of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

% 

White 

Region 

1 Ekuk 2 100 Western 

2 Excursion Inlet 10 100 Southeast 

3 Halibut Cove 35 97.1 Kenai 

4 Whale Pass 58 96.6 Southeast 

5 Edna Bay 49 95.9 Southeast 

6 Elfin Cove 32 93.8 Southeast 

7 Fritz Creek 1,603 93 Prince William Sound 

8 Skwentna 111 92.8 Anchorage-Matsu 

9 Sterling 4,705 92.7 Kenai 

10 Clam Gulch 173 92.5 Kenai 

Source: 2000 U.S. Census 

The United States consisted of about 12.3% Black or African American residents 

in 2000. By comparison, Alaska’s population was about 3.5% Black. On average, those 

communities selected for profiling were only about 0.4% Black, with a range from 0% to 

11.2% (see Table 3.1.2-3). About 35.9% of the profiled communities included residents 

who identified themselves as Black. The largest communities in the state contain higher 

percentages of Black or African American residents than other communities (Fairbanks 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 

31
11.2%, Anchorage 5.8%, and Juneau 0.8%). The remaining communities with higher 

percentages of Black residents are located for the most part in on the Alaska Peninsula 

and Aleutian Islands. 

Table 3.1.2-3 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Black Percentage of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

% 

Black 

Region 

1 Fairbanks 30,224 11.2 Interior 

2 Anchorage 260,283 5.8 Anchorage-Matsu 

3 Unalaska/Dutch 

Harbor 4,283 3.7 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

4 Seward 2,830 2.4 Kenai 

5 Akutan 713 2.1 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

6 Napakiak 353 1.7 Western 

7 King Cove 792 1.6 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

8 South Naknek 137 1.5 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

9 Sand Point 952 1.5 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

10 Adak 316 1.3 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

Source: 2000 U.S. Census 

In 2000 the U.S. was about 0.9% Alaska Native or American Indian, whereas 

Alaska was about 15.6%. Of the profiled communities, the average composition was 

about 52.4% Alaska Native or American Indian only. The communities ranged from 0% 

Alaska Native or American Indian to 98.9%, with over half of the profiled communities 

having more than 50% Alaska Native or American Indian residents. When the percent 

reporting Alaska Native or American Indian identity in combination with one or more 

race is added, the number is even higher; about 57.8% of the profiled communities were 

comprised of more than 50% Native residents (see Table 3.1.2-4). The profiled 

communities with the highest percentages of Native residents are predominantly located 

in Western Alaska and have populations ranging from 107 to 644 persons. Western 

Alaska is home to a predominantly Native population, in part because the region has a 

less extensive history of European colonization and natural resource extraction compared 

to other areas of the state. 

Table 3.1.2-4 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Native Percentage of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

% 

Native* 

Region 

1 Tuntutuliak 370 98.9 Western 

2 Perryville 107 98.1 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

3 Chefornak 394 98 Western 

4 Kipnuk 644 98 Western 

5 Kwigillingok 338 97.9 Western 

6 Marshall 349 97.7 Western 

7 Toksook Bay 532 97.6 Western 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 

32
8 Pilot Station 550 97.6 Western 

9 Scammon Bay 465 97.4 Western 

10 Quinhagak 555 97.3 Western 

*Percent reporting Alaska Native or American Indian alone or in combination with one or more race. 

Source: State of Alaska, Department of Commerce, Department of Community and Economic 

Development 

In 2000 about 3.6% of the population of the United States was Asian; in Alaska 

about 4% of the population was Asian. Of the profiled communities, Asians accounted 

for 2% of the population on average, with a range from 0% to 38.6% (see Table 3.1.2-5). 

The communities with the largest percentages of Asian residents are primarily major 

fishing ports with large fish processing plants. Fish processing remains an under-studied 

sector of Alaska’s fisheries; however, according to anecdotal evidence, Asian migrant 

workers, particularly from the Philippines and other areas of Southeast and East Asia, 

make up a large portion of fish processing workers in many communities. Unalaska, for 

example, has a particularly high percentage of Filipino processing workers. About 46.7% 

of the profiled communities did not include any Asian residents. 

Table 3.1.2-5 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Asian Percentage of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

% 

Asian 

Region 

1 Akutan 713 38.6 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

2 Kodiak 6,334 31.7 Kodiak 

3 Unalaska/Dutch Harbor 4,283 30.6 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

4 King Cove 792 26.7 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

5 Sand Point 952 23.3 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

6 Cordova 2,454 10.1 Prince William 

7 Adak 316 9.8 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

8 Whittier 182 7.1 Prince William 

9 Ketchikan 7,922 6.9 Southeast 

10 Anchorage 260,283 5.5 Anchorage-Matsu 

Source: 2000 U. S. Census 

About 0.1% of the population of the United States in 2000 was comprised of 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders. By comparison, Native Hawaiians or Other 

Pacific Islanders made up about 0.5% Alaska’s population. The average percentage of the 

profiled communities was 0.2%, with a range from 0% to 3.1% (see Table 3.1.2-6). Only 

about 27.3% of the profiled communities included any Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific 

Islanders. Many of the communities with the highest percentages of Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islanders are small communities where one person or one family can have a 

large impact on the percentages. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 

33
Table 3.1.2-6 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 

Percentage of Population 

34

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

% Native 

Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific 

Islander 

Region 

1 Elfin Cove 32 3.1 Southeast 

2 Chignik Bay 79 2.5 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

3 Adak 316 1.9 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

4 Clark's Point 75 1.3 Western 

5 Nikolaevsk 345 1.2 Kenai 

6 Atka 92 1.1 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

7 Tenakee Springs 104 1 Southeast 

8 Kodiak 6,334 0.9 Kodiak 

9 Anchorage 260,283 0.9 Anchorage-Matsu 

10 Yakutat 680 0.9 Southeast 

Source: 2000 U.S. Census 

About 12.5% of the population of the United States was Hispanic in 2000; 

whereas Hispanics comprised only 4.1% of Alaska’s population. On average, 

communities selected for profiling were only 1.8% Hispanic, with a range of 0% to 

20.8% (see Table 3.1.2-7). Communities with the highest percentage of Hispanic 

residents tend to be heavily involved in fish processing, which provides job opportunities 

for seasonal workers. Many of these communities are located on the Alaska Peninsula 

and the Aleutian Islands. 

Table 3.1.2-7 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Hispanic Percentage of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

% 

Hispanic 

Region 

1 Akutan 713 20.8 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

2 Sand Point 952 13.6 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

3 Unalaska/Dutch Harbor 4283 12.9 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

4 Kodiak 6334 8.5 Kodiak 

5 King Cove 792 7.4 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

6 Egegik 116 6.9 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

7 Whale Pass 58 6.9 Southeast 

8 Fairbanks 30224 6.1 Interior 

9 Anchorage 260,283 5.7 Anchorage-Matsu 

10 Angoon 572 5.4 Southeast 

Source: 2000 U.S. Census 

The ratio of men to women in many Alaskan communities tells the peculiar story 

of labor mobility in industries such as fishing and oil extraction. Most of the communities 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
35

profiled in this document have more men than women, but this is particularly true of 

communities that rely heavily on fishing and fish processing. When compared both to the 

World (50.4% male) and the United States (49.1% male), which are approximately 

equally distributed, and even when compared to the disproportionately male State of 

Alaska (51.7% male), a majority of the communities profiled in this document are 

predominantly male. Over 70% of the profiled communities had male percentage greater 

than the state average of 51.7%, according to the 2000 U.S. Census. A considerable 

number of those communities which have the highest ratio of men to women are located 

in Southwest Alaska (in the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands), and in Southeast 

Alaska (see Table 3.1.2-8). Both of these areas are heavily involved in commercial 

fishing and fish processing, labor sectors that tend to be male-dominated. 

Table 3.1.2-8 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Male Percentage of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

% Male Region 

1 Excursion Inlet 10 80 Southeast 

2 Akutan 713 77 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

3 Ivanof Bay 22 72.7 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

4 Hobart Bay 3 66.7 Southeast 

5 Unalaska/Dutch Harbor 4,283 66.1 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

6 Adak 316 64.9 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

7 Sand Point 952 62.3 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

8 Skwentna 111 62.2 Anchorage-Matsu 

9 Edna Bay 49 61.2 Southeast 

10 Port Protection 63 60.3 Southeast 

Source: 2000 U.S. Census 

By contrast, large communities, communities with less transient employment 

opportunities, and some traditional Native communities, tend to be much more balanced 

in terms of gender composition. Anchorage (50.6% male), Ketchikan (50.4% male), and 

Juneau (50.4% male) are all relatively balanced in terms of gender composition and all 

have large populations by Alaska standards. These communities also have a wider variety 

of employment opportunities such as tourism, finance, real estate, communications, 

government, mining, timber, and oil and gas industries. These more metropolitan 

communities follow the relatively balanced gender pattern of other major metropolitan 

areas in the United States. Some remote and largely Native communities, such as 

Newhalen (50% male) and Hooper Bay (49.7% male), have very balanced gender 

structures as well, in part because of the somewhat more limited commercial fishing 

opportunities; neither community had a fish processing plant. Atka, Ekuk, and False Pass 

all have exactly balanced gender structures; each of these communities has a population 

under 100 and lack commercial crew or processing employment. 

Some communities selected for profiling have more females than males, but this 

is considerably less common, with only 12.5% of the communities included in this 

document having more than 50% women (see Table 3.1.2-9) 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Table 3.1.2-9 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Female Percentage of Population 

36

Rank Community 2000 

population 

% 

Female 

Region 

1 Igiugig 53 56.6 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

2 Pilot Point 100 56 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

3 Pedro Bay 50 56 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

4 Twin Hills 69 55.1 Western 

5 Ouzinkie 225 54.2 Kodiak 

6 Port Alsworth 104 53.8 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

7 Soldotna 3759 52.4 Kenai 

8 Saint George 152 52 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

9 Chignik Lake 145 51.7 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

10 Scammon Bay 465 51.4 Western 

The age structure in many of the communities in this document is also telling. The 

average age of communities selected for profiling is 32.7 years, significantly younger 

than the U.S. average of 35.3 years. Over 60% of the communities profiled in this 

document have a lower median age than the U.S. average (see Table 3.1.2-10). This is 

due in part to the physical demands of the work and the transient nature of employment in 

fishing and fish processing. It is also influenced by the relative absence of the elderly in 

the small coastal communities of Alaska, except in traditionally Native communities (see 

Table 3.1.2-11). This trend toward a young working-age population with few elderly 

residents holds true for the entire State of Alaska, which has a median age of 32.4 years, 

2.9 years younger than that of the U.S. age median. 

Table 3.1.2-10 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Lowest Age Median of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

Age 

Median 

Region 

Prudhoe Bay 5 11.5 Northern 

Portage Creek 36 14 Western 

Scammon Bay 465 18.3 Western 

Hooper Bay 1014 18.4 Western 

Kotlik 591 18.5 Western 

Pilot Station 550 19.5 Western 

Newhalen 160 20.5 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

Kipnuk 644 20.6 Western 

Newtok 321 20.7 Western 

Chefornak 394 20.8 Western 

Source: 2000 U.S. Census 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
37

Table 3.1.2-11 Top Ten Profiled Communities by Highest Age Median of Population 

Rank Community 2000 

Population 

Age 

Median 

Region 

1 Ekuk 2 75 Western 

2 Excursion Inlet 10 60 Southeast 

3 Ugashik 11 50.5 AK Pen/Aleutian Is. 

4 Meyers Chuck 21 50.3 Southeast 

5 Elfin Cove 32 47.5 Southeast 

6 Halibut Cove 35 47.3 Kenai 

7 Tenakee Springs 104 46.6 Southeast 

8 Seldovia 286 45.3 Kenai 

9 Skwentna 111 44.6 Anchorage-Matsu 

10 Hobart Bay 3 44.5 Southeast 

Source: 2000 U.S. Census 

3.1.3 History 

Although the precise date of initial occupation of Alaska’s coastline is still 

somewhat in dispute, it is widely confirmed that people from northeast Asia came to 

Alaska during the peak of the last glacial period more than 10,000 years ago (Ames and 

Maschner 1999: 57). These early arrivals spread across the coastal (and later interior) 

lands of Alaska, and gave rise to quite different material cultures, languages, subsistence 

patterns and cultural identities. There are twenty Alaska Native languages from four 

distinct language families: Eskimo-Aleut, Tsimshian, Haida, and Athabascan-EyakTlingit. Migration, descent, and cultural diffusion over the millennia help to explain the 

complex cultural mosaic that is Native Alaska. 

The history of contact between Europeans and Alaska Natives is turbulent and 

ever-changing. The first European to enter Alaskan territory was Vitus Bering, who, sent 

by Peter the Great of Russia in 1728, sailed into the strait that now bears his name. By the 

mid-18th century, the intensive resource extraction that would characterize Alaska’s 

colonial history had begun: Russian expeditions began harvesting North Pacific sea otters 

and fur seals in great quantities for the international market. This early contact for 

primarily economic purposes resulted in a long and significant cultural exchange; many 

coastal communities throughout Alaska have residents with Russian surnames and 

maintain a faith in the Russian Orthodox Church. 

In 1867, the United States government purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 

million. The deal, signed by Secretary of State William H. Seward, was widely referred 

to as “Seward’s Folly,” as most U.S. citizens could see no use or value in acquiring 

586,000 square miles of northern land (Gislason no date). Throughout the mid- and late19th century, gold was discovered in various locations, including near Sitka, Windham 

Bay, Gastineau, and, most famously, at the mouth of the Klondike River in 1897, 

beginning the great Klondike gold rush. Many North American towns and cities, 

including the metropolis of Seattle, owe their early population growth in part to the 

Alaskan gold rush, which brought supply-hungry miners, explorers and settlers to the 

area. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
38

Military operations have long been an important part of Alaska’s history. Early 

operations were in support of trading companies, targeting fractious Native groups, as 

with the shelling of Angoon in 1882. In 1942, during the height of World War II, the 

Japanese attacked Dutch Harbor where the U.S. had amassed a force 40,000, including 

civilian support personnel (Rourke 1997). The Japanese attacked and occupied the island 

of Attu, taking the Aleut residents back to Japan as prisoners (Mitchell 2000). The US 

responded by forcibly evacuating the entire Aleut population and holding them in 

internment camps in Southeast Alaska for the duration of the war (Kohlhoff 1995). The 

war also precipitated the Alaska-Canada highway, built through about 1500 miles of 

Canadian wilderness in just eight months as an overland supply route to the territory, and 

used today by thousands of adventurous tourists each summer. In the 1960’s and 70’s, 

the United States used the Aleutian Islands as a nuclear weapons testing ground, 

exploding three devices including the largest underground nuclear explosion ever 

conducted by the United States (Kohlhoff 2002). Although the end of the Cold War 

changed Alaska’s immediate strategic position, it is still a critical part of U.S .presence in 

the Pacific. Most recently, Adak was selected as a key site for the new U.S. missile 

defense system. 

Beginning in the early 1900s, and expanding in the 1950s, oil extraction has been 

a mainstay of the state economy. With the completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline from 

Prudhoe Bay to Valdez in 1977, Alaskan oil began flowing in high volumes to the U.S. 

and international markets. In 1980, the Alaska Legislature established the Alaska 

Dividend Fund to distribute Permanent Fund earnings from oil extraction on the North 

Slope to Alaska residents. For all its benefits, the oil industry in Alaska also brings 

significant risks and liabilities. In what has become one of the most widely publicized 

environmental disasters and clean-up efforts in history, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran 

aground on March 24, 1989, spilling 11 million gallons, and fouling shoreline from 

Prince William Sound to the Alaska Peninsula. 

Marine species were among the earliest and most important of Alaska’s 

commercial resources, especially marine mammals. The fur trade, based on sea otter and 

fur seals, drove the economics of the Russian colonial empire. Commercial whaling was 

an important factor in the late 19th century. Some marine mammal populations have 

recovered from over-exploitation, while other populations remain low or are declining, 

affecting subsistence users and commercial fisheries. 

Commercial fisheries began in the mid 1800s with salted cod, and later canned 

salmon. Lucrative offshore fisheries were conducted by fishing fleets from Russia, Japan 

and Korea, until the 1976 Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act claimed 

the area between 3 and 200 miles offshore as the exclusive economic zone of the United 

States (Rigby et al, 1995). Crab and other shellfish, herring, halibut, salmon and 

groundfish have all contributed to this important industry for the state, supporting a 

fishing economy that ranges from family fishing operations to multinational corporations, 

and transforming the social landscape by the immigration of workers from around the 

world. 

Alaska’s economic, social and cultural milieu continues to evolve. Major 

industries including oil, military, and commercial fishing remain tremendously important 

to the state’s continued growth. At the same time, new sectors such as tourism have 

begun to contribute noticeably to Alaska’s economy. Cruise ships, recreational fishing 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
39

excursions, cultural tourism and eco-tourism are on the rise as people from around the 

world discover Alaska’s unique character. 

3.2 Infrastructure 

3.2.1 Current Economy 

Important Economic Sectors 

One way of analyzing the importance of a given economic sector to the state’s 

economy and operations is to look at its share in state government operating revenues. 

The State of Alaska’s total revenue intake in fiscal year 2000 amounted to $6.9 billion. 

Of this sum, investment earnings (both restricted and unrestricted) provided 34.5%, 

followed closely by oil (both restricted and unrestricted) at 34.3%. Other restricted and 

non-restricted revenue sources (including taxes on alcohol and tobacco, general corporate 

taxes, licenses and permits, federal funds, etc.) amounted to 31.1% of total state revenues. 

Fish taxes, which will be described in greater detail in the next section on Alaska’s 

governance structure, were considered “other unrestricted” and constituted just 0.3% of 

total state government revenues in fiscal year 2000 (Alaska Department of Revenue 

2000). 

 Employment figures tell a slightly different story. There were 284,000 workers in 

Alaska in 2000. The government sector—including federal, state and local levels—was 

the largest in terms of employment figures, with 74,500 jobs, followed by 

services/miscellaneous (73,300), trade (57,000), transportation, communications and 

utilities (27,300), manufacturing (13,800, with seafood processing contributing the bulk 

of jobs at 8,300) and mining (10,300, with oil and gas extraction contributing the most 

jobs at 8,800) (Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development 2001). 

Employment in commercial fishing has declined over the past decade but remains an 

important factor in the statewide employment picture (Carothers and Sepez 2005). 

 Throughout 2000, the service sector—especially health care and business services— 

showed the strongest growth in terms of job-creation in the state. Manufacturing, 

meanwhile, and particularly natural resource processing (timber and seafood processing) 

have experienced steady declines. This is in part due to lower salmon harvests because of 

falling prices and foreign competition. (Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce 

Development 2001). Despite this decline, the commercial fishing and fish processing 

industries remain an important factor in Alaska’s employment picture. 

3.2.2 Governance 

The governance structure of Alaska differs from that of the other United States. 

The state is divided into 13 home-rule and second-class boroughs which are roughly 

analogous to counties in many other states, though certainly larger in terms of land and 

smaller in terms of population than a typical county (see Figure 3.2.2). In addition, there 

are three “unified municipalities” (Anchorage, Juneau and Sitka) that are borough-level 

jurisdictions. However; not every community is contained in an organized borough and in 

fact, much of the state’s land mass is not included within the borders of the 16 organized 

boroughs35, which comprise less than 30% of the state. In all other states in the Union, 

35 Aleutians East Borough, Municipality of Anchorage, Bristol Bay Borough, Denali Borough, Fairbanks 

North Star Borough, Haines Borough, City and Borough of Juneau, Kenai Peninsula Borough, Ketchikan 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
40

the standard composition includes all cities within counties, or in the case of the State of 

Louisiana, parishes; all communities thus have a resulting form of higher governance and 

the services which are provided normally by that county/parish level. County-level 

services include in many cases: court services, housing, emergency, solid waste, 

transportation and additional community services. 

Of the Alaskan communities profiled in this document, only 46.3% of 

communities are part of an organized borough. When considering all communities in the 

state, the percentage is even less: only about 44.9% of communities reported on by the 

State of Alaska Department of Commerce Community and Economic Development were 

located within an organized borough. 

Figure 3.2.2 Selected Communities Showing Boroughs 

Map by Angie Grieg, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NMFS 

Although fewer than 50% of Alaskan communities are located within organized 

boroughs, boroughs play a vital part in the governance and support of communities that 

Gateway Borough, Kodiak Island Borough, Lake & Peninsula Borough, Matanuska-Susitna Borough, 

North Slope Borough, Northwest Arctic Borough, City and Borough of Sitka, and City and Borough of 

Yakutat. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
41

are located within them. In the case of the Kenai Peninsula Borough, for example, the 

borough devotes a 2% consumer sales tax to the schools of the borough. Other typical 

responsibilities of borough-level government include: solid waste disposal, 911 

communications, college funding, senior citizen funding, planning and zoning, solid 

waste disposal, education, and tax assessment and collection (Kenai Peninsula Borough 

2005). Boroughs have the ability to institute taxes including such taxes as: sales and use 

tax and property tax. 

In Alaska, an incorporated place falls into one of three municipal classifications: 

home rule cities, first class cities, and second class cities. City classification depends 

largely on population. Home-rule and first-class cities must each have at least 400 

residents, while second-class cities must have at least 25 registered voters. The 

municipal classification scheme determines the powers that municipalities may exercise, 

including the passage of land use regulation and the assessment and collection of taxes. 

Many Alaskan communities are unincorporated, and so do not fall under the municipal 

system, although most of these are nonetheless designated as Places by the Census. The 

communities profiled in this document are divided between various types of 

incorporation, but are made up largely of second-class cities or unincorporated 

communities, although some first-class cities and unified home rule municipalities were 

selected for profiling (see Table 3.2.2-1). Approximately 57.4% of the communities 

profiled in this document have incorporated status of some form; by contrast, Alaskan 

communities as a whole have an incorporation rate of 39% (see Table 3.2.2-2). 

Table 3.2.2-1 Profiled Communities by Type of Incorporation 

Type of Incorporation Number Percent of 

Communities 

First Class City 17 12.5% 

Second Class City 47 34.6% 

Home Rule 11 8.1% 

Unified Home Rule 

Municipalities* 3 2.2% 

Unincorporated 58 42.6% 

Total 136 

*Includes: Anchorage, Juneau, and Sitka. 

Source: State of Alaska, Department of Commerce, Department of Community and Economic 

Development 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
Table 3.2.2-2 Percent of Profiled Communities Compared to Percent of All Alaska Communities by 

Type of Incorporation 

42

Type of Incorporation Percent of 

Profiled 

Communities 

Percent of Alaska 

Communities 

First Class City 12.5% 5.2% 

Second Class City 34.6% 29.7% 

Home Rule 8.1% 3.4% 

Unified Home Rule 

Municipalities* 2.2% 0.8% 

Unincorporated 42.6% 61.0% 

*Includes: Anchorage, Juneau, and Sitka. 

Source: State of Alaska, Department of Commerce, Department of Community and Economic 

Development 

Communities generate revenue in a variety of ways, including the implementation 

of taxes, the sale of permits, involvement in enterprise, and through outside funding 

programs. Incorporated communities have two types of municipal revenues: local 

operating revenues (generated from taxes, licenses/permits, service charges, bingo, 

enterprise, and other sources) and outside operating revenues (generated from federal 

operating revenues, state revenue sharing, state safe communities, state fish tax sharing, 

other state revenue, and other inter-government sources), and state/federal education 

funds. For many communities, much of their local operating revenue (and much of their 

total revenue in general) is generated by locally administered taxes, which may include 

sales tax, property tax, accommodations tax, bed tax, rental car tax, raw fish tax (see Fish 

Taxes in Alaska section), alcohol tax, tobacco tax, and gaming tax. In Anchorage, for 

example, municipality-administered taxes, including property, bed, rental car, cigarettes, 

and other tobacco products tax, generated $324,217,752 of revenue locally (out of a total 

$535,756,277 in local operating revenue) for the year 2002. 

Unincorporated communities and communities located outside of organized 

boroughs are eligible for the State Revenue Sharing (SRS) program (as are communities 

which are incorporated which are in either an organized or unorganized borough). This 

program helps to fund public services including education, water and sewer, police, road 

maintenance, health care, and fire protection (State of Alaska, Department of Commerce, 

Department of Community Advocacy 2002). 

Alaska is the only state that does not collect state sales or income tax (sales tax in 

many cases is collected by cities and boroughs). However, other state taxes are in place 

including: alcoholic beverages, games of chance and contests of skill, conservation 

surcharge on oil, corporate net income, dive fishery management assessment, electric 

cooperative, estate (phased out in 2003), fisheries business, fishery resource landing, 

mining license, motor fuel, oil & gas property, oil & gas production, regulatory cost 

charge, salmon enhancement, salmon marketing (repealed 2005), telephone cooperative, 

tire fee, tobacco, and vehicle rental tax. The largest percentage of General Fund taxes 

collected in 2000 by the State was made-up of oil & gas severance (production tax and 

conservation surcharge) which was 53% of the $1,334,388,911 in total tax collections. A 

large percentage as well of the total taxes were from other oil and gas taxes: oil & gas 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
43

property (20%) and oil & gas corporate (12%). The remaining pieces of the total tax 

collections were made-up of: other corporation (4%), fisheries business (3%), other 

fisheries (1%), motor fuel (3%), tobacco (1%), alcohol (1%), and other taxes (2%) 

(Alaska Department of Revenue, Tax Division 2000). 

In addition to money provided at the higher levels of the State of Alaska, 

boroughs, and communities, all Alaskan residents36 individually receive dividends by 

mail annually from the Alaska Permanent Fund. The Fund has distributed an average of 

$1,040.42 per year (between $331.29 in 1984 at the lowest amount and $1,963.86 at the 

highest in 2000) to each resident since 1982 (State of Alaska, Permanent Fund Dividend 

Division 2005). The Permanent Fund Dividend (PFD) “provides for equal distribution of 

the oil wealth” income earned by the State of Alaska through investments in capital 

markets (Kasson 1997). According to Fund Law in Article IX, Section 15 of the Alaska 

Constitution, it is required that “at least twenty-five percent of all mineral lease rentals, 

royalties, royalty sale proceeds, federal mineral revenue-sharing payments and bonuses 

received by the state shall be placed in a permanent fund, the principal of which shall be 

used only for those income producing investments.” The realized earnings of the Fund 

supply residents with their dividends through a formula which considers the Fund’s 

Statutory Net Income from the previous five years, in order to maintain a relatively 

constant amount awarded to citizens each year (Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation 

2005). 

Permanent Fund dividends are in many cases a significant source of income for 

state residents, particularly in lower income families, who receive dividend payments for 

each family member in the autumn of every year. This large lump sum can provide 

opportunities for a family who is not otherwise able to be granted a loan or have access in 

general to larger sums with which to make large purchases. The social impacts of the 

Permanent Fund have never been formally studied; however this is one of the generally 

recognized impacts of the annual Permanent Fund distribution (Goldsmith 2002). It 

manifests in, for example, advertisements from new and used car dealers timed to target 

permanent fund recipients. 

Village councils are the politically representative bodies of federally recognized 

Alaskan Native groups. A village council is either an Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) 

council or a traditional council. There are over 226 Native village councils in the State of 

Alaska. Some communities which have village councils also have a municipal city 

government, and some do not. Of the profiled communities, about 71.3% contained a 

village council. Of all the communities in the State of Alaska (as enumerated in the State 

of Alaska Department of Commerce Department of Community and Economic 

Development database), about 59.3% had a village council. 

Many communities have additional layers of tribal representation through Alaska 

Native Claims Settlement Act village and regional corporations that manage natural 

resources. There are 13 such Native regional corporations (12 for the state, and one to 

represent those living outside of Alaska), 168 village corporations, and four urban 

corporations. Government social services are frequently provided by regional non-profit 

associations. The resulting multi-faceted governance of each community is discussed in 

the profiles. 

36 Equal payments are made to all six-month residents of the state. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
44

Fish Taxes in Alaska 

Taxes generated by the fishing industry, particularly the fish processing sector, 

are a very important revenue source for communities, boroughs and the state. The 

Fisheries Business Tax, begun in 1913, is levied on businesses that process or export 

fisheries resources from Alaska. The tax is generally levied on the act of processing, but 

it is often referred to as a “raw fish tax,” since it is based on the ex-vessel value paid to 

commercial fishers for their catch. Tax rates vary under the Fisheries Business Tax, 

depending on a variety of factors, including how well established the fishery is, and 

whether processing takes place on a shoreside or offshore processing facility. Although 

the Fisheries Business Tax is typically administered and collected by the individual 

boroughs, revenue from the tax is deposited in Alaska’s General Fund. According to state 

statute, each year the state legislature appropriates half the revenue from the tax to the 

municipality where processing takes place or to the Department of Community and 

Economic Development. The Fisheries Business Tax contributed $18.2 million in fiscal 

year 2000 to total Alaska state revenue (Alaska Department of Revenue 2000). 

In addition to the Fisheries Business Tax, the state has collected the Fishery 

Resource Landing Tax since 1993. This tax is levied on processed fishery resources that 

were first landed in Alaska, whether they are destined for local consumption or shipment 

abroad. This tax is collected primarily from catcher-processor and at-sea processor 

vessels that process fishery resources outside of the state’s three-mile management 

jurisdiction, but within the US Exclusive Economic Zone, and bring their products into 

Alaska for transshipment to other locales. Fishery Resource Landing Tax rates vary from 

1% to 3%, depending on whether the resource is classified as “established” or 

“developing.” According to state statute, all revenue from the Fishery Resource Landing 

Tax is deposited in the state’s General Fund, but half of the revenue is available for 

sharing with municipalities (Alaska State Tax Sourcebook 2003). The Fishery Resource 

Landing Tax contributed $2.2 million in fiscal year 2000 to total Alaska state revenue. 

Taken together, the Fisheries Business Tax and the Fishery Resource Landing Tax make 

up only a small portion of Alaska’s budget, contributing only 0.3% of total state fiscal 

revenues in 2000 (Alaska Department of Revenue 2000). 

3.2.3 Facilities 

Because economic development tends to vary tremendously across different 

regions of Alaska, the communities profiled in this document are quite different from one 

another in terms of accessibility. While some communities such as Anchorage, Dutch 

Harbor/Unalaska, and Bethel have airport facilities capable of landing jet aircraft at them, 

others have only small airstrips; still others are accessible primarily by sea. Many small 

communities in the Bethel and Dillingham Census Areas of Western Alaska, for example, 

have no roads at all, relying primarily on marine and river transport, and in some places, 

winter ice landing strips; ground transportation in these areas is by ATVs in the summer 

and snow machines in the winter. 

Similarly, there is a great deal of variation between the communities in terms of 

marine and other facilities, and this variation is underpinned by significant differences in 

economic development. Kodiak, for example, which serves as a major commercial 

fishing and seafood processing center, has two boat harbors with moorage for 600 vessels 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
45

and three commercial piers. Thirteen commercial seafood processors operate in Kodiak. 

By contrast, many of the smaller coastal communities, especially in Western and 

Northern Alaska, lack dock and harbor facilities. Many of these communities do not have 

stores, and residents rely on coastal supply shipments by barge from Seattle. Where there 

are no harbor facilities, residents must use small skiffs to offload the supplies and ferry 

them to shore. Although fishing activity occurs in these areas and provides a vital source 

of employment and income, the relative underdevelopment of infrastructure and facilities 

remains a significant barrier to economic development. 

In addition to marine facilities, there is tremendous variation in access to other 

types of facilities, such as hospitals, hotels, and shopping centers. A few large 

metropolises and many smaller micropolises serve as regional hubs, providing an array of 

services to surrounding villages. 

3.3 Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

3.3.1 Commercial Fishing 

The profiles in this document examine Alaska communities and their involvement 

in North Pacific fisheries. Even with brief regional introductions however, analysis at the 

community level of geography does not allow for the larger picture of fisheries in Alaska 

to emerge. In view of that, the following section examines statewide fisheries data in 

order to provide a rough picture of the larger fisheries context in which the selected 

communities operate. 

In particular, fisheries in Alaska have a high volume of landings compared to 

other areas of the country. The industry supplies the largest source of employment in the 

state through harvesting and processing jobs, and the economic activity of fishing 

produces important sources of both private and public (tax) income. Each of these topics 

will be discussed more below. Together, they indicate that Alaska is a very important 

contributor to US fisheries, and that the fishing industry is a very important aspect of 

Alaska’s economy. 

A notable characteristic of Alaska fisheries from a statewide perspective is that 

the types of fisheries conducted are fairly diverse. Groundfish, salmon, crab, and herring 

all make substantial contributions to the state’s fishery profile, and except for herring, 

each of those resource groupings involves multiple species which can be very different 

from one another. These fisheries are engaged in by a diverse fishing fleet with vessels 

ranging in size from small skiffs to more than 300 feet. These vessels utilize many 

harvest methods, including pelagic trawl, bottom trawl, troll, longline, purse seine, drift 

gillnet, setnet, pot, jig, and other commercial gear types. Divided, as they are, by species, 

gear type, vessel size and management area, the state limited entry permit system issues 

harvest permits in 292 different categories (State of Alaska, Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission 2005). However, this diversity at the state level does not necessarily 

translate to communities. While a few communities, such as Kodiak, participate in the 

broadest range of fisheries, most communities are sustained largely by a single dominant 

fishery and/or gear type. 

The North Pacific’s commercial fisheries have changed through time with 

increased technology, man-power, demand, legislation, and the changing of hands of 

ownership from Russia to the United States. The 1860s brought the first considerable 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
46

commercial harvests by U.S fishermen, which were focused on Pacific cod. Salmon 

canning and salting operations developed after the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 

1867, and the increased United States interest in Alaska fisheries. Halibut, herring, crab, 

other groundfish, as well as other species were added to the catch statistics lists over the 

next century, as they increased in the amount commercially harvested (Rigby et. al 1995). 

The groundfish fisheries have developed in recent years to exceed the amount of salmon 

harvested in terms of volume, and also in terms of landings. In the 1990s, crab rivaled the 

highly profitable salmon industry; however today both crab and salmon have declined 

immensely from their peaks in the 80s and groundfish is the leader of the North Pacific 

fisheries. 

Salmon: For the year 2003, the Alaska Fisheries Information Network (AKFIN) 

estimated that about 286,003 metric tons of salmon were landed commercially in Alaska 

for a total value of approximately $168 million. The majority of commercial salmon are 

caught using troll, gillnet, and purse seine gear; customarily on a large number of small 

boats. Five salmon species are commercially harvested: pink salmon, sockeye or red 

salmon, chum or dog salmon, coho or silver salmon, and king or Chinook salmon (in 

order of largest 2003 landings in metric tons of Alaska commercial catch). According to 

AKFIN, of the salmon species commercially harvested in 2003, sockeye had the highest 

exvessel value of about $108.3 million, pink came in second at about $24.3 million, chum 

at $13.8 million, coho at $12.4 million, and lastly king at $9.3 million. The exvessel 

value paid to fishermen for their salmon has declined over the years from highs in 1988 at 

above $700 million, to the utmost lows in 2002 at about $162 million (Gilbertson 2003 

and ADF&G Division of Commercial Fisheries 2005). Landings numbers have remained 

relatively stable in comparison, over that time. 

The profitability of salmon for Alaskan fishermen has gone down greatly in the 

last two decades, brought about largely by the year round availability of farmed salmon 

to the world, mostly grown in Chile and British Columbia, Canada (farming salmon is not 

allowed by law in the State of Alaska). Correspondingly the value of fishermen’s permits, 

vessels and gear, and the amount of money received for their catch have crashed, despite 

the fact that the commercial catches of wild Alaska salmon continue to be high. From the 

years of 1990 to 2000, the number of salmon fishermen declined by 37% which also 

resulted in a decline in the number of opportunities for crewmembers. Processors in many 

cases have dealt with this collapse in salmon prices with plant closings and the 

consolidation of operations, including the ceasing of salmon operations by the Wards 

Cove Packing Company in 2002 (Gilbertsen 2003), which has likely adversely affected 

many rural Alaskan communities included in this document. In July of 2003 checks were 

mailed from the Department of Community and Economic Development to 63 coastal 

communities and boroughs for a total of $7 million in federal salmon disaster funds, 

ranging from $500 at the minimum, up to $1.7 million at the highest allocation. Amounts 

were allocated to those municipalities to which salmon processing was “an important 

economic activity” (State of Alaska 2003). 

Crab: AKFIN estimated that about 25,834 metric tons of crab was landed 

commercially in Alaska in 2003 for value of approximately $166 million. Crab is 

commercially harvested in the North Pacific using pot gear or ring nets. The baited pots 

range in different sizes to catch different target species, and target species are also caught 

at varying depths ranging from 20m for Dungeness, up to 200-1000m for golden king 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
47

crab. Seven species of crab are commercially caught in the Bering Sea: red king crab, 

blue king crab, golden king crab, Tanner crab (bairdi and opilio), snow crab, hair crab, 

and Dungeness crab (Rigby et. al 1995). The commercial crab catch rate today is a far cry 

from the crab heyday of 1980; however, recently with the elimination of the extremely 

dangerous derby style crab fisheries and the implementation of an IFQ system, the fishery 

will likely become much safer with a lower number of fatalities. The 2005 crab season 

was the last derby style crab fishery. 

Initially, Bering Sea crab was targeted by Japanese trawlers starting in the late 

1800s with a break during World War II, with Japanese fishers returning in the mid1950s. In the 1920s American boats began fishing in Cook Inlet, Kodiak, and the Alaska 

Peninsula and the first crab cannery opened at that time. Crabbing was revolutionized 

with the freezing of catches which had never been done before. In 1959 tangle nets and 

trawlers were banned in the state of Alaska and it was necessary that crab fishermen find 

a new harvest method. Alaskan crabbers developed new pots based on those used by 

fishermen in the Lower 48, but immensely stronger – in the end weighing up to 800 

pounds and reaching eight feet by three feet. In the 1960s the demand and price for crab 

increased and by the end of that decade the crab fisheries around the Alaska Peninsula 

and Kodiak had decreased and fishermen’s attention was focused on the eastern Bering 

Sea where “the average boat’s catch quadrupled from 1968 to 1978” and prices rose 

immensely “from 38 cents a pound to $1.23 in four years” (Gay 1997). Fortunes could be 

made overnight or at least in a short crabbing season for both boat owners and 

crewmembers and money flowed freely. 

The peak of the Bristol Bay king crab fishery was in 1980, where 130 million 

pounds was landed by a fleet of 236 boats in fewer than six weeks, for an average amount 

landed per boat of $500,000, and an average crew share of about $10,000 per week. 

Suddenly the next year the fishery crashed to only 34 million pounds landed, and in 1982 

only 3 million were landed (Gay 1997). It’s still not totally clear as to why the fishery 

crashed so suddenly, but it still has never recovered to the extremely high levels of 1980. 

Recently, the total crab landings of all crab species according to AKFIN only reached 

about 57 million pounds in 2003, whereas snow crab had at one time been “among the 

most valuable of all Alaska commercial fisheries, behind only Pollock and salmon” (Loy 

2005). 

Herring: About 31,291 metric tons of herring is estimated by AKFIN to have been 

landed in 2003 for value of about $9 million. Herring has been important as subsistence 

for Alaska Natives for a very long time. As subsistence, it is still commonly utilized by 

Bering Sea villages in the dried form or as eggs gathered on hemlock boughs by those in 

the Southeast. The commercial herring fishery began in the Northwest by European 

settlers who salted the herring as a method of preservation. After World War I, the 

production of both pickled and salted herring peaked. In Alaska around the 1920s plants 

sprung up from Kodiak to Craig to turn herring into meal and oil, or “reduce” the herring. 

As with other fisheries, the herring fishery hit a high in the 1920s and 30s and has 

declined since. Stocks may have been impacted by the high catches during those years, 

but also another cheaper alternate for herring meal and oil, Peruvian anchoveta became 

dominant in the 1950s. By 1966 all of the Alaskan herring reduction plants had closed. In 

the 1960s and 70s, a herring food products foreign fishery was in place, but this was 

extinguished by the MFCMA. Herring roe either as the sac roe fisheries (harvested using 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
48

purse seine or gillnet) for Japanese consumption, as spawn on kelp fisheries (collected by 

scuba, rake, or by hand – or gathered on fronds from impounded herring), or as a bait 

fishery are common today (Rigby et. al 1995). 

Groundfish and halibut: For the year 2003, AKFIN estimated that about 2,015,119 

metric tons of groundfish were landed for an approximate value of $467 million. It is also 

estimated that about 34,753 metric tons of halibut was landed in 2003 for about $166 

million. The groundfish fishery began in the North Pacific as a Pacific cod fishery after 

the first schooner in 1865 conducted an initial expedition in the Bering Sea. The Pacific 

cod fishery had its peak at about 1916 to 1920 and then declined until approximately 

1950; however the halibut and sablefish fisheries which still remain today, developed 

initially in the 1880s but at that time were limited by slow moving vessels and the 

absence of refrigeration methods. With diesel power came the expansion of these 

fisheries by hook and line ships. Halibut and sablefish were being caught by vessels in 

the thousands of tons by the 1920s in the Gulf of Alaska (Rigby et. al 1995). 

The groundfish fisheries off of Alaska have been fished by a series of foreign 

nations; including Japan, Russia and Canada as major players. Canada was very active in 

the fishing of halibut in Alaska waters, but after 1980 the Canadian fishery in U.S. waters 

was phased out. Japan has been involved in flounder (yellowfin sole) and the Pollock 

fishery, as has Russia. The flounder fisheries by both Japan and Russia declined with the 

collapse of yellowfin sole, with the peak in the fishery having been in 1960 at about 

500,000 metric tons. More heavily targeted by both the Russians and the Japanese was 

the Pollock fishery which started in the 1960s by Japanese trawlers. The peak of the 

Pollock catch was in 1972 with over 1.7 million metric tons harvested by the Japanese in 

the Bering Sea. Russian maximum harvests of Pollock were also during this time, but 

were on somewhat of a smaller scale of 300,000 metric tons per year. The Bering Sea 

was also fished during the 60s and 70s by a small Korean fleet. The maximum total 

foreign catch of Pollock, flatfish, rockfish, cod, and other groundfish was in 1972 at 2.2 

million metric tons. The foreign fleets also moved into the Gulf of Alaska in 1960 and 

targeted additional species. Additional foreign nations became involved and added to this 

time of overexploitation including: Taiwan, Poland, West Germany, and Mexico (Rigby 

et. al 1995). 

By the 1970s it was in Alaska’s obvious interest to control foreign involvement. 

The groundfish fishery was Americanized with the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act (MFCMA) in 1976, and by 1991 the foreign fishers had been 

transitioned out and the entire American groundfish fisheries were harvested by U.S. 

vessels. The fisheries changed with the introduction of the first independent factory 

trawler in 1980 and the subsequent over-harvest (Rigby et. al 1995). Sablefish and halibut 

IFQs were introduced as a management method in 1995. Other federally managed 

groundfish species have been organized into a License Limitation Program (LLP) 

permitting system. Halibut are caught currently on longliners. Longliners are about 50 to 

100 feet in length. Groundfish are still caught in trawl nets and some of this is delivered 

to onshore processors or floating processors, but the majority are caught on large 

catcher/processors the size of a football field and frozen at sea (Gay 1997). Today the 

groundfish fisheries are the largest in terms of both weight and value out of all the North 

Pacific fisheries. Pollock is the largest species in terms of weight of landings and is the 

new focus of the North Pacific. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
49

State-wide Landings 

In comparison to other states, and even to other regions, the sheer volume of 

Alaska’s fish landings dwarfs the competition. Over half of the nation’s fishery resources 

are taken from waters off the coast of Alaska. Landings across the state for all species in 

2000 totaled 2.25 million tons, or 4.5 billion pounds, with a total ex-vessel value of $956 

million. In fact, the next largest state in terms of landings was Louisiana, with 1.4 billion 

pounds and a total value of $421 million. The port of Dutch Harbor-Unalaska alone, 

located in the middle of the Aleutian Island chain in the heart of the world’s largest 

groundfish fishery, reported 699.8 million pounds in landings for 2000, the highest 

landings by pound of any port in the United States (NOAA Annual Commercial Landing 

Statistics 2000). 

A glance at state-wide landings by species reveals several notable things about the 

nature of commercial fishing in Alaska (see Table 3.3.1-1 and Table 3.3.1-2). First, there 

is a dichotomy between weight and value. Walleye pollock, for example, makes up a 

huge share of total state-wide landings in terms of weight, with 57.9% of the state-wide 

total in 2000. Pollock constitute the core of the North Pacific groundfish fishery, with 

almost five times the volume of the landings of the next most-landed species, Pacific cod. 

In terms of monetary value, however, the contribution of pollock to total statewide 

landings is modest, accounting for only 16.8%. By contrast, sockeye salmon, with only 

one-tenth of the volume of pollock, contributes a nearly equal monetary value (16.3%). 

Another dramatic example of the weight-value dichotomy in Alaskan fisheries is the 

appearance of King crab and snow crab on the top ten list of landings by value. These 

two species are not landed in enough volume to make the top ten list of landings by 

weight, but nevertheless produce a significant monetary value because of their high perunit price. 

Table 3.3.1-1 Top Ten Species by landings (weight) in the state 

Rank Species Landings (Million Pounds) % of Total 

Landings 

(All Species) 

1 Walleye pollock 2,606.8 57.9% 

2 Pacific Cod 529.7 11.8% 

3 Pink Salmon 208.2 4.6% 

4 Sockeye Salmon 204.9 4.6% 

5 Chum Salmon 159.3 3.5% 

6 Yellowfin Sole 154.3 3.4% 

7 Pacific Halibut 71.7 1.6% 

8 Pacific Herring 68.0 1.5% 

9 Rock Sole 60.6 1.4% 

10 Pacific Ocean Perch Rockfish 39.3 0.9% 

Top Ten Species Combined 4,402.8 97.8% 

Total Landings (All Species) 4,500* 100% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
* Total state-wide landings of all species at both inshore and offshore processors. Landings of the top ten 

species listed here sum to 4,402.8 million (4.4 billion) pounds, or 97.8% of all state-wide landings. Source: 

NOAA Annual Commercial Landings Statistics 2000. 

Table 3.3.1-2 Top Ten Species by landings (value) in the state 

50

Rank Species Value (Million 

Dollars) 

% of Total 

Value (All 

Landings, All 

Species) 

1 Walleye pollock $160.5 16.8% 

2 Sockeye Salmon $155.7 16.3% 

3 Pacific Cod $141.9 14.8% 

4 Pacific Halibut $134.8 14.1% 

5 Sablefish $80.2 8.4% 

6 King Crab $61.6 6.4% 

7 Snow Crab $60.5 6.3% 

8 Chum Salmon $38.0 4.0% 

9 Pink Salmon $27.1 2.8% 

10 Chinook Salmon $10.2 1.1% 

Top Ten Species Combined $870.5 91.1% 

Total Value of Landings (All Species) $956* 100% 

* Total value of all species landed at both inshore and offshore processors. And CPs? The value of landings 

of the top ten species listed here sum to $870.5 million, or 91.1% of the value of all-species landings 

statewide. Source: NOAA Annual Commercial Landings Statistics 2000. 

Fish Landings and Processing 

One notable aspect of many Alaskan fisheries is the high volume of processing 

activity that occurs offshore on floating processors. Of the 2.25 million tons of fish 

landed and processed in Alaska in 2000, more than half was processed offshore. The 

remaining portion of landings, some 979,327 tons, was processed at inshore facilities. 

Because this document focuses on “fishing communities” as defined in the MagnusonStevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (16 USC 38 §1802 (16) and further 

specified in NMFS guidelines (NOAA 2001:13, NOAA 1998), we are primarily 

concerned with inshore processing activity. Offshore activities are relevant insofar as 

they affect local communities through purchase and loading of goods and services, 

employment, employee furloughs, and processed product offloading. Fish processed 

offshore and offloaded in Alaska communities as processed product is converted into a 

whole fish weight by NOAA for statewide tabulation (NOAA 2003), as in Table 1.13. 

Offshore product is not credited to specific communities, as below with Table 1.15. 

The amount of fishery resource landings in each community depends on the 

community’s proximity to productive fisheries, the size of the local fleet, and existing 

port facilities. For landings, Dutch Harbor tops the list in both weight and value. But the 

changing order of communities between volume and value underscores the difference in 

fishery resource value. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
51

Table 3.3.1-3 and Table 3.3.1-4, below, list the top ten communities by weight 

and value of landings. Not surprisingly, Dutch Harbor ranks highest both in terms of exvessel weight of landings and in terms of the monetary value of landings. But Akutan, 

ranked second in terms of weight, comes in behind Kodiak in terms of value. This is 

because Akutan is located along the Aleutian Island chain and processes primarily 

pollock and other groundfish species, a high volume, low per-unit value niche, while 

Kodiak processes salmon, halibut and other high-value species. Geographic location 

affects community access to particular species of fishery resources, and this access in turn 

exerts an important influence on the community’s economic vitality. 

Table 3.3.1-3 Top Ten Communities by landings (ex-vessel weight) 

Rank Community Processors in Community 

1 Dutch Harbor 11 

2 Akutan 1 

3 Kodiak 13 

4 Sand Point 1 

5 King Cove 2 

6 Ketchikan 12 

7 Cordova 7 

8 Petersburg 8 

9 Naknek 11 

10 Seward 5 

Top Ten Communities Total Processors 71 

Top Ten Communities Combined 

Landings (weight) 

869,349 tons 

Total Statewide Landings (weight) 979,327 tons* 

* Total tons of fish landed at inshore processors statewide. Landings for the top ten communities listed here 

sum to 869,349 tons, or 88.8% of total inshore statewide landings.37 Source: Commercial Fishery Entries 

Commission (Fish Tickets 2000). 

37 Note that NOAA Annual Commercial Landings Statistics report total statewide landings at 2,250,000 

tons. That’s because at least 50% of statewide landings are made to offshore processors. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
Table 3.3.1-4 Top 10 Communities by Landings (ex-vessel value) 

52

Rank Community Processors in Community 

1 Dutch Harbor 11 

2 Kodiak 13 

3 Akutan 1 

4 Seward 5 

5 King Cove 2 

6 Petersburg 8 

7 Naknek 11 

8 Ketchikan 12 

9 Cordova 7 

10 Sand Point 1 

Top Ten Communities Total Processors 71 

Top Ten Communities Combined 

Landings (value) 

$514.1 million 

Statewide Total Landings (value) $703.9 million* 

* Total value of all statewide landings. The value of landings for the top ten communities listed here sum to 

$514.1 million, or 73% of the value of all statewide landings. Source: Commercial Fishery Entries 

Commission (Fish Tickets 2000). 

The fish processing industry provides vital employment opportunities, income 

sources, and tax revenues for many Alaskan communities. In many cases, it is the most 

value-added point in the fishery process. Whether a community serves as a processing 

center, and whether fish processing is economically productive for a community, depend 

on a number of factors including location, population size, proximity to major fishing 

fleets, and the composition of species being processed. Consider again, for example, the 

two communities of Akutan and Kodiak. As they were for landings, the two are again 

listed as top ten communities for processing by both weight (Table 3.3.1-5) and value 

(Table 3.3.1-6). In addition to the value-per-unit factor affected by the types of fish 

processed, the structure of processing differs by community. Akutan, with only a single 

facility, processes a greater volume of fish than Kodiak with its 13 processors. This 

underscores the profitability of operating many small-scale specialty processors in a high 

per-unit value market such as Kodiak. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
53

Table 3.3.1-5 Top Ten Communities by Processing (Tons) 

Rank Community Processors in Community 

1 Dutch Harbor 11 

2 Akutan 1 

3 Kodiak 13 

4 Ketchikan 12 

5 Naknek 11 

6 King Cove 2 

7 Petersburg 8 

8 Cordova 7 

9 Seward 5 

10 Valdez 3 

Top Ten Communities Total Processors 73 

Top Ten Communities Combined (weight) 368,457 tons 

Statewide Total 455,212 tons* 

* Total tons of fish processed statewide at inshore facilities. Landings for the top ten communities listed 

here sum to 368,457, or 81% of total statewide landings at inshore facilities. This total is for processing at 

inshore facilities only; prior to 2002 offshore processors were not required to file the Commercial 

Operator’s Annual Report. Source: Commercial Operator’s Annual Report (Collected by ADF&G). 

Table 3.3.1-6 Top Ten Communities by Processing (Value) 

Rank Community Processors in Community 

1 Dutch Harbor 11 

2 Kodiak 13 

3 Akutan 1 

4 Naknek 11 

5 King Cove 2 

6 Ketchikan 12 

7 Seward 5 

8 Petersburg 8 

9 Cordova 7 

10 Sitka 9 

Top Ten Communities Total Processors 79 

Top Ten Communities Combined (value) $1.2 billion 

Total Value of Fish Processed Statewide $1.5 billion* 

* Total value of fish processed statewide at inshore facilities. The total value of fish processed in the ten 

communities listed here sums to $1.16 billion, or 77.3% of the total value of processed fish statewide at 

inshore facilities. This total is for processing at inshore facilities only; prior to 2002 offshore processors 

were not required to file the Commercial Operator’s Annual Report. Source: Commercial Operator’s 

Annual Report (Collected by ADF&G). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
54

As part of the selection procedure, all communities with an operating processor were 

selected for profiling. This data was taken from the Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission’s fish tickets. The Intent to Operate listings were used to assign port codes 

to those processors that appeared in the fish tickets. Those processors which did not 

appear in fish tickets for the year were not included; therefore communities whose 

processors operated in other years but not in 2000 for a variety of reasons (i.e. low 

salmon prices for the year 2000) could theoretically have been excluded from being 

profiled may not have been selected for profiling, depending on their qualifications under 

the other criteria. Of the 136 communities which were profiled, 51 communities included 

processors which were in operation in 2000. Sixteen communities included more than 

three processors (see Table 3.3.1-7), 3 communities included 3 processors, 12 

communities included 2 processors, 20 communities had 1 processor, and 79 

communities did not have an operational processor.38 

Table 3.3.1-7 Profiled communities with more than three processors 

Processors in 

Community Community 

Juneau 13 

Kodiak 12 

Ketchikan 11 

Unalaska/Dutch 

Harbor 11 

Kenai 9 

Naknek 9 

Petersburg 9 

Cordova 8 

Sitka 8 

Anchorage 7 

Homer 7 

Bethel 6 

Haines 5 

Seward 5 

Craig 4 

Wrangell 4 

38 Six of the profiled communities did not appear in the commercial fishing data as separate communities 

with their own processor data: Auke Bay, Chugiak, Douglas, Eagle River, Girdwood, and Ward Cove and 

are not included in the total of 79 communities without an operational processor. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
55

Labor in Alaska’s Fishing Industry 

The commercial fishing sector is the largest private employer in Alaska. The 

fishing industry provides a variety of employment opportunities, including fishing, 

processing, transport, and dock and harbor work. According to the Commercial Fisheries 

Entry Commission (CFEC) there were 25,151 commercial permits sold for all fisheries in 

Alaska; 11,440 permits were actually fished. 

The number of licensed crew members employed annually in Alaskan commercial 

fisheries has declined over the past decade, from more than 32,000 in 1993 to 

approximately 17,500 in 2003, an average decrease of 5.7% per year during that period 

(Carothers and Sepez 2005). The decline is likely due to a combination of declining 

salmon prices, fishery management policy changes, and other factors. Although the 

majority of licensed crewmembers are Alaska residents (59%), the labor pool also draws 

from Washington (22%), other U.S. states, and around the world. The industry remains 

male-dominated, with women accounting for just 14% of licensed crew over the past 

decade. In addition, personnel turnover is high; the average crew member holds a license 

for just 1.8 years (Carothers and Sepez 2005). 

In addition to fishing, the fish processing industry in Alaska is a major source of 

employment, with some 18,675 employees statewide in 2002. Nonresident workers, most 

of whom come to Alaska for seasonal employment, make up 70.6% of total employment 

in the fish processing industry (Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce 

Development 2005). The number of jobs in this industry has declined markedly over the 

last decade, from 30,439 in 1991 (Hadland and Landry 2002), in part because of 

declining prices in high-value markets such as salmon and management changes 

improving economic efficiency. Nevertheless, fish processing remains an important 

employment sector in Alaska; wages earned in fish processing totaled $235.9 million in 

2000. 

The employment data collected by the U.S. Census noticeably under-represents 

those involved in the fishing industry. Despite the heavy reliance on data supplied by the 

Census for the composition of the profiles contained in this document, the employment 

data given on fishing was not reported in the profiles because of its visible deficiencies. 

The figures originate from Census form questions which are phrased in a way that likely 

deters answers from self-employed persons (as most fishermen are). In the results of the 

Census; agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting were combined together into one 

reported figure, which makes it difficult to discern which individuals were involved in the 

fishing portion of the category. Also, when examining the total figure for the category 

which includes fishing, the number is simply too small to be accurate even when 

compared to just the number of individuals in a community which fished their permits. 

The numbers of CFEC permits fished/not fished were given in the profiles however; as 

well as the number of community members which held a crew license. Processing sector 

employment data was not available to us at the community level and is not included in 

the profiles. Processing sector data is available at a higher aggregation level, such as at 

regional levels, but at this time is not available at the level of community. Employment 

information for the important offshore processing sector is also not discussed in the 

profiles because the effect on Alaska communities is indirect; however this sector is 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
56

brokered for the most part out of Seattle and information will be included in a document 

which profiles West Coast fishing communities. 

3.3.2 Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing continues to be an important part of Alaska’s economy. In 2001 

about 3,078,100 fish were caught in Alaska by sport fishermen (1,517,015 salmon and 

1,561,085 were fish other than salmon). Also during 2001, residents of the U.S. spent 

$537 million on fishing equipment and fishing trips in Alaska. For the same year, 11,064 

people were employed by the sport fishing industry which accounted for $238 million in 

salaries and wages (Vaccaro and Sepez 2003). 

Opportunities for recreational fishing vary widely by region. Southeastern Alaska, 

Kodiak and the Kenai Peninsula are the most popular sport fishing destinations in the 

state; license sales and guide/charter businesses play a vital role in the local economies of 

these regions (see Table 3.3.2). In 2000 the Alaska Department of Fish and Game sold 

440,636 sport licenses and of those 60% were sold to visitors from other states or 

countries. And in 2002, over 4000 licenses were issued to charter operations and fishing 

guides by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (Vaccaro and Sepez 2003). The five 

species of Pacific salmon, halibut, steelhead, trout and northern pike are the most 

commonly fished sport species. Most other areas of the state offer sport fishing 

opportunities to some extent, but do not see the high volume of fishermen that the 

southeast and central regions attract. These other areas tend to offer less productive 

stocks of sport species and have more remote locations. 

Although revenues generated from sport fishing license sales and guide/charter 

businesses are important, they are by no means the only forms of community 

development that stem from the sport fishing industry. Communities that have a 

reputation as good fishing locations also tend to be linked to the tourism industry in 

general, with more tourism infrastructure such as lodging accommodations, restaurants 

and other amenities. Sport fishing, in many cases, is merely one component of a growing 

tourism industry throughout the state. 

Table 3.3.2 Top Ten Communities by Sport Fishing License Sales 

Rank Community Region Sport Licenses 

Sold (2000) 

1 Anchorage Anchorage-Matsu 98,516 

2 Ketchikan Southeast 34,509 

3 Soldotna Kenai Peninsula 31,917 

4 Juneau Southeast 26,569 

5 Homer Kenai Peninsula 20,550 

6 Wasilla Anchorage-Matsu 19,949 

7 Sitka Southeast 18,400 

8 Fairbanks Interior 16,387 

9 Seward Kenai Peninsula 13,923 

10 Kodiak Kodiak 11,331 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
57

3.3.3. Subsistence Fishing 

Many Alaskan communities participate in the harvesting of fish, wildlife and 

other wild resources to a degree unseen in other parts of the United States. This is in part 

because of the high reliance on subsistence resources that characterizes many Native 

Alaskan communities. In addition, other communities located in remote places or lacking 

full-time employment opportunities typically rely heavily on subsistence resources. 

Among several types of legally recognized uses of fish and wildlife (including 

subsistence, commercial and recreational), subsistence harvesting is accorded the highest 

priority in Alaska by both the state and federal government. Because of the sheer volume 

of fish harvested by commercial fishing operations, however, subsistence harvests 

account for only about 2% of total fish and wildlife harvests in Alaska (Subsistence 

Management in Alaska 2003: 5). Despite this seemingly small percentage of the total 

wildlife harvest, the wild food which was harvested in Alaska in 2000 had a replacement 

value of $267,273,090 at $5 per pound (Vaccaro and Sepez 2003). 

The regulations governing the harvest of subsistence resources in Alaska are 

complex and changing. For many years, the federal government allowed the State of 

Alaska to manage subsistence harvesting on federal lands. Beginning in 1980 with the 

adoption of Title VIII of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 

(ANILCA), “non-rural” area residents were prohibited from harvesting subsistence 

resources on federal lands and waters. A 1989 court case, McDowell v. State of Alaska, 

challenged this designation and a decade-long legal battle ensued. By 1999, the federal 

government had taken over subsistence management of its own lands and waters; 

residents of populated areas like the Matanuska-Susitna area and the Kenai Peninsula 

have been designated “non-rural” and are thus ineligible to harvest subsistence resources 

on federal lands and waters. Residents of non-rural areas are, however, eligible to harvest 

subsistence resources on lands and waters of the State of Alaska. This divided system of 

management between state and federal agencies, known as “dual management,” creates a 

patchwork of differing regulations mapped to the different jurisdictions. For State lands, 

the Board of Game and the Board of Fisheries, whose members are appointed by the 

governor and approved by the legislature, create subsistence regulations. For federal 

lands, the Federal Subsistence Board, whose membership is comprised of leaders from 

five federal agencies in Alaska and an appointee of the Secretary of Interior, create 

subsistence regulations. 

Both the state and federal government designate eligibility to harvest subsistence 

resources based on customary and traditional uses and availability of alterNative 

resources. In addition, the federal government considers residence when designating 

subsistence eligibility. Since 1992, in order to reduce resource pressure, the state 

government has designated several “non-subsistence areas” where subsistence fishing 

and hunting is not allowed. These areas include the Fairbanks area, the Anchorage-MatSu-Kenai area, Juneau and Ketchikan. The federal government limits access to certain 

subsistence resources; halibut, for example, may be harvested for subsistence only by 

residents of communities with customary and traditional uses of halibut who hold a 

Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NOAA Fisheries. The 

state government issues permits for the subsistence harvest of salmon. 

Unfortunately, detailed information on subsistence activities was available for 

only 95 (69.9%) of the communities profiled in this document, despite the fact that the 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
58

majority of Alaskan communities participate in subsistence harvesting to some degree. In 

a survey completed of 220 Alaskan communities, the urban communities had an average 

harvest of 22 pounds per person per year, and in rural communities they had an average 

of 375 pounds per person per year (Vaccaro and Sepez 2003). For those communities 

studied by the ADF&G Division of Subsistence, there are several measures of 

participation in subsistence fishing, and we have reported on these in the profiles. These 

include: the percentage of households using subsistence resources, the per capita yearly 

harvest of subsistence resources, and the composition by species of this harvest. Based on 

these measures, there is tremendous variation in the amount and type of subsistence 

resources harvested in Alaska. Table 3.3.3 lists the top ten communities, of all those 

studied by ADF&G, in terms of per capita yearly harvest of subsistence resources. 

Table 3.3.3 Top ten list of communities by per capita yearly harvest of subsistence resources 

Rank Community Region Year 

Studied 

Amount 

(lbs) 

Fish Species Commonly 

Harvested 

1 Akiachak Western AK 1998 1,328.3 Salmon, blackfish, pike 

2 Tununak Western AK 1986 1,092.6 Salmon, herring, smelt, 

halibut, 

3 Kokhanok AK Penn. 1992 1,013.3 Salmon, dolly varden, 

trout, pike 

4 Levelock AK Penn. 1992 884.0 Salmon, herring, char, pike 

5 Iliamna AK Penn. 1991 847.6 Salmon, herring, flounder, 

halibut 

6 Koliganek Western AK 1987 830.5 Salmon, herring, char, pike 

7 Ugashik AK Penn. 1987 814.4 Salmon, herring, cod, 

halibut 

8 Ekwok Western AK 1987 796.6 Salmon, herring, blackfish, 

pike 

9 Galena Interior AK 1985 787.1 Salmon, blackfish, pike, 

trout 

10 Quinhagak Western AK 1982 767.9 Salmon, smelt, cod, char 

Source: ADF&G. Data is given for the “most representative year” according to ADF&G records. 

A notable aspect of Table 3.3.3, aside from the huge volume of subsistence 

resources harvested on a per capita basis, is the regional breakdown of dependence on 

such resources. Out of the nine regions into which we group the communities contained 

in the profiles, only three (Western Alaska, Alaska Peninsula/Aleutian Islands, and 

Interior Alaska) appear on the top ten list of communities by per capita subsistence 

harvest. Not surprisingly, these three regions are, in comparison to other areas of the 

state, more remote and further removed from the economic activities of urban centers. In 

addition, the communities exhibiting patterns of intense subsistence resource use are, as 

most of their names suggest, primarily Alaska Native communities. Reliance on 

subsistence resources is certainly not restricted to the Native population, but the average 

percentage of Alaska Native residents for these top ten communities is 83.4%, and many 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
59

of the communities have established patterns of resource use that date back long before 

European contact. Salmon comprises a key component of the subsistence diet in each of 

these communities, but other fish species common to northern waters are harvested as 

well. The composition of the statewide subsistence harvest is about 65% fish, 18.5% 

game, 9.7% marine mammals, and 6.4% other (Vaccaro and Sepez 2003). For most 

Native Alaskan communities, the harvesting and use of subsistence fish and game has 

both economic and cultural significance. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/ Introduction, Methods and Overview 
60

4.1 Southeast Alaska 
61

4.1.1 Southeast Alaska 

Communities 

Angoon Hydaburg Point Baker

Craig Juneau* Port Alexander

Edna Bay Kake Port Protection

Elfin Cove Ketchikan** Sitka

Excursion Inlet Klawock Tenakee Springs

Gustavus Metlakatla Thorne Bay

Haines Meyers Chuck Whale Pass

Hobart Bay Pelican Wrangell

Hoonah Petersburg Yakutat

* Includes Juneau City and Borough, plus Douglas and Auke Bay.

** Includes Ward Cove. 

Geographic Location 

Southeast Alaska includes five boroughs (Yakutat, 

Ketchikan, Haines, Sitka, and Juneau) and three 

census areas (Skagway-Hoonah-Angoon, WrangellPetersburg, and Prince of Wales-Outer Ketchikan). 

The region trails in a thin coastal strip ofland from 

Yakutat in the northwest (59.547° N Lat.) to Prince of 

Wales in the southeast (55.208° N Lat.), and borders 

the Canadian province of British Columbia and the 

Yukon Territory. 

Weather 

Spectacular amounts of precipitation are the 

hallmark of weather in Southeast Alaska. The region 

is in the maritime climate zone, which is characterized 

by mild, wet weather. With some exceptions, many 

communities receive well over 120 inches (10 feet) 

of rain annually. The northern portion of the region 

also receives heavy snowfall. In the summer, average 

temperatures range from 50 to 65°, and average winter 

temperatures range from 29 to 40°. Much of Southeast 

Alaska lies within the vast Tongass National Forest, 

a coastal rain forest characterized by spruce and 

hemlock. 

General Characterization 

Southeast Alaska, for much of human history, has 

been a meeting place for different cultures. Most of 

Southeast Alaska is Tlingit territory; the southern part 

of the region also is the territory of Tsimshian and 

Haida, other coastal Native groups. The population 

of the southeast boomed in the late 1800s and early 

1900s, when White settlers followed the rise in 

resource extraction and commercial fishing. 

Today, Southeast Alaska has approximately 73,000 

residents, most of whom are concentrated in the 

region’s larger cities of Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. 

Approximately 60% of the region’s residents are 

White.

Juneau, the state capital, has a population of 

30,000 and a good share of the economic activity of 

the region. The backbone of the regional economy 

is commercial fishing. Major commercial fleets are 

based in the large ports of Sitka, Yakutat, Wrangell, 

and Ketchikan, but even smaller communities have 

sizable fleets. In addition, many communities have 

commercial fish processing plants and storage 

facilities. The timber industry also constitutes an 

important part of the regional economy. A growing 

tourist industry, bolstered by increasing cruise ship 

stopovers, is becoming an important source of revenue; 

approximately half a million tourists visit Southeast 

Alaska by cruise ship annually. 

In general, the economy of Southeast Alaska 

is well developed in comparison to other regions in 

Alaska, owing to its proximity to the lower 48 states 

and its history of commercial fishing and resource 

extraction. Per capita income is around $23,000 and 

the average household income is around $50,000. 

The unemployment rate is approximately 7%, and the 

poverty rate is approximately 9%. 

Institutional Framework 

Southeast Alaska includes five boroughs (Yakutat, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Regional Introduction 
62

Ketchikan, Haines, Sitka, and Juneau) and three 

census areas (Skagway-Hoonah-Angoon, WrangellPetersburg, and Prince of Wales-Outer Ketchikan). 

As a result of this organizational structure, many 

communities located in census areas rather than 

boroughs are responsible for administrative tasks 

such as tax collection and the provision of services. 

A notable administrative anomaly in the region is 

Metlakatla, a Tsimshian Indian reservation located 

on the 86,000 acre Annette Island. This land is the 

only federal reservation for indigenous peoples in 

Alaska, since other groups acquired land entitlements 

through Native Corporations during the Alaska Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1971. 

Another unique aspect of Southeast Alaska’s 

institutional framework is the Tongass National Forest, 

the largest in the Nation, which covers much of the 

region and comes with federally mandated regulations 

governing resource extraction and conservation. 

Despite the low proportion of Alaska Natives in 

the southeast relative to other regions Native governing 

bodies are an important and powerful part of regional 

government. The Sealaska Corporation, a regional forprofit Native Corporation organized under ANCSA, 

is the largest private landowner in Southeast Alaska. 

Alaska Natives in many communities also belong 

to the Central Council Tlingit and Haida Tribes of 

Alaska, the regional non-profit Native Corporation. In 

addition, many communities also have Native village 

councils and village corporations. 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

Fishing has long been the backbone of the regional 

economy in Southeast Alaska; in fact, the rise and fall 

of the region’s population has been correlated with the 

economic cycles of commercial fishing. Commercial 

fishing, in particular, accounts for a good portion of the 

regional economy. Major commercial species include 

all five species of Pacific salmon, halibut, herring, 

groundfish, crab, and other shellfish. 

The larger ports in Southeast Alaska—including 

Yakutat, Juneau, Sitka, Wrangell, Petersburg, and 

Ketchikan—serve as hubs in the regional commercial 

fishing sector. These ports account for thousands of 

registered crew members, thousands of commercial 

permit holders, and hundreds of vessels. In addition, 

they act as processing centers for the majority of fish 

caught in the region. Commercial fish landings at 

these ports amounted to over 100,000 tons in 2000, 

and were comprised overwhelmingly of salmon. The 

dozens of smaller communities in Southeast Alaska 

are by no means left out of the commercial fishing 

picture. They account for a significant share of the 

region’s registered crew members, vessel owners, and 

permit holders. In addition, many small communities 

have commercial fish processing plants or small-scale 

processing and storage facilities. 

Sport fishing is also a vital part of the regional 

economy in Southeast Alaska, and one that is growing 

in importance. Fishermen come from all over Alaska, 

as well as Canada, the lower 48 states, and around the 

world to fish the productive waters in the area. Major 

sport species include all five species of Pacific salmon, 

Pacific halibut, trout, steelhead, and char. In 2000, 

more than 100,000 sport fishing licenses were sold in 

Southeast Alaska. 

In addition, most communities in the region 

participate to some degree in subsistence fishing. 

Smaller communities, and those with a higher 

proportion of Alaska Native residents, tend to rely 

more heavily on subsistence resources. Actual 

subsistence harvests vary widely, from an average of 

34 lbs per capita in Juneau to nearly 400 lbs per capita 

in Yakutat. Salmon, and particularly sockeye salmon, 

is the most widely used subsistence resource. Other 

resources commonly used for subsistence include 

Pacific halibut (for communities holding a Subsistence 

Halibut Registration Certificate), shellfish, rockfish, 

and marine mammals. 

Regional Challenges 

The particular challenges that face Southeast 

Alaska are, to a large extent, the result of the region’s 

heavy reliance on natural resources. The first challenge 

is posed by changing patterns of timber harvesting and 

timber management. Most timber harvesting takes 

place on land held either by the Tongass National 

Forest or by Sealaska, the regional Native Corporation. 

In both places, the abundance of cheap timber from 

international markets has caused a decline in local 

harvesting and a loss of jobs.

The other major challenge, and perhaps a greater 

one, is the decline in salmon prices caused by foreign 

competition. Many communities and boroughs have 

received federal salmon disaster funds to compensate 

for the financial stress created by the declining salmon 

market. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Regional Introduction 
����

����

����

���

����

63

Angoon (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Angoon, a Tlingit community, is the only 

permanent settlement on Admiralty Island and is 

located on the southwest coast at Kootznahoo Inlet 

surrounded by landmasses on all sides. Chatham Strait 

and the mountains of Baranof Island form a scenic 

backdrop to the west of the island, and to the east lay 

the tidal waters and intricate channels of Mitchell Bay. 

The area encompasses 22.5 square miles of land and 

16.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U. S. Census, the population 

of Angoon was 572. Population numbers have risen 

steadily since the early decades of the 1900s, reaching 

a peak of well over 600 residents in the 1990s. There 

were slightly more males (52.4%) than females 

(47.6%) in 2000 according to U.S. Census data. The 

racial composition of the population in 2000 was 

predominantly American Indian and Alaska Native, 

82.0%, 11.4% White, only 0.5% Black or African 

American and only 0.2% Asian. About 1.4% of the 

population classified themselves as belonging to some 

other race. Overall, 4.5% identified with two or more 

races. A total of 86.4% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. A small number, 5.4%, of the population 

identified themselves as Hispanic. The median age was 

32.2 years, which is somewhat lower than the national 

median of 35.3 years for the same year. According to 

the Census data, 36.9% of the population was under 

19 years of age while only 15.6% of the population 

was over 55 years of age in 2000.

There were 221 housing units in Angoon, 37 of 

which were designated vacant in 2000, and of these, 

25 were vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of 

the 2000 U.S. Census, none of the population lived in 

group quarters. A total of 77.0% of the population 

over 25 years of age had a high school diploma or 

higher according to the 2000 Census data while 10.9% 

also had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Angoon ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � �� �� ��

��������������������� ����������������������

������ 2000 Racial Structure 

���������������������� Angoon 

Data source: US Census 

����� ������������

����� ����� ����� ���� �����

�����

������������������������

������ ������

���������������������� �����

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Angoon 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Angoon 
History 

Admiralty Island has long been the home of the 

Kootznoowoo Tlingit tribe. Kootznoowoo means 

“fortress of bears.” Fur trading was an important 

source of income in the early 19th century, and by 

1878 a whaling station, herring processing plant and 

trading post had been established on nearby Killisnoo 

Island which were significant sources of employment. 

The establishment of a Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

school and a Russian Orthodox Church around that time 

attracted many Tlingits to Killisnoo; however, after a 

fire destroyed many facilities in 1928, many Tlingits 

returned to Angoon. The same year, a post office was 

established and Angoon became an incorporated city 

35 years later, in 1963. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Angoon is highly seasonal 

and depends strongly on fishing activities and other 

forms of recreational tourism; however, low salmon 

prices have adversely affected income. A total of 88 

commercial fishing permits were held by 56 permit 

holders in 2000 according to the Alaska Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission. A shellfish farm was 

recently funded by state and federal grants. The 

Chatham School District is the primary employer. 

Logging operations on Prince of Wales Island provide 

occasional jobs and subsistence remains an important 

part of the lifestyle. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 49.5% of the 

potential labor force was employed and there was a 

7.4% unemployment rate. A seemingly high 42.6% of 

the population over 16 years of age was not in the labor 

force, though this may be explained by the intensely 

seasonal nature of the fishing and tourism industries, 

and 27.9% of the population was below the poverty 

level. The median household income in the same year 

was $29,861 and the per capita income was $11,357. 

Governance 

The City of Angoon was incorporated in 1963 as 

a second-class city. The city is governed by a Councilmayor form of government. The mayor and seven 

council members are elected officials. Angoon is not 

located within an organized borough; therefore, the city 

is responsible for many services. The City of Angoon 

implements a 3% sales tax and a 3% accommodations 

������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Angoon 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

����

��������

�����

tax. The city belongs to the for-profit regional Native 

Corporation, Sealaska Corporation, as well as to the 

regional Native non-profit, Central Council Tlingit 

and Haida tribes of Alaska. Kootznoowoo, Inc. is the 

local village corporation and Angoon Community 

Association is the village council. The total land to 

which Angoon is entitled under the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) amounts to about 

23,040 acres.

There is a National Marine Fisheries Service 

Regional Office as well as an Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game office located in Angoon. The nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services office 

is located in Haines.

Facilities 

The community of Angoon is accessible only 

by seaplane or boat. Scheduled and charter seaplane 

services are available from the State-owned seaplane 

base on Kootznahoo Inlet. In most cases, it is least 

expensive to fly to Anchorage via Juneau where 

possible. Roundtrip flights to Juneau cost around $170 

and a roundtrip flight between Juneau and Anchorage 

costs approximately $200. Angoon’s facilities also 

include a deep draft dock, a small boat harbor with 45 

berths, and a State ferry terminal. Freight arrives by 

barge and ferry. 

Water is derived from Tillinghast Lake reservoir; 

it is treated and piped throughout the community. 

Funds have been allocated to provide additional 

water treatment at Favorite Bay Creek. Over 95% 

of residences receive piped water. Piped sewage is 

processed at a secondary treatment plant which flows 

to an ocean outfall. The City collects refuse and hauls 

64

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Angoon 
65

it to the landfill, located approximately two miles from 

Angoon. 

Electricity is supplied by the Tlingit-Haida Electric 

Company, a non-profit subdivision of the State which 

operates three diesel-fueled generators. Health services 

are provided by the Angoon Health Clinic which is 

owned by the city and operated by Southeast Alaska 

Regional Health Consortium (SEARHC). Public safety 

is provided by city-backed police. Angoon is within 

the Chatham School District and there is one school 

in Angoon itself. At Angoon School 125 students are 

instructed by 11 teachers.Angoon is a fairly isolated 

community relative to other tourist destinations in 

southeast Alaska and does not have a major tourism 

industry. At least three businesses operate to provide 

visitor accommodations.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Angoon. According to the ADF&G, and reported by

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission, 

88 permits were held by 56 permit holders but only 46 

permits were actually fished in Angoon in 2000. There 

were 18 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, another 

28 vessel owners in the salmon fishery and overall 23 

crew members claiming residence in Angoon in 2000. 

There are no fish processing facilities in Angoon, so 

no fish landings were made in the community. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type 

and fishing area. Permits issued in Angoon for 2000 

related to halibut, sablefish, other groundfish, crab, 

other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 25 permits issued for 

halibut in Angoon in 2000, 23 of which were actually 

fished. Permits for halibut pertained to 24 longline 

vessels under 60 feet (22 permits were actually fished) 

and one longline vessel over 60 feet. All permits 

designated for halibut were for statewide waters. 

Sablefish: There were two sablefish permits issued 

in 2000 in Angoon, one of which was fished. One 

permit pertained to a longline vessel under 60 feet and 

the other to a mechanical jig (not fished). Both were 

for statewide waters.

Other groundfish: A total of eight permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish in Angoon, only 

one of which was actually fished. Permits pertained 

to one miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessel 

(one permit fished), one demersal shelf rockfish 

hand troll in southeast waters (not fished), and three 

demersal shelf rockfish logline vessel under 60 feet in 

southeast waters (no permits fished). 

Crab: Two permits were issued in Angoon for 

crab in 2000, all of which were actually fished. One 

permit pertained to 75 pots or 25% of maximum for 

Dungeness crab in southeast waters and one ring net 

for Tanner crab in southeast waters.

Other shellfish: The one permit issued in Angoon 

in 2000 was fished. This permit pertained to an 

octopi/squid pot gear vessel under 60 feet in statewide 

waters.

Salmon: A total of 50 permits were issued in 

Angoon in 2000 for the salmon fishery, 19 of which 

were actually fished. Salmon permits pertained to 

one purse seine restricted to southeast waters, one set 

gillnet in Yakutat, 40 hand trolls in statewide waters 

(13 permits fished), and eight power gurdy trolls in 

statewide waters (four permits fished). 

It was announced in July 2003 that Angoon would 

receive $500 worth of federal salmon disaster funds 

to be distributed to several municipalities statewide 

which have been affected by low salmon prices in 

order to compensate for consequent losses of salmon 

taxes or raw fish taxes. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services when fish taxes 

become insufficient. 

Sport Fishing 

There were seven saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Angoon in 2002 and four businesses 

licensed to provide freshwater recreational fishing 

according to the ADF&G. There was a total of 976 

sport fishing licenses sold in Angoon in 2000, 156 of 

which were sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1996 compiled on behalf of the 

Division of Subsistence of the ADF&G provides useful 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Angoon 
66

information about subsistence practices in Angoon. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for 97.3% 

of households in the community which participated in 

the use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. Of 

the total population, 79.7% used salmon and 82.4% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, char, 

grayling, and trout). Many fewer households, 32.4%, 

used marine mammals and a high percentage, 89.2%, 

used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita subsistence harvest for 

1996 was 224.45 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative to 

other resources categories. The total subsistence harvest 

was composed of 36.5% salmon, non-salmon fish made 

up 21.20%, land mammals 22.86%, marine mammals 

4.02%, birds and eggs accounted for only 0.08% of 

the total subsistence harvest, marine invertebrates for 

13.41% and vegetation made up 1.94%. The wild food 

harvest in Angoon made up 144% of the recommended 

dietary allowance of protein in 1996 (corresponding to 

a daily allowance of 49 grams of protein per day or 

0.424 lbs. of wild food per day) (Wolfe 2000).

A total of 54 permits were held by households in 

Angoon for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of 

Subsistence records from 1999. Sockeye made up the 

largest proportions of the salmon harvest. Residents 

of Angoon and members of Angoon Community 

Association, who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Angoon 
����

����

����

���

����

67

Craig (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Craig is located on the west side of Prince of Wales 

Island. It is connected to Prince of Wales Island by a 

causeway. It lies 56 air miles northwest of Ketchikan 

and 220 miles south of Juneau. The area encompasses 

6.7 square miles of land and 2.7 square miles of 

water. 

Demographic Profile 

Craig’s demographic characteristics have changed 

along with the commercial fishing industry, which 

has brought a steady influx of new people. Growth 

has been particularly swift in recent years; in the two 

decades between 1980 and 2000, Craig’s population 

more than doubled. 

In 2000, Craig had a total population of 1,397 and 

523 households. A small segment of the population 

(1.6%) lived in group quarters. The racial composition 

of the community was as follows: White (67.1%), 

American Indian and Alaska Native (21.7%), Black 

(0.1%), Asian (0.6%), two or more races (10%) and 

other (0.6%). A total of 30.9% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. In addition, 2.8% of residents 

were Hispanic. The gender makeup was significantly 

skewed, at 54.5% male and 45.5% female, due to the 

heavy presence of commercial fishing operations that 

employ mostly men. The median age of Craig was 33.8 

years, slightly younger than the U.S. national average 

of 35.3 years. In terms of educational attainment, 

87.3% of residents aged 25 or older held a high school 

diploma or higher degree. 

History 

Since prehistory, Prince of Wales Island has been 

occupied by Tlingit Indians. Starting in the 1700s, 

however, Haida Indians moved onto the island from 

Haida Gwaii (British Columbia’s Queen Charlotte 

Islands). On Prince of Wales Island they established 

multiple settlements, taking advantage of the island’s 

rich resources, including abundant sea otters. Diseases 

such as smallpox took a heavy toll on the island, 

however; by the time missionaries arrived in 1878, the 

Haida’s numbers had dwindled from nearly 10,000 to 

just 800 (Halliday 1998: 25). 

A fish saltery was built on nearby Fish Egg 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Craig 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

����� Craig ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

��� ��� �� � �� ��� ���

���������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����������������������

�����

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Craig 

Data source: US Census 

����� �����������

�����

�����

������

�����

����� �����

�����

������������������������

�����

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Craig

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

����

������
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

68

Island in 1907 by Craig Miller, with the help of local 

Haidas. He also constructed a packing company and 

cold storage plant at the present site of Craig. A city 

government was established in 1922. The commercial 

fishing industry is responsible for Craig’s large 

population; record pink salmon runs during the 1930s 

brought many new settlers. However, by the 1950s, 

the fishing industry had collapsed due to depleted 

salmon runs. A large sawmill was established in 1972 

near Craig, providing a steady source of year-round 

employment. Today, Craig is a community that relies 

heavily on commercial fishing and fish processing, as 

well as the timber industry. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing comprises the largest portion 

of Craig’s economy. In addition, sawmill operations, a 

fish buying station, and a cold storage facility are all 

major local employers. The use of subsistence resources 

provides a supplement to the formal economy for most 

residents.

In 2000, the mean per capita income of Craig was 

$20,176 and the mean household income was $45,298. 

The unemployment rate was 6.9%, and 22.8% of 

residents aged 16 and older were not in the labor 

force (i.e. not seeking work). Approximately 9.8% of 

residents were living below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Craig is an incorporated city and is not under 

the jurisdiction of a borough. All tax revenues are 

administered by the city, including a 5% sales tax, a 

0.6% (6.0 mills) property tax, and a 6% liquor tax. The 

Craig Community Association, a federally recognized 

Native organization, is located in the community. In 

addition, there is a village corporation, Shaan-Seet, 

Inc. There is an Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

office located in Craig. The nearest office of the 

National Marine Fisheries Service is in Petersburg. The 

nearest U.S. Bureau of Immigration and Citizenship 

Services is located in Skagway. 

Facilities 

Craig is accessible by air and sea. The nearby 

Klawock airport offers scheduled air transportation 

as well as charters. Most air travel to Craig is done 

by seaplane. The seaplane base is currently owned by 

% Group Quarters �����������������

����� Craig ����������������������

Data source: US Census 

����������

���

�

����

���

������������������

��������������

���� ����

��������������������������

�����

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Craig 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

the state, but the City of Craig is in the final stages 

of negotiating a transfer of ownership to the city. 

Roundtrip airfare to Anchorage, via Ketchikan, is 

approximately $397. There is also a U.S. Coast Guard 

heliport located in the area. A small causeway connects 

Craig to Prince of Wales Island. 

All houses are connected to a piped water and 

sewer system. Water for domestic use is supplied by a 

dam on North Fork Lake. Electricity is provided by the 

Alaska Power Company, which uses both hydroelectric 

and diesel power. There is a health clinic located in 

the community, the Craig Clinic, which is owned by 

the city. The city also provides police and emergency 

services. There are four schools located in Craig, with 

a total of 35 teachers and 860 students. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Craig 
69

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon and 

halibut fisheries, is the backbone of Craig’s economy. 

In 2000 there were 42 vessel owners with operations in 

federal fisheries and 84 vessel owners with operations 

in state fisheries who resided in the community. There 

were 149 registered crew members. In addition, 199 

local residents held a total of 437 commercial fishing 

permits. The following section contains a detailed 

description of permits issued to Craig residents in 

2000. 

Crab: Seven local residents held nine permits in 

the crab fishery. These permits included the following: 

two Dungeness crab pot gear permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in Cook Inlet (none was actually fished); 

one Dungeness crab permit for 150 pots or 50% of 

maximum in the southeast region (one was actually 

fished); three Dungeness crab permits for 75 pots or 

25% of maximum in the southeast region (two were 

actually fished); and three Tanner crab ring net permits 

for the southeast region (one was actually fished). 

Other Shellfish: Fifty-six local residents held a 

total of 100 commercial permits for other shellfish. 

These permits included the following: 11 geoduck 

clam diving gear permits for the southeast region 

(10 were fished); two shrimp beam trawl permits for 

the southeast region (one was fished); 28 shrimp pot 

gear permits for the southeast (17 were fished); 34 sea 

cucumber diving gear permits for the southeast region 

(30 were fished); and 24 sea urchin diving gear permits 

for the southeast region (11 were fished). 

Halibut: Fifty-five local residents held a total of 

56 commercial permits in the halibut fishery. These 

permits included the following: two halibut hand troll 

permits for statewide waters (one was fished); 40 halibut 

longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (37 were fished); one halibut mechanical jig 

permit for statewide waters (none was fished); and 

13 halibut longline permits for vessels over 60 feet in 

statewide waters (12 were actually fished). 

Herring: Seventy-three local residents held a total 

of 83 commercial permits in the herring fishery. These 

included the following: one herring roe gillnet permit 

for Bristol Bay (one was fished); one purse seine 

permit for food/bait herring in the southeast region 

(none was actually fished); seven permits to harvest 

herring roe spawn on kelp in the northern part of the 

southeast region (five were fished); and 73permits to 

harvest herring roe spawn on kelp in the southern part 

of the southeast region (no permits were fished). 

Sablefish: Ten local residents held a total of 10 

commercial permits in the sablefish fishery. These 

permits included the following: seven sablefish 

longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (four were fished); and three sablefish longline 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters 

(three were fished).

Other Groundfish: Twenty-seven local residents 

held a total of 49 commercial permits in the groundfish 

fishery. These permits included the following: one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permit for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (none was 

fished); two demersal shelf rockfish hand troll permits 

for the southeast region (none was actually fished); 13 

demersal shelf rockfish longline permits for vessels 

under 60 feet in the southeast region (seven were 

fished); two demersal shelf rockfish mechanical jig 

permits for the southeast region (one was fished); four 

demersal shelf rockfish longline permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in the southeast region (none was fished); 

six ling cod dinglebar troll permits for statewide 

waters (none was fished); two ling cod mechanical 

jig permits for statewide waters (one was fished); one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand troll permit for 

statewide waters (none was fished); 11 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline permits for vessels under 

60 feet in statewide waters (none was fished); three 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish dinglebar troll permits 

for statewide waters (none was actually fished); and 

four miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical jig 

permits for statewide waters (none was fished). 

Salmon: One hundred nineteen local residents 

held a total of 130 commercial permits in the salmon 

fishery. These permits included the following: eight 

salmon purse seine permits for the southeast region 

(three were fished); five salmon drift gillnet permits 

for the southeast region (three were fished); three 

salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (three were 

fished); one salmon set gillnet permit for Kodiak (one 

was fished); 53 salmon hand troll permits for statewide 

waters (22 were fished); 60 salmon power gurdy troll 

permits for statewide waters (53 were fished). 

In 2000 there were two commercial fish processors 

located in Craig. Detailed information about 

landings, however, is unavailable in accordance with 

confidentiality laws. In 2003 the city of Craig received 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Craig 
70

$31,887 in federal funds to compensate for falling 

salmon prices. The City of Craig was the first coastal 

Gulf of Alaska community to organize a Community 

Quota Entity (CQE) that is eligible to purchase halibut 

and sablefish quota share under a new Community 

Quota Purchase Program (50 CFR 679). The City of 

Craig has expressed enthusiasm for this program and 

intends to purchase community-held quota in the near 

future. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, sport fishing license sales in Craig 

totaled 3,405; the majority of these (2,590 licenses) 

were sold to non-residents of Alaska. In 2002 there 

were 36 registered saltwater sport fishing guides and 

15 registered freshwater fishing guides. In addition, 

peripheral business such as airplane charter services 

and hotels rely on the presence of sport fishermen. 

Major sport species in the area include all five Pacific 

salmon, steelhead, trout, and halibut. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence resources are an important 

supplement to the formal economy in Craig. The 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of 

Subsistence reports that in 1997 98.8% of households 

in Craig used subsistence resources. Approximately 

88.4% of households used subsistence salmon, and 

90.8% used non-salmon subsistence fish (especially 

halibut, rockfish, and herring roe). Approximately 

8.7% of households used marine mammals (mostly 

harbor seals) for subsistence and 80.3% of households 

used marine invertebrates (especially crabs, clams, 

and shrimp).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Craig in 1997 was 230.7 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (28.0%), nonsalmon fish (27.1%), land mammals (20.2%), marine 

mammals (4.4%), birds and bird eggs (0.4%), marine 

invertebrates (12.4%), and vegetation (8.1%). 

Residents of Craig who hold a valid Subsistence 

Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by 

NMFS, are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. 

These allocations are based on recognized customary 

and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to 

implement subsistence halibut fishing were published 

in the Federal Register in April 2003 and became 

effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Craig 
����

���

71

Edna Bay (return to communities) 2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Edna Bay ��������� ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

People and Place �����������

�������� Location ��������

The community of Edna Bay lies near the southern ��������

�������� end of Kosciusko Island, northwest of Prince of Wales 

Island, in Southeast Alaska. It lies 90 miles northwest ��������

��������

of Ketchikan. The area encompasses 56.0 square miles ��������

of land and 2.8 square miles of water ������ . � � � � � � � � �

����

������

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the village 

had 49 inhabitants. Edna Bay was not showing signs 

of growth and the present population may even be in 

decline. The community was predominantly White 

(95.9%), and the remaining 4.1% of its residents 

identified themselves as more than one racial group. A 

total of 4.1% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The 

whole community lived in households, nobody was 

living in group quarters, and there were some vacant 

houses that were used seasonally.

The gender ratio in the community was extremely 

unbalanced with the male population at 61.1% and the 

female population at 38.8%. The median age (36.8 

years) was similar to the national median (35.3 years). 

The bulk of its population, 32.7%, was between 45 

and 54 years of age and 18.4% between 10 and 14 

year of age. Of the adult population age 25 and over, 

100% had graduated from high school or gone on to 

further schooling, and 36.4% of the population had a 

bachelor’s degree or higher in 2000.

History 

Although Edna Bay does not appear in any census 

until the 1950s, there are previous historical accounts. 

Edna Bay was named by the U.S. Coast & Geodetic 

Survey in 1904. Prince of Wales Island is in the middle 

of the transition area between Haida and Tlingit 

cultural areas. Historically, these two Native American 

groups have occupied the island. The Haida, who were 

���������������������� ���������������������

���������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Edna Bay 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

������������������������� �����

����� ��������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Edna Bay 

Data source: US Census 

the most numerous at the time, were connected fairly ����������� ��������

early to the 18th century fur trade. The first settlers ����� �����

and missionaries who arrived to the area at the end of 

the 19th century encountered an almost unpopulated 

island with remnant Native communities devastated by 

smallpox and measles. Haida and Tlingit populations 

are still present in many communities on the Island. 

A small fishing community emerged from a StateCommunity Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Edna Bay 
72

owned land disposal sale. The original post office was 

established in 1943, but was transferred to Ketchikan 

in 1960. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

As in many other cases around Prince of Wales 

Island, the economy of this very small community 

revolves around logging and fishing. Edna Bay has 

a local sawmill but the community’s reliance on the 

fishing industry is strong. In 2000, 13 residents held 49 

commercial fishing permits and there was a seasonal 

fish buyer post located in the bay during the summer 

months.

The employment structure of the community 

shows that 51.4% of the total potential labor force was 

employed at the time of 2000 census. Surprisingly, 

none of the potential labor force was unemployed and 

48.6% of the adult workforce was not searching for 

employment in 2000. In 2000, the average per capita 

income in Edna Bay was $58,967 and the median 

household income was $44,583. In this community 

23.1% of the population lived below the poverty 

level. 

Governance 

Edna Bay is an unincorporated community not 

organized under any borough. Instead, the village has 

organized the Edna Bay Community Association, a 

non-profit community association devoted to local 

development. The regional Native corporation of the 

area, with its headquarters in Juneau, is the SeaAlaska 

Native Corporation. The closest Alaska Department 

of Fish andGame (ADF&G) offices are in Craig, 

Wrangell, Petersburg, and Ketchikan. The Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

in Ketchikan and the nearest National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) office is in Petersburg.

Facilities 

Edna Bay can be reached by both air and sea. 

The community is connected to Craig, Ketchikan, 

and Petersburg by floatplane. These planes provide 

transportation and cargo to the community. Edna Bay is 

not connected to Prince of Wales Island’s road system. 

A dock and harbor with breakwater are available. Basic 

health care is provided by the Edna Bay Health Clinic. 

Alternative medical attention is provided by the Edna 

Bay Emergency Medical Service (EMS) and Prince 

of Wales Island EMS/Ambulance. The town does not 

have centralized water and sewer systems. Edna Bay 

has neither its own school nor a police department. 

The town offers a few lodges as accommodation for 

visitors.

Involvement with North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Edna Bay is a very small community, it 

is significantly involved in the North Pacific fisheries. 

In 2000, 13 members of the community were holding 

28 commercial fishing permits, 13 of which were 

fished that year. The village also had six owners of 

vessels engaged in federal fisheries and five owners 

of salmon fishing boats. In addition, there were eight 

residents registered as crewmen.

Halibut: Seven permits to catch halibut were 

issued in 2000, five of which were used that year. Four 

of these permits were for longliners under 60 feet 

(three fished) and three permits issued for longliners 

over 60 feet (two fished). All the halibut permits had 

statewide range.

Salmon: The bulk of Edna Bay’s permits were 

devoted to the salmon fisheries. The village had 14 

permits in 2000 with five fished. Eight statewide 

permits were issued for hand trollers (one fished) 

and six statewide permits for power gurdy troll (four 

fished).

Other Groundfish: Three statewide permits were 

issued for other groundfish: two for miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish (one fished) and one permit for a 

longliner over 60 feet (not fished). 

Other Shellfish: Three permits were issued to catch 

shrimp with pot gear in the southeast (one fished). 

Sablefish: One issued and fished permit for a longliner over 60 feet in southern Southeast Alaska. 

In Edna Bay there are no processing facilities. No

landings were recorded because the fleet delivers to 

other harbors in the area. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, Edna Bay sold 11 sport fishing licenses 

of which 8 were bought by Alaskan residents. This 

small number of licenses does not preclude the 

possibility that the area could be visited by numerous 

non-residents getting their licenses there or elsewhere. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Edna Bay 
73

Local residents mostly rely on subsistence fisheries for 

consumption. In 2002 the village had no sport fishing 

guide businesses.

Subsistence Fishing 

In 1987, the ADF&G conducted a survey to 

demonstrate the significance of subsistence practices 

for traditional Alaskan communities. All households 

participated in the use of harvested resources. In 

relation to marine resources, 100% of households 

used subsistence salmon, 100% used other types fish 

(herring, cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, 

rockfish, sable fish, char, and trout), 0% used marine 

mammals, and 50% used marine invertebrates. The 

results reflected that the inhabitants of the community 

were harvesting 383.5 lbs per person per year. The per 

capita daily harvest of wild foods was 1.3 lbs. These 

statistics emphasize the importance of subsistence 

fishing, hunting and gathering for these communities. 

In order to understand the relative importance of each

resource we broke down the composition of the harvest: salmon 14.25%, other fish 48.5%, land mammals 23.39%, marine mammals 0%, birds and

 eggs 0.1%, marine invertebrates 4.3%, and vegetation 9.46%. 

In 1999, Edna Bay had two salmon household 

subsistence permits that accounted only for a handful 

of sockeye salmon. In addition, the inhabitants of this 

community (rural residents or members of an Alaska 

Native tribe) who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Edna Bay 
74

Elfin Cove (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Elfin Cove lies on the northern shore of Chichagof 

Island near the entrance of the Inside Passage. To the 

north across Icy Strait are Glacier Bay National Park, 

Brady Glacier, and the Fairweather Mountain Range 

which forms one of the most spectacular scenes in 

Southeast Alaska. The area encompasses 10.7 square 

miles of land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U. S. Census, the 

population of Elfin Cove was 32. Population numbers 

have fluctuated between 30 and 60 over the past four 

decades since Census records began for the area; 

however, summers tend to increase the population to 

well over 200. There were more males (59.4% of the 

population) than females (40.6% of the population) 

in Elfin Cove according to data from the 2000 U.S 

Census. The racial composition of the population in 

2000 was predominantly White (93.8%) and Native 

Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (3.1%). Overall, 

3.1% of the population identified with two or more 

races. None of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian and 

none of the population identified as Hispanic. The 

median age was 47.5 years, which is considerably 

higher than the national median of 35.3 for the same 

year. According to the 2000 U.S. Census only18.8% of 

the population was under 19 years of age while 34.5% 

of the population was over 55 years of age.

There were 35 housing units in Elfin Cove, 20 of 

which were designated vacant in 2000 and of these, 

10 were vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of 

the 2000 U.S. Census, none of the population lived 

in group quarters. All 100% of the population over 

25 years of age had a high school diploma or higher 

according to the 2000 U.S. Census data while 43.5% 

also had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Elfin Cove was named after the boat of one of 

its regular fishermen. Originally referred to within 

the industry and locally as “Gunkhole” by fishermen 

anchoring here, its safe anchorage and proximity to 

the Fairweather fishing grounds made this a natural 

spot for fish buyers and supplies and a post office was 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure 

Elfin Cove Elfin Cove 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

� � � � � �

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Elfin Cove 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Elfin Cove 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races Pacific Islander 3.1% 3.1% 

White 

93.8% 

2000 Employment Structure 

Elfin Cove 2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census Elfin Cove 

Data source: US Census 

����

������

Age 

��������

����������� �����

�����

����������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Elfin Cove 
75

established there in 1935. A second dock, a warehouse, 

store, and restaurant were built in the 1940s and now 

a boardwalk runs through the town. Little information 

is available about the Tlingit occupation of the area; 

however, according to local residents, the Tlingits who 

visited the harbor would not remain throughout the 

winter because of the “evil spirits” there. 

The troll fishery on which the community relies has 

long been on the decline, and Elfin Cove has suffered as 

a result. In 1997 the population was reported as 54, but 

the Census-takers in 2000 recorded only 32 residents. 

In December of 2002 the Wards Cove packaging plant 

which comprised the majority of the economy was 

shut down and now only 11 residents currently live in 

the community.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Elfin Cove pivots around fishbuying and selling of fishing supplies. The economy is 

intimately linked to the local and national commercial 

fishing industries and sport fishing is also significant. 

These factors make the economy highly seasonal, 

including the employment provided by lodges and retail 

businesses in the summer. A total of 48 commercial 

fishing permits were held by 25 permit holders in 

2000 according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries 

Entry Commission. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 48.1% of the 

potential labor force was employed and there was an 

11.1% unemployment rate. A seemingly high 51.9% 

of the population over 16 years of age was not in 

the labor force, though this may be explained by the 

intensely seasonal nature of the fishing industry, and 

5.6% of the population was below the poverty level. 

The median household income in the same year was 

$33,750 and the per capita income was $15,089. 

Governance 

Elfin Cove is an unincorporated city which does 

not lie within an organized Alaskan borough. For 

official purposes, Elfin Cove is located in the Sitka 

recording district. Because of Elfin Cove’s status as 

an unincorporated city there are no city or borough 

officials in the city nor are there municipal or borough 

finances dispersed to the community. Elfin Cove is not 

a member of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). It therefore has no land allotment under the 

Act, and is not a federally recognized Native village, 

nor does it have a Native village corporation or belong 

to a regional Native corporation.

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

Regional Office is in Juneau, as is the nearest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services is located in 

Skagway.

Facilities 

Elfin Cove is accessible by air and by sea; the Alaska 

State Ferry stops at nearby Pelican. A roundtrip flight 

from Juneau on the daily mail plane costs about $200. 

From Juneau a roundtrip flight to Anchorage costs 

approximately $200. A State-owned seaplane base is 

available. Moorage for 25 marine vessels is available. 

Skiffs are the primary means of local transportation. 

Freight and supplies are delivered by plane or boat.

Water in Elfin Cove is individually collected 

from surface supplies, although the available sources 

contain high levels of bacteria and giardia and a treated 

water source is badly needed. Funding is also needed 

to replace individual septic tanks and leachfields with 

a community sewage collection system. About half the 

residences are fully plumbed. No landfill is currently 

available and residents use an unregulated refuse burn 

area on the tidelands. The community has expressed 

interest in an incinerator. A hydroelectric project has 

been engineered by Elfin Cove Electric Utility which 

also uses diesel for some of the energy supply. There 

are neither local health nor public safety services, 

although Elfin does have a fire department. Elfin Cove 

is within the Chatham Schools District, although there 

are no schools located directly in the community. 

Services include a post office, store, laundromat 

(operated by Pelican Seafoods), and several inns.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, like sport fishing, is 

important to the economy of Elfin Cove. According 

to the Department of Fish and Game, and reported by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

48 permits were held by 25 permit holders but only 

31 permits were fished in Elfin Cove in 2000. There 

were 8 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 18 vessel 

owners in the salmon fishery and overall 18 crew 

members claiming residence in Elfin Cove in 2000. The 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Elfin Cove 
76

commercial vessel fleet delivering landings to Elfin 

Cove consisted of eight vessels in the salmon industry 

(in accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

landings data for the community are unavailable).

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Elfin Cove for 2000 

were for halibut, sablefish, other groundfish, crab, and 

salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 12 permits issued 

for halibut in Elfin Cove in 2000, nine of which were 

fished. Permits for halibut pertained to one hand 

troll, eight longline vessels under 60 feet (six permits 

were fished) and three longline vessels over 60 feet 

(two permits were fished). All permits designated for 

halibut were for statewide waters. 

Sablefish: Three permits were issued in Elfin 

Cove for the sablefish fishery in 2000, all of which 

were fished). These permits pertained to three longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters. 

Other groundfish: Three permits were issued 

in Elfin Cove for other groundfish, none of which 

were fished. Permits pertained to two miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (neither were fished) and one 

demersal shelf rockfish longline vessel over 60 feet in 

Southeast waters. 

Crab: Three permits were issued in Elfin Cove for 

crab in 2000, none of which were fished. One permit 

pertained to Dungeness crab ring nets in Southeast 

waters (not fished), one Dungeness crab permit for 

150 pots or 50% of the maximum in Southeast waters 

(not fished), and one permit for Tanner crab ring nets 

in Southeast waters (not fished). 

Salmon: A total of 27 permits were issued in Elfin 

Cove in 2000 for the salmon fishery, 17 of which were 

fished. Salmon permits pertained to seven hand trolls 

in statewide waters (two permits were fished) and 20 

power gurdy trolls in statewide waters (17 permits 

were fished).

In 2000 a small processor was in operation as well 

as a larger Wards Cove Packing Company facility. 

With the withdrawal of Wards Cove Packing Company 

from many places in Southeast Alaska, it remains 

to be seen what the long term impact will be on the 

processor facilities at Elfin Cove. Elfin Cove did not 

receive federal salmon disaster funds to compensate 

for consequent losses of salmon taxes or raw fish 

taxes. 

Sport Fishing 

There were 15 saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Elfin Cove in 2002 and 13 businesses 

licensed to provide freshwater recreational fishing 

according to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 

There were a total of 1,025 sport fishing licenses sold 

in Elfin Cove in 2000, 51 of which were sold to Alaska 

residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1987 compiled on behalf of 

the Division of Subsistence of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game provides useful information about 

subsistence practices in Elfin Cove. Records describe 

the subsistence patterns for 100% of the households 

that participated in the use of subsistence resources, 

including harvesting, sharing, and consuming 

resources, illustrating the importance of subsistence to 

life in the community. Of the total population, 100% 

used salmon and 92.3% used non-salmon fish (herring, 

herring roe, smelt, cod, flounder, halibut, rockfish, and 

char); no households used marine mammals and a high 

percentage, 92.3%, used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for 1987 was 262.53 

lbs. The composition of the total subsistence harvest 

can be shown by the percentages of the resources which 

demonstrate the amount of each resource category 

used by the community relative to other resources 

categories. The total subsistence harvest was composed 

of 30.67% salmon, non-salmon fish made up 22.34%, 

land mammals 27.53%, marine mammals 0%, birds 

and eggs 0%, marine invertebrates for 8.99% and 

vegetation made up 10.46%. The wild food harvest in 

Elfin Cove made up 170% of the recommended dietary 

allowance of protein in 1987 (corresponding to a daily 

allowance of 49g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs of 

wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game).

No permits were held by households in Elfin Cove 

for subsistence fishing of salmon according to Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence 

records from 1999. Residents of Elfin Cove and 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Elfin Cove 
77

members of the Seldovia Village Tribe, an Alaska 

Native Tribe, who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Elfin Cove 
���

78

Excursion Inlet (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Excursion Inlet lies on the west coast of Lynn 

Canal. It is just east of the mouth of Glacier Bay 

National Park and is surrounded by the 3-4,000 ft 

mountains and spectacular glaciers of the park. The 

area encompasses 56.8 square miles of land and 0.2 

square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U. S. Census, the population 

of Excursion Inlet was 10; however, the Census does 

not provide historical population numbers. The area 

has never been heavily populated and it is unlikely that 

the population ever reached far into the hundreds. It is 

important to note, however, that this Census data likely 

does not reflect transient and seasonal workers at the 

Excursion Inlet fish processing plant. The population 

was mostly male, with only two females recorded on 

the 2000 Census, and entirely White. The median age 

was 60 and no one was recorded by the Census below 

the age of 25-43 years. There were 85 housing units 

in Excursion Inlet, of which a large portion, 77, were 

designated as vacant in 2000. 

History 

The area around Excursion Inlet was once 

populated by the Woosh-Kee-Tawn clan of Tlingit 

Indians. However, due to a devastating flood, the 

Woosh-Kee-Tawn clan moved away from the inlet. 

Recent archeological investigations have unearthed 

burial grounds pre-dating the flood. In 1909 the Inlet 

was chosen as the site of a cannery which was in 

operation until 1931. During World War II, the Inlet 

was used both for cargo storage and for internment of 

Native Alaskans in the cannery buildings. Subsequent 

land issues created by this military activity are still 

in the process of being resolved. For the rest of the 

20th century the area was characterized by logging 

efforts and another cannery. The closure of the Wards 

Cove cannery in December of 2002 spelled economic 

ruin for the community, but it is widely hoped that 

government endeavors to keep the facility running 

will continue to make the community viable.

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Excursion Inlet ����������������

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

� � � � � � � � �

���������������������

����������������������

���������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Excursion Inlet 

Data source: US Census 

����������

��������������������������

����������������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Excursion Inlet 

Data source: US Census 

���������

�����

�����������

�����

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Excursion Inlet 
79

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The Wards Cove Packing Company located 

in Excursion Inlet closed in December 2002. The 

processor had been one of the largest in the United 

States, employing over 300 people and producing 

550,000 cases of canned salmon and 10 million lbs 

of frozen fish in 2002, and was the mainstay of the 

community, providing facilities and transport to 

employees and local residents. Moreover, the closure 

of the plant at Excursion Inlet also could have left 

fishing supply and fuel businesses in Juneau and Haines 

with significantly fewer customers and therefore 

affect many sectors of northern Southeast’s economy. 

Seattle-based Ocean Beauty Seafoods purchased the 

Wards Cove facilities in April 2003 and conducted a 

nearly seamless transfer of the enterprise.

Only two fishing permits were held in Excursion 

Inlet in 2000, both for the crabbing industry. Few 

jobs exist in the community outside of the processing 

industry, which is highly seasonal and employs 

transient workers. In addition, 50% of the labor force, 

which is only 25% of the population, is unemployed 

while 25% of the population is in poverty. The median 

household income is $16,250 while the per capita 

income is $18,888, according to the 2000 U.S. Census 

figures. 

Governance 

Excursion Inlet is an unincorporated area within 

the Haines Borough of Southeast Alaska. Because 

of Excursion Inlet’s status as an unincorporated city 

there are no city or borough officials in the city nor 

are there municipal or borough finances dispersed to 

the community. Excursion Inlet is not a member of 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

It therefore has no land allotment under the Act, and 

is not a federally recognized Native village, nor does 

it have a Native village corporation or belong to a 

regional Native corporation.

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

Regional Office is in Juneau, as is the nearest 

Department of Fish and Game. The nearest Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration Services is located in 

Haines.

Facilities 

There is no road access to Excursion Inlet. The 

community is served by the Excursion Inlet seaplane 

base which is owned by the State of Alaska. A distance 

of 1000 feet is provided for seaplanes to land and it is 

within a mile of the residential area.

All homes lack complete plumbing and no water 

or sewage facilities are provided to residences. There 

is no public safety or health provider serving the 

community and only one business associated with 

Excursion Inlet catering to tourists.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

According to the Department of Fish and Game, 

and reported by the Alaska Alaska Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission, two permits were held 

by two permit holders in Excursion Inlet in 2000, 

neither of which were fished that year. The permits 

both pertained to Dungeness crab: 75 pots or 25% of 

the maximum in Southeast waters. The Ocean Beauty 

processing plant processes pink and chum salmon, 

as well as salmon roe, salmon caviar, halibut and 

sablefish.

Sport Fishing 

One business offers accommodations and chartered 

sport fishing as well as other hunting expeditions and 

outdoor activities.

Subsistence Fishing 

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game has 

no information on subsistence practices in Excursion 

Inlet. 

* Commercial fishing permit data given here is from the CFEC 

and is for the communities of Excursion Inlet and Funter Bay

combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Excursion Inlet 
���

����

80

Gustavus (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Gustavus lies on the north shore of Icy Passage 

at the mouth of the Salmon River in the St. Elias 

Mountains. The community is surrounded by Glacier 

Bay National Park and Preserve on three sides and the 

waters of Icy Passage to the south on the fourth side. 

The area encompasses 37.7 square miles of land but 

no water area. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U. S. Census, the population 

of Gustavus was 429. The initial community population 

was just over 100 in the 1960s. Total population numbers 

are currently at a maximum, having risen from 258 

in the 1990s. There were more males (56.2% of the 

population) than females (43.8% of the population) 

in Gustavus according to data from the 2000 Census. 

The racial composition of the population in 2000 was 

predominantly White (89.3%) with Alaska Native or 

American Indian (4.2%), Asian (0.2%), Hawaiian 

Native or other Pacific Islander (0.2%), and ‘other’

(1.6%). Overall, 4.4% of the population identified with 

two or more races. A total of 8.2% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. Only 1.4% of the population 

identified as Hispanic. The median age was 40.3 years 

which is somewhat higher than the national median 

of 35.3 for the same year. According to the 2000 U.S. 

Census 27.3% of the population was under 19 years of 

age while only 15.7% of the population was over 55 

years of age in 2000.

There were 345 housing units in Gustavus, 146 

of which were vacant in 2000 and of these, 60 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 

U.S. Census, none of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 91.8% of the population over 25 years 

of age had a high school diploma or higher according 

to the 2000 Census data while 40.4% had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

Gustavus began as an agricultural homestead in 

1914. Previously, and as recently as 1794 when Captain 

George Vancouver sailed through Icy Strait, Glacier 

Bay had been completely covered by the Grand Pacific 

Glacier. By 1916, it had retreated 65 miles from the 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Gustavus ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � �� �� ��

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Gustavus 

����������������������

Data source: US Census ��������

����������������������

Other Pacific Islander 

0.2% 1.6% 

Two or more Asian 4.4% 0.2% 

Native 

4.2% 

White ������������������������ 89.4% 

��������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Gustavus 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Gustavus 
����

81

��������

����������������������

position observed by Vancouver in 1794. The current 

name was derived from Point Gustavus, which lies 7 

miles to the southwest. 

Glacier Bay National Monument (including 

Gustavus) was established by President Calvin 

Coolidge in 1925. After many appeals the homesteaders 

were able to keep their land and the Gustavus area was 

excluded from the monument. It became a National 

Park in 1980 with the passage of the Alaska National 

Interest Lands Conservation Act.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Gustavus is highly seasonal 

and depends strongly on fishing activities and other 

forms of recreational tourism; Glacier Bay National 

Park attracts a large number of tourists and recreation 

enthusiasts during the summer months. Over half 

of the labor force is employed by the National Park 

Service. Several adventure sports businesses are 

in operation and there is a nine-hole golf course. 

Approximately 60,000 tourists visit or pass through 

this small community annually. The lodge, airport, 

school, and small businesses also offer employment. 

A total of 65 commercial fishing permits were held 

by 32 permit holders in 2000 according to the Alaska 

Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 54.6% of the 

potential labor force was employed and there was an 

8.9% unemployment rate. A seemingly high 36.5% of 

the population over 16 years of age was not in the labor 

force, though this may be explained by the intensely 

seasonal nature of the fishing and tourism industries, 

and 14.6% of the population was below the poverty 

level. The median household income in the same year 

was $34,786 and the per capita income was $21,089. 

Governance 

Gustavus is an unincorporated city which does 

not lie within an organized Alaskan borough. For 

official purposes, Gustavus is located in the Sitka 

recording district. Because of Gustavus’s status as 

an unincorporated city there are no city or borough 

officials in the city nor are there municipal or borough 

finances dispersed to the community. Gustavus is not 

a member of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). It therefore has no land allotment under the 

Act, and is not a federally recognized Native village, 

2000 Employment Structure 

Gustavus 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

nor does it have a Native village corporation or belong 

to a regional Native corporation.

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

Regional Office is in Juneau, as is the nearest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services is located in 

Skagway.

Facilities 

The community of Gustavus is accessible by sea 

and air. Gustavus has a State-owned airport which 

can accommodate jets. The airport has two asphalt 

runways of 6,700 feet and 3,000 feet. In most cases, it 

is least expensive to fly to Anchorage via Juneau where 

possible. Roundtrip flights to Juneau cost around $160 

and a roundtrip flight between Juneau and Anchorage 

costs approximately $200. There is a 10-mile local 

road connecting Bartlett Cove with the airport. 

Freight arrives by barge. Small boats and small ferry 

boats regularly use the Gustavus Dock in the summer. 

Regulations limit the number of boats entering Glacier 

Bay to protect humpback whale habitat and National 

Park Service permits are required for boaters between 

June 1 and August 31. Because of the large number 

of tourists who arrive by boat or plane in the area, 

Gustavus is considered the gateway to Glacier Bay 

National Park.

Half of all year-round homes have individual 

water wells and septic tank systems and full plumbing. 

A community well with water treatment is available. 

Concerns have been raised about water safety due 

to shallow wells and individual septic systems. The 

school currently purchases water from the National 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Gustavus 
82

Park Service. The community has a permitted landfill 

and uses a balefill system. A study is underway to 

examine sewage disposal alternatives.

The Gustavus Electric Company supplies 

electricity to the community. There is no police force, 

but both Gustavus Emergency Response and Glacier 

Bay National Park ensure public safety. Health services 

are provided by the Gustavus Community Clinic which 

is owned and operated by the Gustavus Community 

Association. Gustavus is within the Chatham School 

District and there is one school in Gustavus itself. At 

Gustavus School four teachers instruct 45 students. 

In addition, approximately 15 students are homeschooled. There are numerous facilities available for 

tourists, including several options for accommodation, 

guided tours, and transportation.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Gustavus. According to the Department of Fish 

and Game, and reported by the Alaska Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission, 65 permits were held by 

32 permit holders but only 27 permits were actually 

fished in Gustavus in 2000. There were nine vessel 

owners in the federal fisheries, nine vessel owners in the 

salmon fishery and overall 17 crew members claiming 

residence in Gustavus in 2000. The commercial vessel 

fleet delivering landings to 

Gustavus was involved in halibut (nine vessels), 

sablefish (one vessel), and salmon (14 vessels) fisheries 

in 2000 (in accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

landings data for the community is unavailable).

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Gustavus for the year 

2000 related to halibut, sablefish, other groundfish, 

crab, other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 10 permits issued 

for halibut in Gustavus in 2000, 8 of which were fished. 

Permits for halibut pertained to six longline vessels 

under 60 feet (four permits were fished) and four 

longline vessels over 60 feet. All permits designated 

for halibut were for statewide waters. 

Sablefish: A total of five sablefish permits were 

issued in 2000 in Gustavus, four of which were fished. 

Permits pertained to one longline vessel under 60 feet 

in statewide waters, one longline vessel over 60 feet in 

northern Southeast waters, and three longline vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters. 

Other groundfish: A total of 11 permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish in Gustavus, only 

one of which was fished. Permits pertained to one 

lingcod longline vessel under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (not fished), one ling cod dinglebar troll in 

statewide waters (not fished), one lingcod mechanical 

jig (not fished), three miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(none fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

mechanical jig in statewide waters (none fished), two 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessels over 

60 feet in statewide waters (one permit was fished), 

one demersal shelf rock longline vessel under 60 

feet in Southeast waters (not fished), demersal shelf 

rockfish mechanical jig (not fished) and one demersal 

shelf rockfish longline vessel over 60 feet in Southeast 

waters (not fished).

Crab: A total of 14 permits were issued in 

Gustavus for crab in 2000, four of which were actually 

fished. Three permits pertained to 300 pots or 100% of 

the maximum for Dungeness crab in Southeast waters 

(none fished). Two permits pertained to 225 pots or 

75% of the maximum for Dungeness crab in Southeast 

waters (none fished). One permit pertained to 150 

pots or 50% of the maximum for Dungeness crab in 

Southeast waters (none fished). One permit pertained 

to 75 pots or 25% of the maximum for Dungeness crab 

in Southeast waters. One permit pertained to red, blue, 

and brown King crab pot gear in Southeast waters and 

seven permits pertained to Tanner crab ring nets in 

Southeast waters (two permits were fished). 

Other shellfish: Five permits for other shellfish 

were issued in Gustavus in 2000, two of which were 

actually fished. Permits were for one goeduck clam 

diving gear permit in Southeast waters (not fished), 

two sea cucumber diving gear permits in Southeast 

waters, and two sea urchin diving gear permits in 

Southeast waters (neither fished).

Salmon: A total of 20 permits were issued in 

Gustavus in 2000 for the salmon fishery, 8 of which 

were actually fished. Salmon permits pertained to 

14 handtroll in statewide waters (five permits were 

fished), and six power gurdy trolls in statewide waters 

(three permits were fished).

Adolphus Seafoods processing plant was in 

operation in 2000 and had the capability of processing 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Gustavus 
83

halibut, salmon, and sablefish. Another small plant, 

Pep’s Packing had an ‘intent to operate’ in 2003. 

Gustavus did not receive federal salmon disaster 

funds to compensate for consequent losses of salmon

taxes or raw fish taxes. 

Sport Fishing 

There were 14 saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Gustavus in 2002 and 12 businesses 

licensed to provide freshwater recreational fishing 

according to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 

There was a total of 1,877 sport fishing licenses sold 

in Gustavus in 2000, 297 of which were sold to Alaska 

residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1987 compiled on behalf of 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division 

of Subsistence provides useful information about 

subsistence practices in Gustavus. Records describe 

the subsistence patterns for 100% of households 

which participated in the use of subsistence resources, 

including harvesting, sharing and consuming of 

resources, illustrating the importance of subsistence 

to life in the community. Of the total population, 

91.8% used salmon and 95.9% used non-salmon fish 

(herring, herring roe, cod, flounder, halibut, rockfish, 

and char); many fewer households, only 5.9%, used 

marine mammals and a high percentage, 90.0%, used 

marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for 1987 was 

240.80 lbs. The composition of the total subsistence 

harvest can be shown by the percentages of the 

resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative 

to other resources categories. The total subsistence 

harvest was composed of 22.92% salmon, non-salmon 

fish made up 33.85%, land mammals 26.62%, marine 

mammals 0%, birds and eggs accounted for only 0.69% 

of the total subsistence harvest, marine invertebrates 

for 11.82% and vegetation made up 4.10%. The 

wild food harvest in Gustavus made up 156% of the 

recommended dietary allowance of protein in 1987 

(corresponding to a daily allowance of 49 g of protein 

per day or 0.424 lbs. of wild food per day) (Wolfe, 

Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game).

A total of six permits were held by households in 

Gustavus for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to ADF&G Division of Subsistence records from 1999. 

Sockeye salmon made up the largest proportions of the 

salmon harvest, followed by pink salmon. Residents 

of Gustavus who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Gustavus 
���

����

84

Haines (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Haines lies on the shores of the Lynn Canal on the 

Chilkat Peninsula between the Chilkoot and Chilkat 

Rivers. The town is bordered by the spectacular Chilkat 

Mountain Range to the west and the Coast Range to 

the east. The historic routes to the Klondike gold fields, 

the Chilkat, Chilkoot and White Pass, are to the north 

of the community. The area encompasses 13.5 square 

miles of land and 8.0 square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Haines was 1,811. Total population numbers 

increased rapidly since the 1980s, jumping from 463 in 

the 1970s to 993 the following decade. Since the turn 

of the century, the population remains relatively stable, 

in the vicinity of 400 people. Unlike many fishing 

communities, the genders are in fairly equal balance in 

Haines according to Census data, with males making 

up 49.9% of the population and females 50.1%. The 

racial composition of the population in 2000 was 

predominantly White (79.6%), 13.9% Alaska Native 

or American Indian, 0.2% Black or African American, 

0.7% Asian, and 0.1% Hawaiian Native. About 0.4% 

of the population classified themselves as ‘other.’

Overall, 5.1% identified with two or more races. A 

total of 18.5% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 

1.5% of the population identified themselves as 

Hispanic. The median age was 40.2 years which is 

somewhat higher than the national median of 35.3 for 

the same year. According to the Census data, 28.4% of 

the population was under 19 years of age while only 

21.9% of the population was over 55 years of age.

There were 895 housing units in Haines, 143 of 

which were vacant in 2000. Of those, only 47 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 

Census, only 0.2% of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 87.8% of the population had a high 

school diploma or higher, while 20% had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

The Tlingit Indians were the original inhabitants 

of the Chilkat Valley, a major conjunction of trade 

routes between the coast and the interior. In fact, the 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Haines ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� �� � �� ��� ��� ���

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ������

���������������������� Haines 

Data source: US Census 

Pacific Islander Other

0.1% 0.4% 

Two or more 

Asian races 

0.7% 5.1% 

Native 

13.9% 

Black 

0.2% 

White 

������������������������ 79.6%

������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Haines 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Haines 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

85

Haines area was called “Dtehshuh” meaning “end 

of the trail.” The village of Klukwan, 22 miles from 

Haines, is still the crucial village for the Tlingit nation. 

Sheldon Jackson, a Presbyterian missionary in Sitka, 

built mission schools for each of the local villages 

and in 1879, Missionary S. Hall Young and Naturalist 

John Muir traveled to Yendustucky, selected as the 

site for the mission. In 1881, the Chilkat Mission was 

finally established by Eugene and Caroline Willard. 

The community was later renamed Haines in honor of 

the Secretary of the Presbyterian Women’s Executive 

Society of Home Missions, Mrs. F.E. Haines, who had 

raised funds for the mission. 

The town again became an established departure 

point for a freight trail to the gold fields of the interior 

during the mid-1890s. The Dalton Trail, as it became 

known, reached over the Chilkat Pass and followed 

the same general route one now drives on the Haines 

Highway. At the beginning of the Klondike Gold 

Rush in the late 1890’s, Haines grew as a mining 

supply center. As the U.S.-Canada boundary dispute 

heated during the Klondike Gold Rush, Ft. William H. 

Seward was commissioned in 1898 as a U.S. military 

presence. Garrisoned in 1903, the army post became 

a major component of Haines economy, until it was 

deactivated after WWII. Commercial fishing in the 

area began before the turn of the century, and there 

were several canneries by the early 1900s. Fires were 

not infrequent among the fish processing plants, but 

the robustness of the industry made it very resilient to 

these disasters.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Haines is highly seasonal due to 

its dependence on the fishing and tourism industries. 

The economy is based on commercial fishing, timber, 

government work, tourism, and construction. Tourism 

is a growing industry in the area, as many independent 

travelers use the Alaska Marine Highway Ferry System 

and the Haines Highway to and from the interior of 

Alaska and the lower 48 states. Scenic beauty and 

supreme sport fishing grounds attract visitors to the 

area. The Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve draws visitors 

from around the world. Today, around 45,000 cruise 

ship passengers visit each year. Employment in Haines 

is provided mainly by tourism, timber, and fishing. 

% Group Quarters 

Haines 

Data source: US Census 

����������

��� ����

� ���

����

����

���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Haines 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

There is no fish processing plant in Haines. The 

government, and particularly the school system, 

employs a number of people, and the tourism and 

service sectors are growing. A total of 244 commercial 

fishing permits were held by 128 permit holders in 

2000 according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries 

Entry Commission. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 55.9% of the 

potential labor force was employed and there was an 

8.8% unemployment rate. A seemingly high 35.3% of 

the population over 16 years of age was not in the labor 

force, though this may be explained by the intensely 

seasonal nature of the fishing and tourism industries, 

and 7.9% of the population was below the poverty 

level. The median household income in the same year 

was $39,926 and the per capita income was $22,505. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Haines 
86

Governance 

The City of Haines was incorporated in 1910 

as a first-class city with a mayor/council form of 

government. Haines is included in the third-class 

Haines Borough which was formed subsequent to 

the incorporation of the city in 1968. The City has 

full powers of taxation, police and fire protection, 

road maintenance, waters and harbors, planning and 

zoning, coastal zone management, and water and 

sewer service. The Borough has the power to tax for 

educational purposes. It has planning and zoning and 

fire protection on a service area basis. The Chilkoot 

Indian Association of Haines is the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA)-recognized Indian Reorganization Act 

(IRA) village council. Haines is a member of the forprofit regional Native corporation Sealaska Corporation 

to which many of the communities of Southeast Alaska 

belong. Haines is also a member community of the 

Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Tribes, a regional 

Native non-profit organization. Haines is not allocated 

land under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). 

The most easily accessible National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) regional office is located in 

Juneau, while there are both a Bureau of Citizenship 

and Immigration Services (BCIS) and an Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) regional 

office located in Haines itself.

Facilities 

The community of Haines is accessible by road, 

air, and sea. It is connected by road to the interior of 

Alaska and the lower 48 states by the Alaska Canada 

(Alcan) Highway via the Haines “Cut-Off ” Road 

which connects the Alaska Highway at Haines Junction 

with the Alaskan seaport of Haines. Because of this 

and Haines’s ice-free deepwater port and dock, it is 

the northern terminus of the Alaska Marine Highway 

System. Haines has a State-owned 4,600 foot paved 

runway with daily scheduled flights to Juneau by 

small aircraft. In most cases, it is least expensive to fly 

to Anchorage via Juneau. Roundtrip flights to Juneau 

cost around $165 and a roundtrip flight between 

Juneau and Anchorage costs approximately $200. 

There is also a State-owned seaplane base, two small 

boat harbors with a total of 240 moorage slips, a State 

Ferry terminal, and a cruise ship dock. Freight arrives 

by ship, barge, plane, and truck.

Water is derived from Lilly Lake and Piedad 

Springs, is treated and stored in a 500,000-gallon 

tank, and then distributed throughout Haines. Sewage 

is collected by a piped system and receives primary 

treatment before discharge through two ocean outfalls. 

Nearly all homes are fully plumbed. Haines Sanitation 

Inc., a private firm, collects refuse and owns the 

permitted landfill. The City participates in recycling 

and hazardous waste disposal programs. 

Electricity is supplied by the Alaska Power 

Company from a diesel power source. Health services 

are provided by the Haines Medical Clinic which is 

owned by the borough. Public safety is provided by 

a city-backed police department and state troopers. 

Haines is within the Haines Borough School District 

and there are three schools in Haines itself. Twelve 

students attended Haines Correspondence School in 

2000. At Haines Elementary and Junior High School, 

15 teachers instruct 192 students, 9 teachers instruct 

115 students at Haines High School. Haines has a 

well-developed tourism industry and there are several 

businesses that provide accommodations and guided 

tours catering to visitors. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

The seafood industry has been historically and 

is currently the most important industry in Haines. 

The Chilkoot and Chilkat watersheds are renowned 

for their productive wild salmon habitat. According 

to the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, and 

reported by the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission, 244 permits were held by 128 permit 

holders with only 152 permits fished in Haines in 2000. 

There were 29 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 

69 vessel owners in the salmon fishery, and 156 crew 

members claiming residence in Haines in 2000. The 

commercial vessel fleet delivering landings to Haines 

was involved in halibut (10 vessels) and salmon (165 

vessels) fisheries in 2000. Landings in Haines for 

2000 included 4,550.25 tons of salmon (in accordance 

with confidentiality regulations, landings data for the 

community are unavailable). 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Haines for 2000 related 

to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, crab, 

other shellfish and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 51 permits issued 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Haines 
87

for halibut in Seward in 2000 (38 fished). Permits 

for halibut pertained to one hand troll (not fished), 

34 longline vessels under 60 feet (24 fished) and 16 

longline vessels over 60 feet. All permits designated 

for halibut were for statewide waters. 

Herring: There were a total of eight permits 

issued for the herring fishery in Seward in 2000 (two 

fished). Permits for herring roe pertained to one gillnet 

in Bristol Bay (not fished), one gillnet in Norton Sound 

(not fished), four permits for herring spawn on kelp in 

northern southeast waters (two fished) and two permits 

for herring spawn on kelp in southern southeast waters 

(not fished).

Sablefish: A total of 10 sablefish permits were 

issued in 2000 in Haines (7 fished). Permits pertained to 

nine longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(five fished), one longline vessel over 60 feet restricted 

to northern southeast waters and one longline vessel 

over 60 feet in southern southeast waters. 

Other groundfish: A total of 40 permits were issued 

in 2000 for other groundfish in Haines (13 fished). 

Permits pertained to one lingcod longline vessel under 

60 feet in statewide waters (not fished), one lingcod 

dinglebar troll in statewide waters (not fished), one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand troll in statewide 

waters (not fished), 28 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (9 

fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical 

jig in statewide waters (not fished), 6 demersal shelf 

rockfish longline vessels under 60 feet in southeast 

waters (2 fished), and 2 demersal shelf rockfish 

longline vessels over 60 feet in southeast waters.

Crab: A total of 14 permits were issued in Haines 

for crab in 2000 (5 fished). One permit pertained to 300 

pots or 100% of the maximum for Dungeness crab in 

southeast waters (none fished). One permit pertained 

to 150 pots or 50% of the maximum for Dungeness 

crab in southeast waters (none fished). Seven permits 

pertained to 75 pots or 25% of the maximum for 

Dungeness crab in southeast waters (four fished). 

One permit pertained to red and blue king crab pot 

gear in southeast waters and two permits pertained to 

red, blue, and brown king and Tanner crab pot gear 

in southeast waters (neither permit was fished). Two 

permits pertained to Tanner crab ring nets in southeast 

waters (neither permit was fished).

Other shellfish: A total of 23 permits were issued 

for other shellfish in Haines in 2000 (9 fished). Permits 

pertained to one shrimp pot gear vessel under 60 feet 

in southeast waters (one fished), one shrimp beam 

trawl in southeast waters (not fished), 17 shrimp pot 

gear vessels in southeast waters (7 fished), 2 permits 

for sea cucumber diving gear in southeast waters (one 

permit fished), and two permits for sea urchin diving 

gear in southeast waters (neither permit fished). 

Salmon: A total of 98 permits were issued in 

Haines in 2000 for the salmon fishery (78 fished). 

Salmon permits pertained to one purse seine restricted 

to Kodiak (not fished), 63 drift gillnets limited to 

southeast waters (61 fished), 6 drift gillnets limited to 

Bristol Bay, one set gillnet on the Alaska Peninsula 

(not fished), one set gillnet limited to Bristol Bay, 13 

hand trolls in statewide waters (one fished) and 13 

power gurdy trolls in statewide waters (9 fished).

Five seafood processing plants had operations in 

Haines in 2000 including a Wards Cove packaging 

facility; however, only two of these filed ‘Intents to 

Operate’ in 2003. The facilities were equipped to 

process both halibut and salmon.

It was announced in July 2003 that the Haines 

Borough would receive $2,878 worth of federal salmon 

disaster funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by depleted salmon resources. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. 

Sport Fishing 

There were 8 saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Haines in 2002 and 10 businesses licensed 

to provide freshwater recreational fishing according to 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. There was 

a total of 3,556 sport fishing licenses sold in Haines in 

2000, 853 of which were sold to Alaska residents.

Although all five species of Pacific salmon run up 

the Chilkat River each year, the Chilkoot River supports 

four species of salmon only, as chinook salmon do not 

run up the Chilkoot. Chinook or king salmon arrive in 

the spring soon after the eulachon. 

A limited saltwater sport fishing season is 

allowed for these prized salmon depending on Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game’s (ADF&G) estimated 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Haines 
88

number of fish returning each year. Sockeye and pink 

salmon arrive next, and both can be fished by sport 

fishermen in both freshwater and saltwater. Dolly 

Varden, char and halibut are also prevalent in the 

vicinity of Haines and are popular for sport fishing.

Subsistence Fishing 

Data from 1996 compiled on behalf of the 

ADF&G Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Haines. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for all 

97.8% of households which participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, 89.2% used salmon and 86.0% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, flounder, 

greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish sculpin, sole, char, 

grayling, and trout), only 9.7% of all households used 

marine mammals and a high percentage, 77.4%, used 

marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for the year 1996 

was 195.81 lbs. The composition of total subsistence 

harvest can be shown by the percentages of the 

resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative 

to other resources categories. The total subsistence 

harvest was composed of 29.81% salmon, 41.28% nonsalmon fish, 14.90% mammals, 0% marine mammals, 

0.71% birds and eggs, 5.36% marine invertebrates, 

and 7.43% vegetation. The wild food harvest in Haines 

made up 126% of the recommended dietary allowance 

of protein in 1996 (corresponding to a daily allowance 

of 49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs of wild food per 

day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, ADF&G).

A total of 221 permits were held by households 

in Haines for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to ADF&G Division of Subsistence records from 

1999. Sockeye salmon made up the largest proportion 

of the salmon harvest by a wide margin, followed 

by chum salmon. Residents of Haines who hold a 

valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Haines 
� � � �

���

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

89

Hobart Bay 2000 Population Structure �������������������������� (return to communities) Hobart Bay �����������

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

People and Place �����������

�������� Location ��������

Hobart Bay is on the southeast mainland on the ��������

����

������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

���������������������

����������������������

�����������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Hobart Bay 

Data source: US Census 

������

�����

�����

�����

% Group Quarters ����������������� Hobart Bay ����������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

east shore of Stephens Passage. The area encompasses 

117.4 square miles of land and 12.4 square miles of 

water. The community receives much less precipitation 

than is typical of Southeast Alaska.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Hobart Bay was three, although according to the State 

Demographer’s estimate in 2002, the community is no 

longer inhabited. In 1990 the recorded population was 

187. The 2000 population were all adults, two males 

and one female, and two people classified themselves 

as white and one as Alaska Native or American Indian. 

The median age was 44.5. There were 17 housing units 

in Hobart Bay, only 2 of which were occupied in 2000. 

All residents had completed a high school education 

and one had also achieved a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. 

History 

Hobart Bay was given its contemporary name 

in 1889 by Lt. Cmdr. Mansfield of the U.S. Navy. At 

that time the site was a logging camp. Hobart Bay 

continued as a logging camp operated by Goldbelt, 

Inc. until it was recently closed. Goldbelt, Inc. is an 

industrial Juneau-based Native Corporation owning 

nearly 23,000 acres in the area and is involved in 

logging operations. At the operation’s peak, 90% of 

the logging was done by helicopter. The work force 

has been scaled back considerably since 1990. The 

school was closed for the 1998-99 school year.

����

�

����

���

���� ����

����

Infrastructure

Current Economy 

The economy of Hobart Bay was based on logging 

until the local industry was scaled back and the 

Goldbelt, Inc. logging camp closed in the late 1990s. 

����������

Employment is currently limited to the caretaking of 

the facilities. A total of six commercial fishing permits 

were held by four permit holders in 2000 according to �

the Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission, and one 

resident was a licensed crew member. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Hobart Bay 

������������������

��������������
90

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, all residents 

were employed in the civil labor force. The per capita 

income was $34,900 with the median household 

income having been $68,750. 

Governance 

The City of Hobart Bay is unincorporated and 

therefore there are no city or borough officials in 

the community. There are no local organizations in 

Hobart Bay and the community does not belong to any 

regional organizations, although Goldbelt, Inc., is a 

Native-owned corporation which owns approximately 

23,000 acres in the area. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in Juneau as is the closest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office. 

The nearest office of the Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) is located in Ketchikan 

which is a satellite interviewing and processing 

office. 

Facilities 

The community of Hobart Bay is primarily 

accessible only by floatplane or boat, for which a 

public dock is available. No information was available 

regarding the prices of flights to Hobart Bay from 

Anchorage or from Juneau; however, the approximate 

cost to fly roundtrip to Juneau from Anchorage 

according to Travelocity and Expedia is $250 and an 

additional fare would be added on for the trip from 

Juneau to Hobart Bay. All homes are plumbed and a 

central distribution system provides water to homes. 

Both a community septic tank and outhouses are used. 

All heating comes from burning wood. Individual 

generators are available for electricity. No schools are 

in operation in Hobart Bay. There is no clinic in the 

community nor are there any police services. 

Hobart Bay is a fairly isolated community relative 

to other tourist destinations in southeast Alaska, and 

does not have the industry to support tourism. 

 Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Commercial fishing was not the most important 

economic endeavor in Hobart Bay when the logging 

company was in operation, but as logging operations 

were downscaled over the course of the 1990s, fishing 

became increasingly important to the viability of the 

�������������������������� 2000 Employment Structure 

����������� Hobart Bay ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

��������������

community. According to the ADF&G, and reported by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission, 

six permits were held by four permit holders but 

only four permits were fished in Hobart Bay in 2000. 

There were no vessel owners, and only one crew 

member registered in the community. There are no fish 

processing facilities in Hobart Bay, therefore no fish 

landings were made.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Hobart Bay for 2000 

related to one halibut longline vessel over 60 feet in 

statewide waters, one herring roe gillnet in southeast 

waters, one permit for herring harvests on kelp in 

northern southeast waters (not fished), two salmon 

drift gillnets in southeast waters, and one salmon hand 

troll in statewide waters (not fished). 

Sport Fishing 

No sport fishing businesses were in operation in 

Hobart Bay in 2002 and no sport fishing licenses were 

sold in the community in 2000.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing communities and subsistence harvests and practices continue to provide fishing communities with important 

nutritional, economic, social, and cultural requirements. However, no data is available in this respect 

from the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence. 

* Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Hobart Bay, Idaho Inlet, 

and Skagway combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska//Hobart Bay 
����

����

���

���

����

91

Hoonah (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Hoonah is a Tlingit community which lies on 

the northeast shore of Chichagof Island in southeast 

Alaska. The area encompasses 6.6 square miles of 

land and 2.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Hoonah was 860. Population numbers have risen 

steadily since the late 1800s, falling somewhat in 

the 1980s, but recovering the following decade and 

peaking in 2000. There were somewhat more males 

(53.0%) then females (47.0%) in 2000 according to 

Census data. The racial composition of the population 

in 2000 was predominantly American Indian and 

Alaska Native (60.6%), 28.7% White, 0.2% Black or 

African American, and 0.1% Asian. About 0.8% of the 

population classified themselves as belonging to some 

other race. Overall, 9.5% identified with two or more 

races. A total of 69.4% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. A small number (3.6%) of the population 

identified as Hispanic. The median age was 35.6 years 

which is slightly lower than the national median of 

35.3 years for the same year. According to Census 

data, 32.9% of the population was under 19 years of 

age while only 18.5% of the population was over 55 

years of age in 2000.

There were 348 housing units in Hoonah, 48 of 

which were designated vacant in 2000, and of these, 

10 were vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of 

2000 U.S. Census, only 1.2% of the population lived 

in group quarters. A total of 80.5% of the population 

over 25 years of age had a high school diploma or 

higher according to Census data while 15.4% also had 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Hoonah, meaning ‘village by the cliff,’ is the 

principal village for the Huna, a Tlingit tribe which 

has occupied the Glacier Bay and Icy Strait areas since 

prehistory. Local legend tells of an original ancestral 

home in Glacier Bay that was destroyed by a glacial 

advance. The Northwest Trading Co. built the first 

store in Hoonah in 1880. In 1881, the Presbyterian 

Home Mission and school were built. A post office 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Hoonah 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Hoonah ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�� � �� ���

���������������������

����������������������

������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure

Hoonah

Data source: US Census 

�����������

����� ����

�����

����

����� �����

�����

������

�����

������������������������

������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Hoonah

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

92

was established in 1901. In 1912, the Hoonah Packing 

Co. built a large cannery one mile north of town. 

The Thompson Fish Company still operates today as 

Hoonah Cold Storage. In 1944, a fire destroyed much 

of the city as well as many cultural artifacts. The federal 

government assisted in rebuilding the community. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Hoonah is dependent on the fishing 

industry and government employment opportunities. 

Some employment occurs at the Hoonah Cold 

Storage plant. Whitestone Logging Inc. and Southeast 

Stevedoring (a sort-yard and timber transfer facility) 

are the two major private employers. The city and the 

school district are the main public sector employers. 

Subsistence activities are an important component of 

the lifestyle. A total of 208 commercial fishing permits 

were held by 116 permit holders in 2000 according to 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 48.3% of the 

potential labor force was employed and there was a 

12.5% unemployment rate. A seemingly high 39.2% 

of the population over 16 years of age was not in 

the labor force, though this may be explained by the 

intensely seasonal nature of the fishing and tourism 

industries, and 16.6% of the population was below the 

poverty level. The median household income in the 

same year was $39,028 and the per capita income was 

$16,097.

Governance 

The City of Hoonah was incorporated in 1946 as 

a first-class city. The city is governed by a Councilmayor form of government. The mayor and seven 

council members are elected officials. Hoonah is not 

located within an organized borough, therefore the 

city is responsible for many services. The City of 

Hoonah implements a 5% sales tax. The city belongs 

to the for-profit regional Native corporation, Sealaska 

Corporation, as well as to the regional Native nonprofit, Central Council Tlingit and Haida Tribes of 

Alaska. Huna Totem Corporation is the local village 

corporation and Hoonah Indian Association is the 

village council which is federally recognized and 

eligible for funding and services from the Bureau 

of Indian Affairs (BIA) by virtue of their status as 

an Indian tribe. The total land to which Angoon is 

����������

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Hoonah 

������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure

Hoonah

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

�����

��������

�����

entitled under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act (ANCSA) amounts to about 23,040 acres.

There is a National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) office as well as an Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) office located in the nearby state 

capital, Juneau. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) is located in Haines.

Facilities 

The community of Hoonah is accessible by and is 

dependent on air transportation for movement of small 

freight and passengers. Hoonah has a state-owned and 

operated 3,000 foot paved runway and a seaplane base. 

Both are served by scheduled small chartered aircraft 

from Juneau. In most cases, it is least expensive to fly 

to Anchorage via Juneau. Roundtrip flights to Juneau 

cost around $170 and a roundtrip flight between Juneau 

and Anchorage costs approximately $200. A State 

Ferry Terminal, as well as a harbor and dock area, are 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska//Hoonah 
93

available. Freight arrives by barge or plane. There is an 

extensive logging road system on northwest Chichagof 

Island.

Water is derived from Shotter, Dalton, and Spud 

Creeks, and is treated and piped to all homes and 

facilities. A new water treatment facility was completed 

in October 1998. Piped sewage is processed in a sewage 

treatment plant. Ninety-eight percent of homes are 

fully plumbed. The City provides garbage collection 

services twice weekly. Electricity is supplied by the 

Tlingit-Haida Regional Electric Authority, a non-profit 

subdivision of the State, operates three diesel-fueled 

generators in Hoonah. Health services are provided by 

the Hoonah Medical Clinic which is owned and operated 

by the Hoonah Indian association. Public safety is 

provided by a city-backed police department and state 

troopers. Hoonah schools are within the Hoonah City 

School District, with two schools located in Hoonah 

itself. At Hoonah Elementary School 71 students are 

instructed by seven teachers and at Hoonah Junior 

and Senior High School, 121 students are instructed 

by nine teachers. Hoonah is developing a tourism 

industry and there are several enterprises including at 

least eight businesses providing accommodations and 

guided tours to visitors. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Hoonah. According to the ADF&G, and reported by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission, 

208 permits were held by 116 permit holders but only 

106 permits were actually fished in Angoon in 2000. 

There were 20 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 

52 vessel owners in the salmon fishery, and overall 120 

crew members claiming residence in Hoonah in 2000. 

The commercial vessel fleet delivering landings to 

Hoonah was involved in halibut (20 vessels), sablefish 

(4 vessels), other groundfish (11 vessels), and salmon 

(52 vessels) fisheries in 2000. In accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, landings data for the 

community are unavailable.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Seward for the year 2000 

related to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, 

crab, other shellfish and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 33 permits issued 

for halibut in Hoonah in 2000, 26 of which were 

actually fished. Permits for halibut pertained to three 

hand trolls (one permit fished), 26 longline vessels 

under 60 feet (22 permits fished) and four longline 

vessels over 60 feet (3 permits fished). All permits 

designated for halibut were for statewide waters. 

Herring:There were two permits issued for herring 

in Hoonah in 2000, both of which were fished. One 

permit pertained to herring roe gill nets in Security 

Cove and in Bristol Bay.

Sablefish: A total of 11 sablefish permits were 

issued in 2000 in Hoonah (9 permits fished). Permits 

pertained to six longline vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (5 permits fished), 3 longline vessels 

over 60 feet long in statewide waters (2 permits 

fished), and 2 longline vessels over 60 feet in southern 

southeast waters.

Other groundfish: A total of 36 permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish in Hoonah (9 

permits fished). Permits pertained to 2 lingcod longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (not fished), 

27 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (8 permits fished), 

six demersal shelf rock fish under 60 feet (one permit 

fished), and one demersal shelf rock fish (not fished). 

Crab: Seven permits were issued in Hoonah 

for crab in 2000, all of which were fished. One 

permit pertained to 150 pots or 50% of maximum 

for Dungeness crab in southeast waters, 2 permits 

pertained to pot gear for red, blue, and brown king 

and Tanner crab in southeast waters, and 4 permits for 

Tanner crab ring nets in southeast waters. 

Other shellfish: Only one permit that had been issued

in Hoonah in 2000 was fished. This permit pertained 

to one shrimp pot gear vessel under 60 feet in southeast waters. 

Salmon: A total of 118 permits were issued in 

Hoonah in 2000 for the salmon fishery (52 permits 

fished). Salmon permits pertained to six purse seine 

restricted to southeast waters (4 permits fished), one 

permit for a drift gillnet in Bristol Bay, 83 permits for 

hand trolls in statewide waters (23 permits fished), and 

29 power gurdy trolls in statewide waters (24 permits 

fished).

Hoonah’s only processing plant, Hoonah Cold 

Storage, has the capability to process salmon, 

including high-seas salmon, halibut, sablefish, and 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Hoonah 
94

other groundfish. 

It was announced in July 2003 that Hoonah would 

receive $40,739 worth of federal salmon disaster funds 

to be distributed to several municipalities statewide 

which have been affected by low salmon prices in 

order to compensate for consequent losses of salmon 

taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement of these 

disaster funds illustrates state and federal responses 

to communities and boroughs affected by depleted 

salmon resources. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for allocating the funds. Further 

disbursements are expected in the future to offset the 

costs of basic public services for which fish taxes 

become insufficient. 

Sport Fishing 

There were eight saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Hoonah in 2002 and six businesses 

licensed to provide freshwater recreational fishing 

according to the ADF&G. There was a total of 877 

sport fishing licenses sold in Hoonah in 2000, 530 of 

which were sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1996 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Hoonah. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for 97.4% 

of households in the community which participated in 

the use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, 85.7% used salmon, 83.1% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, bass, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, char, 

and trout), 55.8% used marine mammals, and a high 

percentage, 77.9%, used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita subsistence harvest for the 

year 1996 was 3,723.04 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative to 

other resource categories. The total subsistence harvest 

was composed of 30.41% salmon, 17.97% non-salmon 

fish, 21.67% land mammals, 6.06% marine mammals, 

0.19% birds and eggs, 15.68% marine invertebrates, 

and 8.03% vegetation. The wild food harvest in 

Hoonah made up 239% of the recommended dietary 

allowance of protein in 1996 (corresponding to a daily 

allowance of 49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs of 

wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, 

ADF&G). 

A total of 50 permits were held by households in 

Hoonah for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records from 

1999. Chum made up the vast majority of the salmon 

harvest. Residents of Hoonah and members of Hoonah 

Community Association who hold a valid Subsistence 

Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by 

NMFS, are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. 

These allocations are based on recognized customary 

and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to 

implement subsistence halibut fishing were published 

in the Federal Register in April 2003 and became 

effective May 2003.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska//Hoonah 
���� ����

����

����

���

95

Hydaburg (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Hydaburg is located on the southwest coast of 

Prince of Wales Island, 45 air miles northwest of 

Ketchikan and approximately 200 miles southeast of 

Juneau. The area encompasses 0.3 square miles of 

land. 

Demographic Profile 

Hydaburg is a predominantly Haida Indian 

village. In 2000, there were 382 residents in 133 

households. All relatives lived in households rather 

than group quarters. The racial composition was as 

follows: American Indian and Alaska Native (85.1%), 

White (9.4%), Black (0.5%), Asian (0.5%), and two or 

more races (4.5%). A total of 89.5% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. The gender makeup of the 

community was somewhat skewed, at 52.9% male and 

47.1% female. The median age was 31.8 years, slightly 

younger than the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. 

In terms of educational attainment, 76.8% of residents 

aged 25 years or older held a high school diploma. 

History 

Since prehistory, Prince of Wales Island has been 

occupied by Tlingit Indians. Starting in the 1700s, 

however, Haida Indians moved onto the island from 

Haida Gwaii (British Columbia’s Queen Charlotte 

Islands). On Prince of Wales Island they established 

multiple settlements, taking advantage of the island’s 

rich resources, including abundant sea otters. Diseases 

such as smallpox took a heavy toll on the island. By 

the time missionaries arrived in 1878, the Haida’s 

numbers had dwindled from nearly 10,000 to just 800 

(Halliday 1998: 25). 

Hydaburg, an Anglicization of “Haida,” was 

established in 1911, when three Haida villages 

combined in order for their children to attend school. 

The village became the Hydaburg Indian Reservation 

in 1912. At the villagers’ request, however, the land 

was restored to its former status as part of the Tongass 

National Forest and the reservation was disbanded in 

1926. When the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) was 

amended in 1936 to include Alaska Natives, Hydaburg 

became the first village in Alaska to form an IRArecognized village council. Today, Hydaburg is a 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Hydaburg

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� �� �� � �� �� �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

�������� 2000 Racial Structure ���������������������� Hydaburg 

Data source: US Census 

������������

����� ����� �����

�����

����

������

������ �������������������������� ����� ��������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Hydaburg 

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

�����������

�����

����������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Hydaburg 
96

predominantly Haida village with an economy based 

on commercial and subsistence fishing.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Hydaburg’s economy is based on commercial and 

subsistence fishing, as well as the timber industry. 

Many residents hold commercial fishing permits. 

There is a timber storage facility in Hydaburg, where 

many residents work, shipping and loading lumber. 

The city government, school, and Native corporation 

are other important employers. 

In 2000 the median per capita income was $11,401 

and the median household income was $31,625. The 

unemployment rate was 15.4%, and 50.9% of residents 

aged 16 and over were not in the labor force (i.e. not 

seeking work). Approximately 24.1% of local residents 

were living below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Hydaburg is a first-class city, but is not located 

within an organized borough. It was incorporated 

in 1927. It has a strong mayor form of government. 

The city administers a 4% sales tax. The Hydaburg 

Cooperative Association, the local village council, is 

recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). In 

addition, Hydaburg has a Native village corporation, 

the Haida Corporation, which was granted a land 

entitlement under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act (ANCSA). 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in Craig. The nearest U.S. 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) is located in Ketchikan. The nearest National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office is located in 

Petersburg. 

Facilities 

Hydaburg is accessible by air, sea, and land. 

There is a state-owned seaplane base, with scheduled 

flights to Ketchikan, as well as an emergency heliport. 

Roundtrip airfare from the Klawock airport, on the 

western side of Prince of Wales Island, to Anchorage is 

approximately $397. There is also a city-owned small 

boat harbor; the community has plans to construct a 

breakwater and boat launch. A road leads to Craig, 

Klawock, and Hollis, where there is a state ferry 

dock. 

Most homes in Hydaburg have plumbing, with a 

piped water and sewer system owned by the city. The 

Alaska Power Company, a private utility operator, 

provides diesel-generated electricity to the community. 

There is a health clinic owned by the city and operated 

in conjunction with the Southeast Alaska Regional 

Health Consortium (SEARHC). The state provides a 

village public safety officer. There is one elementary 

school and one junior/senior high school with a 

combined total of 10 teachers and 94 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon 

fishery, is a major part of the economy of Hydaburg. 

There were 5 vessel owners with operations in federal 

fisheries and 13 vessel owners with operations in state 

fisheries who resided in the community. In addition, 

there were 42 registered crew members. There were 

38 local residents who held a total of 68 commercial 

fishing permits, primarily in the salmon, herring, 

and halibut fisheries. This section contains a detailed 

description of commercial permits issued to Hydaburg 

residents in 2000. 

Halibut: Nine local residents held a total of nine 

permits in the halibut fishery. These permits included: 

8 halibut longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (5 permits fished); and one halibut 

longline permit for vessels over 60 feet in statewide 

waters (one permit fished). 

Herring: Seventeen local residents held a total of 

17 commercial permits in the herring fishery. All 17 

were to collect herring spawn on kelp by the pound in 

the southern southeast region (none fished). 

Other (Non-Crab) Shellfish: Eleven residents held 

a total of 15 commercial permits for other shellfish. 

The permits included the following: eight shrimp pot 

gear permits for the southeast region (seven permits 

fished); three sea cucumber diving gear permits for 

the southeast region (three permits fished); and three 

sea urchin diving gear permits for the southeast region 

(none fished). 

Salmon: Twenty-six residents held a total of 

27 commercial permits in the salmon fishery. These 

included the following: three salmon purse seine 

permits for the southeast region (2 permits fished), 

one salmon drift gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (none 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Hydaburg 
97

fished), 15 salmon hand troll permits for statewide 

waters (5 permits fished), and 8 salmon power gurdy 

troll permits for statewide waters (7 permits fished). 

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

in Hydaburg and therefore no landings. In 2003 

Hydaburg received $7,210 in federal salmon disaster 

funds to compensate the community for falling salmon 

prices. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing opportunities in Hydaburg are limited 

in comparison to larger communities in southeast 

Alaska. A total of 11 sport fishing licenses were sold 

in Hydaburg in 2000 - 8 to Alaska residents and 3 

to non-residents. In 2002 there were two registered 

saltwater sport fishing guides in Hydaburg. The major 

sport species in the area include halibut and all five 

species of Pacific salmon. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence resources are an important supplement 

to the formal economy in Hydaburg. The ADF&G’s 

Division of Subsistence reports that, in 1997, 100% of 

households in Hydaburg used subsistence resources. 

Approximately 96.1% of households used subsistence 

salmon, and 100% used non-salmon subsistence 

fish (especially halibut, herring roe, and rockfish). 

Approximately 15.7% of households used marine 

mammals (mostly harbor seals and sea otters) for 

subsistence and 96.1% of households used marine 

invertebrates (especially crabs, clams, and shrimp).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Hydaburg in 1997 was 384.1 lbs and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (30.4%), nonsalmon fish (28.4%), land mammals (9.0%), marine 

mammals (0.8%), birds and bird eggs (0.2%), marine 

invertebrates (26.3%), and vegetation (4.9%). 

The residents of Hydaburg who hold a valid 

Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. The ADF&G reports 

that, in 1999, 28 households held subsistence salmon 

permits, and a total of 1,354 salmon (mostly sockeye) 

were harvested. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Hydaburg 
���

����

2000 Population Structure �������������������������� City and Borough of Juneau City and Borough of Juneau ���������������������������

98

(includes Douglas and Auke Bay) 

(return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The city of Juneau is situated in northern Southeast 

Alaska, at the center of the Inside Passage along the 

Gastineau Channel, on the mainland shore and facing 

Douglas Island. It is 900 air miles northwest of Seattle, 

WA and 577 air miles southeast of Anchorage. The 

area encompasses 2,716.7 square miles of land and 

538.3 square miles of water. 

Douglas is built in the northern shore of Douglas 

Island, facing Juneau and the mainland. Auke Bay is a 

small place also situated in the continental shoreline, 

still inside the borough limits, but 12 miles north of 

Juneau.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Juneau’s 

municipality had 30,711 inhabitants (5,314 of whom 

live in Douglas). About 11.4% of the recorded 

inhabitants were Alaska Native, 74.8% White, 4.7% 

Asian, 0.8% Black, 0.4% Hawaiian Native, 1.1% 

belonged to other groups, while 6.9% belonged to 

two racial groups or more. A total of 16.6% of the 

population recognized themselves as all or part Alaska 

Native or American Indian. At the same time 3.4% 

of the population identified themselves as having 

Hispanic origin. 

This community has a relatively balanced gender 

ratio: 50.4% of the population was male and 49.6% 

female. In 2000, 678 individuals of the community 

lived in group quarters. The rest of the population 

(97.8%) lived in households. 

The median age of this community is almost 

identical to the national median: 35.2 years compared 

to 35.3 years. Historical Census data show significant 

increases since the 1970s. In 2000 most of the 

population, 50.8%, fell between 25 and 54 years of 

age, and a significant 30% under 19 years of age. Of 

the population age 25 and over 93.2% had graduated 

from high school or gone on to further schooling, and 

36.0% of the population had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

Other 

Pacific Islander 

0.4% 

0.8% 

���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ���� ���� ����

���������������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure

��������������������������� City and Borough of Juneau

Data source: US Census ����������������������

White 

74.7% 

Two or more 

races 

6.9% 

1.1% 

Native 

11.4% 

Black 

Asian 

4.7% 

������������������������

���������������������������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

City and Borough of Juneau 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/City and Borough of Juneau 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

����

99

History 

The widely accepted story about the origins of 

Juneau tells how a Tlingit Indian Chief from the Auk 

Tribe, Kowee, showed prospectors Richard Harris and 

Joseph Juneau where to find gold in Gold Creek in 

August of 1880. By October a town site near a beach 

at the Gastineau Channel was ready for the rush 

that ensued. Juneau became the first Alaskan city to 

emerge from the gold rush, although it was initially 

called Harrisburg. In 1882 the name was changed to 

Juneau City. The city was incorporated in 1900. The 

State government was moved to Juneau from Sitka in 

1906.

The area had been previously inhabited by Tlingit 

groups. They had developed an ecologically adapted 

system of life based on hunting, fishing, and gathering 

practices combined with complex trading networks. 

The Gastineau Channel was one of their main fishing 

grounds.

Juneau quickly developed into a large-scale hardrock mining town when the loose gold in the stream 

beds ran out. Fishing, mills, canneries, transportation, 

and trading services contributed to the emergence of 

Juneau as an important city in the early 20th century. 

On Douglas Island, the Treadwell Gold Mining 

Company and Ready Bullion became a world-scale 

mining company. The ‘golden age’ of Juneau’s mining 

history peaked between 1915 and 1920. From 1921 to 

1944 most of the operations stopped their production. 

During the last half of the 20th century tourism took 

over as a major economic sector of metropolitan 

Juneau. Fishing remained an important economic 

activity. Juneau and Douglas were unified in 1970 as 

the City and Borough of Juneau. The Greater Juneau 

Borough was incorporated in 1963. 

Currently, Juneau is the third largest city in Alaska. 

One third of its inhabitants are concentrated in the city 

and on Douglas Island, while the rest are spread across 

the borough, mainly along the roaded areas.

Douglas, previously known as Edwardsville, 

was incorporated in 1902. It was founded to service 

mining activities. Douglas was historically the site of 

an important Tlingit settlement that was destroyed in 

the 1950s during the construction of Douglas Harbor. 

It became a home-rule city in 1966. Auke Bay, on 

the other hand, was one of the most important Tlingit 

settlements of the area. The Tlingits abandoned the 

camp in 1900s and joined the growing city.

Although today Juneau is an important center 

% Group Quarters �����������������

City and Borough of Juneau ���������������������������

Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ���� ������������������

�������������������������� ��������������

��������������������������

�����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

City and Borough of Juneau 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

of Native life, official discrimination against Native 

Alaskans was not legally abolished until 1945.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

To understand Juneau’s economy, it is necessary 

to understand two fundamental factors. First, aside 

from being a big city, it is the capital of Alaska, so 

a large amount of its workforce is employed in 

public administration (45% of the employment of 

the community). Second, it is situated in a privileged 

location with a dramatic landscape and abundant 

fisheries.

Juneau’s economic structure can be briefly 

summarized as encompassing public administration, 

a very large, seasonal, tourism industry, and a very 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/City and Borough of Juneau 
100

complex fishing sector where commercial, subsistence 

and sport practices are equally important.

During the first half of the year many State 

Legislators and staff join the population. The summer 

months are a particularly busy tourism season. The 

area is visited by some 800,000 travelers that sustain 

around 2,000 jobs that generate benefits in the millions. 

Fishing, with 519 commercial permit holders and 400 

subsistence permits is also a permanent source of 

productivity and economic dynamism. The fishing 

industry includes a hatchery and six processors. 

Logging and mining (Kennecott Green’s Creek Mine 

produces gold, silver, lead, and zinc, and is the largest 

silver mine in North America) are also part of Juneau’s 

specific economic system.

Juneau’s employment structure according to 

the 2000 U.S. Census shows that 70.8% of the 

total workforce was employed, a very low 4% was 

unemployed, 0.4% worked with the armed forces 

and 24.5% of the adults were not seeking a job. In 

the year 2000, 6% of the population lived below the 

line of poverty. The community presented a per capita 

income of $26,719 and a median household income of 

$62,034. 

Governance 

The governance structure of Juneau is very 

complex. It needs to be understood at four different 

levels. First, it is a city with its own local government. 

Second, it is the center of a borough with corresponding 

administrative organization. Third, it is the capital of 

Alaska, harboring a large amount of the state political 

and administrative structures. Fourth, as a consequence 

of this centrality at several levels, a myriad of local and 

regional institutions from the southeast and the rest of 

Alaska have offices and representatives in the city.

Juneau was incorporated in 1900, the same year 

that it became the capital of Alaska. Douglas was 

incorporated in 1902. Both cities and the rest of the area 

were unified in 1970 becoming the City and Borough 

of Juneau, a unified Home Rule municipality. The 

local government uses a manager form of government 

supported by a nine-member local council (mayor 

included). The city imposes a 5% sales tax, a 0.1147% 

property tax, a 7% accommodation tax, a 3% tax on 

liquor sales, a 6% tax on tobacco sales, and a $5/person 

Marine passenger tax.

Native Alaskan institutions of the area include 

regional and local corporations as well as village 

councils: Aukquan Traditional Council (a village 

council not recognized by ANCSA), the Central 

Council Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska 

(BIA-recognized traditional council, considered 

also a non-profit organization providing economic 

development, employment, training, Head Start 

and family services), Goldbelt Incorporated (local 

urban Native corporation managing 23,000 acres 

under ANCSA), the Sealaska Corporation (regional 

Native corporation), the Douglas Indian Association 

(recognized by the BIA but not included in the ANCSA 

negotiations), Yak-Tat Kwaan Inc., Kootznoowoo Inc. 

and Klukwan, Inc (village corporation for the village 

of Klukwan, located near Haines, managing 23,000 

acres under ANCSA).

Other local or regional institutions of the area that 

are headquartered in Juneau are the Juneau Chamber 

of Commerce, the Juneau Economic Development 

Council, the Southeast Alaska Regional Health 

Consortium (Regional health corporation serving 

Sealaska region Native villages, Southeast Alaska 

Regional Health Corp.), the Tlingit-Haida Regional 

Housing Authority (Housing authority Southeast 

Region), the Tlingit-Haida Regional Electrical 

Authority, the Southeast Alaska Tourism Council, and 

the Southeast Conference Resource Conservation and 

Development.

As previously mentioned Juneau is the site of 

the state legislature and borough headquarters. This 

centrality has attracted the Alaska Municipal League, 

the main Alaska State Chamber of Commerce, and 

representatives of Aleutian/Pribilof Island Community 

Development Association (CDQ Group) among many 

others.

The closest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office to Juneau is 

located in Ketchikan. It is a satellite interviewing 

and processing office. The closest offices of both the 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) and 

the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are 

located within the city of Juneau. The ADF&G office 

is the site of the organization’s headquarters. 

Facilities 

The City of Juneau is not accessible by land. 

Juneau’s municipally owned international airport, 

which includes a paved 8,456 foot runway and a 

seaplane landing area, is serviced by scheduled jet 

flights and air taxis (Alaska Airlines, Air North, Alaska 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/City and Borough of Juneau 
101

Coastal, Loken Aviation, Haines Airways, L.A.B. 

Flying Service, AirOne, Era Helicopters, Skagway 

Air Service, Temsco Helicopters, Ward Air, Wings 

of Alaska, Alaska Fly ‘n’ Fish Charters, Glacier Bay 

Airways ). The approximate cost to fly to Anchorage 

from Juneau roundtrip according to Expedia and 

Travelocity is $250. The infrastructure of Juneau’s 

harbor includes a seaplane landing area at Juneau 

Harbor, two deep draft docks, five small boat harbors, 

and a state-owned ferry terminal. This community is 

a main node of the Alaska Marine Highway System. 

The state ferry, as well as numerous cargo barges, 

provides year-round services. The city has a municipal 

bus system, local cab companies, car rental services 

and innumerable accommodation facilities. Douglas 

and Juneau are connected by a bridge.

Juneau has 13 schools that, ranging from 

kindergarten to high school, have 5,506 students and 

326 teachers. Health care is provided by the Bartlett 

Regional Hospital, SEARCH Medical and Dental 

Clinic, private clinics, the Northwest Air Ambulance, 

Greens Creek EMS, and the US Coast Guard Rescue 

Coordination Center. The city has the headquarters 

of the Borough Police Department as well as a State 

Trooper Post.

The city and borough of Juneau manage the water 

and sewage systems. Power is provided by the privately 

owned Alaska Electric Light & Power Company.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

According to the official records of 2000, Juneau 

had 552 commercial permit holders with 962 permits 

for all fisheries, 521 of which were fished. The data 

produced by the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) offers a consolidated category for 

all information pertaining to the separate entities of 

Juneau, Douglas, Auke Bay and Taku Harbor. 

According to data provided by the ADF&G, 466 

of Juneau’s residents were registered as crewmen. 

There were 81 federal fisheries vessel owners plus 144 

owners of salmon vessels. Juneau’s fleet fished most 

of Alaska’s significant fisheries: crab, halibut, herring, 

other types of groundfish, sablefish, other shellfish, 

and salmon. 

Crab: In 2000, 68 permits were issued to fish all 

types of crab, although only 47 of them were fished. 

The caught species were Dungeness crab, red, blue 

and brown king crab and Tanner crab. There were 31 

permits issued to catch Dungeness crab: 8 permits 

were issued to catch with 300 pots or 100% of the 

maximum capacity (4 permits fished), 5 permits were 

for 225 pots or 75% (none fished), 8 permits issued for 

150 pots or 50% (6 fished), and 10 were for 75 pots or 

a 25% capacity (6 fished). The records also show that 

red, blue and brown crab were fished by Juneau’s fleet. 

There was one permit to catch the three varieties with 

pot gear (none fished). There was one permit to catch 

blue king crab with pot gear. A total of 18 permits to 

harvest Tanner crab were issued: 15 permits to catch 

crab with ring net (9 fished), and 3 permits issued for 

pot gear. Nine permits were issued to catch red and 

blue king crab as well as Tanner crab individually with 

pot gear, and eight permits to catch all types with pot 

gear. All permits issued for crab were restricted to 

southeast waters.

Salmon: A total of 451 permits were issued (201 

permits fished) in this important industry. There were 

17 permits for purse seine: one non-fished permit for 

Prince William Sound, 13 permits to fish in southeast 

waters (10 fished), and 3 for the Kodiak area (one 

fished). A total of 110 permits were issued to fish 

salmon with drift gillnet: 18 in the Bristol Bay area 

(16 fished), 2 in the Cook Inlet (one fished), one nonfished permit for Prince William Sound, one fished 

permit to work in Alaska Peninsula waters and, finally, 

there were 87 permits for the southeast (77 fished). A 

total of 27 permits to fish with set gillnet were issued: 

one issued and fished permit for the Cook Inlet, 4 for 

Bristol Bay (2 fished), 3 non-fished permits for the 

Lower Yukon, one non-fished permit for Kotzebue, 

4 for Kodiak waters (3 fished), one fished permit for 

Prince William Sound, and 13 for Yakutat (7 fished). 

A further 199 hand troll permits were issued for 

statewide waters (19 fished), and 94 permits for power 

gurdy troll, also statewide (60 fished).

Halibut: In 2000 Juneau had 169 permits to fish 

halibut (143 permits fished). There were 137 permits 

for longliners under 60 feet (118 permits fished). 

Twenty-eight permits were issued for longline vessels 

over 60 feet (23 fished). One non-fished permit for 

* Commercial fishing permit data from the CFEC is given 

for the communities of Auke Bay, Douglas, Juneau, and Taku 

Harbor 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/City and Borough of Juneau 
102

hand troll and three permits for mechanical jig were 

issued (two fished). All of the halibut permits were 

issued with statewide range.

Sablefish: A total of 69 permits were issued for 

sablefish (68 fished): 42 longliners under 60 feet (40 

fished), 9 longliners over 60 feet (8 fished). Of these 

permits, 51 were issued with statewide range. A total 

of 18 permits were issued for longliners over 60 feet 

in southeast waters. 

Herring: There were 50 permits issued for the 

halibut fishery in 2000 (17 fished). Ten permits for 

herring roe fished with purse seine (five fished), 

two for the southeast (both fished), three for Prince 

William Sound (none fished), and five for Bristol 

Bay (three fished). There were eight issued permits 

to catch herring roe with gillnet: three for the Bristol 

Bay area (one fished), three for Norton Sound (none 

fished), one non-fished permit for Security Cove, and 

a non-fished permit for Kodiak. There were 14 permits 

issued for herring roe for food and bait: 12 permits for 

gillnet in the southeast (three fished), and two permits 

for purse seine in the southeast as well (one fished). 

Finally, there were 17 permits for herring spawn on 

kelp: 11 for the Southeast (6 fished), 5 for the southern 

southeast (none fished), and one not fished for Prince 

William Sound. 

Other Groundfish: The groundfish fleet held 133 

permits (only 37 fished). The bulk of these permits were 

for miscellaneous saltwater finfish: 93 for longliners in 

vessels under 60 feet (31 fished), 4 for mechanical jig 

(one fished), and 7 for longline in vessels over 60 feet 

(one fished permit). All 93 permits had a statewide 

range. There were 27 permits for demersal shelf 

rockfish: 25 for longliners under 60 feet (3 fished), one 

for a hand troller, and one for dinglebar troll (neither 

fished). All permits were issued for the southeast. Two 

statewide permits to fish lingcod were issued: one 

non-fished permit for a longliner under 60 feet, and 

one fished permit using dinglebar troll.

Other shellfish: There were 17 permits to catch 

shrimp: 14 permits to use pot gear in the southeast (6 

fished), one fished permit for Yakutat with pot gear, 

and 2 permits to use beam troll in the southeast (one 

fished). Finally, there were four permits to harvest 

sea cucumber with diving gear in the southeast (one 

fished).

Juneau had eight processing plants of variable 

size capable of dealing with all commercial species: 

Alaska Glacier Seafoods Inc., Alaska Seafood Co. 

Inc., Superbear, Horst’s Seafood Inc., Jon K Seafoods, 

Jerrys Meats and Seafood, Taku Fisheries and 

Smokeries, and Juneau Alaskan and P. The available 

data on landings for 2000 reflect that Juneau’s harbor 

received 1,397.97 tons of different fish species that are 

federally managed, and 1,057.17 tons of salmon. Data 

on herring landings are not available due to issues of 

confidentiality. Juneau’s processing industry is a very 

important sector of the city’s economy because of the 

profit that it generates and because of the jobs that it 

sustains. At the same time, Douglas Island Pink and 

Chum, Inc. (DIPAC), a non-profit organization, owns 

and manages a salmon hatchery. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, this community issued 26,569 sport 

fishing licenses: 9,160 were bought by Alaska residents. 

Similar ratios held in Auke Bay with 6,805 licenses 

issued to 1,735 resident holders. Douglas issued 54 

sport fishing licenses, 27 of which were bought by 

Alaska residents. Because Juneau is the administrative 

capital of the state it attracts most of the out-of-state 

license buyers. Also, the southeast region is deeply 

involved in sport fishing in general.

In 2002, Juneau had 20 freshwater guide business 

licenses, Auke Bay had 7 and Douglas had 3. These 

communities also had 63, 16 and 6 saltwater guide 

businesses, respectively. These enormous numbers 

testify to the economic and social significance of sport 

fishing as a tourist activity.

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have information on 

subsistence practices in Juneau’s municipality. These 

practices, however, are fundamental to understanding 

the economy and social structure of these communities. 

An estimate of the ADF&G situates Juneau’s annual 

wild food harvest at 34 lbs per person. This is evidence 

of the importance of such practices for the local 

economy (the entire community, on average, harvests 

1,043,800 lbs per year).

One element that helps in speculating the 

importance of subsistence activities in the Juneau 

area was the existence of 353 household permits to 

catch subsistence salmon, accounting for 4,000 fish, 

mainly sockeye (Douglas had 46 permits accounting 

for roughly 500 fish, and Auke Bay had 11 permits 

that, at the end of the year, fished around 140 fish). 

Residents of Juneau who are Alaska Natives living in 

the area (if they are part of, or under the jurisdiction of, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/City and Borough of Juneau 
103

the Auquan Traditional Council, the Central Council 

Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes, or the Douglas Indian 

Association) who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/City and Borough of Juneau 
����

���� ����

����

�� ��

����

����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

104

Kake (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Kake lies on the northwest coast of Kupreanof 

Island along Keku Strait in southeast Alaska. The area 

encompasses 8.2 square miles of land and 6.0 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U. S. Census, the population 

of Kake was 710. Population numbers have increased 

steadily since the early 1900s. There were significantly 

more males (53.1%) then females (46.9%) in 2000 

according Census data. The racial composition of 

the population was predominantly American Indian 

and Alaska Native (66.8%), 24.1% White, only 0.3% 

Black or African American, 0.3% Asian, and 0.6% 

classified themselves as belonging to some other 

race. Overall, 8.0% of the population identified with 

two or more races. A total of 74.6% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. A small number, 1.5%, of the 

population identified as Hispanic. The median age was 

32.2 years, somewhat lower than the national median 

of 35.3 years. According to Census data, 35.2% of 

the population was under 19 years of age while only 

15.5% of the population was over 55 years of age.

There were 288 housing units in Kake, 42 of which

were designated vacant in 2000, 12 vacant due to

seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 Census, none 

of the population lived in group quarters. A total of 

85.0% of the population over 25 years of age had a

high school diploma or higher, while 10.8% also had 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Historically, the Kake tribe of the Tlingits 

controlled the trade routes around Kuiu and Kupreanof 

Islands, defending their territory against other tribal 

groups in the region. Ventures into the region by early 

European explorers and traders resulted in occasional 

skirmishes with the Tlingit people. Tension between 

locals and outsiders had been escalating when, in 

1869, a non-Native sentry at the settlement in Sitka 

shot and killed a Kake Native. In accordance with 

their traditional custom, the Kakes then killed two 

prospectors as retribution. In reprisal, the U.S. Navy 

sent the USS Saginaw to punish the Kakes by shelling 

���������� ���

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Kake Data source: US Census ����������������������

�� �� � �� �� ��

���������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Kake ����������������������� Data source: US Census 

������������

����� �����

�����

����� �����

���� �����

������

�����

% Group Quarters 

Kake ����������������� Data source: US Census 

����������������������

��� ���

���� ����

���� ����

����

������������������

��������������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Kake 
����

105

����������������������

their villages, causing widespread destruction. 

The community subsequently dispersed, but over 

the following 20 years, the Kakes regrouped at the 

current village site. In 1891, a government school 

and store were built.A Society of Friends mission 

was established. A post office was built in 1904. In 

the early part of this century, Kake became the first 

Alaska Native village to organize under federal law, 

resulting in U.S. citizenship for community residents. 

In 1912, the first cannery was built near Kake. After 

WWII, timber harvesting and processing became a 

major local industry. The world’s largest totem pole 

was commissioned by Kake and carved by Chilkats in 

1967 for Alaska’s Centennial celebration.

 Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Government employment and opportunities 

in the fishing industry are the mainstays of Kake’s 

economy. Logging operations, like Turn Mountain 

Timber (a joint venture between Whitestone Logging 

and Kake Tribal Corporation) also employs residents 

in logging tribal corporation lands. The City, school 

district, and Kake Tribal Corporation are the largest 

employers. A total of 111 commercial fishing permits 

were held by 67 permit holders in 2000 according to 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission. 

The non-profit Gunnuk Creek Hatchery has assisted 

in sustaining the salmon fishery. Kake Foods produces 

smoked and dried salmon and halibut. Subsistence 

remains an important part of the lifestyle. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 50.5% of 

the potential labor force was employed with a 16.7% 

unemployment rate. A seemingly high 32.8% of the 

population over 16 years of age was not in the labor 

force (this may be explained by the intensely seasonal 

nature of the fishing and tourism industries), and 

14.6% of the population was below the poverty level. 

The median household income in the same year was 

$39,643, and the per capita income was $17,411. 

Governance 

The City of Kake was incorporated in 1952 as 

a first-class city. The city is governed by a Councilmayor form of government. The mayor and six council 

members are elected officials. Kake is not located 

within an organized borough, so the city is responsible 

for many services. The City of Kake implements a 5% 

2000 Employment Structure 

Kake Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

��������

�����

����������

�����

sales tax. The city belongs to the for-profit regional 

Native corporation, Sealaska Corporation, as well 

as to the regional Native non-profit, Central Council 

Tlingit and Haida tribes of Alaska. Kake Tribal 

Corporation is the local village corporation and the 

Organized Village of Kake is the village council which 

is federally recognized 

and eligible for funding and services from the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) by virtue of their 

status as an Indian tribe. The total land to which Kake 

is entitled under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act (ANCSA) amounts to about 23,040 acres.

There is a National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office in the nearby state capital, 

Juneau, and an Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office located on Kupreanof. The nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) office is located in Haines.

Facilities 

The community of Kake is accessible by air and 

sea. There are scheduled floatplane and air taxi flights 

from Petersburg, Juneau, Sitka, and Wrangell. Kake has 

a state-owned 4,000 foot paved runway west of town, 

and a seaplane base at the city dock. In most cases, 

it is least expensive to fly to Anchorage via Juneau. 

Roundtrip flights to Juneau cost around $215 and a 

roundtrip flight between Juneau and Anchorage costs 

approximately $200. State ferry and barge services are 

available. Facilities also include a small boat harbor, 

boat launch, deep water dock and State ferry terminal. 

A breakwater is currently under construction. There 

are about 120 miles of logging roads in the Kake area, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Kake 
106

but no overland connections to other communities on 

Kupreanof Island.

Water is derived from a dam on Gunnuck Creek 

before it is treated, stored and distributed to residents. 

A new dam on Alpine Lake is currently being built. The 

City also operates a piped sewer system and primary 

treatment plant, and almost all households are fully 

plumbed. Kake provides refuse collection, recycling, 

and hazardous waste disposal. 

Electricity is supplied by the Tlingit-Haida 

Regional Electric Authority, a non-profit subdivision 

of the State, which operates three diesel-fueled 

generators in Kake. Health services are provided by 

the Kake Health Center which is owned and operated 

by the Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium 

(SEARHC). Public safety is provided by a city-backed 

police department. Kake schools are within the Kake 

City School District, with two schools located in Kake 

itself. At Kake Elementary School, 65 students are 

instructed by 9 teachers, and at Kake High School, 88 

students are instructed by 7 teachers. Kake does not 

have a highly developed tourism industry, but a few 

businesses, including four accommodations providers, 

operate in the community.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Kake. According to the ADF&G, and reported by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC), 111 permits were held by 67 permit holders 

(45 permits fished) in Kake in 2000. There were 14 

vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 18 vessel owners 

in the salmon fishery, and overall 73 crew members 

claiming residence in Kake in 2000. The commercial 

vessel fleet delivering landings to Kake was involved 

in halibut (13 vessels), sablefish (one vessel), other 

groundfish (five vessels), and salmon (18 vessels) 

fisheries in 2000. In accordance with confidentiality 

regulations, landings data for the community are 

unavailable.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Kake for 2000 related 

to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, crab, 

other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 19 permits issued 

for halibut in Kake in 2000 (17 fished). Permits for 

halibut pertained to two hand trolls (one permit fished), 

15 longline vessels under 60 feet (14 permits fished), 

and two longline vessels over 60 feet. All permits 

designated for halibut were for statewide waters. 

Herring: Of a total of three permits issued for the 

herring fishery in Kake in 2000 (none fished). These 

pertained to two permits for harvesting herring food/

bait by pound in southeast waters (not fished), and one 

permit for harvesting herring spawn on kelp by pound 

in Prince William Sound (not fished). 

Sablefish: Only two permits were issued in 2000 

in Kake for sablefish, both of which were fished. 

Permits pertained to one longline vessel under 60 feet 

in statewide waters, and one longline vessel over 60 

feet restricted to northern southeast waters.

Other groundfish: A total of eight permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish in Kake, only one 

of which was actually fished. Permits pertained to two 

lingcod longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (none fished), four miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (one permit fished), one demersal shelf rockfish 

longline vessel under 60 feet in southeast waters (not 

fished), and one demersal shelf rockfish longline vessel 

over 60 feet in southeast waters (not fished). 

Crab: A total of nine permits were issued in Kake 

for crab in 2000, (six fished). One permit pertained to 

300 pots or 100% of maximum for Dungeness crab in 

southeast waters, two permits for 150 pots or 50% of 

maximum for Dungeness crab in southeast waters (one 

permit fished), two for 75 pots or 25% of maximum 

for Dungeness crab in southeast waters (one permit 

fished), three Tanner crab ring nets in southeast waters 

(two permits fished), and one permit for a Tanner crab 

pot gear vessel in southeast waters.

Other shellfish: Two permits were issued in Kake 

in 2000; both for shrimp pot gear in southeast waters, 

and both were fished.

Salmon: A total of 68 permits were issued in Kake 

in 2000 for the salmon fishery (18 fished). Salmon 

permits pertained to seven purse seine restricted to 

southeast waters (6 permits fished), 51 hand trolls 

in statewide waters (6 permits fished), and 10 power 

gurdy trolls in statewide waters (6 permits fished).

Kake’s one seafood processing plant, Kake 

Foods, can process salmon, halibut, sablefish, and 

groundfish.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Kake 
107

Sport Fishing 

There were five saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Kake in 2002, and two businesses licensed 

to provide freshwater recreational fishing according to 

the ADF&G. There was a total of 299 sport fishing 

licenses sold in Kake in 2000, 177 of which were sold 

to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1996 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Kake. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for 98.6% 

of households in the community which participated in 

the use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing and consuming, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, all 98.6% used salmon and non-salmon 

fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, bass, cod, flounder, 

greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, shark, 

char, and trout). A fewer number, 47.9%, used marine 

mammals, and a high percentage, 86.3%, used marine 

invertebrates. 

The average per capita subsistence harvest for the 

year 1996 was 179.10 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative to 

other resource categories. The total subsistence harvest 

was composed of 24.37% salmon, 23.24% non-salmon 

fish, 29.05% land mammals, 5.76% marine mammals, 

0.37% birds and eggs, 12.24% marine invertebrates, 

and vegetation made up 4.96%. The wild food harvest 

in Kake made up 116% of the recommended dietary 

allowance of protein in 1996 (corresponding to a daily 

allowance of 49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs of 

wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, 

ADF&G).

A total of 134 permits were held by households in 

Kake for subsistence fishing of salmon according to the 

ADF&G division of Subsistence records from 1999. 

Sockeye made up vast majority of the salmon harvest. 

Residents of Kake and members of the organized 

village of Kake who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Kake 
���

����

108

Ketchikan (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Ketchikan is located on the southwestern coast 

of Revillagigedo Island, near the southern boundary 

of Alaska. It is 235 miles south of Juneau. The area 

encompasses 3.4 square miles of land and 0.8 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, there were 7,922 residents in 3,197 

households. A small segment of the population (2.3%) 

lived in group quarters. The racial composition was as 

follows: White (67.4%), American Indian and Alaska 

Native (17.6%), Asian (6.9%), Black (0.7%), Native 

Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander (0.2%), two or 

more races (6.7%), and other (0.5%). A total of 22.7% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 3.4% 

of residents were Hispanic. The gender makeup was 

relatively equal, at 50.4% male and 49.6% female. 

The median age of Ketchikan was 35.8 years, very 

similar to the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. In 

terms of educational attainment, 88.6% of residents 

aged 25 and over held a high school diploma or higher 

degree. 

History 

The area of Ketchikan is traditional Tlingit Indian 

territory. Tongass and Cape Fox Tlingits historically 

used Ketchikan Creek as a fish camp, which they 

called “kitschk-hin,” meaning creek of the “thundering 

wings of an eagle.” Permanent White settlement of 

Ketchikan began in 1885, when Mike Martin bought 

160 acres from Chief Kyan of the Tlingits; this land 

later became the township. The growth of Ketchikan’s 

population has always depended on the area’s rich 

natural resources, including fish, timber, and minerals. 

Throughout the 20th Century, fish canneries and 

sawmills went through boom and bust cycles. Today, 

Ketchikan is a racially diverse community and a major 

fishing hub for southeast Alaska. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

��������� Ketchikan Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ��� ���

���������������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Ketchikan ��������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

Two or more 

0.2%

Pacific Islander 

Other races

0.5% 6.7%

Asian 

6.9% 

Native 

17.6% 

Black White 

0.7% 67.4% 

������������������������

���������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Ketchikan 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Ketchikan 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

����

109

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The largest economic driving force in Ketchikan is 

the commercial fishing industry. Many residents hold 

commercial fishing permits, or work in commercial 

fish processing plants and supporting industries. In 

addition, several small timber companies operate 

in Ketchikan. The tourism industry is growing in 

importance. The city has become a major port-ofcall for Alaska-bound cruise ships, and an estimated 

500,000 cruise passengers visit Ketchikan each year. 

In 2000, the median per capita income in Ketchikan 

was $22,484 and the median household income was 

$45,802. The unemployment rate was 5.7%, and 

29.1% of residents aged 16 years and older were not in 

the labor force (i.e. not seeking work). Approximately 

7.6% of local residents were living below the poverty 

level. 

Governance 

Ketchikan is a Home Rule City and was 

incorporated in 1900. It is located within its own 

borough, the Ketchikan Gateway Borough. The city 

administers a 3.5% sales tax and a 0.5% (5.35 mills) 

property tax. The borough administers a 2% sales tax 

and a 0.8% (7.85 mills) property tax. There is also 

a federally recognized Native village council in the 

community, the Ketchikan Indian Corporation. There 

are 9 schools in Ketchikan, with a total of 142 teachers 

and 2,334 students. The Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) and the U.S. Bureau of Citizenship 

and Immigration Services (BCIS) both have offices 

in Ketchikan. The nearest National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) office is in Petersburg. 

Facilities 

Ketchikan is the major port of entry for southeast 

Alaska. There is a state-owned 7,500 foot runway 

on Gravina Island, a short ferry ride away from the 

Ketchikan waterfront. Roundtrip airfare to Anchorage 

is approximately $247. There are four floatplane 

landing facilities. 

Harbor facilities include a breakwater, a deep 

draft dock, five small-boat harbors, a dry dock, a ship 

repair yard, a boat launch, and a state ferry terminal. 

Ketchikan is the first port of call for Alaska-bound 

cruise ships, and cruises bring in 500,000 visitors per 

year. 

The city and borough operate a piped water and 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Ketchikan 

��������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

���

����

���

������������������

��������������

����������

���� ����

2000 Employment Structure 

Ketchikan 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

�����

��������

���������� �����

sewer system in the city. Ketchikan Public Utilities, a 

city-owned entity, provides hydroelectric power to the 

community. There is also a diesel backup generator. 

There is one large hospital, the Ketchikan General 

Hospital, and several smaller clinics. The city provides 

fire, police, and emergency services. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial* 

Ketchikan is a major commercial fishing hub for 

the southeast region, and fishing makes up the lion’s 

share of economic activity within the city. In 2000 

* Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Ketchikan, Ketchikan East,

and Ward Cove combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Ketchikan 
110

there were 59 vessel owners with operations in federal 

fisheries and 140 vessel owners with operations in 

state fisheries residing in the community. There were 

485 registered crew members in the community. That 

same year, 396 local residents held a total of 787 

commercial fishing permits. The following section 

contains a detailed description of these permits.

Crab: Twenty-six residents held a total of 

30 commercial permits in the crab fishery. These 

permits included the following: 2 Dungeness crab 

ring net permits for the southeast region (one 

fished), 2 Dungeness crab diving gear permits for 

the southeast region (none fished), one Dungeness 

crab pot gear permit for vessels over 60 feet in Cook 

Inlet (none fished), 4 Dungeness crab permits for 25 

pots or 75% of maximum in the southeast region (4 

fished); 2 Dungeness crab permits for 150 pots or 

50% of maximum in the southeast region (2 fished), 

8 Dungeness crab permits for 75 pots or 25% of 

maximum in the southeast region (3 fished), 2 permits 

for red and blue king and Tanner crab for vessels 

using pot gear in the southeast region (one fished), 7 

Tanner crab ring net permits for the southeast region 

(5 fished), and 2 Tanner crab pot gear permit for the 

southeast region (2 fished).

Other Shellfish: One hundred twenty-six local 

residents held a total of 195 commercial permits for 

other shellfish. These permits included the following: 

26 geoduck clam diving gear permits for the southeast 

region (18 fished), 54 shrimp pot gear permits for the 

southeast region (27 fished), 70 sea cucumber diving 

gear permits for the southeast region (61 fished), one 

clam shovel permit for statewide waters (one fished), 

41 sea urchin diving gear permits for the southeast 

region (22 fished), and one octopus/squid pot gear 

permit for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(none fished).

Halibut: Ninety-five local residents held a total of 

97 permits for the halibut fishery. These included the 

following: one halibut hand troll permit for statewide 

waters (one fished), 61 halibut longline permits for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (49 fished), 

four halibut mechanical jig permits for statewide 

waters (one fished), 31 halibut longline permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (25 fished).

Herring: Sixty-four local residents held a total 

of 105 commercial permits in the herring fishery. 

These permits included the following: seven herring 

roe purse seine permits for the southeast region (seven 

fished), one herring roe purse seine permit for Cook 

Inlet (not fished), 16 gillnet permits for food/bait 

herring roe in the southeast region (six fished), two 

herring roe gillnet permits for Kodiak (none fished), 

one herring roe gillnet permit for Security Cove (not 

fished), one herring roe gillnet permit for Bristol Bay 

(one fished), two herring roe gillnet permits for Norton 

Sound (none fished), three purse seine permits for 

food/bait herring in the southeast region (one fished), 

31 permits to harvest herring spawn on kelp by the 

pound in the northern part of the southeast region (24 

fished), and 41 permits to harvest herring spawn on 

kelp by the pound in the southern part of the southeast 

(none fished). 

Sablefish: Twenty-four local residents held a total 

of 29 permits in the sablefish fishery. These permits 

included the following: 10 sablefish longline permits 

for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (10 

fished), 5 sablefish longline permits for vessels over 

60 feet in the northern part of the southeast region (5 

fished), 5 sablefish longline permits for vessels over 60 

feet in statewide waters (4 fished), 8 sablefish longline 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in the southern portion 

of the southeast region (8 fished), and one sablefish pot 

gear permits for vessels over 60 feet in the southern 

portion of the southeast region (one fished).

Other Groundfish: Forty-six local residents held 

a total of 74 commercial permits for other groundfish. 

These permits included the following: one lingcod hand 

troll permit for statewide waters (none fished), four 

lingcod dinglebar troll permits for statewide waters 

(none fished), one lingcod mechanical jig permit for 

statewide waters (none fished), two miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish hand troll permits for statewide waters 

(none fished), 24 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (7 fished), two miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

pot gear permit for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (none fished), one miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish dinglebar troll permit for statewide waters 

(not fished), three miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

mechanical jig permits for statewide waters (one 

fished), two miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline 

permit for vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (one 

fished), four demersal shelf rockfish hand troll permits 

for the southeast region (none fished), 25 demersal 

shelf rockfish longline permits for vessels under 60 

feet in the southeast region (4 fished), one demersal 

shelf rockfish dinglebar troll permit for the southeast 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Ketchikan 
111

region (none fished), one demersal shelf rockfish 

mechanical jig permit for the southeast region (one 

fished), and three demersal shelf rockfish longline 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in the southeast region 

(none fished). 

Other Finfish: Five residents held a total of five 

freshwater fish beach seine permits for statewide 

waters (none fished).

Salmon: Two hundred thirty-nine residents held a 

total of 252 commercial permits in the salmon fishery. 

These included the following: 33 salmon purse seine 

permits for the southeast region (32 fished), 35 salmon 

drift gillnet permits for the southeast region (32 

fished), 6 salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay 

(6 fished), 115 salmon hand troll permits for statewide 

waters (12 fished, and 66 salmon power gurdy troll 

permits for statewide waters (46 fished). 

In addition to its role as a hub for commercial 

fishermen, Ketchikan is also a center for fish processing 

and storage. In 2000, there were four commercial fish 

processors. Landings for federally managed species 

(including halibut, sablefish, and groundfish) totaled 

413 tons. Salmon landings totaled 26,093 tons. A 

total of 631 vessels made deliveries of state-managed 

species to processors in Ketchikan, and a total of 281 

vessels made deliveries of federally managed species. 

In 2003, the city of Ketchikan received $40,578 

in federal disaster funds to compensate for falling 

salmon prices; the Ketchikan Gateway Borough as a 

whole received $29,365. 

Sport Fishing 

Ketchikan is the largest sport fishing hub in 

southeast Alaska. Fishermen come from all over 

Alaska, Canada, the lower 48 states, and around the 

world to fish the productive waters in the area. 

In 2000, there were 117 registered saltwater sport 

fishing guides and 70 freshwater sport fishing guides. 

Sport fishing license sales in Ketchikan for 2000 

totaled 34,509; the majority of these (27,829) were 

to non-Alaska residents. This constituted the highest 

number of licenses sold in any Alaskan community 

except Anchorage. Major sport species include all five 

species of Pacific salmon, halibut, trout, steelhead, and 

char. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Many residents in Ketchikan supplement their 

incomes with subsistence resources. However, the 

ADF&G does not have detailed information on 

subsistence harvests and amounts for Ketchikan. In 

1999, a total of 329 households held permits to harvest 

subsistence salmon. A total of 9,267 salmon - primarily 

sockeye - were harvested. Residents of Ward Cove 

who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Additional Information 

The largest collection of totem poles in the world 

is found in Ketchikan at Totem Bight State Historical 

Park, Saxman Native Village, and the Totem Heritage 

Center Museum.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Ketchikan 
���

����

112

Klawock (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Klawock is located on the west coast of Prince of 

Wales Island and on the deepest end of the Klawock 

Inlet, across from Klawock Island. It is 7 road miles 

north of Craig, 24 road miles from Hollis, and 56 air 

miles west of Ketchikan. The area encompasses 0.6 

square miles of land and 0.3 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Klawock 

had 854 inhabitants that year. The majority of the 

community was Native: 50.9% were Alaska Native, 

41% were White, 0.5% were Asian, 0.1% were Native 

Hawaiian, 0.1% identified themselves with other 

racial groups, and the remaining 7.4% of residents 

identified with more than one racial group. A total of 

58.1% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. About 1.4% 

of the population claimed Hispanic origin. The whole 

community lived in households. No one lived in group 

quarters, although there were some vacant houses for 

seasonal use.

The gender ratio in the community is extremely 

unbalanced: 55.4% male and 44.6% female. The 

median age of 34.5 years is slightly younger than the 

national median of 35.3 years. Of those 25 years or 

age and over in Klawock, 80.8% had graduated from 

high school and went on to further schooling, 8.5% 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher, and 19.2% of 

the population never graduated from high school. 

History 

Prince of Wales Island is in the middle of the 

transition area between Haida and Tlingit cultural areas. 

These two Native American groups have historically 

occupied the island, sustaining themselves with a very 

elaborate economic system including fishing, hunting 

and harvesting practices as well as intricate trading 

networks.

The first settlers and missionaries to arrive in the 

area at the end of the 19th century encountered an 

almost completely depopulated island, though there 

was evidence of once blossoming Indian communities 

devastated by smallpox and measles. Haida and Tlingit 

populations are still present in many communities on 

the Island, including Klawock.

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������� Klawock Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� �� � �� ���

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure �������

���������������������� Klawock

Data source: US Census 

Two or more Other 

0.1% Pacific Islander races

0.1% 7.4% 

Asian

0.5%

White 

41.0% 

Native

50.9%

������������������������

�������

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Klawock 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Klawock 
113

�������

����������������������

Originally Klawock was a summer fishing camp 

of Tuxekan, a Tlingit village. Its location facilitated 

the installation of a trading post and a salmon saltery 

in 1868, and some of the earliest canneries of Alaska 

a decade later. Many of these canneries were operated 

under contract with Chinese laborers. A hatchery 

was also functioning in Klawock Lake between 1897 

and 1917. Residents from nearby towns and beyond 

were attracted to the economic opportunities Klawock 

presented, building up the population of the town. 

The town was officially incorporated in 1929. In 1971 

the Alaska Timber Corporation built a local sawmill. 

Soon after, the Klawock-Heenya Village Corporation, 

the Shaan Seet Corporation of Craig, and Sealaska 

Timber Corporation expanded area facilities with a 

log sort-yard outside of Klawock and a deep-water 

dock on Klawock Island. The State constructed a 

salmon hatchery on Klawock Lake in 1978, very near 

the former hatchery site. Logging activities continue 

to have great importance in the area.

Infrastructures 

Current Economy 

Klawock’s economy depends predominantly on 

two major sectors: the fishing industry and logging. 

The former, although still currently present in the 

village with a state-owned hatchery and 47 residents 

holding commercial fishing permits, has somewhat 

diminished in scale. In the past, Klawock had several 

canneries important to the industry and most of the 

population depended exclusively on the fishing 

industry. Presently, the town has only a few small 

processing operations. These canneries closed down in 

the late 1980s. The Native corporations of the area have 

identified logging as the local development incentive. 

The timber industry provides employment in logging 

and ship loading activities. Subsistence activities are 

very important to the local economy. Harvested foods 

include deer, salmon, halibut, shrimp and crab. 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the 

employment structure of the community shows that 

60.4% of the total potential labor force was employed 

that year. About 11.2% of the total potential labor force 

was unemployed and 28.4% of the adult workforce was 

not searching for employment. In 2000 the average per 

capita income in Klawock was $14,621 and the median 

household income was $35,000. A total of 14.2% of 

the population lived below poverty levels.

2000 Employment Structure 

Klawock Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

�����

Governance 

Klawock was incorporated in 1929 as a firstclass city with a “strong mayor” form of government, 

including a six-member council. The city, located in 

an unorganized area, has 5.5% taxes on sales. Klawock 

Heenya Native Corporation is the local Native 

corporation that manages approximately 23,040 acres 

of land under ANCSA. The regional Native for-profit 

corporation, with its headquarters in Juneau, is the 

SeaAlaska Native Corporation. The closest ADF&G 

office is nearby in Craig. The nearest BCIS office is in 

Ketchikan. NMFS has its closest office in Petersburg.

Facilities 

Klawock, as with many of the communities of 

the area, is heavily dependent on Ketchikan as the 

economic center of the area. Klawock has the only 

paved airstrip on Prince of Wales Island (5000 feet 

in length). A seaplane base is operated by the State 

on the Klawock River. The cost of a roundtrip flight 

to Anchorage, with a connection in Ketchikan, is 

approximately $526.

To reach the community by sea it is necessary to 

have access to private transport as the closest ferry 

stop is Hollis, 23 miles away. The communities are 

connected by the Prince of Wales Island road system. 

Klawock has a small boat harbor and boat launch ramp. 

A deep draft dock is located at Klawock Island, which 

is primarily used for loading timber. Freight arrives by 

cargo plane, barge, and truck.

Health care is provided by the Alicia Roberts 

Medical Center. Alternative health care is provided by 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Klawock 
114

Klawock’s EMS and Prince of Wales Island EMS. A 

local police department and state trooper post provide 

public security. The town has centralized water and 

sewer systems managed by the city. Most houses of 

Klawock (90%) are connected to the water and sewage 

systems operated by the city. Power is provided by the 

Tlingit-Haida Regional Electric Authority (THREA) 

which purchases electricity from Alaska Power & 

Telephone. THREA also owns four standby diesel 

generators in Klawock. The Klawock City School has 

157 students and 13 teachers. 

Involvement with North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In the context of Prince of Wales Island, Klawock 

is a mid-sized community. Relative to the area, it 

has a significant involvement with the North Pacific 

fisheries. In 2000, 47 residents of the community held 

65 commercial fishing permits (47 permits fished 

that year). The village also had 3 owners of vessels 

involved in federal fisheries, 10 owners of salmon 

fishing boats and one owner of a vessel dedicated to 

herring. In addition, the community had 26 residents 

registered as crewmen.

Salmon: The bulk of Klawock’s fished permits 

were devoted to salmon. The village had 21 permits (12 

fished). Ten were statewide permits for hand trollers 

(four fished), six statewide permits for power gurdy 

troll (four fished), four fished permits to use purse 

seine in the southeast, and one non-fished permit to 

use set gillnet in Cook Inlet.

Herring: The residents of Klawock held 26 

permits to catch herring (3 fished). There were 25 

permits to harvest herring spawn on kelp/pound: 24 

for southern southeast waters (none fished), and one 

for northern southeast waters. There was also one 

fished permit to catch herring roe with purse seine in 

southeast waters.

Other Groundfish: The community was issued 

nine permits for groundfish other than halibut (six 

fished): two permits to catch miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish with a longline vessel under 60 feet, and one 

permit to catch finfish with a hand troller (not fished). 

There were also two permits to catch demersal shell 

rockfish: one permit for a hand troller (not fished) 

and one permit for a longliner under 60 feet, both in 

southeast waters.

Other Shellfish: There were five permits to 

catch shrimp with pot gear in the southeast (two 

fished). There were four fished permits to harvest sea 

cucumbers with diving gear in the southeast. 

Sablefish: Two fished permits to use pot gear in 

southern southeast waters.

Halibut: There were two issued and fished 

statewide permits to catch halibut in 2000, both for 

longliners, one under 60 feet, and the other over 60 

feet.

Although there are no records of landings in 

Klawock, the town has three local processing facilities: 

Jody’s Seafood Specialties, Wildfish Company, and 

Sea Fresh Seafoods.

The municipality received a direct allocation 

of $1,705.22 in federal salmon disaster funds to 

compensate for losses due to prices plummeting in the 

international salmon market.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 this community issued 1,742 sport fishing 

licenses: 529 of them were bought by Alaska residents. 

In 2002, the village had 13 licensed fishing guide 

businesses related to sport fishing as a tourist activity: 

2 of them focused on freshwater activities while 11 

worked in saltwater fisheries. The high number of 

outside visitors combined with the existence of so 

many businesses dedicated to sport fishing is evidence 

of the importance of this economic sector for the 

community.

 Subsistence Fishing 

A survey of subsistence practices in Klawock 

conducted in 1997 demonstrated the significance of 

such practices for traditional Alaskan communities. 

All households participated in the use of harvested 

resources. In relation to the main marine resources: 

87.7% used subsistence salmon, 94.3% used other 

types fish (herring, smelt, bass, cod, flounder, 

greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, char, and 

trout), 19.8% marine mammals, and 76.4% marine 

invertebrates. The results reflect that the inhabitants of 

the community harvested 320.36 lbs per person that 

year. The daily per capita harvest of wild food was 0.7 

lbs. 

The relative importance of each resource is 

illustrated by a break-down of the composition of the 

harvest: salmon (32.74%), other fish (24.32%), land 

mammals (16.71%), marine mammals (6.67%), birds 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Klawock 
115

and eggs (0.36%), marine invertebrates (11.65%), and 

vegetation (7.57%). 

In 1999, Klawock held 84 Alaska salmon household 

subsistence permits; the catch was mainly sockeye 

(2,600 fishes). In addition, the inhabitants of this 

community (rural residents or members of an Alaska 

Native tribe) who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Klawock 
����

����

����

���

����

116

Metlakatla (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Metlakatla is located on the west coast of 

Annette Island, 15 miles south of Ketchikan. The area 

encompasses 130.2 square miles of land and 83.8 

square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

As a federal Indian reservation, Metlakatla is 

a predominantly Tsimshian Indian community. In 

2000 there were 1,375 residents in 469 households. 

All residents lived in households rather than group 

quarters. In 2000 the racial composition of Metlakatla 

was as follows: American Indian and Alaska Native 

(81.8%), White (9.5%), two or more races (7.9%), 

Black (0.2%), Asian (0.1%), and other (0.5%). A total 

of 89.7% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 

1.8% of residents were Hispanic. The gender makeup 

of the community was slightly skewed, at 52.0% male 

and 48.0% female. The median age was 31 years, 

somewhat younger than the U.S. national average of 

35.3 years. In terms of educational attainment, 80.3% 

of residents aged 25 years or older held a high school 

diploma or higher degree. 

History 

This area of southeast Alaska was the traditional 

territory of Tlingit Indians. Reverend William Duncan, 

a Scottish lay priest in the Anglican Church, undertook 

missionary work in British Columbia and Southeast 

Alaska among the Tsimshian Indians, beginning 

in 1857. Eventually, a group of Tsimshian left their 

homes near British Columbia’s port of Prince Rupert, 

settling on Annette Island and founding Metlakatla, 

which means “saltwater channel passage,” in the 

Tsimshian language. Duncan personally lobbied U.S. 

President Cleveland to grant the Indians a land claim, 

and a reservation was set aside by Congress on Annette 

Island, in 1887 (Mahler). Residents built a church, a 

school, a sawmill, and a cannery, removing old totem 

poles left behind by Tlingit Indians and shipping them 

to a museum in Sitka (Halliday 1998: 21).

During WWII, the U.S. Army constructed a large 

air base near Metlakatla. The U.S. Coast Guard also 

had a base on Annette Island until 1976. The Annette 

Island Reserve is today the only federal reservation for 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

���������� Metlakatla Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� �� � �� ��� ���

���������������������

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure ����������

���������������������� Metlakatla 

Data source: US Census 

������������

����� �����

����� ����

����� �����

������

����� ������������������������

����������

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Metlakatla 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Metlakatla 
117

����������

����������������������

indigenous peoples in Alaska. The 86,000 acre island 

reservation and surrounding 3,000 feet of coastal 

waters are under local control and not subject to state 

jurisdiction. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The largest employer is the Metlakatla Indian 

Community, which operates the hatchery, the tribal 

court, and all local services. The Annette Island 

Packing Company is a cold storage facility owned 

by the community. In addition, commercial fishing 

and timber harvesting play important roles in the 

local economy. Tourism is also a growing source of 

revenue; many cruise ships now stop in Metlakatla, 

patronizing local businesses and services, and many 

visitors make the short trip from Ketchikan to get a 

taste of Tsimshian culture. 

In 2000, the median per capita income was $16,140 

and the median household income was $43,516. The 

unemployment rate was 13.4%, and 35.5% of residents 

aged 16 years and older were not in the labor force 

(i.e. not seeking work). Approximately 8% of residents 

were living below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Metlakatla was incorporated as a city in 1944. 

As the only federal Indian reservation in Alaska, 

the community is governed by a tribal council. 

The community is not located within an organized 

borough. The community was not part of the Alaska 

Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971, 

since the tribal reservation was already in existence 

at that time. 

There is an office of the Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game (ADF&G) and an office of the U.S. 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) located nearby in Ketchikan. The nearest 

National Marine Fisheries Service office is located in 

Petersburg. 

Facilities 

Metlakatla is accessible by air and water. The 

community owns and operates a local airport with 

two runways. In addition, there are two seaplane 

bases—one owned by the state and one owned by 

the community. Roundtrip airfare to Anchorage, via 

Ketchikan, is approximately $317. There is a deepwater 

2000 Employment Structure 

Metlakatla Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

�����

port on the island with a dock and barge ramp, two 

small boat harbors, and two marineways. A state ferry 

serves Metlakatla from Ketchikan between spring and 

fall; capital improvements to the ferry facilities are 

currently underway. In addition, a 14.7 mile roadway 

connecting Annette Island to Ketchikan is currently 

under construction and scheduled for completion in 

2007. 

All homes in Metlakatla are connected to a 

piped water and sewer system. Water is provided by 

a dam on Chester Lake. Metlakatla Power and Light, 

a community-owned company, provides electricity 

using both hydroelectric and diesel power. The Annette 

Island Family Medical Center is owned and operated 

by the community. The community also provides 

police services. 

There are three schools located in Metlakatla: 

one elementary school, one middle school, and one 

high school. There are a total of 31 teachers and 287 

students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon 

fishery, is an important part of Metlakatla’s economy. 

In 2000 there were 16 vessel owners with operations in 

federal fisheries and 27 vessel owners with operations 

in state fisheries who resided in the community. There 

were 99 registered crew members in Metlakatla. In 

2000, 48 local residents held a total of 86 commercial 

fishing permits, with the salmon fishery comprising the 

bulk of these permits. The following section contains 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Metlakatla 
118

a detailed description of commercial permits issued to 

Metlakatla residents in 2000. 

Crab: One resident held one Dungeness crab 

permit. The permit was for 75 pots or 25% maximum 

capacity in the southeast region. The permit was not 

fished.

Halibut: Nine residents held a total of nine 

permits in the halibut fishery. These permits included 

the following: five halibut longline permits for vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (five fished), and 

four halibut longline permits for vessels over 60 feet 

in statewide waters (three fished).

Herring: Ten local residents held a total of 12 

permits in the herring fishery. These permits included 

the following: one herring roe purse seine permit for 

the southeast region (one fished), eight herring roe 

gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (seven fished), one 

herring roe gillnet permit for Security Cove (one 

fished), one herring roe gillnet permit for Bristol Bay 

(one fished), and one purse seine permit for food/bait 

herring in the southeast region (not fished).

Other Finfish: Seven local residents held seven 

freshwater fish beach seine permits for statewide 

waters (none fished).

Other Groundfish: Eight local residents held a total 

of 11 permits in the groundfish fishery. These permits 

included the following: four miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (none fished), two miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline permit for vessels over 60 

feet in statewide waters (none fished), three demersal 

shelf rockfish hand troll permits in the southeast region 

(one fished), one demersal shelf rockfish mechanical 

jig permit for the southeast region (not fished), and 

one demersal shelf rockfish longline permit for vessels 

over 60 feet in the southeast region (not fished).

Other Shellfish: Nine local residents held a total 

of 14 commercial permits for other shellfish. These 

permits included the following: one geoduck clam 

permit for diving gear in the southeast region (not 

fished), four shrimp pot gear permits for the southeast 

region (three fished), six sea cucumber permits for 

diving gear in the southeast region (two fished), and 

two sea urchin diving gear permits for the southeast 

region (none fished). 

Salmon: Twenty-nine local residents held a total 

of 32 commercial permits in the salmon fishery. These 

permits included the following: seven salmon purse 

seine permits for the southeast region (nine fished), 

three salmon drift gillnet permits for the southeast 

region (three fished), one salmon set gillnet permit for 

the Kodiak fishery (one fished), 19 salmon hand troll 

permits for statewide waters (none fished), and two 

salmon power gurdy troll permits for statewide waters 

(one fished). 

In 2000 there was one commercial fish processing 

plant located in Metlakatla. In accordance with privacy 

requirements, no detailed information on landings is 

available. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, sport fishing license sales totaled 101, 

and 82 of these were issued to Alaska residents. There 

were three registered saltwater sport fishing guides 

and one freshwater fishing guide in the community. 

Major sport species in the area include all five Pacific 

salmon species and halibut. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence resources are an important part of 

the local economy and cultural identity of Metlakatla. 

As a sovereign Native tribal community, Metlakatla’s 

subsistence resources are governed locally and are 

not subject to state or federal control. The ADF&G’s 

Division of Subsistence reported in 1987 that 100% of 

households in Metlakatla used subsistence resources. 

Approximately 82.1% of households used subsistence 

salmon, and 81.8% used non-salmon subsistence 

fish (especially herring, halibut, rockfish, and char). 

Approximately 4.0% of households used marine 

mammals for subsistence and 82.7% of households 

used marine invertebrates.

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Metlakatla in 1987 was 70.1 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (29.0%), nonsalmon fish (24.8%), land mammals (15.4%), marine 

mammals (1.2%), birds and bird eggs (1.7%), marine 

invertebrates (21.0%), and vegetation (7.0%). 

Residents of Metlakatla who hold a valid 

Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC) 

issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest subsistence 

halibut. These allocations are based on recognized 

customary and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations 

to implement subsistence halibut fishing were 

published in the Federal Register in April 2003 and 

became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Metlakatla 
����

���

119

Meyers Chuck (return to communities) 

Place and People 

Location 

Meyers Chuck is located at the confluence of 

Clarence Strait and Ernest Sound, on the northwest tip 

of Cleveland Peninsula. It lies 40 miles northwest of 

Ketchikan. The area encompasses 0.6 square miles of 

land and 0.2 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Meyers 

Chuck had only 21 inhabitants. The community was 

90.5% White, and the remaining 9.5% of its residents 

identified with more than one racial group. A total of 

9.5% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The gender 

ratio in the community was skewed with 52.41% male 

and 47.6% female. The median age, 50.3 years, was 

much older than the national average, 36.5 years; 

66.7% of the population is over the age of 45 and there 

were no community member between the ages of 10 

and 24 years.

All community members lived in households and 

there was no group housing. The community has a large 

amount of vacant housing; 81.5 % of housing units 

were unoccupied or used seasonally. Of those 25 years 

of age and over in Meyers Chuck, 100% had graduated 

from high school or gone on to further schooling, and 

38.5% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The natural conditions of Meyers Chuck, with a 

well-protected harbor that makes a natural shelter for 

boats, attracted Russian and European settlers. White 

settlers began living year-round at Meyers Chuck by 

the late 1800s. “Chuck” is a Chinook jargon word 

meaning “water” and applied to lake areas which fill 

with saltwater at high tide.

Prince of Wales Island and Cleveland Peninsula 

are in the middle of the transition area between Haida 

and Tlingit cultural areas. These two Native American 

groups had historically occupied the island, engaging 

in very elaborate economic systems including fishing, 

hunting, and harvesting practices, and intricate trading 

networks.

In 1916, the in-shore fishing industry was 

introduced to the area. A cannery was founded at 

Union Bay. This facility, mainly selling to Japan, 

2000 Population Structure 

�������������������������� Meyers Chuck 

Data source: US Census �������������

����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

� � � � � � �

����

������

���������������������� ���������������������

�������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Meyers Chuck 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

�������������������������� �����

������������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Meyers Chuck 

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

�����������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Meyers Chuck 
120

received the fish caught by local fleets until 1945. 

In addition, a floating clam cannery and a herring 

reduction plant were also present in the area during 

this time. The town developed around these economic 

activities. The positive economic cycle related to 

salmon runs started to decline in the 1940s and with 

it the community’s demographic expansion started to 

stagnate and even recede. The cannery burned down in 

1947 and was never reopened. In 1977, in an attempt 

to revive the fishing industry, five residents donated 

funds to establish a fish hatchery. A State land disposal 

sale was offered in 1986.

In the last 15 years the community has recovered 

its seasonal character, though nowadays it is related 

not to the fishing industry, but to tourism.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Meyers Chuck is a very small community without 

many options for a cash-based economy. Fishing is the 

fundamental productive activity of Meyers Chuck’s 

population. In 2000, eight residents held commercial 

fishing permits. Subsistence activities, hunting, and 

fishing are a fundamental component of the local 

economy and diet. Deer and fish provide the majority 

of meat. 

The employment structure of the community 

shows that 23.1% of the total potential labor force was 

employed at the time of the 2000 US Census. In this 

small community no one declared themselves to be 

unemployed and 76.9% of the adult workforce was 

not searching for employment. In 2000, the average 

per capita income in Meyers Chuck was $31,660 and 

the median household income was $64,365. In this 

community no one lived below poverty levels.

Governance 

Meyers Chuck is an unincorporated village, 

not organized under a borough. Although it is a 

predominantly White community, Meyers Chuck 

belongs to the regional Native corporation, SeaAlaska 

Native Corporation, which is headquartered in Juneau. 

The closest ADF&G and BCIS offices are nearby in 

Ketchikan. NMFS has its closest office in Petersburg.

Facilities 

Meyers Chuck is a very small community with 

little or no facilities. It does not have a school or police 

department. Very basic health care is provided by the 

local EMS. Although there is a centralized system 

of water distribution, there is no equivalent sewage 

system available. Power is provided by individual 

generators.

The only regular plane visiting Meyers Chuck 

is the mail plane. The few planes that go to Meyers 

Chuck use a state-owned seaplane base. Ketchikan, as 

the micro-regional center of the area, provides most 

of the needed commodities. There are charter services 

and barge transport services connecting Meyers 

Chuck with Ketchikan. A boat dock provides 650 feet 

of moorage, and the site is a natural sheltered harbor.

Involvement with North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although this is a very small community, it has 

relatively significant involvement with the North Pacific 

fisheries. In 2000, 8 members of the community held 

27 commercial fishing permits (16 permits fished). 

The village also had two owners of vessels working on 

federal fisheries, five owners of salmon fishing boats, 

and five residents registered as crewmen.

Halibut: There were three statewide permits 

issued to catch halibut in 2000 (three fished). Two of 

them were for longliners under 60 feet, and one permit 

for a vessel over 60 feet with longline gear.

Salmon: The bulk of Meyers Chuck’s permits 

were devoted to the salmon fisheries. The village had 

ten permits issued in 2000 (six fished): three statewide 

permits for hand trollers (none fished), six statewide 

permits for power gurdy troll (five fished), and one 

fished permit to use dinglebar in the southeast.

Other Groundfish: The community had six permits 

pertaining to groundfish (three fished): two to catch 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish with a longline vessel 

under 60 feet (one fished), and two non-fished permits 

for mechanical jig. There was also one statewide 

permit to catch lingcod with dinglebar troll and one 

to catch demersal shell rockfish with a longline vessel 

under 60 feet in the southeast (both fished).

Other Shellfish: There were two permits to catch 

shrimp with pot gear in the southeast (one fished), 

and one permit to use beam trawl in the southeast 

(not fished). There were also two permits to harvest 

geoduck clam (not fished) and sea cucumbers with 

diving gear in the southeast. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Meyers Chuck 
121

Sablefish: Two issued and fished permits for 

longliners: one for vessels under 60 feet, and one for 

vessels over 60 feet, the former with a statewide range, 

and the latter limited to the northern southeast. 

Crab: There was one permit issued to harvest 

Dungeness crab in the southeast with 75 pots or 25% 

of maximum capacity (not fished).

In Meyers Chuck there are no processing facilities. 

Its small fleet delivers to other harbors in the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, this community issued 27 sport fishing 

licenses, 13 of them purchased by Alaska residents. 

This small number of permits does not preclude the 

possibility that the area could be visited by numerous 

outsiders getting their permits here or elsewhere. In 

2002 the village had no business licenses for fishing 

guide services.

Subsistence Fishing 

In a survey conducted on behalf of ADF&G in 

Meyers Chuck, the community demonstrated the 

significance of subsistence practices for traditional 

Alaska communities. All households participated in 

the use of harvested resources. In relation to the main 

marine resources: 100% of residents used subsistence 

salmon, 80% used other types fish (herring, cod, 

flounder, halibut, rockfish, and char), 0% marine 

mammals and 90% marine invertebrates. The results 

reflect that the inhabitants of the community were 

harvesting 413.87 lbs per person per year. The daily 

per capita harvest of wild food was 1.13 lbs (1987 

report). These statistics emphasize the importance of 

subsistence for these communities. Compositional 

breakdown of subsistence harvest illustrates the relative 

importance of each resource: salmon 25.33%, other 

fish 41.96, land mammals 11.60%, marine mammals 

0%, birds and eggs 2.23%, marine invertebrates 

15.42%, and vegetation 3.46%. 

In 1999, Meyers Chuck had only one Alaska 

salmon household subsistence permit, and the catch 

was mainly sockeye. In addition, the inhabitants of this 

community (rural residents or members of an Alaska 

Native tribe) who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Meyers Chuck 
����

����

����

���

����

122

Pelican (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Pelican lies on the northwest coast of Chichagof 

Island in Lisianski Inlet. Most of the community is 

built on pilings over the tidelands. The Island is part 

of the world’s largest coastal temperate rainforest, the 

Tongass National Forest. The area encompasses 0.6 

square miles of land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Pelican was 163. The initial community population 

was just over 100 in the 1960s. Total population 

numbers for Pelican were at a maximum in the 1990s 

when there were over 200 residents, a steady increase 

since the early 1900s. There were more males (58.9%) 

than females (41.1%) in Pelican according to Census 

data. The racial composition of the population in 2000 

was 72.4% White, 21.5% Alaska Native or American 

Indian, 1.2% Asian, and 0.6% classified themselves as 

‘other.’Overall, 4.3% of the population identified with 

two or more races. A total of 25.8% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. Only 0.6% of the population 

identified as Hispanic. The median age was 42.5 years, 

considerably higher than the national median age of 

35.3 years for the same year. According to Census 

data, 25.8% of the population was under 19 years of 

age while 20.3% of the population was over 55 years 

of age.

There were 94 housing units in Pelican—48 

permanent dwellings, 13 dwellings used seasonally, 

and 33 vacant dwellings. At the time of the 2000 

Census, only 1.2% of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 87.1% of the population over 25 years 

of age had a high school diploma or higher, while 

21.6% held a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Previously a Russian settlement and then a gold 

mining community, the town of ‘Pelican’ was named 

after the vessel that transported fish from the area 

to Sitka when a cold storage plant was developed in 

1938. A store, office, sawmill, post office, and sauna 

had been erected by 1939. A school and cannery were 

developed in the 1940s. A boardwalk serves as the 

town’s main thoroughfare, due to the lack of flat land. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Pelican 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������� Pelican Data source: US Census ����������������������

�� �� �� � �� ��

���������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����������������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Pelican 

Data source: US Census 

����� ������������

����� �����

������

����

������

�����

�����

�����

������������������������

�������

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Pelican 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

123

After having been on the increase for a couple decades, 

the population has declined since 1995. This can again 

be attributed to changes in the commercial fishing 

industry and the impact on fisherman and processing 

plant operations. In addition, during late 1995, the 

Pelican Seafoods plant shut down and ownership 

changed, causing several months of great uncertainty 

over the plant and town’s future. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing, including crabbing and 

seafood processing, are the mainstays of Pelican’s 

economy. Fishing vessels deliver fish to be sold at 

Pelican Seafoods, the local fish processing and cold 

storage plant. Most employment is at Pelican Seafoods, 

which also owns the electric utility, a fuel company, 

and the store. The plant processes black cod, halibut, 

lingcod, rockfish, and salmon. The City and school 

provide some employment. A total of 100 commercial 

fishing permits were held by 41 permit holders in 2000 

according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission (ACFEC). 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 70.9% of 

the potential labor force was employed and there was 

an unemployment rate of 5.5%. A seemingly high 

29.1% of the population over 16 years of age was not 

in the labor force, though this may be explained by the 

intensely seasonal nature of the fishing and tourism 

industries – 4.7% of the population lived below the 

poverty level. The median household income in the 

same year was $57,083 and the per capita income was 

$29,347. 

Governance 

The City of Pelican was incorporated as a secondclass city in 1943 but was reclassified by the State 

Local Boundary Commission as a first-class city in 

1974. The City of Pelican has a Council-mayor form 

of government. The mayor and six council members 

are elected officials. Pelican is not located within an 

organized borough; therefore, the city is responsible 

for many services. The City of Pelican implements 

a 4% sales tax and a 6.0 mills property tax. Pelican 

Traditional council is the village council. Pelican 

belongs to the regional Native non-profit organization 

Central Council Tlingit and Haida Tribes of Alaska. 

The community was not included in the Alaska Native 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Pelican 

������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

������������������

���� ����

���� ��������

������������������

���������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Pelican Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) and is therefore not 

federally recognized as a Native village. Consequently 

it is not allotted land under ANCSA. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) office is in Juneau, as is the nearest office of 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Haines.

Facilities 

Pelican is accessible only by sea and air and is 

essentially dependent on floatplanes and the Alaska 

State Ferry for transportation. Daily scheduled air taxi 

services are available from Juneau and Sitka. Facilities 

include a State-owned seaplane base, a small boat 

harbor, dock, and State ferry terminal. Pelican is on the 

route of the Alaska Marine Highway ferry system. The 

ferry provides two monthly departures during summer 

months, and one monthly departure during winter. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Pelican 
124

Cargo barges deliver goods on a similar schedule.

The City of Pelican owns and operates a piped 

water system in the community. Water is derived from a 

dam and reservoir on Pelican Creek, and is treated. The 

City has obtained funding from the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency to replace the disinfectant system 

and transmission lines for the water system. About 

two-thirds of area residents are connected to the piped 

system. The City completed a piped sewage system 

with ocean outfall in 1989. Four large septic tanks are 

used in Pelican and the City hires a disposal truck from 

Juneau to pump sludge about four times a year. The 

City provides garbage collection services, recycling, 

and incinerates the refuse at the landfill. 

Pelican Utility Company supplies the community 

with hydro- and diesel-powered electricity. Health 

services are provided by the Pelican Health Clinic 

owned by the city. There is no local police force, but a 

volunteer fire department provides emergency services. 

Pelican is within the Pelican City School District and 

there is one school with 2.5 full-time teachers and 11 

students. Pelican is developing its tourism industry 

and there are already many businesses including at 

least five accommodation providers which cater to 

visitors. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Pelican. According to the ADF&G and reported by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC), 100 permits were held by 41 permit holders 

in Pelican in 2000 (59 fished). There were 16 vessel 

owners in the federal fisheries, 21 vessel owners in 

the salmon fishery, and 25 crew members claiming 

residence in 2000. The commercial vessel fleet 

delivering landings to Pelican was involved in halibut 

(29 vessels), sablefish (19 vessels), other groundfish 

(26 vessels), and salmon (95 vessels) fisheries in 

2000 (in accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

landings data for the community are unavailable). 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Pelican in 2000 related 

to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, crab, 

other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 20 permits issued 

for halibut in Pelican in 2000 (15 fished). Permits for 

halibut pertained to three mechanical jigs (one fished), 

12 longline vessels under 60 feet (9 permits fished), and 

5 longline vessels over 60 feet. All permits designated 

for halibut were for statewide waters. 

Herring: There was one permit issued for the 

herring fishery in Pelican for a purse seine in southeast 

waters (not fished).

Sablefish: A total of 12 sablefish permits were 

issued in 2000, all of which were fished. Permits 

pertained to 8 longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters, 2 longline vessels over 60 feet restricted to 

northern southeast waters, 2 longline vessels over 60 

feet in statewide waters, and 2 longline vessels over 60 

feet in southern southeast waters. 

Other Groundfish: A total of 24 permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish (7 fished). Permits 

pertained to one lingcod longline vessel under 60 

feet in statewide waters (not fished), one lingcod 

dinglebar troll in statewide waters (not fished), 

one lingcod mechanical jig in statewide waters, 2 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand troll in statewide 

waters (none fished), 8 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (3 

fished), 3 miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical 

jigs in statewide waters (one permit fished), one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessel over 

60 feet in statewide waters, one demersal shelf 

rockfish hand troll in southeast waters (not fished), 

2 demersal shelf rockfish longline vessels under 60 

feet in southeast waters (not fished), one demersal 

shelf rockfish dinglebar troll in southeast waters (not 

fished), one demersal shelf rockfish mechanical jig in 

southeast waters (not fished), and one demersal shelf 

rockfish longline vessels over 60 feet in southeast 

waters (not fished).

Crab: One permit was issued for crab in 2000, 

which was fished and pertained to Tanner crab pot 

gear in southeast waters. 

Other shellfish: Five permits were issued for 

other shellfish in Pelican in 2000 (one fished). Permits 

pertained to 3 octopi/squid pot gear vessels over 60 

feet in statewide waters (no permits fished), one shrimp 

pot gear in southeast waters (not fished), and one sea 

cucumber diving gear in southeast waters.

Salmon: A total of 37 permits were issued for the 

salmon fishery (22 fished). Salmon permits pertained 

to 15 hand trolls in statewide waters (6 fished) and 22 

power gurdy trolls in statewide waters.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Pelican 
125

Two seafood processing plants were in operation 

in Pelican in 2000 and filed ‘Intent to Operate’ for 

2003. Pelican Seafoods has the capability to process 

groundfish, halibut, high-seas salmon, salmon, and 

sablefish. The plant also has harbor facilities used by 

the community.

It was announced in July 2003 that Pelican would 

receive $92,641 worth of federal salmon disaster funds 

to be distributed to several municipalities statewide 

which have been affected by low salmon prices in 

order to compensate for consequent losses of salmon 

taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement of these 

disaster funds illustrates state and federal responses 

to communities and boroughs affected by depleted 

salmon resources. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services when fish taxes 

become insufficient. 

Sport Fishing 

There were nine saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Pelican in 2002 and seven businesses 

licensed to provide freshwater recreational fishing 

according to the ADF&G. There was a total of 249 

sport fishing licenses sold in Pelican in 2000, 53 of 

which were sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Data from 1987 compiled on behalf of the 

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Pelican. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for 100% 

of households which participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, 94.8% used salmon, 100% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, flounder, 

halibut, rockfish, and char), 27.1% used marine 

mammals and a high percentage, 92.3%, used marine 

invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for the year 

1987 was 355.13 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of 

each resource category used by the community relative 

to other resources categories. The total subsistence 

harvest was composed of 16.99% salmon, non-salmon 

fish made up 33.51%, 31.24% land mammals, 2.11% 

marine mammals, 0.4% birds and eggs, 13.12% marine 

invertebrates, and 2.64% vegetation. The wild food 

harvest in Pelican made up 229% of the recommended 

dietary allowance of protein in 1987 (corresponding to 

a daily allowance of 49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs 

of wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, 

ADF&G).

A total of 13 permits were held by households in 

Pelican for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records from 

1999. Sockeye was the main component of the 

salmon harvest. Residents of Pelican who hold a 

valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Pelican 
���

����

126

Petersburg (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Petersburg lies along the northwest end of Mitkof 

Island, where the Wrangell Narrows meet Frederick 

Sound. It is located about midway between Juneau and 

Ketchikan. The area encompasses 43.9 square miles 

of land and 2.2 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U. S. Census, the population 

of Petersburg was 3,224. Population numbers have 

risen steadily since the early decades of the 1900s and 

are now at a maximum. There were slightly more males 

(52.1%) than females (47.9%) in 2000 according to 

Census data. The racial composition of the population 

in 2000 was predominantly White (81.6%), followed 

by American Indian and Alaska Native (7.2%), Asian 

(2.8%), Black or African American (0.3%), Pacific 

Islander (0.2%), and 1.9% classified themselves as 

belonging to some other race. Overall, 6.0% of the 

population identified with two or more races. A total 

of 12% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. A 

small number (2.9%) of the population identified as 

Hispanic. The median age was 36.2, similar to the 

national median of 35.3 for the same year. According 

to Census data, 31.7% of the population was under 19 

years of age while 17.1% of the population was over 

55 years of age in 2000.

There were 1,367 housing units in Petersburg, 127 

of which were designated vacant in 2000 and of these, 

25 were vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of the 

2000 Census, 1.4% of the population lived in group 

quarters. A total of 87.8% of the population over 25 

years of age had a high school diploma or higher while 

17.7% also had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Tlingit Indians from Kake used the north end 

of Mitkof Island as a summer fish camp, although 

some reportedly began living year-round at the 

site. Petersburg was eventually named after Peter 

Buschmann, a Norwegian immigrant and a pioneer in 

the cannery business, who arrived in the late 1890s. 

He built the Icy Strait Packing Company cannery, a 

sawmill, and a dock by 1900. His family’s homesteads 

grew into this community, populated largely by people 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

���������� Petersburg Data source: US Census �����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ��� ���

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ���������� Petersburg 

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

Pacific Islander Other

Two or more 0.2% 1.9%

races 

Asian 6.0% 

2.8% 

Native 

7.2% 

Black 

0.3% 

White 

81.6% 

������������������������

����������

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Petersburg 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Petersburg 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

127

of Scandinavian origin. The town is still known as ‘Little 

Norway.’In 1910, a city was formed, and by 1920, 600 

people lived in Petersburg year-round. During this 

time, fresh salmon and halibut were packed in glacier 

ice for shipment. Alaska’s first shrimp processor, 

Alaska Glacier Seafoods, was founded in 1916. A 

cold storage plant was built in 1926. The cannery has 

operated continuously, and is now known as Petersburg 

Fisheries, a subsidiary of Icicle Seafoods, Inc. Across 

the narrows is the town of Kupreanof, which was once 

busy with fur farms, a boat repair yard, and a sawmill. 

Petersburg has developed into one of Alaska’s major 

fishing communities.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Petersburg is based on commercial 

fishing and timber harvests and is therefore highly 

seasonal. A total of 1,226 commercial fishing permits 

were held by 648 permit holders in 2000 according to 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC). Several processors operate cold storage, 

canneries, and custom packing services. The state 

runs the Crystal Lake Hatchery which contributes to 

the local salmon resource. Petersburg is the supply 

and service center for many area logging camps. 

Independent sportsmen and tourists utilize the local 

charter boats and lodges, but there is no deep water 

dock suitable for cruise ships. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 63.6% of 

the potential labor force was employed with a 7.3% 

unemployment rate. A seemingly high 29.2% of the 

population over 16 years of age was not in the labor 

force (though this may be explained by the intensely 

seasonal nature of the fishing and tourism industries), 

and 5% of the population lived below the poverty level. 

The median household income in the same year was 

$40,028 and the per capita income was $25,827. 

Governance 

The City of Petersburg was incorporated in 1910 

with a Home Rule charter. The city is governed by 

a manager form of government. The mayor and six 

council members are elected officials. Petersburg is 

not located within an organized borough; therefore, 

the city is responsible for many services. The City 

of Petersburg implements a 6% sales tax and a 4% 

accommodations tax. There is a 10.17 mills (1.017%) 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Petersburg ���������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ����

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

����������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Petersburg 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

�������� ���������� �����

property tax. The city belongs to the for-profit regional 

Native corporation, Sealaska Corporation, as well as to 

the regional Native non-profit, Central Council Tlingit 

and Haida tribes of Alaska

The Petersburg Indian Association is the federally 

recognized tribe located in the community. Although 

the community of Petersburg is recognized by the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) as an ‘Alaska Native 

Village’ entity, it was not included in the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) and, consequently, 

has not received ANCSA land allocations. 

There is a National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office located in Kupeanof and an 

ADF&G office located in Petersburg. The nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) office is located in Haines.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Petersburg 
128

Facilities 

The community of Petersburg is accessible only 

by air or sea. It is on the mainline Alaska State ferry 

route. The state-owned James A. Johnson Airport, with 

a 6,000 foot paved runway, and Lloyd R. Roundtree 

Seaplane Base allow for scheduled jet and floatplane 

services. In most cases, it is least expensive to fly to 

Anchorage via Juneau. Roundtrip flights to Juneau 

cost around $120 and a roundtrip flight between 

Juneau and Anchorage costs approximately $200. 

Harbor facilities include three docks, two petroleum 

wharves, two barge terminals, three boat harbors with 

moorage for 700 boats, a boat launch, and boat haulout. Freight arrives by barge, ferry, or cargo plane. 

There is no deep water dock for cruise ships.

Water is supplied by a dam at Cabin Creek and 

is treated, stored and distributed to 80% of homes. 

Some residents use individual wells or water delivery. 

Almost all homes are fully plumbed and piped sewage 

receives primary treatment. The City currently ships 

baled refuse to Washington State. 

Electricity is supplied by Petersburg Municipal 

Power and Light which purchases electricity from the 

Tyee Lake Hydro Facility, and also owns the Crystal 

Lake Hydro Facility and three diesel-fueled generators. 

Health services are provided by the Petersburg 

Medical Center which is owned and operated by the 

City. Public safety is provided by a city-backed police 

department. There are three schools in the Petersburg 

City School District. Mitkof Middle School has 154 

students instructed by 10 teachers, 217 students are 

instructed by 15 teachers at Petersburg High School, 

and 18 teachers instruct 252 students at Rae C. Stedman 

Elementary School.

Petersburg has a well developed tourism industry 

with numerous businesses catering to visitor services, 

including over a dozen accommodations providers.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries

 Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Petersburg. According to the ADF&G and 

reported by the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission (ACFEC), 1,226 permits were held by 

468 permit holders in 2000 (831 fished). There were 

160 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, another 217 

vessel owners in the salmon fishery, and 530 crew 

members claiming residence in Petersburg in 2000. 

The commercial vessel fleet delivering landings to 

Petersburg was involved in herring (44 vessels), halibut 

(180 vessels), sablefish (64 vessels), other groundfish 

(158 vessels), and salmon (414 vessels) fisheries in 

2000. Landings in Petersburg included 930.97 tons 

of federally managed fish species, including 766.47 

tons of halibut, and 164.5 tons of other groundfish, 

and 21,660.18 tons of salmon (in accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, landings data for other 

species in the community are unavailable). 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, 

and fishing area. Permits issued in Petersburg related 

to halibut, herring, other finfish, sablefish, other 

groundfish, crab, other shellfish, and salmon.

Halibut: There were a total of 221 permits issued 

for halibut in Petersburg in 2000, 203 of which were 

actually fished. Permits for halibut pertained to 145 

longline vessels under 60 feet (130 fished), one 

mechanical jig (not fished), and 75 longline vessels 

over 60 feet (73 fished). All permits designated for 

halibut were for statewide waters. 

Herring: There were a total of 115 permits issued 

for the herring fishery in Petersburg in 2000 making 

it one of the major fisheries for the community (58 

fished). Permits for herring pertained to 11 purse seine 

limited to southeast waters (10 permits fished), 6 purse 

seines limited to Prince William Sound (5 fished), 2 

permits for harvesting herring roe with a beach seine 

in Norton Sound (none fished), 30 food/bait with 

gillnet in southeast waters (21 fished), 3 gillnets in 

Security Cove (one fished), 4 gillnets in Bristol Bay 

(3 fished), 2 gillnets off Nunivak Island (none fished), 

2 gillnets in Norton Sound (none fished), 6 permits 

for harvesting herring food/bait with purse seine in 

southeast waters (2 fished), 2 permits for harvesting 

herring food/bait by the pound in southeast waters 

(none fished), 21 permits for harvesting herring spawn 

on kelp by the pound in northern southeast (16 fished), 

17 permits for harvesting herring spawn on kelp by 

the pound in southern southeast (none fished), and 2 

permits for harvesting herring spawn on kelp by the 

pound in Prince William Sound (none fished). 

Other Finfish: Two permits were issued in 

Petersburg in 2000 for freshwater fish beach seine in 

statewide waters (none fished).

Sablefish: A total of 80 sablefish permits were 

issued (75 fished). Permits pertained to 36 longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (33 fished), 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Petersburg 
129

18 longline vessels under 60 feet in northern southeast 

waters (17 fished), 22 longline vessels over 60 feet in 

statewide waters (21fished), and 4 longline vessels 

over 60 feet in southern southeast waters. 

Other groundfish: A total of 158 permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish (54 fished). Permits 

pertained to one lingcod longline vessel under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (not fished), one lingcod dinglebar troll 

in statewide waters, 83 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (34 

fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish otter trawl 

in statewide waters, 6 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

pot gear vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (3 

fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish dinglebar 

troll in statewide waters (not fished), 6 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish mechanical jigs in statewide waters 

(2 fished), 22 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (11 fished), one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear vessel over 60 

feet in statewide waters (not fished), 20 demersal shelf 

rockfish longline vessels under 60 feet in southeast 

waters (2fished), two demersal shelf rockfish dinglebar 

trolls in southeast waters (none fished), two demersal 

shelf rockfish mechanical jigs in southeast waters 

(none fished), and 12 demersal shelf rockfish longline 

vessels over 60 feet in southeast waters (none fished). 

Crab: A total of 203 permits were issued in 

Petersburg for crab in 2000 (171 fished). Permits 

pertained to one set of Dungeness crab ring nets in 

southeast waters (not fished), one Dungeness pot 

gear vessel over 60 feet long in Yakutat (not fished), 

27 permits for 300 pots or 100% of maximum for 

Dungeness crab in southeast waters (29 permits 

fished), 17 permits for 225 pots or 75% of maximum 

for Dungeness crab in southeast waters (18 permits 

fished), 31 permits pertained to 150 pots or 50% of 

maximum for Dungeness crab in southeast waters (25 

permits fished), 31 for 75 pots or 25% of maximum 

for Dungeness crab in southeast waters (21 permits 

fished), one king crab pot gear vessel under 60 feet in 

Yakutat, one king crab pot gear vessel under 60 feet in 

Norton Sound (not fished), one permit for red and blue 

king crab pot gear in southeast waters (not fished), two 

permits for red, blue or brown king crab and Tanner 

crab pot gear in southeast waters (one permit fished), 

three brown king crab pot gear vessels in southeast 

waters, 10 red and blue king crab and Tanner crab pot 

gear vessels in southeast waters, one brown king crab 

and Tanner crab pot gear in southeast waters, 30 red, 

blue and brown king crab and Tanner crab pot gear in 

southeast waters (31 permits fished), 45 Tanner crab 

ring nets in southeast waters (34 permits fished), and 

one Tanner crab pot gear vessel in southeast waters 

(not fished).

Other shellfish: A total of 73 permits were issued 

for other shellfish (34 fished). Permits pertained to 8 

sets of geoduck clam diving gear in southeast waters 

(3 fished), one octopi/squid longline vessel under 60 

feet in statewide waters (not fished), 4 shrimp pot gear 

vessels under 60 feet in southeast waters (one fished), 

8 shrimp beam trawls in southeast waters (4 fished), 

29 shrimp pot gear in southeast waters (13 fished), 17 

sets of sea cucumber diving gear in southeast waters 

(13 fished), and 6 sets of sea urchin diving gear in 

southeast waters (none fished).

Salmon: A total of 374 permits were issued in 

Petersburg in 2000 for the salmon fishery (236 fished). 

Salmon permits pertained to 59 purse seine restricted 

to southeast waters (50 permits fished), one purse 

seine restricted to Prince William Sound (not fished), 

one purse seine restricted to Kodiak (not fished), 84 

drift gillnets in southeast waters (74 permits fished), 

one drift gillnet limited to the Alaska Peninsula, 25 

drift gillnets in Bristol Bay (24 permits fished), one 

set gillnet on the Alaska Peninsula, 140 hand trolls in 

statewide waters (41 permits fished), and 62 power 

gurdy trolls in statewide waters (50 permits fished).

A total of 12 seafood processors filed ‘Intent to 

Operate’for 2003, indicating an increase over the seven 

processors operating in the community in 2000. These 

seven processors had the capacity to process salmon, 

high-seas salmon, sablefish, groundfish, halibut, and 

herring.

It was announced in July 2003 that Petersburg 

would receive $277,043 worth of federal salmon 

disaster funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by depleted salmon resources. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Petersburg 
130

 Sport Fishing 

There were 35 saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Petersburg in 2002 and 20 businesses 

licensed to provide freshwater recreational fishing 

according to the ADF&G. There was a total of 3,985 

sport fishing licenses sold in Petersburg in 2000, 1,432 

of which were sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities where subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1987 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Petersburg. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for 96.9% 

of households in the community which participated in 

the use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. 

Of the total population, 96.9% used salmon, 87.6% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, 

cod, flounder, halibut, rockfish, and char), and no 

households used marine mammals, although a fairly 

high percentage (80.3%) used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita subsistence harvest for 

1987 was 197.67 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative to 

other resources categories. The total subsistence harvest 

was composed of 22.92% salmon, 22.49% non-salmon 

fish, 28.95% land mammals, marine mammals did not 

factor as a significant percentage of the composition 

of subsistence foods, birds and eggs accounted for 

only 1.80% of the total subsistence harvest, marine 

invertebrates for 19.49%, and vegetation made up 

4.36%. The wild food harvest in Petersburg made 

up 128% of the recommended dietary allowance of 

protein in 1987 (corresponding to a daily allowance of 

49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs of wild food per 

day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, ADF&G).

A total of 77 permits were held by households in 

Petersburg for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records 

from 1999. Sockeye made up the largest proportions 

of the salmon harvest. Residents of Petersburg and 

members of Petersburg Indian Association who hold 

a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Petersburg 
����

����

���

131

Point Baker (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Located on the northern tip of Prince of Wales 

Island, Point Baker is 142 miles south of Juneau and 

50 miles west of Wrangell. The area encompasses 1.0 

square miles of land and 0.1 square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

Point Baker is one of the very small communities 

scattered over the Southeast Alaskan landscape, 

hidden inside a cove or behind a cape or an island. In 

2000 the village had 35 inhabitants. The community 

was overwhelmingly White (91.4%). About 2.9% of 

the population was Alaska Native or American Indian, 

and 5.7% were of two or more races. A total of 8.6% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. All residents lived 

in households rather than group quarters. Some houses 

were vacant due to seasonal use at the time of the 2000 

U.S. Census. 

The gender ratio in Point Baker was relatively 

balanced, at 51.4% male and 48.6% female. The 

median age was 42.8 years, significantly older than the 

U.S. national average of 35.3 years. 

In terms of educational attainment, 91.4% of 

residents had graduated from high school or gone on 

to further schooling at the time of the 2000 Census. 

About 8.6% of the population never completed 12th 

grade, and no one in the community had obtained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Point Baker is one of the oldest place-names of 

Euro-American origin in Alaska. It was named in 

1793 by Captain George Vancouver while sailing near 

Prince of Wales Island, naming it after the Second 

Lieutenant on his ship “The Discovery.”

Prince of Wales Island is in the middle of the 

transition area between Haida and Tlingit cultural 

areas. These two groups historically occupied the 

island making their living with an elaborate economic 

system including fishing, hunting, and harvesting 

practices as well as intricate trading networks.

These groups, especially the Haida (most numerous 

at the time), were connected fairly early to the 18th 

Century fur trade. The first settlers and missionaries 

that arrived to the area at the end of the 19th Century 

2000 Population Structure 

�������������������������� Point Baker 

Data source: US Census ������������

����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

� � � � � � �

���������������������

����������������������

������������

2000 Racial Structure ����������������������

Point Baker 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

������

����

������

�����

�����

��������������������������

�����������

�����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Point Baker 

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

�����������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Point Baker 
132

encountered an almost depopulated island devastated 

by smallpox and measles. Haida and Tlingit populations 

are still present in many communities on the Island.

Initially Point Baker was a non-permanent post 

exclusively related to the fishing industry. The first 

floating fish packer came to Point Baker in 1919, and 

fish buying continued until the 1930s. Dozens of tents, 

occupied by hand-trollers working in the area, were 

temporally set up along its shore. 

In the 1930s the area was opened to permanent 

settlement by the U.S. Forest Service. The first services, 

including stores and a post office, were installed in the 

early 1940s. In 1955, Point Baker was withdrawn from 

the Tongass National Forest. A floating dock was built 

by the State in 1961; larger docks replaced it in 1968. 

This fishing community is, like many of the small 

communities on the island, experiencing a decline in 

population.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Point Baker is an extremely small community 

with little or no opportunities for a cash economy. 

Its almost exclusive productive activity is fishing. In 

2000, 27 residents held commercial fishing permits. 

Most fishermen in the area operate hand troll gear, 

with small vessels and small operations. Subsistence 

activities or sport hunting and fishing complement the 

local economy as a food source, but also as an income 

source. The targeted species include deer, salmon, 

halibut, shrimp, and crab.

Approximately 41.7% of the total potential labor 

force was employed at the time of the 2000 U.S. 

Census. There was officially no unemployment, but 

58.3% of residents age 16 years and older were not 

in the labor force (i.e. not working and not looking 

for work). The annual median per capita income in 

Point Baker was $12,580 and the median household 

income was $28,000. Only 4.9% of the population was 

reportedly living below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Point Baker is an unincorporated village in an 

unorganized area. Although this is a mostly White 

community, the village belongs to the Sealaska 

Native Corporation. The inhabitants of Point Baker, in 

order to access state or federal offices, have to travel. 

The closest ADF&G offices are nearby in Craig or 

Ketchikan. The nearest BCIS office is in Ketchikan. 

NMFS has its closest office in Petersburg. 

Facilities 

The community of Point Baker is accessible by 

sea and air. Floatplanes, helicopters, barges, and skiffs 

serve the town. Although there is no airport or ferry 

service, a state-owned seaplane base and heliport 

serves chartered flights from Ketchikan. Point Baker 

is not connected with the Prince of Wales Island road 

system. The community has a dock and boat harbor. 

Barges deliver cargo from Wrangell.

Point Baker is a very small community with little 

or no facilities. It does not have a school or police 

department. Very basic health care is provided by the 

local EMS or the Prince of Wales Island Area EMS. 

There are no centralized systems of water distribution, 

sewage treatment, or power generation. Power is 

provided by individual generators.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although this is a very small community 

there is significant involvement in the North Pacific 

fisheries. In 2000, 27 members of the community 

held 48 commercial fishing permits (27 fished). The 

village also had 8 owners of vessels working on 

federal fisheries, 22 owners of salmon fishing boats, 

and 18 residents registered as crewmen. The following 

section is a detailed overview of the commercial 

fishing permits held by Point Baker residents in 2000. 

Halibut: There were 11 permits for halibut issued 

in Point Baker (9 fished). The permits included: six 

longline permits with statewide range for vessels 

under 60 feet in length (all were fished), three longline 

permits with statewide range for vessels over 60 feet 

(all were fished), one dinglebar troll permit with 

statewide range (not fished), and one mechanical jig 

with statewide range (not fished). 

Salmon: The bulk of Point Baker’s permits were 

in the salmon fisheries. The village had 34 permits (24 

fished). The permits included: 17 statewide permits 

for hand trollers (6 fished), 11 statewide permits for 

power gurdy troll (11 fished), and 6 dinglebar permits 

for the southeast region (7 fished).

Crab: There was one permit to harvest Dungeness 

crab in the southeast with ring nets. The permit was 

not fished.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Point Baker 
133

Other Groundfish: There were two statewide 

longline permits for miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

for vessels under 60 feet (none fished).

In Point Baker there were no processing facilities. 

Its small fleet delivered landings to other harbors in 

the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, Point Baker issued 107 sport fishing 

license; 23 were purchased by Alaska residents. 

This small number of licenses does not preclude the 

possibility that the area could be visited by outsiders 

getting their permits here or elsewhere. Residents 

mostly rely on subsistence fishing. In 2002 the village 

also had six licensed businesses related to sport 

fishing as a tourist activity, three for freshwater guide 

businesses and three for saltwater guide businesses.

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence activities are very important to Point 

Baker residents. In 1996, 100% of local households 

used some type of subsistence resources. In that year, 

100% of households used subsistence salmon, 100% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, smelt, cod, flounder, 

greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, sole, 

char, and trout), and 100% used marine invertebrates. 

Residents harvested 288.6 lbs of subsistence resources 

per capita in 1996, with a daily per capita harvest of 0.8 

lbs. The subsistence harvest was comprised of salmon 

(28.6%), non-salmon fish (30.7%), land mammals 

(16.4%), marine invertebrates (20.1%), and vegetation 

(4.2%). 

In 1999 Point Baker had four Alaska salmon 

household subsistence permits accounting for slightly 

more than 150 fish (mostly pink salmon). In addition, 

the residents of this community (rural residents 

or members of an Alaska Native tribe) who hold a 

valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Point Baker 
���

����

134

Port Alexander (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Port Alexander is located on the south end of 

Baranof Island, 65 miles south of Sitka. The area 

encompasses 3.8 square miles of land and 11.3 square 

miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

In 2000 Port Alexander had a total of 81 residents 

in 34 households. The racial composition of the 

community was as follows: White (84.0%), American 

Indian and Alaska Native (4.9%), and two or more 

races (11.1%). A total of 13.6% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. In addition, 4.9% of residents 

were of Hispanic ethnicity. The gender makeup was 

significantly skewed, at 53.1% male and 46.9% female. 

The median age was 37.8 years, slightly younger than 

the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. In terms of 

educational attainment, 88.4% of residents 25 years of 

age or older held a high school diploma. 

History 

Baranof Island and the surrounding areas are the 

traditional territories of Athabascan Indians. Captain 

George Vancouver became the first White explorer to 

visit the area in 1795. The site was named in 1949 by 

Captain Tebenkov, Govenor of the Russian American 

colonies at the time. Permanent European settlement 

did not occur in Port Alexander until the early 1900s, 

when fishermen and fishing families established 

a store, trading company, and other facilities. The 

collapse of fish stocks, along with WWII, caused 

serious economic turmoil for Port Alexander in the 

mid-twentieth century. Although the town has long 

been a hub for fishermen who work the productive 

waters of Chatham Strait, the permanent population 

of Port Alexander has remained small. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The local economy of Port Alexander is primarily 

dependent on the commercial fishing industry. In 

addition, most residents supplement their incomes by 

using subsistence resources. The unemployment rate 

in 2000 was 6.3%, and 33.3% of residents 16 years 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Port ��������������� Alexander Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� � � � ��

���������������������

����������������������

��������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

���������������������� Port Alexander 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Port Alexander 

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

�����

������

����

������������������������

���������������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Port Alexander 
����

135

���������������

����������������������

of age and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not 

seeking work). Approximately 22.9% of individuals 

were living in poverty. The median annual per capita 

income was $14,767, and the median annual household 

income was $31,563.

Governance 

Port Alexander was incorporated as a secondclass city in 1974. Prior to that time, it was under the 

jurisdiction of the Sitka Borough. It is now located 

outside of any organized borough. It has a weak mayor 

form of government. The city administers a 4% sales 

tax and a 6% accommodations tax. The nearest office 

of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

is located in Sitka. The nearest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) office is in Petersburg. The 

nearest office of the U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) is located in Skagway. 

Facilities 

Port Alexander is accessible by floatplane, via a 

state-owned seaplane base, and by boat. The marine 

facilities include a dock and small boat harbor. There 

are no roads in the community. 

Most local homes have plumbing. The city has 

an operating water system, but no sewer system. 

Electricity is generated by individual household 

diesel generators. Most residents must go outside the 

community for health care services, groceries, and 

other services. There is one small K-12 school in the 

community with two teachers and 21 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Despite its relatively small size, Port Alexander 

is heavily involved in commercial fishing. In 2000, 

there were 15 vessel owners with operations in federal 

fisheries and 20 vessel owners with operations in state 

fisheries (salmon) who resided in the community. In 

addition, there were 27 registered crew members. 

Thirty-five local residents held a total of 76 commercial 

fishing permits, primarily in the salmon, halibut, and 

groundfish fisheries. This section contains a detailed 

description of commercial fishing permits issued to 

Port Alexander residents in 2000. 

Halibut: Eighteen residents held a total of 19 

permits in the halibut fishery. These permits included 

the following: 13 halibut longline permits for vessels 

2000 Employment Structure 

Port Alexander Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

under 60 feet in statewide waters (all 13 fished), one 

halibut mechanical jig permit for statewide waters 

(one fished), and 5 halibut longline permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (5 fished).

Sablefish: Five local residents held six commercial 

permits in the sablefish fishery. These permits included 

the following: 4 sablefish longline permits for vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (4 fished), one 

sablefish longline permit for vessels over 60 feet in 

the northern part of the southeast region (one fished), 

and one sablefish longline permit for vessels over 60 

feet in statewide waters (one fished). 

Other Groundfish: Fourteen residents held a 

total of 21 permits in the groundfish fishery. These 

permits included the following: six lingcod dinglebar 

troll permits for statewide waters (one fished), seven 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permits 

for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (two 

fished), two miscellaneous saltwater finfish dinglebar 

troll permits in statewide waters (none fished), one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (one was 

actually fished), three demersal shelf rockfish longline 

permit for vessels under 60 feet in the southeast region 

(none fished), one demersal shelf rockfish dinglebar 

troll permit for the southeast region (none fished), and 

one demersal shelf rockfish mechanical jig permit for 

the southeast region (none fished). 

Other (Non-crab) Shellfish: Two local residents 

held three commercial permits in the shellfish fishery. 

These permits included the following: one shrimp beam 

trawl permit for the southeast region (not fished), and 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Port Alexander 
136

two shrimp pot gear permits for the southeast region 

(none fished). 

Salmon: Thirty-five local residents held a total of 

76 commercial permits for the salmon fishery. These 

permits included the following: 12 salmon hand troll 

permits for statewide waters (5 fished), and 15 salmon 

power gurdy troll permits for statewide waters (14 

fished). 

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processing 

plants and, therefore, no registered landings in Port 

Alexander.

Sport Fishing 

Although sport fishing activities in Port Alexander 

are limited by comparison to larger cities in southeast 

Alaska, sport fishing is part of the local economy. Sport 

fishing license sales in 2000 for Port Alexander totaled 

64—most of them (50) to non-Alaska residents. In 

2000, there were three registered saltwater sport fishing 

guides and two freshwater guides in the community. 

Major sport species include all five species of Pacific 

salmon, halibut, and trout. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence resources provide an important 

supplement to the formal economy in Port Alexander. 

The ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence reported in 

1987 that 100% of households in Port Alexander 

used subsistence resources. Approximately 94.3% of 

households used subsistence salmon (including all five 

species of Pacific salmon), and 100% used non-salmon 

subsistence fish (especially halibut, cod, rockfish, 

and char). Approximately 14.5% of households used 

marine mammals (mostly harbor seals) for subsistence, 

and 85.5% of households used marine invertebrates 

(including clams, crabs, octopus, and shrimp).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Port Alexander in 1987 was 311.7 lbs, and 

was comprised of the following resources: salmon 

(22.4%), non-salmon fish (22.5%), land mammals 

(34.8%), marine mammals (0.8%), birds and bird eggs 

(0.4%), marine invertebrates (10.0%), and vegetation 

(9.1%). 

Residents of Port Alexander who hold a valid 

Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC) 

issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest subsistence 

halibut. These allocations are based on recognized 

customary and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations 

to implement subsistence halibut fishing were 

published in the Federal Register in April 2003 and 

became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Port Alexander 
����

���

����

137

Port Protection (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Located on the western side of the northern tip of 

Prince of Wales Island, Port Protection is 145 miles 

south of Juneau and 50 miles west of Wrangell. It lies 

in the Tongass National Forest. The area encompasses 

4.5 square miles of land and 0.1 square miles of 

water.

Demographic Profile 

Port Protection is one of many small communities 

scattered over the Southeast Alaskan landscape, hidden 

inside a cove or behind a cape or an island. In 2000, 

there were 63 residents in the village. The community 

was predominantly White (87.3%), but also had Asian 

residents (1.6%), and residents belonging to two 

or more racial groups (11.1%). A total of 11.1% of 

the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 4.8% 

of residents were of Hispanic ethnicity. In terms of 

housing, all residents lived in households rather than 

group quarters. 

The gender ratio was extremely unbalanced, at 

60.3% male and 39.7% female. The median age of 

42.4 years was significantly older than the U.S. national 

median of 35.3 years. The bulk of the population 

(52.4%) was between 35 and 54 years of age, and 16% 

of residents were over 55 years. 

In terms of educational attainment, 90.6% of 

residents 25 years of age or older held a high school 

degree in the year 2000. Approximately 24.5% of 

residents held a bachelor’s degree or higher, and only 

9.4% never completed 12th grade. 

History 

Prince of Wales Island is in the middle of the 

transition area between Haida and Tlingit cultural 

areas. These two Native American groups historically 

occupied the island, making their living with a very 

elaborate economic system including fishing, hunting, 

and harvesting practices, and intricate trading 

networks.

These groups, especially the Haida, the most 

numerous at the time, were connected fairly early 

to the 18th century fur trade. The first settlers and 

missionaries that arrived to the area at the end of the 

19th century encountered an almost depopulated island 

2000 Population Structure 

�������������������������� Port Protection 

Data source: US Census ����������������

����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� � � � ��

���������������������

����������������������

����������������

2000 Racial Structure ����������������������

Port Protection 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

����������

�����

�����

�����������������������

����������������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Port Protection 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Port Protection 
138

devastated by smallpox and measles. “Wooden Wheel” 

Johnson became the first Euro-American resident in 

the early 1900s. His store, fuel dock and fish-buying 

scow enabled trollers to stop for supplies and safe 

anchor on their trips north and south. In 1946, Laurel 

“Buckshot” Woolery opened the B.S. Trading Post 

and fish-buying station. In the 1950s a warehouse was 

built with a plan to eventually create a shrimp cannery. 

The cannery idea was never realized, and the building 

now stands empty. Woolery closed his trading post in 

1973. State land disposal programs have enabled the 

area to be permanently settled. Today’s Port Protection 

is a completely non-Native community.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Port Protection does not offer many economic 

alternatives. It is a community focused on different 

aspects of the fishing industry, although there has 

been an appreciable shift from being exclusively 

centered in commercial fishing to a diversification 

that comprises sport fishing. This shift has brought an 

element of seasonality to the employment structure 

of Port Protection. Some residents have retooled their 

ships and businesses from commercial fishing to sport 

fishing charter providers.

Local residents rely on subsistence harvesting to 

complement their diets and economies. The targeted 

species are deer, salmon, halibut, shrimp, and crab. The 

employment structure of the community shows that a 

55.7% of the total potential labor force was employed 

at the time of the Census. In addition, according to 

Census data, there was no unemployment in 2000, and 

44.3% of the adult workforce was not searching for 

employment. 

In 2000, the median per capita income in Port 

Protection was $12,057 and the median household 

income was $10,938. A surprising 57.5% of the 

population was living below the poverty level.

Government 

Port Protection is an unincorporated village in 

an unorganized area. Although this is a mostly White 

community, the regional Native corporation of the 

area, with its headquarters in Juneau, is the SeaAlaska 

Native Corporation.

The residents of Port Protection, in order to access 

state or federal offices have to travel. The closest 

�������������������������� 2000 Employment Structure 

Port Protection ����������������

Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

�����

��������

�����

ADF&G offices are in Craig, Wrangell, Petersburg or 

Ketchikan. The nearest BCIS office is in Ketchikan 

and NMFS has its closest office in Petersburg.

Facilities 

Port Protection is a very small community with 

little or no facilities. The school had 24 students and 

two teachers in 2000. The community does not have 

a permanent police force. Very basic health care is 

provided by the local EMS and the Prince of Wales 

Island EMS. Although there are no centralized sewage 

treatment or power distribution systems available, 

spring water is available from a water tank maintained 

by the Port Protection Community Association. Power 

is provided by individual generators. A few facilities 

(lodges and one B&B) provide accommodations to 

visitors. 

The community is accessible by floatplane and 

skiff. A State-owned seaplane base is available. 

Residents receive mail via a community mail pouch 

delivered to the trading post. The trading post also 

provides groceries, fuel, and basic hardware. Port 

Protection has a boat harbor and launch ramp. The 

community does not have an airport, direct ferry 

service, or a connection to the Prince of Wales Island 

road system. Freight arrives by chartered boat or 

floatplane.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Port Protection 
139

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

The community of Port Protection has a unique 

relationship with the fishing industry. In this case there 

is not a lot of direct engagement in fisheries through 

permit holding, registered crewmen, or local ownership 

of vessels. In 2000, the community had a single permit 

holder with a single permit. The permit was for hand 

troll gear, and was not fished. Several other year-round 

residents hold commercial fishing permits, but their 

information is not included here because they maintain 

post office boxes in nearby communities.

The community, however, has a great deal of 

involvement through its harbor activities. Nine vessels 

were home-ported in Port Protection: two were 

fishing for halibut, and the remaining seven were 

fishing for salmon. There are no records of landings 

for Port Protection, and no processors located in the 

community. A Norquest fish-buying station is located 

in Port Protection and is active in both winter and 

summer, purchasing primarily salmon and halibut.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 no sport fishing licenses were issued in the 

community. This fact does not preclude the possibility 

that the area could be visited by outsiders who got 

their permits elsewhere. Local residents mostly rely 

on subsistence harvests for consumption. In 2002, 

the village had two licensed businesses related to 

sport fishing as a tourist activity: one was focused on 

freshwater guide activities, while the other worked in 

saltwater fisheries.

Subsistence Fishing 

Although there is no systematic survey data 

available for Port Protection, a 1996 ADF&G report 

states that the daily harvest of wild food in the 

community for that year was 1.25 lbs per capita. This 

statistic emphasizes the importance of subsistence 

practices for the daily economy of the community. In 

1999, the town did not have a single salmon subsistence 

permit. 

Finally, Port Protection residents who hold a 

valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

* Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Noyes Island, Port Protection, Tokeen, Tuxekan, and Whale Pass combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Port Protection 
���

����

140

Sitka (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Sitka is located on the west coast of Baranof 

Island on Sitka Sound in southeast Alaska. An extinct 

volcano, Mount Edgecumbe, rises 3,200 feet above 

the community. The area encompasses 2,874.0 square 

miles of land and 1,937.5 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Sitka was 8,835. Population numbers have risen 

steadily since the late 1800s with drastic population 

increases occurring in the 1880s, 1950s and 1960s. 

The genders were relatively balanced in 2000 with 

51% male and 49% female. The racial composition 

of the population in 2000 was predominantly White 

(68.5%), 18.6% American Indian and Alaska Native, 

3.8% Asian, 0.3% Black or African American, 0.4% 

Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and 0.9% 

classified themselves as belonging to some other 

race. Overall, 7.5% of the population identified with 

two or more races. A total of 24.7% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. Only 3.3% of the population 

identified as Hispanic. The median age was 35.2 years, 

comparable to the national median of 35.3 years for 

the same year. According to Census data, 30.1% of 

the population was under 19 years of age while only 

17.1% of the population was over 55 years of age in 

2000.

There were 3,560 housing units in Sitka, 372 of 

which were designated vacant in 2000 and of these, 

169 were vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of 

U.S. Census in 2000, 31% of the population lived in 

group quarters. A total of 90.6% of the population over 

25 years of age had a high school diploma or higher 

according to the 2000 census data while 29.5% also 

had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Sitka was originally inhabited by a tribe of Tlingits 

who called the village “Shee Atika.” It was discovered 

by the Russian Vitus Bering expedition in 1741, and the 

site became “New Archangel” in 1799. St. Michael’s 

Redoubt trading post and fort were built on this site by 

Alexander Baranof, manager of the Russian-American 

Company. Tlingits burned down the fort and looted the 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

����� Sitka Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

���� ��� � ��� ����

���������������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Sitka ����� Data source: US Census ����������������������

Other Two or more 0.9% 

Pacific Islander races 

7.5% 0.4% 

Asian

3.8%

Native

18.6%

Black

0.3% White 

68.5% 

������������������������

�����

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Sitka 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Sitka 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

���

141

warehouse in 1802. In 1804, the Russians retaliated by 

destroying the Tlingit Fort in the Battle of Sitka. 

This was the last major stand by the Tlingits 

against the Russians, and the Indians evacuated the 

area until about 1822. By 1808, Sitka was the capital 

of Russian Alaska. Baranof was Governor from 1790 

through 1818. During the mid-1800s, Sitka was the 

major port on the north Pacific coast, with ships 

calling from many nations. Furs destined for European 

and Asian markets were the main export, but salmon, 

lumber, and ice were also exported to Hawaii, Mexico 

and California. 

After the purchase of Alaska by the U.S. in 1867, 

Sitka remained the capital of the Territory until 1906, 

when the seat of government was moved to Juneau. 

A Presbyterian missionary, Sheldon Jackson, started a 

school, and in 1878 one of the first canneries in Alaska 

was built in Sitka. During the early 1900s, gold mines 

contributed to its growth, and the City was eventually 

incorporated in 1913. During WW II the town was 

fortified and the U.S. Navy built an air base on 

Japonski Island across the harbor, with 30,000 military 

personnel and over 7,000 civilians. After the war, the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) converted some of the 

buildings to be used as a boarding school for Alaska 

Natives - Mt. Edgecumbe High School. A large pulp 

mill began operating in Silver Bay in 1960. In 1971, 

the City and Borough governments were unified. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Sitka is relatively diverse, 

including fishing, fish processing, tourism, 

government, transportation, retail, and health care 

services. Cruise ships bring over 200,000 visitors 

annually and numerous businesses cater to tourism, 

including fishing charters, sightseeing tours, and 

visitor accommodations. Sitka Sound Seafood and 

the Seafood Producers Co-op are major employers. 

Regional health care services, the U.S. Forest Service, 

and the U.S. Coast Guard also employ a number of 

residents. A total of 1,369 commercial fishing permits 

were held by 586 permit holders in 2000 according to 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC).

At the time of the 2000 Census, 65.0% of the 

potential labor force was employed and there was a 

5.5% unemployment rate. A seemingly high 42.6% of 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Sitka 

����� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ���� �������������������������� ������������������

��������������

�����

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Sitka 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

the population over 16 years of age was not in the labor 

force, though this may be explained by the intensely 

seasonal nature of the fishing and tourism industries, 

and 26.4% of the population was below the poverty 

level. The median household income in the same year 

was $51,901 and the per capita income was $23,622. 

Governance 

The City and Borough of Sitka became a unified 

Home Rule municipality in 1971 when the city 

and borough governments were unified. The city is 

governed by a mayor and six-member city council. 

The Sitka government administers a 5% sales tax, a 

6% accommodations tax, a tax of two-cents per gallon 

on fuel, and a 6.0 mills (0.6%) property tax. Sealaska 

Corporation, the for-profit Native corporation, holds 

property rights in the Sitka area. In addition, the 

regional Native non-profit Central Council Tlingit 

and Haida Tribes of Alaska (CCTHITA) and the local 

village corporation of Shee Atika also provide services 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Sitka 
142

to local residents. The total land to which Sitka is 

entitled under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act (ANCSA) amounts to about 23,040 acres.

There is an Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office located locally in Sitka, and the 

nearest National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

regional office is located in Juneau. The nearest Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

is located in Haines.

Facilities 

Sitka is accessible by air and sea. The State-owned 

Rocky Gutierrez Airport on Japonski Island has a 6,500 

foot paved and lighted runway, an instrument landing 

system, and a 24-hour FAA Flight Service Station. 

Daily jet service is provided, and several scheduled 

air taxis, air charters, and helicopter services are 

available. Roundtrip flights to Anchorage are available 

and cost approximately $220. The City and Borough 

operate five small boat harbors with a total of 1,350 

stalls and a seaplane base on Sitka Sound, at Baranof 

Warm Springs Bay. There is a breakwater at Thompson 

Harbor, but no deep draft dock. A boat launch, haulout, boat repairs and other services are available. 

Cruise ships anchor in the Harbor and lighter visitors 

to shore, however, a new lightering facility is needed. 

The Alaska Marine Highway system (state ferry) has 

a docking facility. Freight arrives by barge and cargo 

plane.

Water is derived from a reservoir on Blue Lake 

and Indian River and treated and stored before being 

distributed to most residenta in Sitka. Approximately 

95% of residents are also connected to the piped and 

treated sewage system. Refuse is collected by a private 

firm under contract by the City. The Borough has 

begun planning for a new landfill site. 

The Borough owns and operates Sitka Electric 

Company which has hydroelectric facilities at Blue 

Lake and Green Lake, and a diesel-fueled generator 

at Indian River. Health services are provided by 

the Sitka Community Hospital and the SEARHCoperated Mt. Edgecumbe Hospital. Public safety is 

provided by a city-backed police department and state 

troopers. Schools in Sitka are operated by the Sitka 

Borough School District. There are two elementary 

schools, one middle school, three high schools and 

one correspondence school in Sitka, with a total of 

123 teachers and 1,882 students. Sitka has a welldeveloped tourism industry and there are several 

businesses including numerous accommodations and 

guided tour providers which cater to visitors. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Sitka. According to the ADF&G, and reported by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC), 1369 permits were held by 586 permit 

holders in Sitka in 2000 (888 fished). There were 233 

vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 288 vessel owners 

in the salmon fishery, and 658 crew members claiming 

residence. The commercial vessel fleet delivering 

landings to Sitka was involved in herring (17 vessels), 

halibut (277 vessels), sablefish (159 vessels), other 

groundfish (331 vessels), and salmon (629 vessels) 

fisheries. Landings in Sitka for the year 2000 included 

4,269.11 tons of federal fish, including 1,081.89 

tons of halibut, 569.99 tons of other groundfish (in 

accordance with confidentiality regulations, landings 

data for other species in the community is unavailable), 

and 8,087.729 tons of salmon. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Sitka for 2000 related 

to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, crab, 

other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 258 permits issued 

for halibut in Sitka in 2000 (210 fished). Permits for 

halibut pertained to seven hand trolls, 178 longline 

vessels under 60 feet (149 fished), 5 dinglebar trolls (3 

fished), 5 mechanical jigs (one fished), and 63 longline 

vessels over 60 feet (54 fished). All permits designated 

for halibut were for statewide waters. 

Herring: There were a total of 32 permits issued 

for the herring fishery in Sitka in 2000 (25 fished that 

year). Permits for herring pertained to three purse seine 

limited to southeast waters, three purse seine limited to 

Bristol Bay, three permits for harvesting herring food/

bait with gillnet in southeast waters (none fished), 

* Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Katlian, Mount Edgecumbe, and Sitka combined.* Commercial fishing permit data 

presented here is from the CFEC and is for the communities of

Katlian, Mount Edgecumbe, and Sitka combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Sitka 
143

one gillnet in Security Cove (not fished), one gillnet 

in Bristol Bay (not fished), two permits for harvesting 

herring food/bait with purse seine in southeast waters, 

one permit for harvesting herring food/bait by the 

pound in southeast waters, 16 permits for harvesting 

herring spawn on kelp by the pound in northern 

southeast, and two permits for harvesting herring 

spawn on kelp by the pound in southern southeast 

(none fished). 

Sablefish: A total of 133 sablefish permits were 

issued in 2000 in Sitka (130 fished). Permits pertained 

to 79 longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(76 fished), one mechanical jig in statewide waters, 

one for a fixed gear vessel of maximum 60 feet length 

restricted to Prince William Sound, one for a fixed 

gear vessel of maximum 50 feet length restricted to 

Prince William Sound, 27 longline vessels over 60 feet 

restricted to northern southeast waters, 21 longline 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters and 3 longline 

vessel over 60 feet in southern southeast waters. 

Other groundfish: A total of 338 permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish in Sitka (109 

fished). Permits pertained to 5 lingcod hand trolls 

in statewide waters (one fished), 5 lingcod longline 

vessel under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), 

59 lingcod dinglebar trolls in statewide waters (15 

fished), 3 lingcod mechanical jigs in statewide waters 

(2 fished), 10 miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand 

troll in statewide waters (2fished), 98 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (44 fished), 4 miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish pot gear vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (2 fished), 10 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

dinglebar trolls in statewide waters (none fished), 22 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical jigs in 

statewide waters (4 fished), 5 demersal shelf rockfish 

hand troll in southeast waters (none fished), 78 

demersal shelf rockfish, longline vessel under 60 feet 

in southeast waters (26 permits fished), 4 demersal 

shelf rockfish dinglebar trolls in southeast waters, 7 

demersal shelf rockfish mechanical jigs in southeast 

waters, and 14 demersal shelf rockfish longline vessels 

over 60 feet in southeast waters (2 fished). 

Crab: A total of 43 permits were issued in Sitka 

for crab in 2000 (35 fished). Two permits pertained to 

300 pots or 100% of maximum for Dungeness crab in 

southeast waters, one permit for 225 pots or 75% of 

maximum for Dungeness crab in southeast waters (not 

fished), 5 pertained to 150 pots or 50% of maximum 

for Dungeness crab in southeast waters (2 fished), one 

for 75 pots or 25% of maximum for Dungeness crab 

in southeast waters, 2 permits for red and blue king 

crab pot gear in southeast waters (none fished), 3 red 

and blue king and Tanner crab pot gears in southeast 

waters, one permit pertained to pot gear for brown 

king and Tanner crab in southeast, two permits for red, 

blue or brown king crab and Tanner crab pot gear in 

southeast waters, 27 Tanner crab ring nets in southeast 

waters (23 fished), and one permit for a Tanner crab 

pot gear vessel in southeast waters.

Other shellfish: A total of 154 permits were issued 

in Sitka in 2000 (84 fished). Permits pertained to 8 sets 

of geoduck clam diving gear in southeast waters (4 

permits fished), one octopi/squid longline vessel under 

60 feet in statewide waters (not fished), 4 octopi/squid 

pot gear vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(none fished), 12 shrimp pot gear vessels under 60 

feet in southeast waters (5 fished), one shrimp pot gear 

vessel under 60 feet in Yakutat (not fished), one shrimp 

beam trawl in southeast waters, 46 shrimp pot gear in 

southeast waters (19 fished), 66 sets of sea cucumber 

diving gear in southeast waters (55 fished), 14 sets of 

sea cucumber diving gear in southeast waters (none 

fished), and one permit for sea cucumber diving gear 

in statewide waters, excluding southeast (not fished).

Salmon: A total of 411 permits were issued in 

Sitka in 2000 for the salmon fishery (295 fished). 

Salmon permits pertained to 22 purse seine restricted 

to southeast waters, one purse seine restricted to 

Kodiak (not fished), one purse seine restricted to the 

Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands (not fished), 8 

drift gillnets in southeast waters (7 fished), one drift 

gillnet limited to Cook Inlet (not fished), 5 drift gillnets 

in Bristol Bay, 2 set gillnets in Yakutat, 3 set gillnets 

in Bristol Bay, 2 set gill nets in the lower Yukon (one 

permit fished), 132 hand trolls in statewide waters 

(54 permits fished), and 234 power gurdy trolls in 

statewide waters (207 permits fished).

Eight seafood processors filed ‘Intent to Operate’

in Sitka in 2003, which indicates a similar level 

of activity to 2000 when seven processors were in 

operation. These seven processors had the capacity 

to process salmon, high-seas salmon, sablefish, 

groundfish, halibut, and herring.

It was announced in July 2003 that Sitka would 

receive $171,692 worth of federal salmon disaster 

funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Sitka 
144

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by depleted salmon resources. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. 

Sport Fishing 

There were 148 saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Sitka in 2002 and 63 businesses licensed 

to provide freshwater recreational fishing according to 

the ADF&G. There was a total of 18,400 sport fishing 

licenses sold in Sitka in 2000, 3,261 of which were 

sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities, and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1996 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Sitka. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for 97.4% 

of households in the community which participated in 

the use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. Of 

the total population, 89.4% used salmon, 91.7% used 

non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, bass, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, 

char, grayling, and trout), many fewer households 

(17.5%) used marine mammals, and a high percentage 

(72.4%) used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita subsistence harvest for 

1996 was 205.01 lbs. Of the total subsistence harvest, 

salmon accounted for 28.2%, non-salmon fish for 

26.3%, land mammals for 24.9%, marine mammals for 

3.6%, birds and eggs for 0.3%, marine invertebrates 

for 13.4%, and vegetation for 3.4%. The wild food 

harvest in Sitka made up 133% of the recommended 

dietary allowance of protein in 1996 (corresponding to 

a daily allowance of 49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs 

of wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, 

ADF&G).

A total of 530 permits were held by households 

in Sitka for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records from 

1999. Sockeye made up the vast majority of the salmon 

harvest. Residents of Sitka and members of Sitka 

Tribe of Alaska who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Sitka 
���

����

145

Tenakee Springs (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Tenakee Springs lies on the east side of Chichagof 

Island, on the north shore of Tenakee Inlet in southeast 

Alaska. The area encompasses 13.8 square miles of 

land and 5.3 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Tenakee Springs was 104. The population has 

fluctuated between about 90 and 210 residents over 

the course of the past century. There were more males 

(54.8% of the population) than females (45.2% of the 

population) in Tenakee Springs according to Census 

data. The racial composition of the population in 

2000 was predominantly White, 87.5%, with 2.9% 

Alaska Native or American Indian, 1.0% Asian, 

1.0% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and 1.9% 

classified themselves as ‘other’. Overall, 5.8% of the 

population identified with two or more races. A total 

of 4.8% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 2.9% 

of the population identified as Hispanic. The median 

age was 46.6 years which is considerably higher 

than the national median of 35.3 years for the same 

year. According to the census data only 15.4% of the 

population was under 19 years of age while 30.8% of 

the population was over 55 years of age in 2000.

There were 144 housing units in Tenakee Springs, 

85 of which were vacant in 2000 and of these, 79 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 

U.S. Census, none of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 81.5% of the population over 25 years 

of age had a high school diploma or higher, while 

30.8% had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The word Tenakee is from the Tlingit word 

“tinaghu,” meaning “Coppery Shield Bay.” This 

refers to three copper shields, highly prized by the 

Tlingits, which were lost in a storm in the area. Early 

prospectors and fishermen came to the site to wait 

out the winters and enjoy the natural hot springs in 

Tenakee. Around 1895, a large tub and building were 

constructed to provide a warm bathing place for the 

increasing number of visitors. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

T���������������� enakee Springs 

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� � � � �� �� ��

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Tenakee Springs 

Data source: US Census 

Pacific Islander 

1.0% 

White 

87.4% 

Two or more 

races 

5.8% 

Other 

1.9% 

Native 

2.9% 

Asian 

1.0% 

������������������������

����������������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Tenakee Springs 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Tenakee Springs 
����������������

����������������������

146

In 1899, Ed Snyder established Snyder’s 

Mercantile, which still operates today. A post office 

opened in 1903. Originally called Tenakee, the name 

was altered to Tenakee Springs in 1928. Improvements 

to the hot springs facilities were made in 1915 and 

1929; the existing bathhouse was constructed in 1940. 

Three canneries operated in the area between 1916 and 

1974. A logging camp operated for a time at Corner 

Bay. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing is an important part of the 

economy of Tenakee Springs, although the community 

is largely considered to be a retirement community. 

Tourism is becoming increasingly important. The City 

and store are the only local employers. A total of 48 

commercial fishing permits were held by 25 permit 

holders in 2000 according to the Alaska Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission (ACFEC). 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 62.9% of 

the potential labor force was employed and there was 

a 10.0% unemployment rate. Of the population over 

16 years of age, 27.1 % was not in the labor force 

though this may be due to the highly seasonal nature 

of the fishing and tourism industries, and 11.8% of the 

population lived below the poverty level. The median 

household income in the same year was $33,125 and 

the per capita income was $20,483. 

Governance 

The City of Tenakee Springs was incorporated in 

1971 as a second-class city. The city is governed by a 

Council-mayor form of government. The mayor and 

seven council members are elected officials. Tenakee 

Springs is not located within an organized borough, 

so the city is responsible for many services. The City 

of Tenakee Springs implements a 1% sales tax and a 

6% accommodations tax. The city does not belong 

to any regional Native corporations, and does not 

have a village corporation or a village council. The 

community was not included in the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) and is therefore not 

federally recognized as a Native village. Consequently 

it is not allotted land under ANCSA. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office is in Juneau, as is the nearest 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office. 

2000 Employment Structure 

Tenakee Springs 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

�������� ���������� ����� �����

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Haines.

 Facilities 

Tenakee Springs is accessible only by seaplane 

and boat, and lies along the Alaska Marine Highway 

route. The City owns a seaplane base and heliport, 

and scheduled or chartered float planes are available 

from Juneau. The State Ferry provides passenger 

transportation only, since there is no vehicle landing 

facility or local roads in Tenakee. Barges deliver 

fuel and goods six times a year. The marine facilities 

include a small boat harbor and ferry terminal. A local 

company owns a fuel dock. There is a three-mile-long 

main street and local transportation is primarily by 

bicycle or ATV.

There is no community water, sewer, or refuse 

service. Residents haul water from local streams 

or use individual wells. Privies are used for waste 

disposal. Homes are not fully plumbed. Snyder’s 

Mercantile Store owns and operates a diesel generator, 

and the City owns the electrical distribution system. 

There is local interest in developing hydroelectric 

at Indian River. Health services are provided by the 

Tenakee Springs Health Clinic owned by the city. 

Public safety is provided by the state Village Public 

Safety Office. Tenakee Springs is within the Chatham 

Schools District and there is one school in Tenakee 

Springs itself. At Tenakee Springs School, one teacher 

instructs a dozen students. Tenakee Springs does not 

have a large tourism industry, yet there are at least three 

accommodation providers which cater to visitors. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Tenakee Springs 
147

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Tenakee Springs. According to the ADF&G, and 

reported by the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission, 35 permits were held by 18 permit holders 

in Tenakee Springs in 2000 (18 permits fished). There 

were 4 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 5 vessel 

owners in the salmon fishery, and 17 crew members 

claiming residence in Tenakee Springs in 2000. There 

are no fish processing plants in Tenakee Springs and 

therefore no fish landings in the community.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, 

and fishing area. Permits issued in Tenakee Springs 

for the year 2000 related to halibut, sablefish, other 

groundfish, crab, other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of four permits issued 

for halibut in Tenakee Springs in 2000 (all 4 fished). 

Permits for halibut pertained to one longline vessel 

under 60 feet and three longline vessels over 60 feet. 

All permits designated for halibut were for 

statewide waters. 

Sablefish: One permit was issued for sablefish 

in Tenakee Springs in 2000, which was fished. This 

permit pertained to one longline vessel over 60 feet 

restricted to statewide waters. 

Other groundfish: A total of five permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish in Tenakee 

Springs, only one of which was actually fished. Permits 

pertained to three lingcod longline vessels under 60 

feet in statewide waters (one permit fished) and two 

demersal shelf rockfish longline vessel under 60 feet 

in southeast waters (none fished). 

Crab: Five permits were issued in Tenakee 

Springs for crab in 2000, all of which were fished. One 

permit pertained to 75 pots or 25% of maximum for 

Dungeness crab in southeast waters and four Tanner 

crab ring nets in southeast waters.

Other shellfish: Seven permits were issued for 

other shellfish in Tenakee Springs in 2000 (3 fished). 

One permit pertained to a shrimp pot gear vessel under 

60 feet in southeast waters and six permits pertained 

to shrimp pot gear in southeast waters (two fished).

Salmon: A total of 13 permits were issued in 

Tenakee Springs in 2000 for the salmon fishery (4 

fished). Salmon permits pertained to one purse seine 

restricted to southeast waters (not fished), eight hand 

trolls in statewide waters (one fished), and four power 

gurdy trolls in statewide waters (three fished).

It was announced in July 2003 that Tenakee 

Springs would receive $500 worth of federal salmon 

disaster funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by depleted salmon resources. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. 

Sport Fishing 

There were four saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Tenakee Springs in 2002, and two 

businesses licensed to provide freshwater recreational 

fishing according to the ADF&G. There was a total of 

206 sport fishing licenses sold in Tenakee Springs in 

2000, 61 of which were sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1987 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Tenakee 

Springs. Records describe the subsistence patterns 

for all 100% of households which participated in the 

use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. 

Of the total population, 77.4% used salmon, 96.8% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, 

cod, flounder, halibut, rockfish, and char), 9.7% of 

households used marine mammals, and 93.5% used 

marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for the year 

1987 was 329.93 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative to 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Tenakee Springs 
148

other resources categories. The total subsistence harvest 

was composed of 14.95% salmon, 24.82% non-salmon 

fish, 41.06% land mammals, 2.31% marine mammals, 

0.62% birds and eggs, 13.01% marine invertebrates, 

and 3.2% vegetation. The wild food harvest in Tenakee 

Springs made up 213% of the recommended dietary 

allowance of protein in 1987 (corresponding to a daily 

allowance of to 49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs of 

wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, 

ADF&G).

Only one permit was held by households in Tenakee 

Springs for subsistence fishing of salmon according to 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records from 

1999. No figures are available for specifications of 

the salmon harvest. Residents of Tenakee Springs 

who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Tenakee Springs 
���

����

149

Thorne Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Thorne Bay is 47 air miles northwest of Ketchikan 

on the east coast of Prince of Wales Island, on the shore 

of Clarence Strait. On the Island road system, it lies 60 

miles from Hollis and 36 miles east of the Klawock 

Junction. The area encompasses 25.5 square miles of 

land and 4.8 square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

Thorne Bay, in the context of the southeast, is a 

mid-sized community. In 2000, the community had 557 

residents. The racial composition of the community 

was as follows: 92.5% White, 2.9% Alaska Native or 

American Indian, 0.2% Hawaiian Native, and 0.5% 

other. Approximately 3.9% of residents were of mixed 

race. A total of 4.8% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. About 1.3% of residents were of Hispanic 

ethnicity. All residents lived in households rather than 

in group quarters. The area had a large amount of 

vacant houses that were mostly used seasonally.

The gender ratio in the community was slightly 

unbalanced, at 53.7% male and 48.3% female. The 

median age, 38.8 years, was a little bit older than the 

national median of 35.3 years. The largest group of the 

population (37.2%) was between 45 and 54 years old.

Finally, from an educational achievement 

standpoint, 88.9% of Thorne Bay residents over age 

25 had a high school education or higher, 23.7% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher, and 11.1% had 

not completed 12th grade or earned a diploma from 

high school. 

History 

Modern Thorne Bay was built around a logging 

operation established by Wes Davidson. This is an 

important difference in relation to other communities 

in the area, most of which began as fishing centers. 

The Bay was named after Frank Manley Thorn, 

superintendent of the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey 

from 1885 through 1889. The name was misspelled 

when published.

Long before its establishment by Euro-American 

settlers, Prince of Wales Island was in the middle of 

the transition area between Haida and Tlingit culture 

areas. These two Native American groups historically 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Thorne Bay �����������

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� �� � �� �� �� ��

���������������������

��������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Thorne Bay ������������

Data source: US Census ����������������������

Other 

Pacific Islander 0.5% 

0.2% Two or more 

races 

Native 3.9% 

2.9% 

������������������������ White 

����������� 92.5%

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Thorne Bay 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Thorne Bay 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

150

occupied the island, making their living with a very 

elaborate economic system including fishing, hunting, 

and harvesting practices as well as intricate trading 

networks.

These groups, especially the Haida, who were 

most numerous at the time, were connected fairly 

early to the 18th century fur trade. The first settlers 

and missionaries that arrived to the area at the end of 

the 19th century encountered Native communities that 

had been devastated by smallpox and measles. 

Thorne Bay developed as a result of a long-term 

timber sales contract between the U.S. Forest Service 

and the Ketchikan Pulp Company. In 1960, a floating 

logging camp was built in Thorne Bay. In 1962, 

Ketchikan Pulp moved its main logging camp from 

Hollis to Thorne Bay. This change of status implied 

also the opening of several services and infrastructures 

(barge terminal, shops, log yard and so on) as well as 

the construction of a road connecting the town to the 

heart of the Island: Hollis, Craig, and Klawock.

During this time, Thorne Bay was considered 

the largest logging camp in North America. The 

community evolved from a company-owned logging 

camp to an incorporated city by 1982, due in part 

to the land selection program provided for in the 

Alaska Statehood Act. Most of its current permanent 

population is or was part of the logging industry.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Thorne Bay has a relatively diversified economy 

within the context of Prince of Wales Island. There is 

significant involvement in fishing activities with 22 

residents holding commercial fishing permits, a rapidly 

growing tourism sector, logging, and government 

jobs (Tongass National Forest management, local 

administration, and education). Subsistence resources, 

including deer, salmon, halibut, shrimp, and crab, are 

still a significant part of the local economy and diets.

In terms of employment structure, 58.9% of the total

potential labor force was employed at the time of the

2000 U.S. Census. About 10.1% of the total potential 

labor force was unemployed and 31.1% of the adult

workforce was not searching for employment.

In 2000, the median per capita income in Thorne Bay 

was $20,836 and the median household income was

$45,625. In addition, 7.8% of the population lived

below the poverty level. 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Thorne Bay ����������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ���

��� �

���� ����

�������������������������� ������������������

��������������

�����������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Thorne Bay 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

�����

Governance 

Thorne Bay is a second-class city located within 

an unorganized area. It was incorporated in 1989. It 

has a “strong mayor” form of government supported 

by a six-member council. The city imposes a 3% sales 

tax. 

Although this is a mostly White community, 

Thorne Bay is a member of the SeaAlaska Native 

Corporation. The inhabitants of Thorne Bay must travel 

in order to access state or federal offices. The closest 

ADF&G offices are in Craig, Wrangell, Petersburg, or 

Ketchikan. The Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is in Ketchikan and the closest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office in 

Petersburg.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Thorne Bay 
151

Facilities 

Although the town of Thorne Bay has only one 

state-owned seaplane base on the bay, the proximity of 

Klawock’s airport means that airborne connectivity is 

good. The lack of direct ferry service is compensated 

for by the fact that the state ferry stops at the 

neighboring town of Hollis. Thorne Bay’s small harbor 

has a breakwater, dock, small boat harbor and grid, and 

a boat launch. The Prince of Wales road system is a 

fundamental asset to the town of Thorne Bay. It allows 

the community to benefit from other communities’

facilities and helps the community keep in touch with 

the logging industry of the area. Freight arrives by 

cargo plane, barge, ship, and truck. 

The Thorne Bay School has 75 students and 

seven teachers. Basic health care in the community is 

provided by the Thorne Bay Health Clinic, the Thorne 

Bay EMS, and Prince of Wales Island Area EMS. The 

town has a state Village Public Safety Officer and a 

City Public Safety Facility. Accommodations for 

visitors are provided by several B&B’s and cottages. 

Most of the residents of Thorne Bay are connected to 

the centralized systems of water distribution, sewage 

disposal, and power generation managed by the city.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fisheries 

In Thorne Bay there is significant involvement in 

the North Pacific fisheries. In 2000, 22 members of the 

community held 48 commercial fishing permits (20 

fished). The village also had 2 vessel owners working 

in federal fisheries, 8 owners of salmon fishing boats, 

and 12 registered crewmen.

Salmon: The bulk of Thorne Bay’s permits were 

devoted to salmon fisheries. The community had 19 

permits (in 2000 only 9 were fished): 12 statewide 

permits for hand trollers (3 fished), 6 statewide permits 

for power gurdy troll (5 fished), and one fished permit 

to use a dinglebar troll in the southeast.

Other Groundfish: The community had six 

permits (none fished): two statewide permits to catch 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish with a longliner under 

60 feet, two statewide permits to catch lingcod with 

dinglebar troll, and two permits to catch demersal 

shell rockfish in the southeast - one with a longliner 

under 60 feet in the southeast, and one with a dinglebar 

troll.

Other Shellfish: There were 16 permits for shellfish 

(7 fished): 4 permits to catch shrimp with pot gear in 

the southeast (2 fished), 2 permits to harvest geoduck 

clam (none fished), 3 permits for sea urchin (none 

fished), and 7 permits to catch sea cucumbers (five 

fished). Clams, sea cucumbers, and urchin permits 

were issued for diving gear in the southeast.

Halibut: There were four statewide permits issued 

to catch halibut with longliners under 60 feet (all were 

fished). 

Crab: There was one non-fished permit to harvest 

Dungeness crab in the southern part of the southeast 

with ring nets. 

Herring: There were two permits to harvest 

herring spawn on kelp by the pound for the southern 

part of the southeast (none fished).

In Thorne Bay there are no processing facilities. 

Its small fleet delivers to other harbors in the area. The 

community received $500 in federal salmon disaster 

funds to compensate for plummeting prices in the 

international salmon market.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, Thorne Bay issued 1,163 sport fishing 

permits, 309 of which were bought by Alaskan 

residents. A fair amount of sport fishermen come from 

outside the area to buy permits and fish in Thorne Bay. 

In 2002, the village had 12 licensed sport fishing guide 

businesses; 6 for freshwater fishing and 6 for saltwater 

fishing.

Subsistence Fishing 

In 1987, the residents of Thorne Bay harvested 0.5 

lbs of wild food per day per person. In 1999, Thorne 

Bay had 49 Alaska salmon household subsistence 

permits. The catch was mainly sockeye (763 fish). In 

addition, the residents of this community who hold 

a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Thorne Bay 
���� ����

���

����

152

Whale Pass (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Whale Pass lies on the northeast coast of Prince 

of Wales Island. It is north of Coffman Cove and 

encompasses 35.6 square miles of land and 1.8 square 

miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Whale Pass was 58. Population numbers were not 

recorded until 1980, when 90 residents lived in Whale 

Pass, and they have fallen steadily since. There were 

significantly more males (53.4%) than females (46.6%) 

in 2000. The racial composition of the population was 

predominantly White (96.6%). About 1.7% of the 

population was American Indian or Alaska Native, 

and 1.7% identified with two or more races. A total of 

3.4% of the population recognized themselves as all or 

part Alaska Native or American Indian. Overall, 6.9% 

of the population identified as Hispanic. The median 

age was 37, comparable to the national average of 35.3 

years for the same year. According to Census data, 

29.3% of the population was under 19 years of age 

and 17.1% of the population was over 55 years of age 

in 2000.

There were 51 housing units in Whale Pass, 29 of 

which were designated vacant, and of these, 6 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 U.S. 

Census none of the population lived in group quarters. 

A total of 77.4% of the population over 25 years of 

age had a high school diploma or higher, and none 

of the population had received a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. 

History 

The area around Whale Pass has continuously 

been the site of logging camps since 1964. In the early 

1980s, however, the last remaining camp moved out, 

and the area was permanently settled as the result of a 

State land disposal sale. A road originally designated 

for logging was finally completed in 1981, and private 

phones were installed a decade later. Many Whale Pass 

residents are homesteaders and practice a subsistence 

lifestyle.

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Whale Pass �����������

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� � � � � � � � �

���������������������

����������������������

�����������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Whale Pass 

Data source: US Census 

������������

����� ������

�����

������������������������ �����

�����������

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Whale Pass

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Whale Pass 
153

�����������

����������������������

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Whale Pass is largely subsistencebased and was previously almost exclusively 

dependant on logging operations and associated 

services. Subsistence activities and public assistance 

now play important roles in supplementing income. 

Only one fishing permit was issued in Whale Pass in 

2000 according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries 

Entry Commission (ACFEC). The 2000 U.S. Census 

reported that 37.8% of the potential labor force was 

employed, and there was no unemployment rate. A 

seemingly high 62.2% of the population over 16 years 

of age was not in the labor force, and none of the 

population lived below the poverty level. The median 

household income in the same year was $62,083 and 

the per capita income was $24,041. 

Governance 

The City of Whale Pass is an unincorporated city 

which does not belong to an organized borough. The 

city does not belong to any village or regional Native 

corporations and the only active local organization is 

the Whale Pass Homeowners Association.

There is a National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office and an Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game (ADF&G) office located in Petersburg. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Ketchikan.

Facilities 

The community of Whale Pass has access to the 

island road system and the State Ferry is available 

from nearby Hollis. Floatplanes and boats are 

commonly used for transportation. The approximate 

cost to travel roundtrip from Whale Pass to Anchorage 

was not obtainable, but roundtrip airfare to Anchorage 

is approximately $247 from nearby Ketchikan. The 

Whale Pass Homeowner’s Association operates the 

State-owned seaplane base, dock, boat slips, and launch 

ramp. Most homes draw untreated water from a creek 

and have individual water tanks. Privies and septic 

tanks are used for sewage disposal. Almost all houses 

have complete plumbing. The community’s landfill 

is no longer in operation. Recently, the community 

requested funds for a feasibility study to develop a 

central watering point and RV sewage dump site. 

Electricity is supplied by the Alaska Power Company.

Emergency and health services are provided on a 

2000 Employment Structure 

Whale Pass Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

������������

�����

volunteer basis or by Ketchikan-based services. There 

are no police services within the community. There 

are limited visitor accommodations available in Whale 

Pass. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Commercial fishing has been particularly 

important to the economy of Whale Pass in the past. 

According to the ADF&G, and reported by the Alaska 

Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (ACFEC), 

only one permit was held by a resident of Whale Pass 

in 2000, and there was one resident crewman in the 

community. There were no resident vessel owners, yet 

16 vessels were home ported in the community due 

to the good harbor facilities. It is worth noting that 

because of this, many of the benefits from commercial 

or sport fishing are accrued by non-community 

members. There are no fish processing facilities in 

Whale Pass, therefore no fish landings were built in 

the community.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. The permit issued in Whale Pass in 2000 

related to a salmon hand troll in statewide waters (not 

fished). 

* Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Noyes Island, Port Protection, Tokeen, Tuxekan, and Whale Pass combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Whale Pass 
154

Sport Fishing 

There is no information available regarding the 

sport fishing industry in Whale Pass for 2000.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1998 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Whale Pass. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for all 100% 

of households in the community which participated in 

the use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. 

Of the total population, 93.3% used salmon, 80.0% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, 

char, and trout), no households used marine mammals, 

and 93.3% used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita subsistence harvest for the 

year 1998 was 184.96 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of 

each resource category used by the community relative 

to other resources categories. The total subsistence 

harvest was composed of 34.9% salmon, 19.57% nonsalmon fish, 27.54% land mammals, 0.0 % marine 

mammals, 0.03% birds and eggs, 30.58% marine 

invertebrates, and 6.94% vegetation. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Whale Pass 
���

����

���

155

Wrangell (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Wrangell is located near the Stikine River, an 

historic trade route to the Canadian interior. It lies 

155 miles south of Juneau and 89 miles northwest of 

Ketchikan. The area encompasses 45.3 square miles of 

land and 25.6 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Wrangell had a population of 2,308 in 907 

households. A small segment of the population (1%) 

lived in group housing quarters. Population growth in 

the early 20th century was rapid due to the growth of 

natural resource industries. Today the population of 

Wrangell is relatively stable. The racial composition 

of the community was as follows: White (73.5%), 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Wrangell ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

���������������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

�������� Wrangell 

Data source: US Census ����������������������

Pacific Islander

0.1%

Other Two or more

����

������

American Indian and Alaska Native (15.5%), Black 0.3% 

(0.1%), Asian (0.6%), Hawaiian Native and Other 

Pacific Islander (0.1%), two or more races (9.7%), 

and other (0.3%). A total of 23.8% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. In addition, 1% of residents were 

of Hispanic ethnicity. The gender makeup of the 

community was relatively equal at 51.5% male and 

48.5% female. The median age was 39.1 years, slightly 

older than the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. In 

terms of educational attainment, 82.2% of residents 

25 years of age and older held a high school diploma. 

History 

This area of southeast Alaska is traditional Tlingit 

Indian territory. Wrangell was named for Ferdinand 

Von Wrangel, manager of the Russian-American 

Company around 1830. As one of the oldest nonNative settlements in Alaska, it grew in response 

to the Russian fur trade in the early 1800s. In 1836 

and 1840, two separate smallpox epidemics reduced 

the local Tlingit population by half. The trading post 

established in the early 1800s was under the control 

of three different nations at different times: Russia, 

England, and the United States. 

Wrangell’s population began to expand rapidly 

in the 1860s as the town served as an outfitter for 

gold prospectors bound for the Yukon and Klondike 

regions. The city was incorporated in 1903. During 

the early 20th century, Wrangell became a hub for the 

commercial fishing and timber industries. Today the 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Wrangell 

races 

9.7% 

Asian 

0.6% 

Native 

15.5% 

Black 

0.1% 

White 

73.6% 

������������������������

��������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Wrangell 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������
����

����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

�����������������

156

city is a diverse community that depends on fishing, 

timber, and a growing tourist industry.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Wrangell is based primarily 

on the commercial fishing and timber industries. 

The Tongass National Forest and abundant sport 

fishing opportunities have combined to produce 

growing tourism revenues in Wrangell. The Alaska 

Pulp Corporation sawmill closed in 1994, forcing 

approximately 225 workers into unemployment. The 

mill has since been sold and reopened, but with far 

fewer employees.

In 2000, the median per capita income was $21,851 

and the median household income was $43,250. The 

unemployment rate was 5.8%, and 31% of residents 

aged 16 and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not 

seeking work). Approximately 9% of residents were 

living below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Wrangell is a Home Rule city incorporated in 

1903. It is not located within an organized borough. 

The city administers a 7% sales tax, a 1% (10 mills) 

property tax, and a $4 per night accommodations tax. 

Wrangell Cooperative Association is the federally 

recognized Native village council located in the 

community. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is in Ketchikan. 

The nearest office of the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) and the National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) are located in Petersburg. 

Facilities 

Wrangell is accessible by air and water. The 

state owns a 6,000 foot paved runway capable of 

accommodating jet airplanes. Roundtrip airfare from 

Wrangell to Anchorage is approximately $243. There 

is also a local seaplane base. Marine facilities include 

a breakwater, deep draft dock, state ferry terminal, 

two small boat harbors with a total of 498 slips, and a 

boat launch. 

Most homes are fully plumbed. The city operates 

a piped water and sewer system. The city-owned 

electric utility, Wrangell Municipal Light and Power, 

provides hydroelectric power to the community. There 

is also a local medical center, which is owned by the 

����������

% Group Quarters �������� ���������������������� Wrangell 

Data source: US Census 

��� ����

� ���

����

����

���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

��������

���������������������� 2000 Employment Structure 

Wrangell 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

�����

��������

���������� �����

city and operated jointly with the Southeastern Alaska 

Regional Health Cooperative. The city provides 

police, volunteer fire, and emergency services. There 

are three schools in the community—one elementary 

school, one middle school, and one high school—with 

a combined total of 32 teachers and 437 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000, there were 66 vessel owners with 

operations in federal fisheries and 98 vessel owners 

with operations in state fisheries residing in the 

community. There were 234 registered crew members 

in the community. Approximately 249 local residents 

held a total of 531 commercial fishing permits in 2000; 

the following section contains a detailed description 

of these permits. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Wrangell 
157

Crab: Seventy-three local residents held a total of 95 

commercial permits in the crab fishery. These included 

the following: one Dungeness crab ring net permit for 

the southeast region (not fished), 4 Dungeness crab 

permits for 300 pots or 100% of the maximum in the 

southeast region (3 fished), 7 Dungeness crab permits 

for 225 pots or 75% of maximum in the southeast 

region (5 fished), 19 Dungeness crab permits for 150 

pots or 50% of maximum in the southeast region (14 

fished), 27 Dungeness crab permits for 75 pots or 25% 

of maximum in the southeast region (20 fished), 2 pot 

gear permits for red, blue, brown, king and Tanner 

crab in the southeast region (2 fished), 34 Tanner crab 

ring net permits for the southeast region (22 fished), 

and one Tanner crab pot gear permit for the southeast 

region (one fished). 

Other Shellfish: Eighty-one local residents held a 

total of 96 commercial permits for other (non-crab) 

shellfish. These included the following: 19 shrimp 

beam trawl permits for the southeast region (8 fished), 

56 shrimp pot gear permits for the southeast region 

(33 fished), 17 sea cucumber diving gear permits for 

the southeast region (8 fished), and 4 sea urchin diving 

gear permits for the southeast (none fished). 

Halibut: One hundred local residents held a total 

of 101 commercial permits in the halibut fishery. These 

included the following: one halibut hand troll permit 

for statewide waters (one fished), 66 halibut longline 

permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(54 fished), and 34 halibut longline permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (32 fished). 

Herring: Seven local residents held a total of 

eight commercial permits in the herring fishery. 

These included the following: one herring roe purse 

seine permit for the southeast region (one fished), two 

herring roe food/bait gillnet permits for the southeast 

region (one fished), two herring food/bait purse 

seine permits for the southeast region (none fished), 

one permit to harvest herring spawn on kelp by the 

pound in the northern part of the southeast region (one 

fished), and two permits to harvest herring spawn on 

kelp by the pound in the southern part of the southeast 

region (none fished). 

Sablefish: Four local residents held a total of six 

commercial permits in the sablefish fishery. These 

included the following: three sablefish longline 

permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(two fished), two sablefish longline permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in the northern part of the southeast 

region (two fished), and one sablefish longline permit 

for vessels over 60 feet in the southern part of the 

southeast region (one fished). 

Other Finfish: Three local residents held a total of 

three freshwater fish beach seine permits for statewide 

waters (none fished). 

Other Groundfish: Thirty-five local residents 

held a total of 49 commercial fishing permits in the 

groundfish fishery. These included the following: 3 

lingcod mechanical jig permits for statewide waters 

(2 fished), 21 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline 

permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(2 fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish otter 

trawl permit for statewide waters (not fished), one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear permit for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (not fished), 

3 miscellaneous saltwater finfish beam trawl permits 

for statewide waters (none fished), one miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish mechanical jig permit for statewide 

waters (not fished), 2 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide 

waters (none fished), one demersal shelf rockfish hand 

troll permit for the southeast region (not fished), 9 

demersal shelf rockfish longline permits for vessels 

under 60 feet in the southeast region (none fished), 2 

demersal shelf rockfish dinglebar troll permits for the 

southeast region (none fished), and 3 demersal shelf 

rockfish longline permits for vessels over 60 feet in 

the southeast region (none fished). 

Salmon: One hundred fifty-five local residents 

held a total of 173 commercial permits in the salmon 

fishery. These included the following: 7 salmon purse 

seine permits in the southeast region (6 fished), 45 

salmon drift gillnet permits in the southeast region (42 

fished), 2 salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay 

(2 fished), 77 salmon hand troll permits for statewide 

waters (18 fished), and 42 salmon power gurdy troll 

permits for statewide waters (28 fished). 

In 2000 there were two commercial fish processors 

in Wrangell. In accordance with confidentiality 

regulations, landings data for the community are 

unavailable. A total of 314 vessels made deliveries to 

processors in Wrangell, including 174 vessels with 

state-managed species (salmon and herring) and 140 

federally managed species (including groundfish, 

sablefish, and halibut). In 2003, the city of Wrangell 

was granted $13,434 in federal disaster funds to 

compensate for falling salmon prices. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Wrangell 
158

Sport Fishing 

Wrangell has become an important hub of sport 

fishing. In 2000, a total of 1,975 sport fishing licenses 

were sold in Wrangell—915 to Alaska residents and 

1,060 to non-residents. There were 17 registered 

saltwater sport fishing guides and 15 registered 

freshwater sport fishing guides. The major sport fish 

species in the area include all five species of Pacific 

salmon, halibut, trout, and grayling. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence resources are an important supplement 

to the formal economy in Wrangell. The ADF&G’s 

Division of Subsistence reported in 1987 that 95.1% 

of households in Wrangell used subsistence resources. 

Approximately 82.3% of households used subsistence 

salmon, and 92.0% used non-salmon subsistence 

fish (especially cod, halibut, rockfish, and char). 

Approximately 4.6% of households used marine 

mammals (mostly harbor seals) for subsistence and 

85.6% of households used marine invertebrates 

(especially crabs, clams, and shrimp).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Wrangell in 1987 was 155.2 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (19.5%), nonsalmon fish (27.7%), land mammals (20.6%), marine 

mammals (4.2%), birds and bird eggs (0.9%), marine 

invertebrates (24.3%), and vegetation (2.8%). 

The residents of Wrangell who hold a valid 

Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. According to the 

ADF&G, 66 households in Wrangell held subsistence 

salmon harvesting permits in 1999, harvesting a total 

of 1,032 salmon—mostly sockeye.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Wrangell 
���

����

159

Yakutat (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Yakutat lies among the lowlands along an 

extremely isolated stretch of coastline in the Gulf 

of Alaska. The community is located at the mouth 

of Yakutat Bay, one of the few refuges for vessels 

along this stretch of coast. The massive Hubbard and 

Malaspina Glaciers are nearby. The area encompasses 

7,650.5 square miles of land and 1,808.8 square miles 

of water. Yakutat city is the sole residential grouping 

in Yakutat borough, making figures for each reflective 

of the other, and somewhat interchangeable.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Yakutat City and Borough was 808. Population 

numbers are currently at a maximum, having increased 

drastically since the 1970s when the population was 

in the hundreds. Previously the number of residents 

in Yakutat fluctuated between 165 (in 1910) and 300 

(in 1880). There were more males (59.3% of the 

population) than females (40.7% of the population) 

in Yakutat according to 2000 Census data. The racial 

composition of the population in 2000 was composed 

of 50.4% White, 39.6% Alaska Native or American 

Indian, 1.2% Asian, and 0.9% Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islander. Overall, 7.9% of the population 

identified with two or more races. A total of 46.8% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 0.7% of the 

population identified as Hispanic. The median age was 

37.2 years, somewhat higher than the national median 

of 35.3 years of age for the same year. In 2000, 30.2% 

of the population was under 19 years of age and 13.9% 

of the population was over 55 years of age.

There were 499 housing units in Yakutat, 234 of 

which were vacant. Of these, 178 were vacant due to 

seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 

15.5% of the population lived in group quarters. 

About 84.3% of the population over 25 years of age 

had a high school diploma or higher while 17.6% had 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Yakutat and surrounding areas have traditionally 

been inhabited by the Tlingit. Yakutat means “the place 

where the canoes rest.” In the 18th and 19th centuries, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Yakutat 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������� Yakutat ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����

������

��� �� �� �� �� � �� �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure �������

Yakutat ����������������������

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

Pacific Islander races

0.9% 7.9%

Asian

1.2%

White 

50.3% 

Native 

39.6% 

Black 

������������������������ 0.1%

�������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Yakutat 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

�����������������

160

English, French, Spanish, and Russian explorers came 

to the region. Fur traders were attracted to the region’s 

sea otters. The Russian-American Company built a fort 

in Yakutat in 1805 to harvest sea otter pelts. Because the 

Russians would not allow local Tlingits access to their 

traditional fisheries, a Tlingit war party attacked and 

destroyed the post. In 1884, the Alaska Commercial 

Company opened a store in Yakutat. By 1886, the black 

sand beaches in the area were being mined for gold. 

In 1889 the Swedish Free Mission Church opened a 

school and sawmill in the area. A cannery, sawmill, 

store and railroad were constructed in 1903 by the 

Stimson Lumber Company. Most residents moved to 

the current site of Yakutat to be closer to this cannery, 

which operated through 1970. During WWII, a large 

aviation garrison and paved runway were constructed. 

Troops were withdrawn after the war, but the runway 

is still in use. The City of Yakutat was formed in 1948, 

but in 1992, the City was dissolved and a Borough was 

organized for the region. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The Yakutat economy is almost exclusively 

dependent on fishing, fish processing, and government 

employment. North Pacific Processors is the major 

private employer. Recreational fishing opportunities 

(saltwater as well as freshwater fishing in the Situk 

River) are world-class attractions for visitors from 

across the globe. Most residents depend heavily 

on subsistence hunting and fishing. Salmon, trout, 

shellfish, deer, moose, bear, and goats are harvested. A 

total of 253 commercial fishing permits were held by 

162 permit holders in 2000 as reported by the Alaska 

Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (ACFEC). 

In 2000, the unemployment rate of Yakutat was 

6.7%, and 26.9% of residents age 16 years and older 

were not in the labor force (i.e. not seeking work). 

Approximately 15.7% of local residents were living 

below the poverty level. The median per capita income 

was $21,330 and the median household income was 

$47,054. 

Governance 

The City and Borough of Yakutat became a unified 

Home Rule borough in 1992. The city is governed 

by a manager form of government and six-member 

assembly. The Yakutat government implements a 4% 

% Group Quarters �������

Y���������������������� akutat 

Data source: US Census 

����������

���

� ����

����

���� ����

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Yakutat 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

sales tax, a 4% accommodations tax, a 4% vehicle 

rental tax, 1% salmon tax, and a 9.0 mills (0.9%) 

property tax. The city belongs to the for-profit 

regional Native corporation, Sealaska Corporation, 

as well as to the regional Native non-profit, Central 

Council Tlingit and Haida tribes of Alaska. Yak-Tat 

Kween Incorporated is the local village corporation 

and Yakutat Native Association is the Native nonprofit organization. Yakutat Tlingit Tribe is the village 

council and is federally recognized and eligible for 

funding and services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA) by virtue of their status as an Indian tribe. The 

total land to which Yakutat is entitled under the Alaska 

Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) amounts to 

about 23,040 acres.

There is an Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office in Yakutat, but the nearest National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) regional office is 

located in Juneau. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Yakutat 
161

and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Haines.

Facilities 

The community of Yakutat is accessible only by 

air or sea. There are scheduled jet flights, air taxis, 

and floatplane services available. The State owns two 

jet-certified runways; one is 6,663 feet of concrete, 

and the other is 7,750 feet of asphalt. The airport is 

located 3 miles southeast and a seaplane base is also 

available. In most cases, it is least expensive to fly to 

Anchorage via Juneau. Roundtrip flights to Anchorage 

cost approximately $150. The U.S. Forest Service 

owns five airstrips in the vicinity, and the National 

Park Service operates one at East Alsek River. The 

Borough operates the State-owned boat harbor and 

the Ocean Cape dock. Monti Bay is the only sheltered 

deep water port in the Gulf of Alaska. Barges deliver 

goods monthly during the winter, and more frequently 

in summer. A State ferry began serving Yakutat in July 

1998. Severe seas in the Gulf of Alaska during winter 

months restrict the ferry service to summers only. 

Water is derived from four wells, is treated and 

piped to all residences in the community as well as 

the school. Several wooden storage tanks provide 

pressure to the water system, many in need of repair or 

replacement. Piped sewage receives primary treatment; 

a secondary treatment facility is nearing completion. A 

private firm collects refuse, and the Borough operates 

the landfill. Electricity is provided by Yakutat Power, 

Inc., using four diesel-fueled generators. The company 

is interested in exploring hydroelectric potential in the 

area. 

Health services are provided by the Yakutat 

Community Health Center which is owned and 

operated by the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe. Public safety 

is provided by state Village Public Safety Officer and 

the borough police department. There is one school in 

the Yakutat School district, Yakutat School, where 17 

teachers instruct 145 students in kindergarten through 

12th grade. Yakutat has a well-developed tourism 

industry and there are several businesses including at 

least thirteen accommodation providers which cater to 

visitors. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Yakutat. According to the ADF&G, and reported by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC), 253 permits were held by 162 permit 

holders in 2000 (167 permit fished). There were 36 

vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 50 vessel owners 

in the salmon fishery, and 56 crew members claiming 

residence in Yakutat in 2000. The commercial vessel fleet 

delivering landings to Yakutat was involved in halibut 

(17 vessels), sablefish (49 vessels), other groundfish 

(75 vessels), and salmon (72 vessels) fisheries (in 

accordance with confidentiality regulations, landings 

data for the community are unavailable). 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Yakutat in 2000 related 

to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, crab, 

other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 27 permits issued 

for halibut in Yakutat in 2000 (24 fished). Permits for 

halibut pertained to 24 longline vessels under 60 feet 

(22 fished) and three longline vessels over 60 feet (2 

fished). All permits designated for halibut were for 

statewide waters. 

Herring: One permit was issued for herring spawn on

kelp in northern southeast waters (one fished). 

Sablefish: Two permits were issued for sablefish 

which pertained to two longline vessels under 60 feet 

in statewide waters (one permit fished). 

Other groundfish: A total of 17 permits were 

issued for other groundfish (4 fished). Permits 

pertained to two lingcod hand trolls in statewide 

waters (one fished), two lingcod dinglebar trolls in 

statewide waters (one fished), three miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish hand troll in statewide waters (one 

fished), seven miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (none 

fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (not fished), 

one miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical jig in 

statewide waters, and demersal shelf rockfish longline 

vessel under 60 feet (not fished).

Crab: Ten permits were issued in Yakutat for crab 

(three fished). Four permits pertained to Dungeness 

crab pot gear vessels under 60 feet restricted to Yakutat 

(none fished), four to king crab pot gear vessels under 

60 feet restricted to Yakutat (two permits fished), 

and two Tanner crab pot gear vessels under 60 feet 

restricted to Yakutat (one fished).

Other shellfish: A total of 18 permits were issued 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Yakutat 
162

for other shellfish (6 fished). All 18 permits pertained 

to one shrimp pot gear vessels under 60 feet restricted 

to Yakutat (6 fished).

Salmon: A total of 178 permits were issued for the 

salmon fishery (128 fished). Salmon permits pertained 

to one drift gillnet limited to Bristol Bay (not fished), 

106 set gillnets restricted to Yakutat (87 fished), 67 

hand trolls in statewide waters (38 fished), and 4 power 

gurdy trolls in statewide waters (3 fished).

Five seafood processors filed ‘Intent to Operate’

in Yakutat in 2003, which might indicate an increase 

over the two processors operating in the community 

in 2000. These two processors had the capacity 

to process salmon, high-seas salmon, sablefish, 

groundfish, halibut, and herring. Harbor facilities of 

these processors benefited the community.

It was announced in July 2003 that Yakutat would 

receive $99,767 worth of federal salmon disaster funds 

to be distributed to several municipalities statewide 

which have been affected by low salmon prices in 

order to compensate for consequent losses of salmon 

taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement of these 

disaster funds illustrates state and federal responses 

to communities and boroughs affected by depleted 

salmon resources. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services for which fish 

taxes become insufficient. 

Sport Fishing 

There were 12 saltwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Yakutat in 2002 and 19 businesses 

licensed to provide freshwater recreational fishing 

according to the ADF&G. There was a total of 3,897 

sport fishing licenses sold in 2000, 308 of which were 

sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaska fishing 

communities, and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1987 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Yakutat. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for 96.4% 

of households in the community which participated in 

the use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. 

Of the total population, 88.3% used salmon, 96.4% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, and 

char), 53.3% used marine mammals, and 92.6% used 

marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita subsistence harvest for the 

year 1996 was 397.77 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount of 

each resource category used by the community relative 

to other resources categories. The total subsistence 

harvest was composed of 54.20% salmon, 19.31% 

non-salmon fish, 3.7% land mammals, 7.81% marine 

mammals, 0.63% birds and eggs, 9.98% marine 

invertebrates, and 4.38% vegetation. The wild food 

harvest in Yakutat made up 257% of the recommended 

dietary allowance of protein in 1987 (corresponding to 

a daily allowance of 49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs 

of wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, 

ADF&G).

A total of 77 permits were held by households in 

Yakutat for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records 

from 1999. Sockeye made up the vast majority of the 

salmon harvest. Members of the Yakutat Tlingit Tribe 

who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Additional Information 

In May 1986 the Hubbard Glacier surged over 47 

feet in one day, closing off the mouth of Russell Fjord 

and creating Russell Lake. At over 75 miles in length 

and 6 miles in width, Hubbard Glacier is one of the 

largest glaciers in North America. Marine mammals 

and fish were trapped by the new closure of the fjord, 

and the level of the lake increased as glacial runoff 

continued to flow. In October, the ‘dam’ broke and 

an estimated 5.3 billion cubic meters of water rushed 

out along with many marine resources. At present, 

the glacier has again closed the mouth of the fjord, 

and although the present ‘dam’ is considered to be 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Yakutat 
163

stronger then the one of two decades ago, natural 

marine resources, including the commercial salmon 

fishery, are at risk of a sudden outflow from the former 

Russell Fjord. Yakutat is currently seeking funds for 

an economic and social analysis of the effects of the 

glacier and a probable flood. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Yakutat 
164

4.2 South Central Alaska
165

4.2.1 Anchorage/Matsu 

Communities 

Anchorage

Eagle River

Chugiak

Girdwood

Palmer

Skwentna

Wasilla

Willow

Geographic Location 

The Anchorage and Matsu area includes the 

Matanuska-Susitna Borough and the Anchorage 

Borough. The profiled communities in this sub-region 

are for the most part all located within about an hour 

travel by car of the metropolis of Anchorage, which 

has made this one of the fastest growing regions in the 

state. This sub-region is situated at approximately 61 

°North Lat. -149 ° West Long. The Matanuska-Susitna 

area is made up of thriving valley farmlands, whereas 

the Anchorage Borough encompasses the largest city 

in Alaska with a total of 260,283 inhabitants in 2000, 

approximately 42% of the population of entire state 

of Alaska. Many of the communities are located off 

Cook Inlet; however, some are located more inland in 

the lush agricultural countryside. 

Weather 

The weather in the Anchorage/Matsu sub-region 

varies quite a bit between those communities located 

near or on the water and those communities further 

inland. The inland communities (Palmer, Skwentna, 

Wasilla, and Willow) have extreme temperatures 

during the winter months, ranging from -30 to 5° 

F in January. Willow is very extreme in terms of 

snowfall, ranging between 48 to 150 inches per year 

and Skwentna has a higher average with 70 inches of 

snow per year. The other inland communities average 

about 50 inches of snow per year, about 16.5 inches 

of rainfall, and the temperatures in the summer range 

from about 37 to 85° F. Coastal communities in the 

sub-region include Anchorage, Eagle River-Chugiak, 

and Girdwood, and their winter temperatures range 

from about 8 to 21° F, whereas their temperature in 

July ranges from about 51 to 65° F. The total average 

annual rainfall is approximately 15.9 inches in both 

Anchorage and Eagle River-Chugiak, and Girdwood 

averages about 80 inches per year. The average 

snowfall is approximately 69 inches for all of these 

water-bordering communities. 

General Characterization 

The area was historically occupied by Tanaina 

Indians, an Athabascan Native group, however today 

the Native population is very low in comparison to other 

areas in Alaska. A total of 10.40% of the population 

was Alaska Native or American Indian in Anchorage in 

2000, and 8.60% of the population in the MatanuskaSusitna Borough overall. In 2000, Matsu was the fastest 

growing area in the state according to the Alaska State 

Department of Labor and Workforce Development, 

and this growth has been mainly attributed to Matsu’s 

proximity to the state’s largest city of Anchorage. The 

metropolis of Anchorage accounts for about 81.4% of 

the population of the Anchorage/Matsu area and is the 

center of commerce for the entire state. The population 

of Anchorage includes the populations for Eagle RiverChugiak and Girdwood as reported by the 2000 U.S. 

Census. The populations of the other communities in 

the area range from 111 persons in Skwentna to 5,469 

inhabitants in Wasilla at the time of the Census. 

The economy of Anchorage is one of an urban 

area including the headquarters of many agencies, 

businesses, and industries. The communities of Palmer 

and Wasilla have strong agricultural histories and also 

support other industries. The economy of Willow, for 

instance, is based heavily on tourism from the local 

ski resort. Employment in Skwentna is for the most 

part available at the community store or school. All 

the profiled communities are tied to the commercial 

fishing sector, although Anchorage provides the 

lion’s share of the commercial fishing fleet and crew 

members, residents of the state of Alaska. 

Institutional Framework 

There are two boroughs in this sub-region: the 

Municipality of Anchorage and the MatanuskaSusitna Borough. The communities in this sub-region 

have varying types of city governments ranging from 

Anchorage’s status of Unified Home Rule Municipality 

to Willow which is unincorporated. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Sub-Regional Introduction 
166

The communities in this region were not included 

in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) 

and are not federally recognized as Native villages. 

However, because Anchorage is the main commercial 

center of the state, many Native regional corporations, 

Native village corporations, non-profits, community 

development quota organizations, economic 

development organizations, and regional health 

corporations have their headquarters or an external 

office located in the city. 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

The Anchorage/Matsu sub-region is intimately 

linked to both commercial and sport fishing industries. 

Many commercial permits are issued to its residents 

and many sport fishing licenses are sold annually. 

Information on subsistence, on the other hand, is not 

readily available for the most part because almost all 

of these communities are considered to be urban, and 

thus are not legally entitled to engage in subsistence 

harvests on federal land. 

Anchorage is one of the main centers for 

commercial fishing in the state, providing a large 

amount of support services and businesses, many 

processing plants, the largest fleet in the state, a 

large number of resident crew members, and a large 

amount of permit holders in various fisheries. In the 

sub-region of Anchorage/Matsu, the main fisheries, 

in terms of number of permit-holders, were salmon. 

Other participation included halibut, groundfish, 

herring, a smaller amount of crab permits, and other 

shellfish permits.

An extremely large number of sport fishing licenses 

were sold in the sub-region in 2000, with 98,516 sold 

in the city of Anchorage alone. Some of these licenses 

could have been purchased by tourists on their way 

to their final sport fishing destination, as most flights 

coming into the state pass through Anchorage, and no 

distinction is made in the records of permits sold in 

this regard. In addition there are many sport fishing 

guide businesses in operation within the communities, 

especially in Anchorage where there were 124 saltwater 

guide and 14 freshwater guide businesses in 2000. 

Almost all of the communities profiled in the 

sub-region were considered urban areas and not able 

to engage in subsistence activities on federal land, 

as mentioned above. Due to this, little evidence of 

subsistence was available except for information 

regarding salmon subsistence permits. The number of 

subsistence salmon permits is comparatively low for 

the area, but frequently subsistence activity in urban 

settings can be disguised as sport fishing. 

Regional Challenges 

Because of the high number of permits issued to 

residents for salmon, it is probable that many have 

been adversely affected by the recent falling salmon 

prices attributed to the expansion of aquaculture 

fish industries in other nations. Although no federal 

salmon disaster funds were allotted to the profiled 

communities in this region, it is likely that those who 

hold permits for salmon in the Anchorage/Matsu area 

have been affected. A city such as Anchorage may not 

demonstrate the devastating effects of falling salmon 

prices seen elsewhere because it has a larger budget and 

a robust tax base. However, the impacts on individuals 

may be significant. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Sub-Regional Introduction 
���

����

167

Anchorage Municipality 

(including Eagle River-Chugiak and Girdwood) 

(return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The 1975 constitution of the Anchorage 

municipality subsumed a myriad of small towns and 

neighborhoods under a single governmental entity. 

This profile of the Anchorage municipality includes 

the city of Anchorage as well as the towns of Eagle 

River and Girdwood. This structure is appropriated to 

the current administrative structure of the area and the 

availability of data. Although these three communities 

are distinct, important socio-economic indicators 

are consolidated for the entire municipality without 

recognition of its internal heterogeneity

The city of Anchorage, the main urban center of 

the state of Alaska, encompasses 1.25 million acres, 

lying between the two northern arms of Cook Inlet. 

Girdwood, located on the Turnagain Arm, in the 

southern branch of Cook Inlet, is located 35 miles 

southwest of downtown Anchorage, on the way to 

Seward on the Kenai Peninsula. Eagle River and its 

administratively associated neighboring communities, 

Chugiak, Birchwood, Peters Creek and Thunderbird 

Falls, lie either farther north or near the southern shore 

of the Knik Arm.

There are several challenges presented by the task 

of summarizing the Anchorage municipality with an 

eye to the fishing engagement of the city. The group 

of communities consolidated under this administrative 

category is far from homogeneous. This profile attempts 

to characterize this specific administrative area while, 

at the same time, to offer a good description of the 

distinctive socio-economic elements of these three 

communities.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Anchorage 

municipality held the majority of the population of 

Alaska: 269,070 inhabitants, 29,896 of which lived in 

the Eagle River-Chugiak area and 1,817 in Girdwood. 

Across this area, 97.3% of the population lived in 

households, while 2.7% lived in group quarters. 

This 2.7% was composed of military personnel, 

institutionalized individuals, and people employed 

seasonally by the fishing industry. According to Census 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Anchorage Municipality ����������������������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����� ����� ����� � ����� ����� �����

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure ���������������������� Anchorage Municipality 

����������������������� Data source: US Census

����������������������

Other 

2.2% Two or more 

Pacific Islander races 

0.9% 6.0% 

Asian 

5.5% 

Native 

7.3% 

Black 

5.8% 

White 

72.3% 

�����������������������

�����������������������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Anchorage Municipality 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

168

data, 7.3% of the population identified as Native 

Alaskan or American Indian, 72.2% White, 5.8% 

Black, 5.5% Asian, 0.9% Pacific Islander, 2.2% other, 

and 6% identified with two or more races. A total of 

10.4% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Finally, 5.7% 

of the population identified themselves Hispanic. 

The gender composition of the Anchorage 

municipality was fairly balanced: 49.4% female 

versus 50.6% of male. These percentages presented an 

important difference from most Alaskan communities 

characterized by an overwhelmingly male presence. 

This differential element may be attributed to the 

area’s urban character. Girdwood, the smallest of these 

nuclei, significantly differs from the urban pattern, with 

57.1% male versus 42.9% female, probably due to a 

rural demographic model with high levels of seasonal 

productivity (tourism and fishing). The median age in 

Anchorage is 32.4 years, slightly young in relation to 

the national median of 35.3 years in 2000, but not as 

young as many rural communities. The age structure 

in Anchorage did not substantially differ from the 

national average age structure. 

Finally, 90.3% of the population of the Anchorage 

municipality had graduated from high school or gone 

on to higher schooling, 28.9% held a bachelor’s degree 

or higher, and 9.7% of the population age 25 years and 

over never graduated from high school.

History 

The municipality of Anchorage stands on the 

Athabascan lands. The Tanaina Indians, the only 

coastal Athabascan group, used to live around the 

shoreline of Cook Inlet. Coastal Athabascans, due 

to the marine environment that they were occupying, 

shared more similarities with their Eskimo and Aleut 

neighbors than any of the other Athabascan groups.

The history of Anchorage and its surrounding 

areas is exemplary of the way in which most of 

Alaska developed: through cyclical booms. First, the 

discovery of gold in 1887 and in the interior in 1922 

sparked development in the area. Initially, Anchorage 

was the midpoint headquarters of the federal railroad 

that connected Seward, 126 miles to the south, with 

Fairbanks, and the coal and gold fields of the interior, 

358 miles north. The work started in 1914 and by 

1915 Anchorage was a “tent city” on the banks of 

Ship Creek near the edge of present downtown. Soon 

the urban space was reorganized through territorial 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Anchorage Municipality ����������������������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ����

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

����������������������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Anchorage Municipality 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

reorganization and the city was incorporated in 1920.

The next wave of development in the mid-1900s 

was military driven. The threat of Japanese invasion 

during WWII, and pressure from the Soviet Union 

during the Cold War, fostered investments in the 

city’s infrastructure, contributing to the growth of 

Anchorage. 

The next period of growth began in 1964 after 

the partial destruction of the city due to a massive 

earthquake. The reconstruction and subsequent 

blossoming as a modern city was fueled by the 

enormous amount of wealth generated by the discovery 

and development of the oil fields in Prudhoe Bay as 

well as the construction of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. 

The population, office space, and housing tripled 

within a ten year period. The Greater Anchorage Area 

Borough, the seed of the current municipality, was 

formed in 1964. During this period the city became 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
169

a regional metropolis absorbing or connecting with 

neighboring towns.

In 1975, the City and Borough governments 

of Anchorage were unified, along with the cities of 

Girdwood and Glen Alps. Some of the areas subsumed 

into this municipality had their own character and 

history. Eagle River, for instance, when it was formed 

in 1939, was initially agricultural land populated by 

homesteaders. Its proximity to the big city though, has 

served to convert it into a suburb of Anchorage with a 

large percentage of its population commuting daily. Its 

incorporation into the municipality occurred despite 

important local opposition.

Girdwood, formed in 1960s, still maintains a 

particular character related to its special montane 

location. Most of its economic activities are related 

to snow tourism. Its history goes back to the turn of 

the century. The community was named for James 

E. Girdwood, who staked a claim at Crow Creek in 

1896. The Girdwood post office was established in 

1907. Girdwood became conveniently linked to two 

of the major economic centers of the state with the 

completion of the Seward Highway in 1951, linking 

Anchorage to the Kenai Peninsula, 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Although most economic indicators for the 

municipality of Anchorage are aggregated, the 

different communities inside its boundaries have 

very striking specificities. Anchorage is the center of 

commerce for the state. Oil and gas industries, finance 

and real estate, transportation, communications, and 

government agencies are headquartered in Anchorage. 

Moreover, important contingents of the populations of 

Girdwood and Eagle River commute daily to the city. 

Despite this organic connection between the microregional networks of communities, each of them has 

a specific character.

Across the area, visitor and tourist facilities and 

services are available answering many different needs. 

Girdwood has a ski resort for winter sports, and the 

remaining areas offer important services for summer 

tourism (camping, fishing, and hunting, etc.). 

Seasonal factors contribute to a fluctuating, 

though low, unemployment rate. There is a 69.6% 

employment rate with 4.7% unemployment. In 

addition, 25.6% of the population are not working 

and not seeking employment. A total of 7.4% of 

the population lives below the poverty line. The per 

capita income is $25,287, while the median household 

income is $55,546.

Governance 

The municipality of Anchorage, incorporated in 

1975, is a Unified Home Rule Municipality governed 

through a “strong mayor” form of government with a 

nine-member council. Anchorage’s local administration 

holds rights to an 8% special tax on accommodations, 

tobacco, and rental cars.

The city of Anchorage, as the main commercial 

center of the state, is also the headquarters for offices 

from all sorts of regional institutions related to rural 

development, Native Alaska issues (Community 

Development Quotas, corporations, rights, health 

and so on), commerce, communication, environment, 

infrastructure, fishing, education and housing. For 

the same reason, the closest offices of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), the National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and the Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) are 

located in the city. 

The Chugiak-Eagle River ensemble has two 

representatives that sit at the nine-member council of 

Anchorage’s municipal government. The community 

has jurisdiction over local parks, roads service, health, 

fire, police, and recreation.

Eagle River-Chugiak and Girdwood play a 

peripheral role in the regional institutional distribution. 

The proximity of the big city concentrates most of 

these regional governance institutions in Anchorage. 

Both communities, in spite of belonging to the larger 

municipality, have local organs of representation: the 

Eagle River Community Council and the Girdwood 

Community Council.

Facilities 

Anchorage is accessible by air, road, and sea. The 

state-owned Ted Stevens Anchorage International 

Airport and Lake Hood Floatplane Base, the 

Municipality’s Merrill Field, and U.S. Army and 

Air Force facilities all provide plane service. Many 

international, national, and local companies connect 

the city with locations all over the state, country, and 

globe.

The Port of Anchorage is an impressive facility. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
170

There are five terminal berths with 3,488 linear feet 

available and it handles 85% of the general cargo for 

the Alaska Railbelt area. The Alaska Railroad connects 

Anchorage to Seward, Whittier, and Fairbanks. Barge 

and road transport companies have their offices and 

facilities in the city.

The city is fully supplied with water by the 

Anchorage Water & Wastewater Utility, sourced at 

Lake Eklutna, Ship Creek Reservoir, and deep wells. 

The John M. Asplund Wastewater Treatment Facility 

provides primary treatment to liquid waste, with the 

remains discharged into Cook Inlet. Eagle River and 

Girdwood are served by tertiary treatment facilities. 

Power is served in a variety of ways: it is provided 

to central Anchorage by Anchorage Municipal Light 

& Power and the privately-owned Chugach Electric 

Association, while Eagle River and Chugiak area of 

Anchorage, as well as the Matanuska-Susitna Valley, 

are serviced by the Matanuska Electric Association. 

Natural gas is an important resource as a home heating 

method and is provided by ENSTAR Natural Gas 

Company.

The municipality of Anchorage has many 

opportunities for education that encompasses the 

entire spectrum from preschool and elementary school 

through college and universities. Together there are 92 

schools with 2,900 teachers and 49,645 students.

The municipality also has a large number of 

hospitals and health facilities. People from rural 

communities all over the state come to Anchorage to 

deal with serious health problems that rural facilities 

cannot readily handle. Special mention needs to be 

made of the Alaska Native Medical Center that covers 

health issues of Alaska Natives statewide.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although these three communities are part of the 

same administrative unit and most social indicators 

are aggregated, there is data available related to each 

communities’ specific involvement in commercial 

fisheries. This speaks loudly to the importance of this 

activity for the region.

a) Anchorage*

* Commercial fishing permit data given here is from the CFEC. 

It includes the communities of Anchorage, Elmendorf Air Force 

Base, Fire Island, Fort Richardson, Potter, and Spenard 

The city of Anchorage plays a complex role in the 

Alaskan fishing industry. This large, modern city is 

deeply connected to the oil industry and information 

technologies, but also remains fundamentally 

connected to the fishing industry. 

Four main elements explain the characteristics of 

the fisheries sector in Anchorage. First, it has its own 

coastal character and fishing grounds (Cook Inlet), 

with its own harbor and numerous fishing communities. 

Second, it is the main regional commercial port of 

the entire state. Third, the concentration of resources, 

facilities, population, and transportation has converted 

Anchorage into an important nexus for the fish 

processing industry. The commercial fleet associated 

with this port has a statewide range. Finally, the 

Anchorage offers a wide variety of support services 

to the industry. The administrative centers of many 

businesses are located in Anchorage, and important 

numbers of participants on the fishing industry live 

here part of the year.

According to official records from 2000, Anchorage 

had 773 commercial permit holders, holding 1,042 allfisheries combined permits. According to the ADF&G, 

1,388 of its residents were registered as crewmen 

(includes Girdwood and Eagle River). There were 57 

federal fisheries vessel owners as well as 224 owners of 

salmon vessels. Anchorage’s fleet was involved in most 

Alaskan fisheries: crab, halibut, herring, other types 

of groundfish, sablefish, other shellfish, and salmon. 

Most of the permit holders residing in Anchorage 

actually fish in Bristol Bay, Kodiak or Cordova. This 

fact is important to understand population mobility and 

fishing industry territorial and productive structure.

Permits are issued with specifications to species, 

size of the vessel, type of gear, and fishing area. 

Crab: In 2000 the municipality had 35 permits 

to fish all types of crab (26 fished), with king crab 

being the most fished species. There were 20 permits 

for ships over 60 feet carrying pot gear (16 fished): 

2 permits to fish in Dutch Harbor (one fished), 3 in 

the Bering Sea (2 fished), and 12 in Bristol Bay (10 

fished). The remaining two permits, also for Bristol 

Bay waters, were held, respectively, by the Aleutian 

Pribilof Islands Community Development Association 

(APICDA) and the Yukon Delta Fisheries Development 

Association (YDFDA) Community Development 

Quotas (CDQ). There was also one permit issued and 

fished for a vessel under 60 feet fishing with pot gear 

in Norton Sound. The second species, in terms of 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
171

numbers fished, was Tanner crab with 11 permits: 9 

were issued for boats over 60 feet fishing with pot gear 

in the Bering Sea (8 fished). The other two permits, 

again, were held by the APICDA and YDFDA CDQs. 

The remaining species of crab that was fished by the 

anchorage fleet was Dungeness crab. There were four 

permits issued in 2000 (none fished): three permits 

limited to Cook Inlet for vessels over 60 feet carrying 

pot gear and one permit to fish in southeast waters for 

a vessel with 150 pots.

Halibut: One of the most important fisheries to 

Anchorage’s fleet was halibut with 109 permits issued 

with statewide range (59 fished). There were 74 permits 

issued for longline vessels under 60 feet (40 fished), 

30 permits for longline vessels over 60 feet (19fished), 

4 for hand troll (none fished), and one mechanical jig 

that was not fished.

Groundfish: Groundfish fisheries accumulated 

a large number of permits. There were 109 permits 

issued (37 fished). The statistics for groundfish fisheries 

include three species categories lingcod, rockfish and 

miscellaneous salt water finfish. There were nine 

permits for lingcod: three permits for longliners 

under 60 feet (one fished), three for mechanical jig 

(one fished), one non-fished permit for handtroll, one 

non-fished permit for dinglebar troll, and one nonfished permit for a longline vessel over 60 feet. The 

bulk of the groundfish fleet (99 permits) worked on 

miscellaneous salt water finfish: 33 issued permits 

for longliners under 60 feet (8 fished), 16 for vessels 

under 60 feet with pot gear (6 fished), 21 for vessels 

with mechanical jig (8 fished), 7 for hand troll (none 

fished), 5 for otter troll (4 fished), 7 for vessels over 60 

feet with pot gear (7 fished), 8 for longliners over 60 

feet, and one non-fished permit for pair trawl. Finally, 

there was a non-fished permit for a longliner over 60 

feet to catch demersal rockfish in the southeast. All 

permits were for a statewide range.

Herring: There were 107 permits issued in 2000 

(31 fished). There were 26 permits for herring roe 

fished with purse seine (9 fished): 2 for the southeast 

(both fished), 4 for Prince William Sound (none fished), 

2 for Cook Inlet (none fished), 3 in Kodiak (none 

fished), one in Chignik (not fished), 3 in the Alaskan 

Peninsula (none fished), and 11 for the Bristol Bay (7 

fished). There were 54 issued permits to catch herring 

roe with gillnet (23 fished): 18 for the Bristol Bay area 

(10 were fished), 18 for Norton Sound (6 fished), 3 for 

Prince William Sound (not fished), 5 for Cook Inlet 

(none fished), 3 for Nelson Island (one fished), 8 for 

Security Cove (one fished), 5 for Nunivak Island (2 

fished), 2 for Cape Avinof, and 2 for Goodnews Bay 

(none fished). There was one issued and fished permit 

to collect herring roe in Norton Sound with beach 

seine. There were three permits to gather herring roe 

for food and bait: one non-fished permit for gillnet in 

the southeast, one non-fished permit for purse seine in 

Prince William Sound and one permit for purse seine 

in the Alaska Peninsula. Finally, there were 14 nonfished permits for herring spawn on kelp: eight for the 

Bristol Bay, one for the southeast, and five for Prince 

William Sound.

Salmon: In 2000, Anchorage had a large number 

of salmon fishing permits. The salmon fishery was of 

great importance to Anchorage’s fishing industry. The 

city had 641 permits issued, 448 of which were fished. 

While 224 vessel owners claim official residence 

in the city and 112 vessels are home ported in their 

harbor, only 7 vessels actually deliver to its port (for a 

total of 15.26 tons). This is a reflection of Anchorage’s 

limited port and processing facilities and illustrates 

that landings are made elsewhere. 

There were 54 permits for purse seine: one issued 

and fished permit for the southeast, 18 permits to fish 

in Prince William Sound (5 fished), 6 for Cook Inlet (4 

fished), 16 for the Kodiak area (7 fished), 10 permits 

for Chignik waters (10 fished), and 3 for the Alaskan 

Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands (one fished). There 

were two non-fished permits to use beach seine in 

Kodiak.

Inhabitants of the city also hold 196 permits to 

fish with drift gillnet: 121 in the Bristol Bay area (108 

fished), 38 in Cook Inlet (31 fished), 29 in Prince 

William Sound (26 were fished), and 7 fished permits 

for Alaskan Peninsula waters for the southeast (one 

fished).

There was a total of 351 permits issued to fish 

salmon with set gillnet, although only 239 were actually 

fished: 121 permits issued for Cook Inlet (88 fished), 

126 for Bristol Bay (108 fished), 27 for the Lower 

Yukon (13 fished), 16 for Kuskokwim (one fished), 15 

for the North Sound (2 fished), 15 for Kotzebue (none 

fished), 15 for the Alaskan peninsula (11 fished), 11 

for Kodiak waters (8 fished), 6 for Prince William 

Sound (5 fished), 5 for the upper Yukon (none fished), 

and 4 for Yakutat (3 fished).

Finally, 16 permits were issued for hand troll 

statewide (one fished), 10 for power gurdy troll 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
172

statewide (7 fished), and 2 non-fished permits for a 

fish wheel on the upper Yukon River.

Sablefish: The sablefish fishery issued 30 permits 

(23 fished): 13 permits issued for longline vessels 

under 60 feet with statewide range (10 fished), 11 

permits with fixed gear (maximum vessel length 50 

feet) for Prince William Sound (8 fished), 5 permits 

issued and fished for longline vessels over 60 feet 

(statewide range), and one non-fished permit for pot 

gear for a vessel over 60 feet (statewide range).

Other shellfish: These fisheries issued 12 permits 

(3 fished). There were eight permits to fish shrimp (2 

fished): one with otter trawl and one with pot gear, 

both to fish in Prince William Sound. The remaining 

six were not fished. They were issued for vessels under 

60 feet with pot gear, 5 for Prince William Sound, and 

one for the southeast. At the same time there were 2 

issued but not fished permits for octopi and squid. 

Both were to fish in the southwest with pot gear, one 

for a vessel under 60 feet and one for a vessel over 

60 feet. Finally, there were two permits to catch sea 

cucumbers: both of them were for diving gear, one 

for the southeast (not fished), and the other statewide 

except the southeast. 

Anchorage, according to 2003 ADF&G records, 

harbored eleven processing plants: Alaskan Sausage, 

Alaska Sea Pack, 10th & M Seafoods, Sockeye 

Alaska, Alaskan Smoked Salmon, Favco Inc., 

Great Pacific Seafood, Sagaya Wholesale, Samer-I 

Seafoods, Teddys Tasty Meats, and Yamaya Seafoods. 

This concentration of the processing industry has an 

impact on employment by providing thousands of 

jobs. All types of commercial fisheries, federal or state 

regulated, were processed in the area.

Although the economic profile of Anchorage 

shows a large concentration of processors, the data 

on landings shows paradoxically low quantities of 

fish delivered in port. The composition of the fleet, 

according to species, delivering in Anchorage in 2000 

was: salmon (7 vessels), halibut (10 vessels), other 

groundfish (20 vessels) and BSAI crab (5 vessels). The 

explanation for this contradiction is that most of the fish 

was delivered to other ports and later transported by 

different means to the processing plants surrounding 

the city, or that fish were delivered to plants closer to 

the fishing grounds.

Although the salmon industry is very important 

in Anchorage, this municipality did not benefit from 

2003 federal salmon disaster funds to compensate for 

loses to the municipal tax base due to salmon prices 

plummeting.

b) Eagle River (including Chugiak, Birchwood,

Eklutna, Fire Lake and Peters Creek)*

The data on commercial fishing for Eagle River 

(including Chugiak, Birchwood, Eklutna, Fire Lake, 

and Peters Creek) is managed in an aggregate way by 

the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC). The economy and the structure of 

commercial fishing sectors for these communities 

are affected by their proximity to the large city of 

Anchorage. Most of these communities have no port 

and the cargo and harbor businesses in the area are 

managed by Anchorage’s port. Notwithstanding this 

dependence on Anchorage’s facilities, the communities 

held, in 2000, 139 permits for 106 individuals. In Eagle 

River and Chugiak there were 133 registered crewmen 

residents (included in Anchorage’s crew total). Only 92 

of the permits held by the community were fished. The 

permits held by Eagle River inhabitants encompassed 

most of the Alaska fisheries: halibut, herring, sablefish, 

other shellfish, other groundfish, and salmon. 

Salmon: The most important fishery of Eagle 

River in terms of numbers was salmon with 81 permits 

(64 fished). There were 54 permits issued to fish with 

set gillnet: 26 for Bristol Bay (28 fished), 23 for Cook 

Inlet (17 fished), 2 for Kodiak waters (one fished), 2 

for Prince William Sound (one fished), and one that 

was not fished for Yakutat. The community had also 18 

permits for drift gillnet: 6 for Prince William Sound (6 

fished), 7 for Cook Inlet (5 fished), 4 for Bristol Bay (4 

fished), and one non-fished permit for the southeast. 

There were five permits to use purse seine: one fished 

permit for the southeast, two non-fished permits for 

Prince William Sound and Kodiak respectively, and 

two for Cook Inlet (one fished). Finally, there was one 

permit for beach seine in Kodiak, three for hand troll 

statewide, and one for a fish wheel in the upper Yukon 

River. None of these were fished in the year 2000.

Herring: Eagle River had 12 permits to catch 

herring (4 fished). There were ten permits to catch 

herring roe with gillnet: four in Cook Inlet (one 

fished), three in Bristol Bay (two fished), two for 

Secret Cove (one fished), and a non-fished permit for 

Norton Sound. There was also a non-fished permit to 

* Commercial fishing permit data given here is from the CFEC. 

It includes the communities of Birchwood, Chugiak, Eagle

River, Eklutna, Fire Lake, and Peters Creek 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
173

catch herring roe with purse seine in Bristol Bay and a 

non-used permit for herring spawn for kelp in Prince 

William Sound.

Other groundfish: In Eagle River the permits 

to catch “other groundfish” affected lingcod and 

miscellaneous salt water finfish. These fisheries were 

represented by 21 permits (six fished). There were five 

permits to catch lingcod (2 fished): three for hand troll 

statewide (one fished), one fished permit for mechanical 

jig, and a non-fished permit for a longliner under 60 

feet. There were 16 permits for miscellaneous finfish 

(4 fished): 7 permits to use mechanical jig (2 fished), 

4 for longliners under 60 feet (one fished), 3 for hand 

trollers (one fished), and 2 for pot gear in vessels under 

60 feet. All the permits for other groundfish in the year 

2000 had statewide range.

Halibut: There were 16 permits pertaining to 

halibut permits (12 fished): 13 for longliners under 60 

feet (10 fished), 2 fished permits for longliners over 60 

feet, and one non-fished permit for a mechanical jig. 

All of them had a statewide range. 

Sablefish: The sablefish fishery issued 4 permits (4 

fished): 2 for longliners under 60 feet with statewide 

range, and 2 for fixed gear vessels of a maximum 

length of 50 feet working in Prince William Sound.

Other Shellfish: There were only five permits 

issued to catch other shellfish (2 fished). There was 

one used permit to catch geoduck clam with diving 

gear in the southeast, one for scallops in the southwest, 

a non-fished permit for sea urchin with diving gear 

in the southeast, and two non-used permits to catch 

shrimp with pot gear with vessels under 60 feet in 

Prince William Sound and the southeast.

c) Girdwood*

In 2000, Girdwood had 29 commercial permit 

holders with 57 all-fisheries combined permits. Thirtyeight residents were registered as crewmen with the 

Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC) (included in Anchorage’s crew total). There 

were 2 federal fisheries vessel owners plus 10 owners 

of salmon vessels. Girdwood’s fleet fished halibut, 

herring and other types of groundfish, sablefish, and 

* Commercial fishing permit data given here is from the CFEC. 

It is for the communities of Bird Creek, Girdwood, Indian,

Kern, Portage, and Rainbow. 

salmon.

Salmon: The most important fishery in Girdwood 

in terms of numbers was salmon with 27 permits (20 

fished). There were nine permits to fish with set gillnet: 

four for Bristol Bay (five fished), six for Cook Inlet (two 

fished), one fished permit for Prince William Sound, 

and one fished permit for the Alaskan Peninsula. The 

community held eight permits for drift gillnet: two 

permits for Prince William Sound (both fished), one 

for Cook Inlet (fished by two holders during that year), 

and five for Bristol Bay (four fished). There were also 

seven permits to use purse seine: one fished permit for 

Cook Inlet, three permits for Prince William Sound 

(two fished), and three non-fished permits for Kodiak 

waters.

Herring: This fishery encompassed a significant 

number of Girdwood’s permits, a total of 10, although 

none were fished in 2000. There were five permits for 

herring roe fished with purse seine: two for the Prince 

William Sound, one for Cook Inlet, one in Kodiak, and 

one for Bristol Bay. There were two issued permits 

to catch herring roe with gillnet: one for Bristol Bay 

and one for Security Cove. One permit was issued to 

catch herring roe for food and bait with purse seine in 

Prince William Sound. Finally, there were two permits 

to collect herring spawn on kelp in Prince William 

Sound. 

Halibut: A total of ten permits were issued for 

halibut in 2000 with statewide range (five of which 

were fished): there were seven issued permits for 

longline vessels under 60 feet (four fished), two 

permits for longline vessels over 60 feet (one fished), 

and one permit for hand troll (not fished).

Other Finfish: A total of five permits were issued 

in 2000 to fish miscellaneous salt water finfish and 

sablefish including four non-fished permits for 

longliners under 60 feet catching finfish, and one 

fished permit for a mechanical jig. 

Sablefish: A total of five sablefish permits were 

issued (two fished). There were two non-fished permits 

for longline gear in a vessel under 60 feet (one fished), 

one for fixed gear in a 60 foot vessel, and two permits 

for a 50 foot vessel (one fished). The last three permits 

were for Prince William Sound. 

Sport Fishing 

The municipality of Anchorage has aggregated 

data for businesses licenses. There are hundreds of 

businesses related to sport fishing: charters, fishing 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
174

guides, gear, housing, and catering associated to 

fishing trips, etc. The city had 14 official licenses for 

freshwater guide businesses and 124 saltwater guide 

business licenses. Girdwood had three freshwater and 

11 saltwater guide businesses, while Eagle River had 

two freshwater and 13 saltwater guide businesses. 

Chugiak had six saltwater guide businesses.

In 2000, 98,516 sport fishing licenses were sold in 

the municipality of Anchorage: 54,120 of those licenses 

were sold to residents of Alaska. These numbers give 

an idea of the importance of this sector in the economy 

of the city and the state. Eagle River had 8,255 permits, 

of which 5,577 were sold to residents. Girdwood sold 

565 permits, with 119 sold to Alaskan residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

The differences mentioned above between the 

communities of Anchorage, Eagle River-Chugiak, and 

Girdwood, have a fundamental impact on the specific 

form that the fisheries industry takes in each one of them. 

These are, by definition, urban areas. Some of these 

communities are real urban areas with corresponding 

sets of infrastructure and services associated with 

such designations. Some, although legally urban, 

are, from a practical perspective, more accurately 

described as rural. From the fisheries perspective, 

these differences have important impacts: the former 

are more susceptible to accumulate large industrial 

complexes such as processing plants or headquarters 

while the latter, for instance, will probably have more 

involvement with subsistence practices.

This fact has important consequences on their 

respective involvement in the North Pacific fisheries. 

As mentioned early on, the entire area is officially 

considered urban. A fundamental consequence of 

this fact is that after 20 years of legal discussions 

between the state of Alaska, the federal government, 

and the courts, the inhabitants of urban areas have no 

subsistence rights in federal lands and waters. Although 

these regulations were not strictly enforced for almost 

20 years while managed by the state, in the late1990s, 

after a long judicial battle, the federal government 

took over the responsibility of management and 

enforcement. That does not mean that the inhabitants 

of Anchorage do not fish or hunt. The basic difference 

is that these activities tend to be more easily classified 

as sport related. This is obviously misleading in many 

aspects due to the enormous heterogeneity of the 

Anchorage population.

Another important factor is also the heterogeneity 

of the communities included inside the Anchorage 

municipality. All of them are considered urban but 

a city of almost three hundred thousand inhabitants 

is obviously not the same as a rural town of a few 

hundred. Here, the records and statistics are not 

capable of depicting the internal variability of the 

area. The inhabitants of Girdwood, for instance, living 

in a relatively non-developed mountainous area have a 

completely different relation with the landscape than 

those in Anchorage, surrounded by square miles of 

infrastructure although they have easy access to all 

Anchorage facilities, unlike most of rural Alaska.

With all probability, though, Anchorage’s 

inhabitants are engaged at some level, with subsistence 

harvesting as illustrated by the 369 salmon subsistence 

harvesting permits issued by the state which, in 1999, 

accounted for almost 21,000 sockeye salmon caught. 

Other salmon species, in a minor degree were also 

fished. Eagle River-Chugiak had 71 salmon fishing 

subsistence permits (5,500 sockeye) and Girdwood 7. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Anchorage 
���

����

175

Palmer (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The city of Palmer lies in the center of an 

agricultural valley, the Matanuska Valley. It is located 

42 miles northeast of Anchorage by car on the Glenn 

Highway. The municipality encompasses 3.8 square 

miles of land.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Palmer was 4,533. About 8.2% of the recorded 

inhabitants were Alaska Native, 80.9% White, 

2.1% Black, 1.1% Asian, 0.3% Hawaiian Native, 

1.1% other, and 6.3% identified with two or more 

racial categories. A total of 12.5% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. At the same time, 3.5% of the 

population identified themselves as Hispanic. 

This community has a fairly balanced gender ratio: 

49.5% of the population was male and 50.5% female. 

A significant minority of only 391 individuals lived 

in group quarters. The rest of the population lived in 

households. 

The median age in Palmer, 28.8 years, is 

significantly younger than the national average of 35.3 

years. The population jumped from 1,140 in the 1970s 

to 2,141 in the 1980s, and was stable for a decade with 

2,866 inhabitants, but jumped again to 4,533 2000. 

There was 40.5% of the population between 25 and 54 

years old, and 37.9% under 19 years old. Of those age 

25 years and over, about 87.5% graduated from high 

school and went on to further schooling, and 14.5% 

had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. Only 

12.5% of the population over age 25 never completed 

12th grade.

History 

In 1890 George Palmer, a trader from Knik, 

established a trading post on the Matanuska River. 

The post was a place of interaction for the increasingly 

White population interested in mining, logging, and 

agriculture. Two Athabascan groups (the Ahtna and 

Dena’ina) had lived in the area for centuries. Their 

lifestyle was predominantly nomadic, characterized 

by hunting and gathering practices. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Palmer ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

���������������������

����������������������

������

2000 Racial Structure ����������������������

Palmer 

Data source: US Census 

Other 

Pacific Islander 1.1% Two or more

Asian 

1.1% 

White 

80.9% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Haines 

Data source: US Census 

��������

races 

6.3% 

Black 

2.1% 

Native 

8.2% 

0.3% 

������������������������

������

����������������������

������������

����� Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Palmer 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

����

176

In 1916 a railway station was constructed in 

Palmer increasing its connectivity with the rest of the 

state. The early years of Palmer were marked by its 

almost exclusive agricultural character. An important 

part of this agricultural history was constituted by 

the Matanuska Valley Colony (1935). The Federal 

Emergency Relief Administration, one of the many 

New Deal relief agencies created by President 

Roosevelt, planned an agricultural colony in Alaska 

which was cited for Palmer. Two hundred and three 

families, mostly from Michigan, Wisconsin, and 

Minnesota, were invited to join the Colony. They 

arrived in Palmer in the summer of 1935. Despite a high 

failure rate, many of their descendants still live in the 

Mat-Su Valley today. The City of Palmer was officially 

formed in 1951. Construction of the statewide road 

system and the rapid development of Anchorage have 

fueled growth in the Mat-Su Valley. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Palmer, although officially an urban area, is 

located on the border of rural Alaska. It has a strong 

agricultural character, but at the same time, its 

proximity to Anchorage allows many of its residents 

to commute and to participate in a fully urbanized 

economy. This dual character has been recently 

complemented by a growing tourism sector that takes 

advantage of popular recreational sites such as Hatcher 

Pass, Crevasse-Moraine Trails, Kepler Lake, Bonnie 

Lake, Finger Lake, and Long Lake. The increase of 

tourism has seen an increase in businesses catering to 

visitors.

Palmer, as administrative center of the Mat-Su 

Borough, has also become the center of governmental 

services for the area (including city, borough, state, and 

federal services). The community, as with most others 

in Alaska, is fairly engaged in the North Pacific fishing 

industry: in 2000, 73 area residents held commercial 

fishing permits. 

Farming includes musk ox ranching, whose 

underwool (qiviut) is knit into garments by Alaska 

Native women from several rural villages. Between 

2,500 and 3,500 garments are created each year by 

these women, and sold by an Anchorage cooperative. 

This farm is also a tourist attraction.

The University has an Agricultural and Forestry 

Experiment Station Office and a district Cooperative 

% Group Quarters ����������������

Palmer������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

����

���

� ���

���� ���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

������

���������������������� 2000 Employment Structure

Palmer

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

Extension Service office located in Palmer. The 

University’s Matanuska Research Farm is also here.

The employment structure of the community, as 

illustrated by Census data, shows that 56% of the total 

potential labor force was employed at the time of the 

survey. About 6.8% of the total potential labor force 

was unemployed, 35.7% of the adult workforce was 

not searching for employment, and 1.6% was in the 

military. In Palmer, the average per capita income 

was $17,203 and the median household income was 

$45,571. In this community a surprisingly high 12.7% 

of the population was below poverty levels. 

Governance 

Palmer was incorporated as a Home Rule city 

in 1951. It is governed by a manager supported by a 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Palmer 
177

seven-member council (mayor included). Palmer has a 

3% sales tax, a 5% borough tax on accommodation and 

0.2257% and 1.2145% taxes on property administered 

by the city and the borough, respectively.

The city is the administrative center of the Mat-Su

Borough. Palmer is also the home of representatives

of the Montana Creek Native Association, a Native 

village corporation.

The closest regional offices of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), the National

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and the Bureau of

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) are in

Anchorage. Palmer has its own USDA Rural Development office as well as representation from several

services of the state of Alaska (i.e. State of Alaska, 

Department of Natural Resources, and Division of

Agriculture). 

Facilities 

From a transportation perspective, Palmer is 

relatively well-connected to the main transport arteries 

of the state. Glenn Highway runs nearby and Palmer 

is also connected to the George Parks Highway. 

The Alaska Railroad connects Palmer to Whittier, 

Seward, and Anchorage for ocean freight delivery. 

The Anchorage International Airport is close enough 

to Palmer to cover its needs for commercial and 

long distance flights. The Palmer municipal Airport 

though, is served by private and chartered flights. It 

has two paved airstrips, one 6,000 feet and the other 

3,616 feet. Additionally, the city contains seven more 

privately owned airstrips. Floatplanes may land at 

nearby Finger Lake or Wolf Lake.

Palmer has seven schools ranging from 

kindergarten to high school which have 2,983 students 

and 168 teachers. Health care is provided by the Valley 

Hospital (privately owned) and the Palmer Ambulance 

Service. Long term care is provided by the Palmer’s 

Pioneer Home. The city has local police and a state 

trooper’s station.

Palmer has water and sewage systems operated 

by the city, although there are also some privately 

operated wells. Power is provided by Matanuska 

Electric Association which owns, in part, the Alaska 

Electric Generation & Transmission Cooperative, Inc. 

It operates a gas turbine plant in Soldotna and also 

purchases electricity from Chugach Electric and the 

Bradley Lake Hydroelectric Project. Piped natural 

gas, provided by Enstar, is used to heat homes. The 

Mat-Su Borough operates the landfill in Palmer.

Involvement with North Pacific fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Palmer is an inland community, it 

remains significantly involved in Alaskan fisheries. 

According to ADF&G records from 2000, Palmer had 

72 commercial permit holders with 110 permits in all 

commercial fisheries (72 fished that year). In Palmer, 

108 individuals were registered as crewmen and there 

were 8 federal fisheries vessel owners as well as 22 

owners of salmon vessels. Palmer’s fleet was involved, 

in one way or another, in most of the Alaska fisheries: 

crab, sablefish, halibut, herring and other groundfish, 

other shellfish, and salmon. Permits are issued specific 

to species, size of the vessel, type of gear, and fishing 

area. 

Halibut: There were 12 permits issued affecting 

halibut fisheries (11 fished): 5 permits for longline 

vessels over 60 feet (4 fished), and 7 issued and fished 

permits for longliners under 60 feet, all with statewide 

range. 

Groundfish: Groundfish fisheries issue 18 permits 

(9 fished). The community had three statewide permits 

to catch lingcod: one for hand troll (not fished), and 

two permits for mechanical jig. A total of 15 permits 

were issued to catch miscellaneous saltwater finfish: 2 

for a hand troll vessel (one permit fished), 5 permits 

for longline vessels under 60 feet (2 fished), one permit 

for otter trawl (not fished), 4 permits for mechanical 

jig (2 fished) and one fished permit for pot gear for a 

vessel 60 feet or over, all with statewide range. Finally 

there was a non-fished permit to catch demersal shelf 

rockfish with a longliner under 60 feet.

Salmon: The salmon fleet was the largest 

component of Palmer’s fishery effort in commercial 

fisheries in 2000. It accounted for 62 permits, 50 

of which were fished. There were three purse seine 

permits restricted to Prince William Sound (one 

fished), one for the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian 

Islands and one for the southeast. A total of 23 permits 

for drift gillnet were issued: eight for Prince William 

Sound, two for Cook Inlet, and 14 for Bristol Bay. The 

remaining 35 permits were for set gillnet: 18 for Cook 

Inlet (15 fished), 9 for the Bristol Bay (7 fished), one 

for the Alaska Peninsula, 4 for the Lower Yukon River 

(one fished), and 3 non-fished permits for the Upper 

Yukon, Kotzebue, and Norton Sound respectively.

Herring: A total of 12 permits pertained to 

herring (3 fished): 6 permits to catch herring roe with 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Palmer 
178

gillnet in Bristol Bay (2 fished), and 4 for gillnet in 

Secret Cove (one fished). In addition, there were two 

permits to gather spawn on kelp in Prince William 

Sound (none fished).

Other fisheries: These, in Palmer, included crab, 

sablefish, and other shellfish. There were two nonfished Dungeness crab permits to fish with pot gear in 

vessels over 60 feet in Cook Inlet. Sablefish had three 

issued and fished permits: two for longliners under 60 

feet with statewide range, and one for a longliner over 

60 feet fishing in the northern southeast. Finally, other 

shellfish (sea cucumber) had one non-used permit for 

diving gear in the southeast. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 this community issued 5,078 sport 

fishing licenses: 3,255 of them were bought by Alaska 

residents. The area is visited by numerous non-residents 

that get their licenses here or elsewhere. The records 

of the local chamber of commerce show at least six 

small businesses that are directly working in different 

aspects of the recreational fishing industry.

Subsistence Fishing 

This community is a Home Rule city located 

in the Matsu-Susitna Borough. From a federal 

perspective, Palmer is not considered rural and its 

inhabitants have no subsistence rights on federal lands. 

However, subsistence remains important to some of 

the population. In 1999 there were 46 salmon harvest 

subsistence permits issued to households by the state 

of Alaska that accounted for approximately 2,600 

sockeye salmon. Other salmon species were caught in 

smaller amounts. Although 46 permits is a very small 

number for a community of almost 5,000 inhabitants, 

it is worth mentioning that subsistence fishing, in urban 

settings, is often disguised as recreational fishing.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Palmer 
���

179

Skwentna (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Skwentna is situated 70 air miles northwest of 

Anchorage on the south bank of the Skwentna River at 

its junction with Eight Mile Creek in the Yentna River 

valley. The area encompasses 442.8 square miles of 

land and 6.9 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Skwentna was 111. Population numbers have risen 

over the past two decades for which Census records 

are available. There were significantly more males 

(62.2%) than females (37.8%) in 2000 according to 

Census data. The racial composition of the population 

was predominantly White (92.8%), with 6.3% 

American Indian and Alaska Native. Overall, 0.9% of 

the population identified with two or more races. A 

total of 7.2% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. None 

of the population identified as Hispanic. The median 

age was 44.6 years, significantly higher than the 

national median of 35.3 years for the same year. The 

2000 Census showed that 24.3% of the population was 

under 19 years of age while 19.8% of the population 

was over 55 years of age.

There were 360 housing units in Skwentna, 310 

of which were designated vacant, and of these, 307 

were vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of the 

2000 Census, none of the population lived in group 

quarters. A total of 95.0% of the population over 25 

years of age had a high school diploma or higher while 

36.3% also had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The Skwentna and Yenta Rivers have long been 

fishing grounds of the Dena’ina Athabascans. In 1908, 

an Alaska Road Commission crew blazed a trail from 

Seward to Nome, going through Old Skwentna from 

the Susitna River to Rainy Pass. Many roadhouses 

were later constructed along the trail to the Innoko 

Mining District. During the opening of the interior and 

the rise of exploitive exploration, prospectors, trappers 

and Indians often used sled dogs to transport goods 

over the trail. A post office was opened in 1937 and is 

still run by a couple to service the community. After 

World War II, Morrison-Knudson built an airstrip, 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Skwentna

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � � � �� ��

��������������������� ����������������������

��������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Skwentna 

Data source: US Census 

������������

������ �����

���� ����

����� �������������������������� ����� ��������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Skwentna 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

��������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Skwentna 
180

and in 1950 the U.S. Army established a radar station 

at Skwentna and a recreation camp at Shell Lake, 15 

air miles from Skwentna. In the 1960s, State land 

disposals increased settlement. Skwentna is located 

along the Iditarod trail, which attracts interest and 

visitors to the community.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Aside from self employment, the local store and the 

school are the only main sources of steady employment 

in Skwentna. Some residents operate fishing lodges or 

trap and the post office has long been run by old-time 

residents. Although located inland, there are several 

vessels with Skwentna registered as their home port. 

While there is some river access to the community in 

the warmer months, there is no information available 

about docking facilities and presumably most large 

fishing vessels are housed elsewhere. In spite of a 

relatively high number of vessels home ported, and 

several resident vessel owners, there is no information 

available from the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission (ACFEC) regarding fishing permits for 

Skwentna. It seems likely, however, that some resident 

vessel owners would also hold fishing permits. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 73.8% of the 

potential labor force was employed and there was no 

unemployment rate. A total of 26.3% of the population 

over 16 years of age was not in the labor force, and 

5.8% of the population was below the poverty level. 

The median household income in the same year was 

$16,250 and the per capita income was $23,995. 

Governance 

The City of Skwentna is unincorporated and 

there are no city or borough officials, although the 

community is in the Matanuska-Sustina Borough. 

Many municipal tasks are looked after by the Skwentna 

Community Council. Skwentna was not included in 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) 

and is not federally recognized as a Native village.

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office, Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) office, and Bureau of Citizenship 

and Immigration Services (BCIS) office are all located 

in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

There is no road access from the George Parks 

Highway -- residents are dependent upon air travel 

and snowmachines. A state-owned 3,400 foot gravel 

airstrip is available. A private airstrip and floatplane 

access are located at Alexander Lake. There is no 

regular air service to Skwentna, but charter flights are 

available, however the pricing of charter flights was 

not readily accessible. There is a roadhouse, where 

lodging and meals are available. In addition, there is a 

small weather station in Skwentna. Local residents use 

snowmachines or aircraft to travel to the post office. 

A number of homes have individual water wells, but 

septic tanks are rare, so very few homes are fully 

plumbed. Outhouses are the primary means of sewage 

disposal. There is no central electric system. Funds 

have been provided to purchase a community refuse 

incinerator, however, the community is undecided on 

a refuse solution. An unofficial dump-site near the 

airport is currently used by several families, but most 

residents burn and bury their own refuse. Electricity 

is supplied by individual generators. There is no 

clinic or hospital in the community, nor any sort of 

police services. There is no school in operation in the 

community. 

Skwentna is a fairly isolated community relative 

to tourist destinations in Alaska and does not have a 

major tourism industry. At least four businesses operate 

to provide visitor accommodations. In addition, a new 

boat launch, Deshka Landing, has brought increased 

boat and snowmobile traffic in recent years. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Skwentna is considered to be substantially 

involved in the Alaska fishing industry on account of 

the relatively large number of vessels home ported and 

resident vessel owners in the community. There are 47 

vessels registered with Skwentna as their home port. 

A total of 29 residents of the community are vessel 

owners. However, there is no documentation regarding 

fishing permits held by members of the community 

according to ACFEC. These characteristics testify 

to the problematic nature of defining a community’s 

engagement with the fishing industry on the basis 

of certain variables. Skwentna may therefore 

be representative of a community which has an 

idiosyncratic, yet significant, relationship with the 

fishing industry. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Skwentna 
181

Sport Fishing 

There were 11 freshwater sport fishing businesses 

registered in Skwentna in 2002. Due to the remoteness 

of the community, this is a highly tenuous industry, 

but is a significant component of the community’s 

economy and in terms of community members’

lifestyle and livelihood. In 2000 there was a total of 

292 sport fishing licenses sold in Skwentna, only 60 

of which were sold to Alaska residents. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Although the ADF&G have not obtained a profile 

of subsistence practices in Skwentna, subsistence 

is alluded to, though not detailed, in other material. 

Hunting, gathering and fishing are the means by which 

a significant portion of wild foods are collected by 

local residents.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Skwentna 
���

����

182

Wasilla (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Wasilla is located midway between the Matanuska 

and Susitna Valleys on the George Parks Highway. It 

lies between Wasilla and Lucille Lakes, 43 miles north 

of Anchorage. The area encompasses 13 square miles 

of land and 0.7 square miles of water. Wasilla, as with 

most of the communities in the Mat-Su borough, 

is situated between the city of Anchorage and the 

tranquility of the country. The community is fairly 

close to the urban amenities of Anchorage, while still 

enjoying a rural lifestyle. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Wasilla 

had 5,469 inhabitants. About 5.2% of the recorded 

inhabitants were Alaska Native, about 85.5% White, 

1.3% Asian, 0.6% Black, 0.1% Hawaiian Native, 1.3% 

Other, and 5.9% of two or more races. A total of 9.1% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. Approximately 

3.7% of the population identified themselves as 

Hispanic. 

This community has a fairly balanced gender 

ratio: 49.9% of the population was male and 50.1% 

female. Only five individuals in the community lived 

in group quarters. The rest of the population lived in 

households. The community had a significant number 

of empty houses, some for seasonal use. 

The median age of this community was 29.7 years, 

significantly younger than the national average of 35.3 

years. The recent historical evolution of the census 

shows a dramatic increase in the population since the 

1970s. The population has gone from 300 in the 1970s, 

to 1,559 in the 1980s and 4,028 in the 1990s. The 2000 

age structure showed that 43.7% of residents were 

between 25 and 54 years old, and a significant portion 

of the population (36.4%) was under 19 years old.

Finally, from an educational achievement standpoint, 

88.8% of the population of Wasilla age 25 and over 

had graduated from high school or gone on to further

schooling, 12.7% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or 

higher, and 11.2% of the population never completed 

12th grade. 

History 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������� Wasilla ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

2000 Racial Structure 

Wasilla Data source: US Census 

Pacific Islander ����������������������

0.1% 

Other 

1.3% Asian Two or more 

1.3% races 

5.9% 

Native 

5.2% 

Black 

0.6% 

White 

85.6% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Wasilla 

Data source: US Census 

��������

��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

���������������������

������������������������

�������

����������������������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Wasilla 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

183

The history of modern Wasilla, as with most of the 

towns of the area, is linked to a double phenomenon: 

the early 20th century gold rush and the demographic 

explosion that it represented, and the posterior 

migration wave of agricultural workers that took over 

the Matanuska-Susitna Valley in the 1930s. 

Previously, the Mat-Su Valley was entirely 

occupied by Tanaina Athabascan Indians who, in 

dispersed habitat patterns, managed the landscape 

through hunting and gathering practices.

The city of Wasilla itself was named after a 

respected local Dena’ina chief and shaman, Chief 

Wasilla. In the Dena’ina Athabascan Indian dialect, 

“Wasilla” is said to mean “breath of air.” Other sources 

claim that the Chief derived his name from the Russian 

language. The area surrounding Chief Wasilla’s home 

was called “Bentah” by the Dena’ina, meaning “many 

lakes.” The most prominent water features in the city 

today are Wasilla Lake, Lake Lucille and Jacobsen 

Lake, as well as many small, unnamed lakes and 

ponds. Cottonwood Creek, Lucille Creek, and several 

small streams traverse the city.

From the very beginning the town was established 

to take advantage of a particular location. Wasilla was 

founded in 1917 at the intersection of the Carle Wagon 

Road, now Wasilla-Fishhook Road, which linked the 

coastal community of Knik with the Willow Creek 

mining district and the newly constructed Alaska 

Railroad. This new community quickly replaced the 

older settlement of Knik as a distribution point because 

of its location on the rail line. 

The construction in the 1970s of the George 

Parks Highway through Wasilla connected it to both 

Anchorage and Denali National Park, a major tourism 

destination. This connection changed Wasilla’s 

character: it went from being mainly oriented toward 

mining and agriculture to an excellent locale from 

which to commute to Anchorage and to start a slow 

economic transition into a retail marketing and 

distribution center providing a wide range of tourism 

services.

The City was incorporated in 1974 and it is the 

home of the Iditarod Trail Committee and Iron Dog 

Race.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Wasilla ������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ����

����

������������������

��������������

����������

��������������������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Wasilla 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

���������� �����

Wasilla is located at the edge of urban Alaska. 

Although it has a strong agricultural tradition, its 

residents are engaged in all sorts of economic activities. 

Some activities, like farming, fishing, or wood product 

processing relate to the use of the natural resources 

available in the area. Other activities, like retail, 

government, or tourism provide all sorts of services. 

There is also some industry devoted to the production 

of steel and concrete.

At the same time, its proximity to Anchorage 

allows 30% of its residents to commute to the city and 

participate in the urban economy. 

The employment structure of the community 

shows that 62.8% of the total potential labor force was 

employed at the time of the 2000 Census. About 7.9% 

of the total potential labor force was unemployed, 

29.2% of the adult workforce was not searching for 

employment, and 0.2% was in the armed forces.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Wasilla 
184

In Wasilla, the median per capita income was 

$21,127 and the median household income was 

$48,226. In this community, 9.6% of the population 

was below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Wasilla, located in the Matanuska-Susitna 

Borough, was incorporated as a first-class city in 1974. 

It is governed by a strong mayor form of government 

with a seven-member council (mayor included). The 

city administers a 0.4 mill (0.04%) property tax and 

a 2.5% sales tax. The borough administers a 11.8 mill 

(1.8%) property tax and a 1.5 mill (0.15%) fire service 

area property tax.

The closest regional offices of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G), National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), and Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) are in 

Anchorage. Wasilla residents can access some regional 

institutions that have offices in neighboring Palmer: 

borough headquarters, USDA Rural Development 

office as well as representation from several services 

of the state of Alaska.

Facilities 

Wasilla, as most of the communities located at 

the end of the Knik Arm, is very well-connected by 

land to the surrounding communities. Two important 

highways and the main railroad serve their resident’s 

needs. The George Parks Highway, Glenn Highway, 

and other local roads connect the city to Anchorage, 

the remainder of the state, and Canada. The Alaska 

Railroad serves Wasilla on the Fairbanks to Seward 

route. 

The proximity of Anchorage and its international 

airport covers the needs for most long range and 

commercial flights. The city also has its own airport, 

with a paved 3,700 foot airstrip, that provides scheduled 

commuter and air taxi services. Float planes land at 

Wasilla Lake, Jacobsen Lake and Lake Lucille. In 

addition, the area has private airstrips.

Wasilla has seven schools that have 4,145 students, 

from kindergarten through twelfth grade, and 219 

teachers. Health care is provided by the West Valley 

Medical Center (privately owned) and the Central 

Ambulance Service (operated by the borough’s Central 

Mat-Su Fire Emergency Service). Alternative care can 

be provided by the Valley Hospital in Palmer or the 

health care system in Anchorage. The city has it own 

police department.

The majority of homes in Wasilla use individual 

water wells and septic systems, although the City 

operates a piped water and sewer system. Matanuska 

Electric Association is part owner of the Alaska 

Electric Generation & Transmission Cooperative, Inc., 

which operates a gas turbine plant in Soldotna and 

also purchases electricity from Chugach Electric and 

the Bradley Lake Hydroelectric Project. Piped natural 

gas, provided by Enstar, is used to heat homes. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Wasilla is an inland community significantly 

involved in the fishing industry. This is an interesting 

phenomenon that shows the importance and scope 

of one of the most important traditional economic 

activities in Alaska. It also helps call into question 

the classic definition of fishing community as simply 

places in coastal areas with harbor facilities. This 

section gives a detailed description of Wasilla’s 

participation in commercial fishing. 

According to the official records in 2000, Wasilla 

had 119 commercial permit holders, holding 166 

all-fisheries combined permits. In the city, 199 

individuals were registered as crewmen and there were 

10 federal fisheries vessel owners plus 44 owners of 

salmon vessels. Wasilla’s fleet was involved, in one 

way or another, in most of the Alaskan fisheries: crab, 

sablefish, halibut, herring, other groundfish, other 

shellfish, and salmon. Below is a breakdown of the 

fleet by type of vessel, type of gear and, if available, 

landings per fished species. 

Salmon: Salmon, by far, was the most important 

fishery in Wasilla. In 2000 the city had 102 permits (88 

fished). There were 53 permits to fish with set gillnet: 

30 issued and fished permits for Bristol Bay, 14 for 

Cook Inlet (6 fished), one permit for Prince William 

Sound (2 fished), 4 permits for the Lower Yukon River 

(2 fished), and 3 non-fished permits in Kuskokwin (one 

permit) and Kotzebue (two permits). The community 

also had 39 permits for drift gillnet: 13 permits for 

Prince William Sound (14 fished), 3 issued and used 

permits for Cook Inlet, 22 for Bristol Bay (22fished) 

and one fished permit for the Alaska Peninsula. There 

were also six permits to use purse seine gear: three 

permit for Prince William Sound and three permits 

for Kodiak waters. All of them were used. Finally, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Wasilla 
185

there were three state-wide permits for hand troll (one 

fished), and two non-used permits for a fish wheel for 

the Upper Yukon River.

Herring: There were 11 herring permits issues 

(four fished). The records show a large number of 

permit types with few permits in each category. There 

were four permits for herring roe fished with purse 

seine gear: one for Prince William Sound, one for 

Cook Inlet, one for the Alaskan Peninsula, and one 

for Bristol Bay. Only the last one was actually fished. 

There were also seven issued permits for herring roe 

with gillnet: three for the Bristol Bay area (two fished), 

two for Security Cove (one fished), and two non-fished 

permits for Goodnews Bay and Norton Sound.

Halibut: The halibut fishery was a significant part 

of the small Wasilla fleet. It had 16 issued permits 

with statewide range (13 fished): there were 13 issued 

permits for longline vessels under 60 feet (11 fished), 

two permits for longline vessels over 60 feet (one 

fished), and one fished permit for a mechanical jig.

Groundfish: Groundfish fisheries accumulated an 

important number of permits. There were 24 issued 

permits, although only 11 of them were fished. In this 

case the statistics for groundfish fisheries includes 

only two main categories: lingcod, and miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish. There were three statewide permits 

for lingcod: one non-fished permit for a dinglebar 

troll and two permits for mechanical jig (one fished). 

The bulk of the groundfish fleet, 21 permits, were 

for miscellaneous saltwater finfish: six permits for 

longliners under 60 feet (none fished), two not-fished 

for vessels under 60 feet with pot gear, six for vessels 

with mechanical jig (five fished), one fished permit 

for otter troll, one non-fished permit for a longliner 

over 60 feet and, finally, a fished permit for pot gear 

in a vessel 60 feet or over. All of them had a statewide 

range.

Other Fisheries: Wasilla’s permits affected also 

crab, sablefish and other shellfish. In the case of the 

sablefish fishery, there were eight permits: five for 

longline vessels under 60 feet (two were fished), 

one for fixed gear in a vessel under 50 feet (none 

were fished) and one fished permit for vessels with a 

maximum length of 35 feet. All of them were issued to 

fish in Prince William Sound. 

Crab: There were also three permits for crab, 

although only one to catch Tanner crab in the Bering 

Sea with pot gear in a vessel over 60 feet was fished. 

The remaining two, issued to catch Dungeness crab 

with pot gear, were not fished: one for a vessel under 

60 feet, the other for a vessel over 60 feet. Finally, there 

were two permits to catch other shellfish, in this case 

shrimp in Prince William Sound: one fished permit for 

otter trawl and one non-fished permit for pot gear in a 

vessel under 60 feet.

Sport Fisheries 

In 2000 this community issued 19,949 sport fishing 

licenses; 13,003 were bought by Alaskan residents. 

The area thus is visited by numerous non-residents 

that get their licenses here or elsewhere. In 2002 the 

city had five licenses for businesses related to sport 

fishing as a tourist activity: four of them were focused 

on freshwater, while the other worked in saltwater 

fisheries.

It is important to mention the dual nature of 

recreational fishing in urban settings. On the one 

hand, this sector works on the commercialization of 

an individual productive activity turning it into a sport 

for locals or, mainly, visitors. On the other hand, it 

involves the individual who uses a sport fishing license 

for catching fish for normal household use. In this way, 

this second side of sport fishing plays the role that in 

rural settings is played by subsistence fishing.

Subsistence Fishing 

Wasilla is legally part of the urban areas of Alaska. 

As a result, Wasilla residents are not eligible to harvest 

subsistence resources on federal lands. However, its 

inhabitants still engage in subsistence activities. In 

1999, there were 70 permits issued by the state of 

Alaska to Wasilla residents to harvest subsistence 

salmon: this activity accounted for approximately 

4,600 sockeye salmon. Other salmon species, to a 

lesser degree, were also part of local subsistence fishing 

activities. Although permits are issued to individuals, 

they represent household and family economies.

Although 70 permits is a very small number for 

a community of almost 5,500 inhabitants, it is worth 

mentioning that subsistence fishing, in urban settings, 

often is disguised as recreational fishing.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Wasilla 
���

����

����

���� ����

186

Willow (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The unincorporated town of Willow lies inside 

the Matanuska-Susitna Borough (Mat-Su). It is 

considered an urban community, although it is located 

at the verge of urban Alaska, at the gate of the road to 

Denali National Park, between mile 60 and 80.7 of the 

George Parks Highway, north of Houston. It enjoys 

thus, a double character: a small community in an 

agriculture and tourist area that looks more rural than 

urban. Its western boundary is the Susitna River. The 

area encompasses close to 700 square miles. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Willow 

had 1,658 inhabitants. About 3.1% of the recorded 

inhabitants were Alaska Native, about 92.4% White, 

0.2% Asian, 0.4% other, and 3.9% were two or more 

races. A total of 6% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. At the same time, 1.3% of the population 

identified themselves as Hispanic. 

This community had a slightly unbalanced gender 

ratio: 53.3% of the population was male and 46.7% 

female. All residents lived in households and although 

there are no group quarters, a significant portion of 

housing units (57.3%) were vacant, almost all of them 

dedicated to seasonal use. The median age of this 

community is slightly older than the national: 40.1 

years versus 35.3 years. The recent historical evolution 

of the census shows a huge increase in population in 

the last 10 years. The population went from 258 in 

the 1990s to 1,658 in the year 2000. The age structure 

showed that a large portion of the population, 45%, 

were between 35 and 60 years old. Approximately 

29.8% were under 19 years old.

In regards to educational attainment, about 82.% of 

the population of Wasilla age 25 and over had graduated 

from high school and gone on to further schooling at 

the time of the 2000 census, 17.9% had obtained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher, and approximately 18% 

never completed the 12th grade.

History 

Along with most communities in the area, Willow 

was founded as a result of the late 19th century 

gold rush in Alaska. Before then, the area had been 

������ Willow Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� �� � �� ���

���������������������

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

����

������

��� ���

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

W������ illow Data source: US Census ����������������������

����� �����

������������

�����

������ ����

�����

������������������������ �����

������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Willow 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

����� Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Anchorage Matsu/Wasilla 
��

187

occupied by Tanaina Athabascan groups living a seminomadic lifestyle and practicing hunting and gathering 

activities.

Willow was part of a network of trails (Double 

Ender Sled Trail and Talkeetna Trail) connecting 

mining fields, logging cabins, and fishing grounds. 

The construction of the Alaska Railroad spurred the 

growth of the city: surveyors, construction crews, 

homesteaders, and other settlers stayed and eventually 

settled in Willow. In 1920, a Railroad station house 

was constructed.

By 1954, Willow Creek was Alaska’s largest gold 

mining district, with total production approaching 18 

million dollars. In the early 1970s, the George Parks 

Highway, built on top of the old Talkeetna Trail, fueled 

the growth of the city by connecting Anchorage in the 

south with Fairbanks in the north, and passing by the 

entrance to Denali National Park. Commuting and 

tourism services become an important part of the 

city culture and economy. Nancy Lake is a nearby 

popular recreation site. Several residents participate 

in the Iditarod Sled Dog Race. In 1976, Alaskans 

selected Willow as the new State capital site; however, 

funding to enable the capital move was defeated in the 

November 1982 election.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Willow is a complex community that has undergone 

a wide transformation from its historical agricultural 

character to its current reliance on tourism. At the same 

time, its relative proximity to the most urbanized area 

of the state allows some of its residents to commute to 

Palmer, Wasilla, or even Anchorage.

An important measure of this emphasis on the 

tourism industry is the existence of almost 1,500 

empty housing units available for seasonal use, as 

well as a myriad of small businesses offering tourism 

services including lodging, guide and charter services, 

transportation, and leisure in general.

The emphasis on tourism did not entirely displace

“traditional” activities that are still practiced in the

area. These include wood processing (with two sawmills and one prefabricated wood building manufacturer), farming, and commercial fishing (18 local 

residents hold commercial permits). 

The employment structure of the community 

������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Willow 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

����

��������

�����

shows that 49% of the total potential labor force was 

employed at the time of the 2000 census. About 6.5% 

of the total potential labor force was unemployed and 

44.5% of the adult workforce was not searching for 

employment. 

The median per capita income was $22,323 and 

the median household income was $38,906. In Willow, 

22.1% of the population lived below the poverty 

level. 

Governance 

Willow is an unincorporated city and therefore 

it lacks its own local governing institution. In 1960, 

residents created the Willow Area Community 

Organization (WACO), located in the Mat-Su Borough. 

The closest offices of the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G), National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS), and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) are in Anchorage.

Facilities 

Willow is a community with many different 

transportation opportunities. Its location near the 

George Parks Highway gives its inhabitants access to 

the statewide highway system and the transportation 

facilities of Wasilla, Palmer, and Anchorage.

In addition, the area has two public airstrips available: one State-owned 4,400 foot gravel airstrip at

Mile 69.7 Parks Highway and another at Deshka

Landing, owned by the Department of Natural

Resources. Finally, there are five additional private 

strips, and a seaplane base at Kashwitna Lake. 

Most households in Willow use individual water 

wells and septic tanks and are fully plumbed. The 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Gustavus 
188

school operates its own water system. The community 

uses the Wasilla landfill for its waste. Power is provided 

by the Matanuska Electric Association.

The town has two schools with 180 students and 

16 teachers. Junior high and high school students are 

bused south to Houston for school. Health care is 

provided by the Willow ambulance service and the 

Valley Hospital in Palmer. Willow does not have a 

local police force.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Willow is an inland community at the 

gates of the Denali route, there is still a significant 

portion of the population with an intense involvement 

in commercial fishing. 

First, this section will provide a general 

characterization of the permits held by its inhabitants. 

According to official records in 2000, Willow had 

18 commercial permit holders, with 43 all-fisheries 

combined permits (31 permits fished). Seventeen 

individuals were registered as crewmen and there were 

six federal fisheries vessel owners, plus six owners of 

salmon vessels. Willow’s fleet was involved in most of 

the Alaskan fisheries: sablefish, halibut, herring, other 

groundfish, and Salmon. Below is a breakdown of the 

fleet by vessel, type of gear, location, and, if available, 

landings per fished species. 

Groundfish: The groundfish fishery issued 14 

permits (9 fished). The community had seven statewide 

permits to catch lingcod: two for mechanical jig (one 

fished), and five for longliners under 60 feet (four 

fished). It had six permits to catch miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish: one fished permit for longline vessels 

over 60 feet, and five permits for mechanical jig (three 

fished), all of them with statewide range. Finally, 

there was a non-fished permit to catch demersal shelf 

rockfish in the southeast with a longliner under 60 

feet. 

Salmon: The salmon fleet encompassed the larger 

part of Willow’s effort on commercial fisheries. It 

accounted for 15 permits (14 fished). The reports 

account for five permits for drift gillnet: one for Cook 

Inlet, one for Bristol Bay, and three for the Alaskan 

Peninsula. The remaining ten permits were for set 

gillnet gear: seven for Cook Inlet, one for Bristol Bay, 

and two for the Lower Yukon River. Only one of the 

permits for the Alaska Peninsula was not fished in the 

year 2000.

Herring: Herring included three permits (two 

fished): one permit to catch herring roe with gillnet 

in Bristol Bay, one for Secret Cove, and a non-fished 

permit for Norton Sound. 

Halibut: There were six issued permits for halibut 

fisheries (four fished): three permits for longline vessels 

over 60 feet (two fished), and three for longliners under 

60 feet (two fished). All of them had statewide range. 

Sablefish: There were only five permits in Willow 

for sablefish (two fished). They had statewide range 

and were for longline vessels under 60 feet.

There is no port in Willow, and therefore no registered landings. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 Willow issued 2,982 sport fishing licenses: 

1,405 of them were bought by Alaska residents. The 

area is visited by numerous outsiders that get their 

permits here or elsewhere. 

It is important to mention the dual nature of 

recreational fishing in urban settings. On the one 

hand, this sector works on the commercialization of an 

individual productive activity turning in it into a sport 

for visitors and locals. On the other hand, it involves 

the individual who uses a sport fishing license for 

catching fish for personal and household use. In this 

way, this second side of sport fishing plays the role 

that in rural settings is played by subsistence fishing.

In 2002 the village had five licenses for businesses 

related to sport fishing as a tourist activity: four were 

focused on freshwater fisheries and the third worked 

in saltwater fisheries.

Subsistence Fishing 

We have no systematic data on subsistence 

productive activities practiced by the residents of 

Willow. The community, although physically in a rural 

setting, is part of the Mat-Su Borough and is officially 

considered urban territory. As a consequence, 

inhabitants are not entitled to implement subsistence 

practices in federal land.

With all probability, though, Willow’s inhabitants 

are engaged at some level in subsistence harvesting. 

One piece of evidence of that continual connection 

of the community with subsistence economy is the 

existence of five salmon subsistence harvesting permits 

issued by the state. In 1999 they accounted for almost 
189

1,000 fish caught, approximately 700 of which were 

sockeye salmon. The social range covered by these 

permits is larger than it might seem. Although permits 

are issued to individuals, they represent household and 

family economies.

Although five permits is a very small number 

for a community of 1,600 inhabitants, it is worth 

mentioning that subsistence fishing, in urban settings, 

often is disguised as recreational fishing.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South East Alaska/Haines 
190

4.2.2 Kodiak Island 

Communities 

Akhiok

Alitak Bay

Karluk

Kodiak

Larsen Bay

Old Harbor

Ouzinkie

Port Lions

Geographic Location 

Kodiak Island is the second largest island in the 

United States encompassing approximately 3,500 

square miles and spanning 100 miles in length. It is 

located across the Shelikof Strait from the Katmai 

Coast on the Alaska Peninsula, and is on the western 

edge of the Gulf of Alaska. The family of islands that 

make up the Kodiak Island Borough include Kodiak 

Island, Afognak Island, Sitkalidak Island, the Trinity 

Islands, Raspberry Island, Shuyak Island, and Marmot 

Island, along with many additional small islands. The 

total area of the borough is 6,559.8 square miles of 

land and 5,463.8 square miles of water. It is located at 

approximately 57.78333 °North Lat. and 152.4 °West 

Long. Kodiak Island is about 252 air miles south of 

Anchorage (a 55 minute flight). 

Weather 

Kodiak is protected from the extreme temperatures 

experienced on the mainland because of the strong 

marine influence in the area, with the Japanese current 

warming the island. Temperatures in the area usually 

range from 32 °F at the lowest to 62 ° F at the highest. 

There is frequent cloud cover on Kodiak Island as 

well as fog, with moderate rain, and rarely freezing 

temperatures. Harsh storms during the months of 

December through February are common with winds 

sometimes reaching 90 miles-per-hour. The weather 

can fluctuate substantially during the day, from windy 

to calm to rainy in quick succession. Alternatively, rain 

can fall for up to 50 consecutive days (Rennick 2002, 

p.9). On the windward side of the island, the yearly 

precipitation is 60 inches; approximately 40 inches on 

the leeward side. Intense winds and rain often cause 

airport closures or delays. 

General Characterization 

The area of Kodiak Island is very fisheriesdependant, with one of the largest fishing ports in the 

United States situated in the city of Kodiak. All outer 

island communities are dependent on commercial, 

sport, or subsistence fishing, or a combination of the 

three. Current and past commercial fishing operations 

brought a wide variety of people to the area where 

remnants of Russian occupation are evident. In 2000, 

about 60% of the population of the Borough was 

White, 17.6% Alaska Native, and 16% Asian. Of the 

13,913 residents of the Kodiak Borough, as reported 

by the 2000 census, 46% lived in the city of Kodiak. 

About another 1,000 lived in the surrounding areas 

and 1,840 people lived on the U.S. Coast Guard Base, 

Kodiak Station. The rest of the population represents 

the unincorporated population of the island living in 

the bush, which, for the most part, is only accessible 

by boat or floatplane.

Institutional Framework 

Kodiak Island Borough was incorporated in 1963. 

It includes Kodiak Island, the surrounding islands, and 

part of the Alaska Peninsula. The communities included 

in the Borough are Akhiok, Aleneva, Chiniak, Karluk, 

Kodiak, Kodiak Station, Larsen Bay, Old Harbor, 

Ouzinkie, Port Lions, Uganik, and Womens Bay. 

Kodiak Island Borough School District is comprised 

of a total of 15 schools consisting of 2,742 students 

and 191 teachers. 

The Native regional corporation for the area is 

Koniag, Inc. whose 10-year plan focuses on more 

diversified investments in four areas: “operating 

companies with high potential for growth and return, 

sound real estate opportunities, a balanced securities 

portfolio and venture capital” in order to provide 

dividends to its shareholders (Koniag Inc. 2003). 

The corporation’s original share of the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) settlement was 

“$23 million, 800 acres of land and the ‘subsurface 

estate’ of lands allocated to the village corporations 

within the region” (Koniag Inc. 2003). The Koniag 

Education Foundation, part of Koniag, Inc., provides 

scholarships and grants to Koniag shareholders 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Sub-Regional Introduction 
191

and their descendants for college, graduate school, 

vocational training, or career development courses 

(Koniag Inc. 2003). 

The non-profit corporation for the area is the Kodiak 

Area Native Association (KANA) which provides a 

variety of services such as health services, education, 

employment and training, youth prevention, and tribal 

operations. According to their website, KANA serves 

about 3,500 Alaska Native/American Indians annually 

in their medical clinic. KANA received a grant from 

the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council and was 

able to open the Alutiiq Museum and Archaeological 

Repository in 1995, a “state-of-the-art repository 

and regional research facility” (Kodiak Area Native 

Association 2003). 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

Kodiak has a very diverse commercial fishing 

sector with both large and small vessels working with 

almost all species and gear types represented in the 

Alaskan fishing industries. There were quite a few 

processors on the island, 11 processors are located in 

the City of Kodiak which processed federal species 

in the year 2000 and a few additional processors are 

located in the city as well. One processor, Wards Cove 

Packing, located at Alitak Bay near Akhiok, recently 

shut down the operations of its salmon processing 

plants, along with other Wards Cove facilities across 

the state. The plant was recently purchased by Ocean 

Beauty Seafoods and is still in operation in Alitak 

Bay (James 2003). The employees of the processors 

on Kodiak Island are for the most part residents of 

the communities on the island, with the exception 

of the former Wards Cove Packing facility. Many of 

the facilities are in operation year round and this may 

explain the high amount of resident workers. 

Sport fishing is a big attraction for visitors to 

Kodiak Island, also known as the ‘Emerald Isle.’

Many sport fishing activities are available in the city 

of Kodiak, and a variety of sport fishing services are 

available in other communities around the island. The 

main species of interest to sport fishers on Kodiak 

Island are salmon and halibut, but trout and Dolly 

Varden are fished as well. 

Subsistence fishing is very important to residents 

of Kodiak Island. The use of all subsistence resources 

ranges from 96.2% of all households in Larsen Bay at 

the lowest and 100% for Akhiok, Karluk, Old Harbor, 

Ouzinkie, and Port Lions at the highest. The per capita 

use of subsistence resources for the most representative 

year in the city of Kodiak was about 151.05 lbs per 

year; the communities of Akhiok, Karluk, Ouzinkie, 

Old Harbor, Port Lions, and Larsen Bay ranged from 

263.95 lbs per capita to 370.48 lbs. The subsistence 

harvesting of salmon plays a major role, making up 

a large percentage of the per capita harvest for each 

community. 

Regional Challenges 

The regional challenges for the Kodiak Island 

area have included problems brought on by the 

salmon market and low salmon prices. Recently the 

island communities of Akhiok, Kodiak, Old Harbor, 

Ouzinkie, Port Lions, and the Kodiak Island Borough 

were each allotted federal salmon disaster funds for 

a total of $688,867.73. The bulk of the money was 

awarded to the City of Kodiak and the Borough. 

Steller sea lion regulations have also impacted 

the area as witnessed by the recent amounts allotted 

to both the City of Kodiak and the Borough by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Federal Steller Sea Lion Mitigation program. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Sub-Regional Introduction 
����

����

����

���

����

192

Akhiok (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Akhiok is situated on Alitak 

Bay on the southern end of Kodiak Island. It is in the 

Kodiak Recording District and part of the Kodiak 

Island Borough. The area of Akhiok includes 7.9 

square miles of land and 2.5 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Akhiok had a total of 80 inhabitants according to 

the 2000U.S. Census. Of those, 55% were male and 45% 

were female. The population, when one was recorded, 

has remained relatively stable from 1880 to 2000. No 

population was recorded for 1890, 1900, 1930, and 

1940. Since 1970 the population has decreased from 

the 115 persons recorded in 1970 to the 80 recorded 

in 2000. According to the Alaska Department of 

Community and Economic Development the certified 

population of Akhiok in 2002 was 48. In 2000, about 

2.5% of the population identified as White, 86.3% 

American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.8% Filipino, 

and 7.5% two or more races. Approximately 93.8% of 

the population consisted of all or part Alaska Natives. 

About 1.3% of residents were Hispanic. The median 

age for the community was 24 years of age, which is 

significantly low compared to the national median of 

35.3 years. In 2000 there were a total of 34 housing 

units in Akhiok; nine were vacant, two were vacant 

due to seasonal use. No one in the community lived 

in group quarters. Of the population age 25 years and 

over, about 73.7% had graduated from high school 

and gone on to further schooling. About 7.9% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher by 2000. 

History 

The history of Akhiok is intimately tied to the 

history of the city of Kodiak described in detail in the 

Kodiak profile. The village was originally located at 

Humpy Cove and was known as Kashukugniut, which 

was occupied in the early 19th century by Russians 

and was initially a sea otter hunting settlement. In 1880 

the community was reported with the name Akhiok 

by the U.S. Census. The community was relocated 

in 1881 to its current site at Alitak Bay. Around 

1900 a Russian Orthodox Church, Protection of the 

Theotokos Chapel, was built. In 1933 a post office was 

established in Akhiok. After the 1964 Good Friday 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Akhiok Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� � � � ��

���������������������� ���������������������

������

2000 Racial Structure 

Akhiok 

����������������������

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

�����

������

������������������������ �����

������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Akhiok Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Akhiok 
����

193

��������������������������

������

����������������������

Earthquake and subsequent tsunami, residents of the 

nearby community of Kaguyak relocated to Akhiok. 

In 1972 the city became incorporated. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Akhiok depends on public sector 

employment, seasonal work, commercial fishing, and 

subsistence harvesting. The cash flow is provided by 

both public sector employment (60% of residents of 

Akhiok who were employed in 2000 were classified as 

government workers) and by seasonal work. A total of 

six commercial fishing permits were issued to residents 

of Akhiok and Alitak, and 12 residents of Akhiok were 

licensed crew members. Nearly all the residents of 

the community are dependent on subsistence hunting 

and fishing. Each Akhiok shareholder has received 

$200,000 since January 2003 from the sale of a $36 

million dollar trust fund provided by the Exxon Valdez 

Oil Spill settlement. The community is currently 

interested in the development of a fish smokery and 

a cold storage facility. Of those in the community age 

16 and over, 52.6% were employed, 8.8% were not 

employed, and 38.6% were not in the labor force (i.e. 

not seeking employment) in 2000. The median per 

capita income was $8,472 and the median household 

income was $33,438. About 9.9% of the population 

lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Akhiok is a second-class city incorporated in 

1974. It has a manager form of government including 

a mayor, seven-person city council, four-person 

advisory school board, and two municipal employees 

(a health aide and a Village Public Safety Officer 

(VPSO)). Akhiok is included in the Kodiak Island 

Borough. The city implements no taxes; however, the 

Borough implements a 9.25 mills (0.925%) property 

tax, 5% accommodations tax, and a 0.925% severance 

tax. The Native regional corporation in which Akhiok 

is included is Koniag Inc., and the non-profit is 

Kodiak Area Native Association. The Native village 

corporation is named Akhiok-Kaguyak, Inc. is the 

merged corporations of the communities of Akhiok 

and Kaguyak. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

Recognized Traditional Council for the village is the 

Native Village of Akhiok. The closest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS), Alaska Department of Fish 

2000 Employment Structure 

Akhiok Data source: US Census 

����������

�����������

�����

��������

�����

& Game (ADF&G), and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) offices are all located 

within the City of Kodiak. 

Facilities 

Akhiok is accessible by both air and water. The 

3,320 foot gravel runway is owned by the state. There 

is a seaplane base, owned by Columbia Ward Fisheries, 

located at Moser Bay. Regular flights are available for 

around $263 from Anchorage to Kodiak, according to 

Expedia and Travelocity websites (price given for date 

as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). Then there 

is the additional cost to fly into Akhiok from Kodiak by 

charter plane. Regular and charter flights are available 

from the City of Kodiak. The current dock structure in 

the community is temporary. A breakwater and boat 

launch is available, while barge services are sporadic. 

Accommodations in Akhiok are available at the 

Community Building. Police services are provided by 

a State VPSO. Health care is available from the Akhiok 

Health Clinic, which is owned by the city and operated 

by both the City and KANA. Alternate health care is 

available by the Akhiok Village Response Team. There 

is one K-12 school that had a total of 16 students and 

two teachers in 2000. The electric utility is the City of 

Akhiok operated with diesel power. The City is also 

the water system operator, the sewer system operator, 

refuse collector, and landfill operator. All the homes 

in the community are serviced by piped water and 

sewer systems; however, residents are boiling their 

drinking water as a new water source is needed. The 

water presently comes from a dam and reservoir on a 

stream. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Akhiok 
194

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

There were a total of 6 commercial fishing 

permits issued to residents of Akhiok and Alitak in 

2000, and 12 residents of Akhiok were licensed crew 

members. There were no vessel owners residing in 

Akhiok in 2000. One commercial fishing permit was 

issued to a resident for other groundfish, specifically 

for miscellaneous salt water finfish using a mechanical 

jig statewide (not fished). Five permits were issued for 

the commercial fishing of salmon, specifically using 

set gillnets around Kodiak (six fished). There were no 

landings in Akhiok because no processor was present 

in the community; however, a processor was present at 

nearby Alitak Bay. 

The City of Akhiok was recently allotted $531 in 

federal salmon disaster funds and the Kodiak Island 

Borough was allotted $362,963, which will most likely 

be applied to projects within the borough. The salmon 

disaster funds have been awarded because of the recent 

drop in salmon prices because of competition with 

foreign farmed salmon. The Kodiak Island Borough 

was also recently granted $69,687 by the Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the Steller 

Sea Lion Mitigation program “in recognition of the 

negative economic impacts of federal measures to 

protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003). 

Sport Fishing 

There is no evidence of sport fishing in Akhiok, 

although Kodiak is famous for its sport fishing, so it 

is possible that visitors do travel to the Akhiok area. 

There were no sport fishing businesses reported by the 

ADF&G in 2002, and no sport fishing licenses were 

sold in 2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence 

100% of all households in Akhiok used some type 

of subsistence resource. Salmon was by 100% of 

households, 87.5% used non-salmon fish (herring, 

herring roe, smelt, cod, eel, flounder, greenling, halibut, 

perch, rockfish, sablefish, sculpin, shark, skates, sole, 

wolf fish, char, grayling, and trout), 70.8% used marine 

mammals, and 100% of all households used marine 

invertebrates. The per capita harvest of all subsistence 

resources was 321.69 lbs in the community in 1992. The 

breakdown of that harvest was 62.02% salmon, 7.57% 

non-salmon fish, 6.03% marine mammals, 13.10% 

marine invertebrates, 1.08% birds and eggs, 8.74% 

land mammals, and 1.46% vegetation. According to 

the ADF&G, five household permits were issued for 

subsistence salmon to residents of Akhiok in 1999 for 

an estimated harvest of 300 total salmon, the majority 

of which was sockeye salmon. Residents of Akhiok 

do have the right to apply for halibut subsistence 

certificates. 

* Commercial fishing permit data from the CFEC is given for 

the communities of Akhiok and Alitak 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Akhiok 
195

Alitak Bay (return to communities) 

A full profile was not completed for Alitak Bay 

because sufficient information could not be obtained. 

Alitak Bay was selected for profiling because it was 

the site of a processor that had fish landings in 2000 

(see selection criteria in methods section). However, 

since it is not treated as a community by the U.S. 

Census, the Alaska Department of Community and 

Economic Development, nor other data sources, it was 

not possible to gather the same sorts of information on 

Alitak Bay that is contained in the other profiles. 

Evidence of ancient occupation is contained in 

petroglyphs at the entrance to the bay. The area is the 

site of a mixed gear, mixed stock salmon run managed 

by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. The 

processor in Alitak Bay is currently owned by Ocean 

Beauty Seafoods, which processes herring roe, halibut, 

Pacific cod, and shortspine thornyhead or “idiot” fish, 

as well as sockeye, pink, coho, and chum salmon. A 

cannery has been operating in the area called Lazy 

Bay since at least the 1950s. There are no roads or 

runways in Alitak Bay, but there is a seaplane base 

and access by boat. The nearest community is Akhiok. 

The nearest community hub is Kodiak.

Fisheries information for Alitak Bay is included in 

the Akhiok profile. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Alitak Bay 
����

���

196

Karluk (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Karluk is situated on the 

Karluk River on the west side of Kodiak Island. The 

community is 88 air miles southwest of Kodiak and 

301 miles southwest of Anchorage. It is in the Kodiak 

Recording District and the Kodiak Island Borough. 

Karluk includes 57.7 square miles of land and 2.3 

square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census there were 27 

residents of Karluk. The population has fluctuated 

extremely since 1890 when there were a reported 1,123 

inhabitants. Since approximately 1930 the population 

has steadily decreased. Males made up 55.6% of the 

population in 2000, and females made up 44.4%. 

About 96.3% of the residents were American Indian 

or Alaska Native and 3.7% (one resident) was Asian. 

No one in the community was Hispanic. The median 

age in Karluk in 2000 was 30.3 years. There were a 

total of 24 housing units in the community; however, 

15 were vacant, 6 due to seasonal use. No one in the 

community lived in group quarters. Of the population 

age 25 years and over, 77.8% had graduated from high 

school and gone on to higher schooling. About 27.8% 

had attended some college, but had not obtained a 

degree. 

History 

The history of Karluk is intimately tied to the 

history of the City of Kodiak described in detail in the 

Kodiak profile. For more than 7,000 years it is believed 

that the area around the mouth of the Karluk River 

has been occupied by Alutiiq native peoples. There are 

36 registered archaeological sites existent in the area. 

In 1786, Russian hunters established a trading post; 

however, at that time the settlement was situated in the 

area of Karluk Lagoon, on both sides of the Karluk 

River. 

Numerous canneries, salteries, and tanneries were 

established in the area from 1790 to 1850, and by 1800 

Karluk had a reputation for having the greatest salmon 

stream in the world as well as the largest cannery. 

In 1892 the post office was established. The Alaska 

Packers Association constructed canneries in the area 

in the early 1900s, but because of over-fishing the 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Karluk Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

� � � � � �

���������������������

����������������������

������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Karluk Data source: US Census 

�����

����

������

������

�������������������������� �����

������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure

Karluk Data source: US Census 

�����������

����� ��������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Karluk 
197

canneries were forced to close in the late 1930s. 

The village council decided to relocate the 

community in January of 1978 to its present site after 

a severe storm including “gale-force winds and high 

seas” (North Pacific Fishery Management Council 

1994). The new site was situated upstream from the 

old site, on the south side of the lagoon. The U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development 

(HUD) constructed 23 houses at the new site. 

In recent years, due to low enrollment, the school 

in Karluk was closed, including the 1999/2000 and 

2002/2003 school years. There are a few high school 

students who attend Mount Edgecumbe School in 

Sitka. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Karluk is based on fish 

processing. Kodiak Salmon Packers, Inc. is coowned by the Karluk, Larsen Bay, and Old Harbor 

village corporations. Residents of the community 

use subsistence resources. Of the population aged 

16 years and over, 52.4% were employed and 47.6% 

were not in the labor force in 2000. Of those who were 

employed about 81.8% were classified as government 

workers. The high percentage of the population not in 

the labor force could possibly reflect those involved 

in seasonal fish processing who were not in the labor 

force at the time of the Census. The median per capita 

income in Karluk was $13,736 in 2000, whereas the 

median household income was $19,167. No one in the 

population was below the poverty level at the time of 

the 2000 census. 

Governance 

Karluk is unincorporated and therefore no city or 

borough officials are present in the community. Karluk 

is included in the Kodiak Island Borough. The Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) Recognized IRA Council/Village 

Council for the village is the Native Village of Karluk, 

which operates many of the services usually run by the 

city, such as the wash system, sewer system, and health 

clinic. The regional Native corporation for the area is 

Koniag, Inc., and the non-profit is the Kodiak Area 

Native Association (KANA). Karluk does not have an 

individual village corporation. Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA) land was appropriated to 

Koniag, Inc. The closest National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS), Alaska Department of Fish & Game 

(ADF&G), and Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) offices are all located within the city 

of Kodiak. 

Facilities 

Karluk is reachable by both the air and water. A 

2,000 foot State-owned gravel airstrip is located in the 

community and a seaplane base is located at Karluk 

Lake. There are regular and charter flights which travel 

to the community from the City of Kodiak. Regular 

flights are available for around $263 from Anchorage 

to Kodiak, according to Expedia and Travelocity 

websites (price given for date as close to September 

1, 2003 as possible). Then there is the additional 

cost to fly into Karluk from Kodiak by charter plane. 

Twice a month there is barge service from Kodiak 

and the goods are lightered by skiff to shore. There is 

currently no dock; however, funds have been requested 

for the construction of a dock. Accommodations for 

visitors are available in the Karluk Lodge. The local 

school has not been open in recent years because of 

low enrollment. Karluk is part of the Kodiak Island 

Borough School District and students possibly attend 

another nearby school. Some high school students 

attend Mount Edgecumbe School in Sitka. Health 

care is available at the Karluk Health Clinic, which is 

owned and operated by the Village Council. In 1994 

the clinic was renovated, but recently funds have been 

given to construct a new clinic. There are no police 

services in Karluk. The electric utility for the area is 

the Alutiiq Power Company, which is operated by the 

Village Council with diesel as the main power source. 

Refuse collection is up to the individuals and the 

landfill is operated by the Village Council; however, 

the landfill is on a temporary unpermitted site. All the 

houses which are occupied in Karluk are equipped 

with full plumbing. The Village Council operates the 

water system and sewer system as well. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

No residents of Karluk held commercial fishing 

permits in 2000, but six residents were licensed crew 

members (22.22% of the population). There were no 

vessel owner residents of Karluk that were involved in 

either the federal fisheries or in the salmon fishery in 

2000. No vessels delivered landings to the community 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Karluk 
198

because there was no processor located in Karluk. 

The Kodiak Island Borough was recently allotted 

$362,963 in federal salmon disaster funds which will 

most likely be applied to projects within the borough. 

The salmon disaster funds have been awarded because 

of the recent drop in salmon prices attributed to 

competition with foreign farmed salmon. The Kodiak 

Island Borough was also recently granted $69,687 

by the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as 

part of the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation program “in 

recognition of the negative economic impacts of 

federal measures to protect the Steller sea lion” with 

money which had been allocated by the United States 

government (Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference 

2003). 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing seems to be quite prevalent in 

Karluk for a community which has a comparatively 

small population. In 2000 there was a total of 87 

sport fishing licenses sold in Karluk and of those 79 

were sold to non-residents of Alaka. According to the 

ADF&G there were a few sport fishing businesses 

present in the community in 2002; one was listed as 

a saltwater guide business, four listed as freshwater 

guide businesses, one listed as a saltwater fishing 

charter service, and two lodge/resort listings. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G Division of Subsistence 

in Karluk in 1991, 100% of all households used 

some type of subsistence resources. All households 

used salmon (100%), 100% used non-salmon fish 

(herring, cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, 

sablefish, sculpin, skates, sole, char, and trout), 38.5% 

used marine mammals, and 84.6% of all households 

used marine invertebrates. The per capita harvest 

of all subsistence resources was 268.71 lbs in the 

community in 1993.The breakdown of that harvest 

was 71.53% salmon, 11.17% non-salmon fish, 0.35% 

marine mammals, 1.61% marine invertebrates, 0.42% 

birds and eggs, 11.09% land mammals, and 3.82% 

vegetation. In addition, one household permit was 

issued for subsistence salmon to a resident of Karluk 

in 1999 for an estimated harvest of 77 total salmon, 

of which the majority was sockeye. Residents of 

Karluk have the right to apply for halibut subsistence 

certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Karluk 
199

Kodiak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Kodiak Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

The city of Kodiak is located close to the eastern 50 to 59

tip of Kodiak Island. Kodiak Island is located in the 40 to 49 

Gulf of Alaska and is the largest island in Alaska. 

Residents refer to Kodiak as ‘the Emerald Isle’. The 

community is 252 air miles south of Anchorage and 

is located in the Kodiak Recording District. It is made 

up of 3.5 square miles of land and 1.4 square miles of 

water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were 6,334 inhabitants of Kodiak as recorded 

by the 2000 U.S. Census, and of those 53.3% were 

male and 46.7% were female. A population was first 

recorded by the Census for Kodiak in1890, reporting 

495 inhabitants at that time. Until 1930 the population 

remained relatively stable, doubling in 1940 to 864 

inhabitants, then continuing to grow substantially. 

In 2000 it decreased slightly from the 6,365 people 

reported in 1990 to 6,334. There is a large seasonal 

population in the community which was most likely 

not recorded by the Census. Of the total population 

reported in 2000, individuals identified as 46.4% 

White, 0.7% Black, 10.5% American Indian and 

Alaska Native, 31.7% Asian (29.2% of those reported 

as Asian were Filipino), 0.9% Native Hawaiian and 

Other Pacific Islander, 4.4% other, and 5.4% two 

or more races. A total of 13.1% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. About 8.5% of the population was 

Hispanic. The median age of Kodiak was 33.5 years 

versus the national median of 35.3 years. About 70.9% 

of the population of Kodiak was 18 years of age or 

older. There were a total of 2,255 housing units in the 

city in 2000 - 259 were vacant and 32 of those were 

vacant due to seasonal use. Out of the total population 

of 6,334, there were 6,188 people living in households 

and 146 people living in group quarters. Of the 

population 25 years of age and over in Kodiak, 78.6% 

had graduated from high school and gone on to further 

schooling, 17.2% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or 

higher, and 5.4% had a graduate or professional degree 

at the time of the 2000 U.S. Census. 

Age 

800 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 

Number of individuals 

30 to 39 

Male 

Female 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

2000 Racial Structure 

Kodiak 

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

Kodiak Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

Other races 

4.4% 5.4% 

White 

46.4% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Kodiak 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Kodiak Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 8.5% 

Asian 

31.7% 

Pacific Islander 

0.9% 

Native 

10.5% 

Black 

0.7% 

Non-Hispanic,

91.5% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Kodiak 
200

History 

Kodiak Island has been populated for 

approximately 8,000 years. According to some 

archaeologists “the ancestors of the present-day 

Native Alaskan residents of the Alutiiq culture area 

have continuously inhabited the area for at least 7,000 

years” (Mason 1995). Alutiiq is the more recent term 

used for the culture and the language of the “group 

of Alaska Native people indigenous to the Kodiak 

Island Archipelago, the southern coast of the Alaska 

Peninsula, Prince William Sound, and the lower tip of 

the Kenai Peninsula” (Mason 1995). By about A.D. 

1200 the island may have had a population of about 

14,000 Alutiiq inhabitants which is similar to the total 

number of inhabitants today on Kodiak (Rennick 

2002, p. 24). 

At the time of Russian contact, those living on 

Kodiak Island were the Koniags (the Alutiiq of Kodiak 

Island and the Alaska Peninsula) of which there were 

10,000 or more (Korsmo 1994). The first contact was 

in 1763 by Stephen Glotov. A Russian settlement was 

established at Three Saints Bay by Gregorii Shelikof 

in 1784 where the Native population was forced to 

hunt sea otter. Prior to this hundreds of Alutiiq Natives 

were killed attempting to hide from Shelikof’s party, 

but the Alutiiqs were dominated by the Russians 

using muskets and cannons (Mason 1995). Shelikof 

was recalled back to Russia and in 1792 Alexander 

Baranov, a fur trapper, established a trading post at St. 

Paul Harbor, which is the site of the city of Kodiak 

today. Kodiak became the capital of the Russian 

colony and at that time was called “Kikhtak” and later 

“Kadiak,” the Inuit word for island. Russian Orthodox 

clergymen arrived as missionaries around 1794. There 

were more than 6,500 Koniags in the area at that time, 

but by the end of Russian control of the island in 1867 

the population had decreased to around 2,000 because 

of “hardship, accidents, and starvation, along with 

diseases introduced by the Russians” (Mason 1995). 

Alaska became a U.S. Territory in 1867. Sea otter 

harvesting was still the major commercial enterprise 

of the area, although this quickly led to the near 

extinction of the animals. In 1882 a fish cannery 

opened at the Karluk spit which began the development 

of commercial fishing in the Kodiak area. Many 

canneries opened by the 1890’s, mainly for harvested 

salmon. Kodiak was incorporated in 1940. During 

WWII, Kodiak was a key operations area throughout 

the Aleutian Campaign. Both the Navy and Army built 

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters KodiakKodiak Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

94.5 

5.5 

97.7 

2.3 

1990 2000 

Year 

Non-group quarters 

Group quarters 

2000 Employment Structure

Kodiak 

Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure 

Kodiak 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

2.4% 

Not Seeking,

26.1%

Unemployed,

3.6% 

Employed, 68% 

bases on the island, causing the population of Kodiak 

to sky-rocket to more than 25,000 during the war. 

After the war, the Navy base became a Coast Guard 

base and is now is the largest such base in the world. 

The 1960’s brought growth to Kodiak in terms of 

fish processing and commercial fishing, but in 1964 

on Good Friday a 9.2 magnitude earthquake hit the 

islands and caused a chain of tsunamis. One of the 

waves reached 35 feet above mean low tide damaging 

Kodiak’s central business district and waterfront, 

destroying the villages of Kaguyak, Old Harbor (other 

than the church), and Afognak (so severely damaged 

that residents were permanently relocated to the new 

community of Port Lions). In Kodiak, $30 million in 

damage was caused by the tsunami: 158 homes were 

destroyed, and the fishing fleet, processing plant, and 

canneries were all destroyed. By 1968 the city had 

been rebuilt to become the largest fishing port in terms 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Kodiak 
201

of dollar value in the U.S. With the passing of the 

Magnuson Act in 1976, foreign fleet competition was 

reduced and the city was able to develop a groundfish 

processing industry. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Kodiak’s economy is based on fishing, seafood 

processing, retail, and government employment. A 

total of 1,569 commercial fishing permits were issued 

to residents of Kodiak in the year 2000 and many fish 

processors operate in Kodiak including but not limited 

to: Cook Inlet Processors, North Pacific, Ocean Beauty, 

Trident, and International Seafoods. A total of 1,263 

residents of Kodiak were licensed crew members in 

2000. In addition to fishing and processing, the City 

and the hospital are also top employers of those in 

the community. A $38 million low-Earth orbit launch 

facility, the Kodiak Launch Complex, is located near 

Chiniak and the largest U.S. Coast Guard station is 

located south of the city. Subsistence is also important 

to residents of the community. 

Of the population age 16 and over in Kodiak in 

2000; 68.0% were employed, 3.6% were unemployed, 

2.4% were in the armed forces, and 26.1% were not 

in the labor force. The median household income in 

the year 2000 was $60,484 with the per capita income 

having been $21,522. About 7.4% of those in Kodiak 

were below the poverty level in 2000. 

Governance 

Kodiak is a Home Rule city which was incorporated 

in 1940 and has a Manager form of government that 

includes a mayor, a six person city council, and a 

variety of municipal employees. There is a 6% sales 

tax for a maximum of $30 per transaction, a property 

tax of 2 mills (0.2%) by the City and 9.25 mills 

(0.925%) by the Borough, and a 5% accommodations 

tax imposed by the City and the Borough. Kodiak is 

part of the Kodiak Island Borough. The regional Native 

corporation for the area is Koniag, Inc., and the nonprofit half of Koniag, Inc. is the Kodiak Area Native 

Association (KANA). The Native urban corporation 

for the area is called the Natives of Kodiak, Inc. and 

is one of four Native urban corporations established in 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

The Native village corporations in Kodiak are Shuyak, 

Inc., Bells Flats Natives, Inc., and Litnik, Inc. The 

Shoonaq’ Tribe of Kodiak is the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) recognized traditional council for the 

village which was federally recognized in 2001. The 

closest National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 

Alaska Department of Fish & Game (ADF&G), and 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) offices are all located within the city of Kodiak. 

The new NOAA research vessel, the Oscar Dyson, is 

to be home-ported in Kodiak. 

Facilities 

Kodiak City is reachable by both air and sea and 

also by 140 miles of state paved and unpaved roads 

from the other cities on the east side of the island. 

The Kodiak Airport has a 7,500 foot paved runway 

which is owned by the State. The Municipal Airport 

has a 2,475 foot paved runway as well. According to 

Travelocity and Expedia the approximate cost to fly 

to Anchorage roundtrip from Kodiak is $263 (price 

given for date as close to September 1st 2003 as 

possible). There are three airlines serving Kodiak with 

several daily flights, and there are quite a few air taxi 

services which fly to other communities on the island. 

There are also seaplane bases at Trident Basin and 

Lilly Lake which are both city-owned. Ferry service 

is operated by the Alaska Marine Highway System 

both to and from Seward and Homer (12 hour travel 

time). There are two boat harbors in Kodiak with 600 

boat slips and three commercial piers, but boat launch 

ramps and vessel haulouts are available as well. A $20 

million breakwater on Near Island which was recently 

completed provides another 60 acres of mooring 

space. The float system at St. Paul Harbor has had 

funds provided to replace the aging system.

Accommodations in Kodiak are available at the 

R&R Lodge, Russian Heritage Inn, The Shelikof 

Lodge, The Kodiak Inn, Wintel’s B&B, Inlet Guest 

Rooms, Kodiak Buskin River Inn, VFW RV Park, and 

the Afognak Wilderness Lodge. Health care is available 

at Providence Kodiak Island Medical Center, Alutiiq 

Health Clinic, and the Coast Guard Integrated Support 

Center/Rockmore-King Medical Clinic. There is a City 

Police Department as well as a State Troopers Post in 

Kodiak. The electric utility in the community is the 

Kodiak Electric Association operated by REA Co-op 

with the main power source being hydroelectric. The 

City operates the water and sewer systems, although 

the Borough collects refuse and operates the landfill. 

There were six schools in Kodiak in 2000 with a total 

of 2,252 students and 137 teachers. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Kodiak 
202

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Kodiak is the state’s largest fishing port where many 

diverse species of fish are harvested and delivered by 

almost every possible gear group. There were 1,569 

commercial fishing permits issued to residents of 

Kodiak in 2000, and a reported 1,263 licensed crew 

members residing in the community. There were 256 

vessel owners who were residents of the city of Kodiak 

participating in the federal commercial fisheries. An 

estimated 187 participated in the commercial salmon 

fishery. Of the total 1,569 permits issued, 948 were 

fished in 2000. There were 119 crab permits issued to 

residents, 285 for halibut, 152 for herring, 540 for other 

groundfish, 67 for other shellfish, 58 for sablefish, and 

348 were issued for salmon. 

Crab: There were 119 crab permits issued to 

residents of Kodiak (82 fished): 23 were issued for 

Dungeness crab using pot gear on a vessel under 60 

feet westward (6 fished), one for Dungeness crab 

using pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet on the Alaska 

Peninsula (none fished), one for Dungeness crab using 

pot gear on a vessel over 60 feet in Cook Inlet (none 

fished), 8 for Dungeness crab using pot gear on a 

vessel over 60 feet westward (5 fished), 2 for king crab 

using pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet in Bristol Bay 

(one fished), 2 for king crab using pot gear on a vessel 

over 60 feet by Kodiak (one fished), 5 for king crab 

using pot gear on a vessel over 60 feet in the Bering 

Sea (none fished), 38 for king crab using pot gear on 

a vessel over 60 feet in Bristol Bay (33 fished), 38 for 

Tanner crab using pot gear on a vessel over 60 feet in 

the Bering Sea (35 fished), and one permit was issued 

for Tanner crab using pot gear on a vessel over 60 feet 

for the Bering Sea Community Development Quota 

(CDQ) (one fished). 

Halibut: Of the 285 halibut permits issued, 236 

were fished. One hundred and sixty-two permits were 

issued for halibut using a longline vessel under 60 

feet statewide (138 fished), 25 using a mechanical jig 

statewide (15 fished), and 98 using a longline vessel 

over 60 feet statewide (83 fished).

Herring: Of the 152 herring permits issued in 

2000, only 37 were fished. For herring roe: one permit 

was issued using a purse seine in the southeast (one 

fished), 11 using a purse seine in Prince William 

Sound (none fished), 9 using a purse seine in Cook 

Inlet (none fished), 34 using a purse seine in Kodiak (9 

fished), 2 using a purse seine in the Alaska Peninsula 

(none fished), 22 using a purse seine in Bristol Bay (17 

fished), one using a gillnet and purse seine in Kodiak 

(none fished), 48 using a gillnet in Kodiak (6 fished), 

one using a gillnet on the Alaska Peninsula (none 

fished), 2 using a gillnet in Security Cove (one fished), 

5 using a gillnet in Bristol Bay (one fished), and one 

for herring roe using a gillnet in Norton Sound (none 

fished). In regards to herring food or bait; two permits 

were issued for herring food/bait using a purse seine 

in the southeast (none fished), one using a purse seine 

in Prince William Sound (none fished), five using a 

purse seine in Kodiak (none fished), five using a purse 

seine on the Alaska Peninsula (two fished), and two 

using an otter trawl in Kodiak (none fished). 

Groundfish: Out of the 540 other groundfish 

permits issued to residents of Kodiak in 2000, 280 were 

fished. One was issued for lingcod using a dinglebar 

troll statewide (none fished), 12 for lingcod using a 

mechanical jig statewide (one fished), and two for 

lingcod using pot gear on a vessel over 60 feet statewide 

(none fished). For miscellaneous saltwater finfish, one 

permit was issued using a purse seine statewide (none 

fished), 34 using a hand troll statewide (9 fished), 72 

using longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (43 

fished), 40 using an otter trawl statewide (33 fished), 78 

using pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (48 

fished), 207 for a mechanical jig statewide (84 fished), 

21 for longline on a vessel over 60 feet statewide (7 

fished), and 70 using pot gear on a vessel 60 feet or 

over statewide (55 fished). For demersal shelf rockfish, 

one permit was issued for longline on a vessel under 

60 feet in the southeast (none fished) and one using 

mechanical jig in the southeast (none fished). 

Other Shellfish: Of the 67 other shellfish permits 

issued, 26 were fished. No permits were issued for 

geoduck clams using diving gear in the southeast, but 

one permit was fished by a resident of the community. 

For octopi or squid three permits were issued using 

longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (none 

fished), 21 using pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet 

statewide (10 fished), and 10 using pot gear on a 

vessel over 60 feet statewide (3 fished). For shrimp, 

one permit was issued using an otter trawl westward 

(none fished), 9 using pot gear on a vessel under 60 

feet westward (none fished), one using pot gear in 

* Commercial fishing permit data from the CFEC is given for 

the communities of Chiniak and Kodiak 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Kodiak 
203

the southeast (none fished), and 4 using pot gear on a 

vessel over 60 feet westward (one fished). Two permits 

were issued for sea cucumbers using diving gear in 

the southeast (one fished) and 10 were issued for sea 

cucumbers using diving gear statewide excluding the 

southeast (7 fished). One permit was issued for clams 

using a shovel to a resident of Kodiak, but was not 

fished. In regards to sea urchins, no permits were 

issued using diving gear in the southeast but one was 

fished, and four were issued using diving gear statewide 

excluding the southeast (two fished). One permit was 

issued for scallops dredging statewide (one fished). 

Sablefish: Of the 58 total sablefish permits issued, 

40 were fished. A total of 33 permits were for longline 

on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (21 fished), one 

was using a mechanical jig statewide (none fished), 23 

were using longline on a vessel over 60 feet statewide 

(19 fished), and one was issued using pot gear on a 

vessel over 60 feet statewide (none fished). 

Salmon: Out of the 348 salmon permits issued 

to residents of Kodiak, 247 were fished. Four permits 

were issued for salmon using a purse seine in the 

southeast (3 fished), one using a purse seine in Prince 

William Sound (none fished), 174 using a purse seine 

in Kodiak (105 fished), 9 using a purse seine in Chignik 

(11 fished), one using a purse seine in the Alaska 

Peninsula/Aleutian Islands (none fished), 16 using a 

beach seine in Kodiak (2 fished), 4 using a drift gillnet 

in Prince William Sound (4 fished), 7 using a drift 

gillnet in Cook Inlet (6 fished), 4 using a drift gillnet 

on the Alaska Peninsula (4 fished), 29 using a drift 

gillnet in Bristol Bay (25 fished), 87 using a set gillnet 

in Kodiak (76 fished), 9 using a set gillnet in Bristol 

Bay (10 fished), 3 using a hand troll statewide (none 

fished), and no permits were issued using a set gillnet 

in the Kuskokwim, but one was fished by a resident of 

the community. 

With regard to landings, 455 vessels participated 

in other groundfish fisheries and delivered landings to 

Kodiak totaling 102,318.27 tons in groundfish landings 

in 2000. There were 108 vessels which delivered 

1,542.49 tons of sablefish. A total of 298 vessels 

delivered 4,352.30 tons of halibut, 32 vessels delivered 

1,041.98 tons of Bering Sea Aleutian Islands (BSAI) 

crab, 331 vessels delivered 23,759.03 tons of salmon, 

and 26 vessels delivered 951.34 tons of herring. In 

accordance with confidentiality regulations, landings 

data for scallops in Kodiak are unavailable because 

there were only two vessels that delivered scallops to 

the community. The total amount landed in federal 

species in Kodiak in 2000 was 109,255.03 tons. 

Kodiak is a major processing center where all 

species including BSAI crab, groundfish, halibut, 

herring, sablefish, salmon, and scallops are processed. 

There are quite a few processors in the community 

including 11 that processed federal species in 2000. 

Some of the processors in Kodiak include Alaska 

Fresh Processors Inc., Global Seafoods Kodiak LLC, 

Island Seafoods Inc., Kodiak Salmon Packers Inc., Tt 

Acquisition Inc., and Western Alaska Fisheries Inc., 

with the largest processors in Kodiak being Cook Inlet 

Processors, International Seafoods, Ocean Beauty, 

North Pacific, and Trident. Production runs year-round 

at many of the facilities and the workforce population 

most likely runs in the thousands with a large amount 

of the work force being residents of the communities 

of the island. There is a large subculture of Filipino 

employees in Kodiak because of their work in the 

canneries. 

The City of Kodiak was recently allotted $321,521 

in federal salmon disaster funds and the Kodiak Island 

Borough was allotted $362,963.14, which will most 

likely be applied to projects within the borough. The 

City of Kodiak was also recently granted $31,221 by 

the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of 

the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003). The Borough was 

granted $69,687 from the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation 

program. 

Sport Fishing 

Kodiak is famous for sport fishing. The community 

had a large amount of sport fishing businesses listed in 

2002 with a wide variety of services including saltwater 

guide businesses, freshwater guide businesses, aircraft 

fly-in services, drop-off services, and full service 

guide businesses. There were 11,331 sport fishing 

licenses sold in Kodiak in 2000, of which 5,030 were 

sold to Alaska residents. There is a variety of sport 

fishing activities held in the community such as the 

Kodiak Kid’s Pink Salmon Jamboree and the Silver 

Salmon Derby. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence 

in the city of Kodiak for the most representative 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Kodiak 
204

subsistence year,1993, 99% of all households in Kodiak 

used all subsistence resources: 93.3% of households 

used salmon, 95.2% non-salmon fish (herring, 

herring roe, smelt, cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, 

perch, rockfish, sablefish, sculpin, shark, skates, sole, 

wolffish, char, grayling, pike, trout, and whitefish), 

1.9% marine mammals, and 79.0% of all households 

used marine invertebrates. The per capita harvest of 

all subsistence resources was 151.05 lbs in 1993. 

The breakdown of that harvest was: 31.61% salmon, 

39.70% non-salmon fish, 0% marine mammals, 6.29% 

marine invertebrates, 0.44% birds and eggs, 15.36% 

land mammals, and 6.59% vegetation. Also according 

to ADF&G there were 1,138 household permits for 

subsistence salmon issued to residents of Kodiak in 

the year 1999 for an estimated harvest of 24,956 total 

salmon. Residents of Kodiak have the right to apply 

for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Additional Information 

There are many fishing related events, ceremonies, 

and festivals held in the city of Kodiak such as the 

Blessing of the Fleet, the Kodiak Crab Festival, the 

Kodiak Salmon Celebration, and a Fisherman’s 

Memorial Service for Those Lost At Sea. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Kodiak 
205

Larsen Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Larsen Bay is located on the northwest coast of 

Kodiak Island on Larsen Bay. The community is 60 

miles southwest of the City of Kodiak and 283 miles 

southwest of Anchorage. It makes up 5.4 square miles 

of land and 2.2 square miles of water and is in the 

Kodiak Recording District. 

Demographic Profile 

LarsenBayhadatotalpopulationof115asrecorded 

by the 2000 U.S. Census, with 53% of the inhabitants 

were male and 47% were female. According to the 

Census, in 1880 there were no recorded inhabitants 

of Larsen Bay, and in 1890 there were 20 recorded 

inhabitants. The population was recorded as zero again 

for the years 1900 through 1930, but then climbed 

until 1980 to 168 inhabitants, again declining a bit to 

the reported population in 2000. In 2000, 20.9% of 

the population identified as White, 78.3% American 

Indian and Alaska Native, and 0.9% as two or more 

races. Ninety-one percent of the population were all 

or part American Indian and Alaska Native. No one 

in the community identified as Hispanic. The median 

age of those in the community was 29.3 years versus 

the national average of 35.3 years. About 61.7% of the 

population was 18 years of age and over. There were 

70 total housing units in Larsen Bay in 2000, with 30 

units vacant, and 28 of those vacant due to seasonal 

use. No one in the population lived in group quarters 

when the 2000 Census was conducted. Nearly 80.7% 

of the population age 25 years and older had graduated 

from high school and gone on to further schooling, and 

15.8% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The history of Larsen Bay is intimately tied into 

the history of the city of Kodiak mentioned in the 

previous section. The area of Larsen Bay is believed to 

have been inhabited for at least 2,000 years. Hundreds 

of artifacts have been uncovered in the community, 

which attest to the fact that an Aleut or more recently 

termed Alutiiq community lived in the area for about 

2,000 years prior to the first contact with Russian 

explorers in the mid-1700s when fur traders began to 

frequent the islands. A tannery was present at Uyak 

Bay during the early 1800s. Peter Larsen was an Unga 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Larsen Bay Larsen Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

15 10 5 0 5 10 15 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Larsen Bay

Data source: US Census 2000 Racial Structure 

Larsen Bay Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races

0.9% White 

20.9% 

Native

78.2%

2000 Employment Structure

Larsen Bay

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Larsen Bay Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking, 35% 

Employed,

58.3% 

Unemployed,

6.7%

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Larsen Bay 
206

Island furrier, hunter, and guide during the late 1800s, 

and at the time of the 1890 Census the Native village 

of Uyak, which was situated on the west shore of the 

bay, was renamed Larsen Bay after the furrier (North 

Pacific Fishery Management Council 1994). The 

community was recorded as having 20 occupants at 

that time. A cannery was built in the village in 1911 

by the Alaska Packers Association. Larsen Bay was 

incorporated in the year 1974. The city gained national 

attention in 1991 because the Smithsonian Institution 

repatriated the remains of 756 Alutiiq people who 

had been taken 50 years earlier according to the 

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation 

Act (NAGPRA). The remains were given a Russian 

Orthodox reburial and interned in a mass grave. This 

was the largest repatriation of Native remains carried 

out by the Smithsonian. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Larsen Bay is largely based on 

commercial, subsistence, and sport fishing. In 2000 

there were a total of 22 commercial fishing permits 

issued to residents of Larsen Bay, and 29 licensed crew 

members. There are a small number of year-round 

employment positions in the community. Five lodges 

are present in the city, providing tour-guide services, 

and a large number of residents are dependent on 

subsistence hunting. There was numerous sport fishing 

guide businesses present in the city. At the time of the 

2000 U.S. Census, 58.3% of the population age 16 

and over were employed, 6.7% were unemployed, and 

35.0% were not in the labor force. Of those working; 

37.1% were private wage and salary workers, 60.0% 

were classified as government workers, and 2.9% were 

self-employed. The per capita income was $16,227 

with the median household income was $40,833. 

About 20.5% of the population lived below the poverty 

level. 

Governance 

Larsen Bay is a second-class city, incorporated in 

1974, and has a manager form of government with a 

mayor, a seven person city council, advisory school 

board, and four municipal employees (airport/utilities 

manager, city clerk/water & sewer, librarian, and 

public safety person). The city is part of the Kodiak 

Island Borough and has a 3% sales tax, a 9.25 mills 

(0.925%) property tax imposed by the Borough, a 5% 

accommodations tax from the Borough, and a 0.925% 

severance tax also imposed by the Borough. The 

regional Native corporation for the area is Koniag, 

Inc., and the non-profit half of the corporation is the 

Kodiak Area Native Association (KANA). The Native 

village corporation for the community is Anton 

Larsen, Inc. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

recognized traditional council for the community is 

the Native Village of Larsen Bay, which is also a tribal 

government contractor. The closest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS), Alaska Department of Fish 

& Game (ADF&G), and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) offices are all located 

within the city of Kodiak. 

Facilities 

The community is accessible by both the air and 

water. There are both regularly scheduled and charter 

flights available from Kodiak. Regular flights are 

available for around $263 from Anchorage to Kodiak, 

according to Expedia and Travelocity websites (price 

given for date as close to September 1, 2003 as 

possible). Then there is the additional cost to fly into 

Larsen Bay from Kodiak by charter plane. A 2,700 foot 

gravel airstrip, owned by the State, is present in the 

community as well as a seaplane base. A breakwater and 

boat harbor was recently finished in 2002 and docking 

facilities are available in Larsen Bay. Every six weeks 

a cargo barge arrives from Seattle. There are several 

hotels that provide accommodations; the Larsen Bay 

Lodge, Wick’s Adventure Lodge, Panamaroff Lodge, 

Uyak Bay Lodge, and the Kodiak Lodge. There is one 

school in the community, the Larsen Bay School, a 

K-12th grade with 25 students and 2 teachers in 2000. 

Health care is available at the Larsen Bay Health Clinic 

which is run by the Village Council, although the clinic 

is in need of major renovations. Police services are 

provided by a Village Public Safety Official (VPSO). 

Electricity is available from the Larsen Bay Utility 

Company and is owned and operated by the city with 

the main power source of hydroelectric with a diesel 

backup. The city also operates the sewage system, the 

refuse collection and landfill, and the water service. 

All 40 homes in the community are connected to the 

piped water system. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Larsen Bay 
207

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

There were 22 commercial fishing permits issued 

to residents of Larsen Bay in 2000 and there were 29 

licensed crew members from the community. Four 

vessel owners participated in the federal commercial 

fisheries and three participated in the commercial 

salmon fishery. Out of the 22 permits issued, 20 

permits were fished in 2000. Eight permits were 

issued for other groundfish: three for miscellaneous 

salt water finfish using a longline on a vessel under 

60 feet statewide (three fished), one for miscellaneous 

slat water finfish using pot gear on a vessel under 60 

feet statewide (one fished), and four were issued for 

miscellaneous salt water finfish using a mechanical 

jig statewide (three fished). One permit was issued for 

octopi/squid using pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet 

statewide (one fished). Thirteen permits were issued 

for salmon (12 fished): 7 were issued for salmon with 

a set gillnet in Kodiak (7 fished), 2 for salmon using a 

beach seine in Kodiak (none fished), and 4 were issued 

to residents of the community and recorded at the end 

of the year using a purse seine in Kodiak (5 fished). 

No vessels delivered landings to Larsen Bay in 

2000 because there were no processors in operation in 

the community. Local landings were likely delivered 

to the city of Kodiak or to the processor at Alitak Bay. 

The Kodiak Salmon Packers cannery is located in the 

community of Larsen Bay and has been in operation 

again since 2000, but was not open during that 

particular year due to low salmon prices. The Kodiak 

Island Borough, of which Larsen Bay is a part, was 

recently allotted $362,963 in federal salmon disaster 

funds which will most likely be used for borough 

projects and to partially replace revenues which would 

have been gathered from the fish tax. The Borough 

was also granted $69,687 by the Southwest Alaska 

Municipal Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion 

Mitigation Program “in recognition of the negative 

economic impacts of federal measures to protect the 

Steller sea lion” with money which had been allocated 

by the U.S. government (Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference 2003). 

Sport Fishing 

The Kodiak Island Official Visitors Guide reported 

that Larsen Bay “lodges lure anglers from around the 

world for some of the best fishing in the archipelago.” 

There were a large number of sport fishing businesses 

in Larsen Bay with 10 listings for saltwater guide 

businesses, 10 for freshwater, 3 drop-off services 

listings, and 6 full service guiding business listings 

for 2002. There were 75 sport fishing licenses sold in 

Larsen Bay to Alaska residents in 2000, and a total of 

497 licenses were sold to non-residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence 

in Larsen Bay for 1997 (the most representative 

subsistence year): 96.2% of all households used all 

subsistence resources, 96.2% used salmon, 76.9% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, bass, 

cod, eel, flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, 

sablefish, sculpin, shark, skates, sole, wolffish, char, 

grayling, pike, sturgeon, trout, and whitefish), 23.1% 

used marine mammals, and 61.5% of all households 

used marine invertebrates. The per capita harvest 

of all subsistence resources in Larsen Bay in 1997 

was 370.48 lbs. The breakdown of that harvest was: 

57.62% salmon, 21.36% non-salmon fish, 0.57% 

marine mammals, 3.44% marine invertebrates, 0.38% 

birds and eggs, 14.97% land mammals, and 1.64% 

vegetation. According to the ADF&G there were a total 

of 10 household subsistence salmon permits issued to 

residents of Larsen Bay in 1999 for an estimated total 

of 556 salmon harvested. Residents of Larsen Bay have 

the right to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Larsen Bay 
208

Old Harbor (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Old Harbor is situated off of the Gulf of Alaska on 

the southeast coast of Kodiak Island. The community 

is located 70 miles southwest of the City of Kodiak and 

322 miles southwest of Anchorage. It makes up 21.0 

square miles of land and 6.2 square miles of water, and 

is in the Kodiak Recording District. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Old Harbor had a total population of 237 

as recorded by the 2000 U.S. Census. About 56.1% 

were male and 43.9% were female. It appears that in 

recent times the population of Old Harbor has been 

decreasing from 340 inhabitants in 1980 to 229 in 2002, 

as established by a State Demographer. Residents of a 

summer fish camp, Kaguyak, also live in the city of Old 

Harbor. In 2000, 13.1% of the population identified as 

White, 73.0% American Indian and Alaska Native, and 

13.9% as two or more races. No one in the community 

identified as Hispanic. The median age of the residents 

of Old Harbor was 27.1 years, considerably younger 

than the national average of 35.3 years. There were a 

total of 111 housing units in the community, with 32 

of vacant in 2000, and 13 vacant due to seasonal use. 

No one in the community lived in group quarters at 

the time of the census. Approximately 85.1% of the 

population age 25 and over had graduated from school 

and gone on to further schooling, 5.3% had obtained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher, and 1.8% had a graduate 

or professional degree in 2000. 

History 

Old Harbor’s history is closely tied to that of the 

city of Kodiak. The Old Harbor area is believed to have 

been inhabited for about 2,000 years byAlutiiq peoples. 

In 1784 a Russian named Gregorii Shelikof visited 

the area in his flagship the ‘Three Saints’ and his men 

founded a settlement at what was termed Three Saints 

Bay, near the site of what is today Old Harbor. At this 

settlement the Native population was forced to hunt sea 

otters. The men were “organized into work groups and 

forced to hunt at sea in large fleets of bidarkas, while 

women, old men, and children were made to work on 

shore” (Mason 1995). Prior to this, hundreds of Alutiiq 

Natives died jumping off a cliff on Refuge Rock near 

Sitkalidak Island attempting to escape from Shelikof’s 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Old Harbor Old Harbor

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

30 20 10 0 10 20 

Male 

Female 

30 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Old Harbor 

Data source: US Census 2000 Racial Structure 

Old Harbor Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

13.9% 13.1% 

Age 

Native 

2000 Employment Structure 73.0%

Old Harbor 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Old Harbor Data source: US Census 

Employed,

Not Seeking, 41.9% 

45.6% 

Unemployed,

12.5% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Old Harbor 
209

party (Mason 1995). The settlement of Three Saints 

Bay became the first Russian colony in Alaska, but in 

1788 the settlement was destroyed by a tsunami. The 

community experienced two more earthquakes and 

relocated to the northeast coast of the island in 1793 to 

‘Saint Paul’s’which is today the city of Kodiak. In 1884 

a community was reestablished again at Three Saints 

Harbor. The town was documented as ‘Staruigayan’

or ‘Old Harbor’ when translated from Russian. In 

1932 the Old Harbor post office opened. The Good 

Friday earthquake in 1964 and the tsunami caused by 

it practically destroyed the whole community of Old 

Harbor with only the church and two homes remaining 

in the aftermath. The community was rebuilt and in 

1966 the city became incorporated. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial and subsistence fishing, as well 

as subsistence hunting are all very important to the 

community of Old Harbor. The city also has numerous 

sport fishing guide businesses. In 2000, 72 commercial 

fishing permits were issued to residents of Old Harbor 

and 63 residents were licensed crew members. Most 

community residents are dependent to an extent on 

subsistence activities including the harvesting of 

animals such as bear, rabbit, salmon, halibut, seal, and 

deer. In 2000, of those age 16 and over, approximately 

41.9% were employed, 12.5% were unemployed, and 

45.6% were not in the labor force. Of those employed, 

about 43.9% were employed by the government and 

14.0% were self-employed. About 42.1% of those 

working were employed in management, professional, 

and related occupations. The per capita income in the 

community in 2000 was $14,265 with the median 

household income of $32,500. About 29.5% of the 

population lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Old Harbor is a second-class city that was 

incorporated in 1966. The city has a manager form of 

government which includes a mayor, a seven person 

city council, a six person advisory school board, and 

six municipal employees, including a health officer 

and a Village Public Safety Officer. The city is part 

of the Kodiak Island Borough and the City has a 3% 

sales tax. The Borough imposes 9.25 mills (0.925%) 

property tax as well as a 5% accommodations tax and a 

0.925% severance tax. The regional Native corporation 

for the area is Koniag, Inc., and the non-profit half of 

the corporation is the Kodiak Area Native Association 

(KANA). The Native village corporation is the Old 

Harbor Native Corporation and the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) recognized traditional council is the 

Village of Old Harbor. The closest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS), Alaska Department of Fish 

& Game (ADF&G), and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) offices are all located 

within the city of Kodiak.

Facilities 

The community of Old Harbor is reachable by both 

air and water. Flight are available from Kodiak to the 

community on both regularly scheduled and charter 

flights. Old Harbor has a 2,750 foot state-owned 

gravel runway as well as a seaplane base. Regular 

flights are available for around $263 from Anchorage 

to Kodiak, according to Expedia and Travelocity 

websites (price given for date as close to September 1, 

2003 as possible). Then there is the additional cost to 

fly into Old Harbor from Kodiak by charter plane. A 

harbor is present with docking facilities for 55 boats. 

Local barge services and barge service from Seattle 

are available. Accommodations are available at the 

Bay View Bed and Breakfast, the Ocean View Lodge, 

and the Kodiak Sportsman Lodge. There is one school 

in the community, Old Harbor School, a K-12th grade, 

with 62 students and 7 teachers in 2000. Health care 

is available at the Old Harbor Health Clinic and is 

operated by KANA, but owned by the city. Police 

services are available by the State VPSO. The electric 

utility is AVEC and is operated by REA Co-op and 

the city with the main power source being diesel, 

although as of 2000, 100% of the households heated 

with kerosene. There is no refuse collection available, 

and the city operates the landfill and the water and 

sewer systems. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 there were 72 commercial fishing permits 

issued to residents of Old Harbor, and 63 licensed 

crew members living in the community. There were 12 

vessel owners who were residents of the community 

and who participated in the commercial fishing of 

federal species; 11 vessel owners participated in the 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Old Harbor 
210

commercial salmon fishery. Of the 72 permits issued 

to residents in 2000, 39 were fished. 

Four permits were issued for halibut to residents 

of Old Harbor (4 fished): one permit was issued for 

halibut using a longline vessel under 60 feet statewide 

and three were issued for using a longline vessel over 

60 feet statewide. A total of 16 permits were issued for 

herring (5 fished). Six permits were issued for herring 

roe using a purse seine in Kodiak (four fished), one for 

herring roe using a purse seine in the Alaska Peninsula 

(none fished), three for herring roe using a purse seine 

in Bristol Bay (none fished), four for herring roe using 

a gillnet in Kodiak (none fished), one for herring food/

bait using a purse seine in Kodiak (none fished), and 

one for herring food/bait using a purse seine in the 

Alaska Peninsula (one fished). There were 21 permits 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish (12 fished): 

7 were issued for miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

using pot gear in a vessel under 60 feet statewide (6 

fished), 12 for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a 

mechanical jig statewide (6fished), and one was issued 

for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using pot gear on 

a vessel 60 feet or over statewide (none fished). Six 

permits were issued for other shellfish (four fished): 

five were for octopi/squid using pot gear in a vessel 

under 60 feet statewide (four fished), and one was 

for shrimp using pot gear in a vessel under 60 feet 

westward (none fished). Twenty-five were issued for the 

commercial fishing of salmon to the residents of Old 

Harbor (14 fished): 22 were issued for salmon using 

a purse seine in Kodiak (10 fished), one for salmon 

using a beach seine in Kodiak (none fished), and two 

which were issued to residents of the community and 

recorded at the end of the year using a set gillnet in 

Kodiak (four fished). 

No vessels delivered landings to the community in 

2000 because there was no processor in the community. 

Landings were most likely delivered to the community 

of Kodiak or to the processor at Alitak Bay. Old Harbor 

was recently allotted $1,604 in federal salmon disaster 

funds and the Kodiak Island Borough was allotted 

$362,963 which will most likely be used for borough 

projects. The Borough was also granted $69,687 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003). 

Sport Fishing 

There were quite a few sport fishing businesses 

present in the community of Old Harbor with listings 

in 2002 - seven saltwater guide businesses and five 

freshwater guide businesses. There were 17 sport 

fishing licenses sold in Old Harbor in 2000 to Alaska 

residents, and a total of 101 licenses sold to nonresidents.

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence, in the community of Old Harbor in 1997 

(the most representative subsistence year), 100% of 

all households in the community used all subsistence 

resources: 97.7% used salmon, 97.7% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, bass, cod, 

eel, flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, 

sablefish, sculpin, shark, skates, sole, wolffish, char, 

grayling, pike, sturgeon, trout, and whitefish), 69.8% 

used marine mammals, and 93.0% of households 

used marine invertebrates. The per capita harvest 

of all subsistence resources in Old Harbor in 1997 

was 300.36 lbs. The breakdown of that harvest was: 

36.79% salmon, 17.17% non-salmon fish, 14.36% 

marine mammals, 6.39% marine invertebrates, 3.69% 

birds and eggs, 19.61% land mammals, and 1.99% 

vegetation. According to the ADF&G there were 

18 household salmon subsistence permits issued to 

residents of Old Harbor in 1999 for an estimated total 

of 1,119 salmon harvested during the year. Residents 

of Old Harbor have the right to apply for subsistence 

halibut certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Old Harbor 
30 

211

Ouzinkie (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Ouzinkie is located on Spruce Island and is 

adjacent to Kodiak Island.The community is northwest 

of the City of Kodiak and is 247 air miles southwest of 

Anchorage. It makes up 6.0 square miles of land and 

1.7 square miles of water. Ouzinkie is located in the 

Kodiak Recording District. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Ouzinkie had a total population of 225, 

with 45.8% male and 54.2% female. Since the 1880 

U.S. Census, the population has fluctuated from no 

inhabitants at the city’s lowest point (1900 and 1910) 

to 253 inhabitants at the highest point (in 1940). Since 

1930 the population has remained relatively stable, 

close to 200 inhabitants. In 2000, 11.1% of Ouzinkie’s 

population was White, 80.9% were American Indian 

or Alaska Native, and 8.0% were of two or more races. 

A total of 87.6% of the residents identified as being 

American Indian and Alaska Native either alone or 

in combination with one or more other races. About 

4.4% of the population was Hispanic. The median 

age in the community was 32.8 years old compared 

to the national average of 35.3 years. There were 86 

housing units, and of those 12 were vacant, with 6 

vacant due to seasonal use. No one in the community 

lived in group quarters. About 76.6% of the residents 

age 25 and over had graduated from high school or 

went on to further schooling, 11.3% had obtained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher, and 1.6% had a graduate 

or professional degree. 

History 

The history of Ouzinkie is intimately tied to the 

history of the city of Kodiak mentioned in the previous 

section. The community of Ouzinkie was established 

in the early 1800’s as a retirement community for the 

Russian American Company. Ouzinkie takes its name 

from the Russian word “uzen’kii,” meaning “rather 

narrow.” Narrow Strait, on which Ouzinkie is located, 

is the present name of the passage between Spruce and 

Kodiak Islands. The Royal Packing Company built a 

cannery in Ouzinkie in the year 1889 and soon after 

the American Packing Company built a cannery there 

as well. A Russian Orthodox Church was constructed 

in the community in 1890. In 1898 the Church of the 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Ouzinkie Ouzinkie Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

30 20 10 0 10 20 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Ouzinkie 

Data soutce: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Ouzinkie Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

8.0% 11.1% 

Native 

80.9%

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Ouzinkie 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Ouzinkie Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 4.4% 

Non-Hispanic,

95.6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Ouzinkie 
2000 Employment Structure

Ouzinkie 

Data source: US Census 

212

Nativity was built. In the early 1900’s cattle ranching 

was popular in Ouzinkie and in 1927 a post office was 

founded. The Good Friday earthquake in 1964 and the 

tsunamis caused by the earthquake seriously damaged 

the village and destroyed the Ouzinkie Packing 

Company cannery. After the earthquake, the remains 

were purchased by Columbia Ward who rebuilt the 

store and dock, but did not rebuild the cannery. The 

city was incorporated in 1967. The Ouzinkie Seafoods 

cannery was built in the late 60’s and was sold to 

Glacier Bay in 1976, but burned down quickly after 

the sale. There have been no canneries in operation in 

the community since 1976. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of the community of Ouzinkie 

is based for the most part on commercial salmon 

fishing. In 2000 a total of 48 commercial fishing 

permits were issued to residents, and of those many 

were issued for salmon. Permits were also issued for 

halibut, herring, other groundfish, and sablefish. There 

were 35 residents who were licensed crew members 

in Ouzinkie in 2000. Subsistence activities are also 

very important to residents of the community with 

almost all depending on subsistence to some extent. 

In 2000, about 51.7% of the population of Ouzinkie 

was employed, 6.8% were unemployed, and 41.5% 

were not in the labor force. Of those employed 60.5% 

reported as being government workers. The per capita 

income in the community was $19,324 and the median 

household income having was $52,500. About 6.0% 

of the population lived below the poverty level at the 

time of the 2000 Census. 

Governance 

Ouzinkie is a second-class city incorporated in 

1967. The city has a mayor form of government which 

includes the mayor, a seven person city council, a 

five person advisory school board, and a variety of 

municipal employees. Ouzinkie is included in the 

Kodiak Island Borough and has a 3% sales tax, 9.25 

mills (0.925%) property tax, 5% accommodations 

tax, and a 0.925% severance tax. The regional Native 

corporation for the area is Koniag, Inc., and the nonprofit half of the corporation is the Kodiak Area Native 

Association (KANA). The Native village corporation 

is the Ouzinkie Corporation and the Bureau of Indian 

2000 Employment Structure 

Ouzinkie 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

41.5% 

Unemployed,

6.8% 

Employed,

51.7% 

Affairs (BIA) recognized traditional council for the 

area is the Ouzinkie Tribal Council. The Native Village 

of Ouzinkie and the Ouzinkie Tribal Council recently 

received a grant in the amount of $186,577 from the 

Rasmuson Foundation in 2002 for the “construction 

of [a] multi-purpose cultural center” (Rasmuson 

Foundation 2003). The closest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS), Alaska Department of Fish 

& Game (ADF&G), and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) offices are all located 

within the city of Kodiak. 

Facilities 

Ouzinkie is reachable by both air and water. 

The 2,085 foot gravel airstrip is owned by the State, 

and there is a floatplane landing area present at the 

Ouzinkie Harbor. Regular flights are available for 

around $263 from Anchorage to Kodiak, according to 

Expedia and Travelocity websites (price given for date 

as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). Then there 

is the additional cost to fly into Ouzinkie from Kodiak 

by charter plane. Charter plane services are available 

from Island Air. A breakwater, small boat harbor, and 

dock are also present in the community. The Corps of 

Engineers are currently designing a new small boat 

harbor and breakwater. Cargo delivery is available by 

barge from both Seattle and Kodiak. Accommodations 

are available at City apartment, the Native Village 

Corporation apartment, and the B&B. One school is 

present in the community, Ouzinkie School, which 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Ouzinkie 
213

teaches 2-12th grade and had 50 students 6 teachers 

in 2000. The school has a gym which is available for 

community use. Health care is available at the Ouzinkie 

Health Clinic, operated by KANA, and owned by the 

City, although a new clinic is under construction. 

There are no police present in the community and 

fire/rescue is provided by the City Volunteer Fire 

Department and the U.S. Coast Guard. The electric 

utility for the area is the City of Ouzinkie with the 

main power source being hydro with a diesel backup, 

although in 2000 about 94.4% of the households in the 

village heated with kerosene. The city also operates 

the water system, sewer system, refuse collection, and 

landfill operation. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 there were a total of 48 commercial fishing 

permits issued to residents of Ouzinkie, and there were 

35 licensed crew members in the community. Fourteen 

vessel owners participated in the commercial fishing 

of federal species, and 6 vessel owners participated in 

salmon commercial fishing. Of the 48 permits issued 

in 2000, 27 were fished that year. 

There were 14 permits issued for halibut: 12 for 

halibut with a longline vessel under 60 feet statewide 

(11 fished), and 2 for halibut using a longline vessel over 

60 feet statewide (2 fished). Two permits were issued 

for herring roe using gillnets in Kodiak (none fished). 

Eighteen permits were issued for other groundfish (6 

fished): 4 permits for miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

using a hand troll statewide (none fished), 5 permits 

for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a longline 

vessel under 60 feet statewide, one for miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish using pot gear in a vessel under 60 feet 

statewide (none fished), 7 for miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish using mechanical jig statewide (2 fished), and 

one for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a longline 

vessel over 60 feet statewide (one fished). One permit 

was issued for sablefish using a longline vessel over 

60 feet statewide, and it was fished that year. There 

were 13 permits issued for salmon, (7 fished): 10 

were issued for salmon using a purse seine in Kodiak 

(4 fished), and 3 were issued for salmon using a set 

gillnet in Kodiak (3 fished). 

No vessels delivered to landings to Ouzinkie in 

2000 as there was not a processor in the community. 

Landings were most likely delivered to the processors 

at nearby Kodiak. The community of Ouzinkie was 

recently allotted $500 in federal salmon disaster funds 

and the Kodiak Island Borough was allotted $362,963 

as well which will most likely be used for Borough 

projects and receded into the general fund. The 

Borough was also granted $69,687 by the Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the Steller 

Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition of the 

negative economic impacts of federal measures to 

protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003). 

Sport Fishing 

There are two sport fishing businesses in Ouzinkie 

listed by the ADF&G as both saltwater and freshwater 

guide businesses. There were a few other companies 

licensed in 2000 as charter businesses. A total of 46 

sport fishing licenses were sold in Ouzinkie to Alaska 

residents, and a total of 55 licenses were sold to nonresidents.

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence, in the community of Ouzinkie in 1997 

(the most representative subsistence year), 100% of 

all households in the community used all subsistence 

resources: 95.7% used salmon, 97.9% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, bass, cod, eel, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, 

sculpin, shark, wolffish, char, grayling, pike, sturgeon, 

trout, and whitefish), 59.6% used marine mammals, 

and 61.7% used marine invertebrates. The per capita 

harvest for all subsistence resources was 263.95 lbs 

in Ouzinkie in 1997. The breakdown of that harvest 

was: 47.94% salmon, 24.78% non-salmon fish, 5.18% 

marine mammals, 2.82% marine invertebrates, 4.70% 

birds and eggs, 10.85% land mammals, and 3.73% 

vegetation. According to the ADF&G there were 32 

household subsistence salmon permits which were 

issued to residents of Ouzinkie in 1999. Residents are 

eligible to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Ouzinkie 
214

Port Lions (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Port Lions is on the north coast of Kodiak Island 

in Settler Cove. The community is 247 air miles 

southwest of Anchorage and is located in the Kodiak 

Recording District. It is made up of 6.3 square miles 

of land and 3.7 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were 256 inhabitants of Port Lions in 2000, 

with 53.1% of the population male and 46.9% female. 

The population has remained relatively stable since the 

1970 U.S. Census. In 2000, 34.8% of the population 

was White, 63.3% were American Indian and Alaska 

Native, and 2.0% were of two or more races. A total of 

63.7% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian.

About 2.0% were Hispanic. The median age for 

the community was 35.6 years old, similar to the 

national age median of 35.3 years. About 33.2% of the 

population was under the age of 18 years old. There 

were a total of 106 housing units in Port Lions, and 

of those 17 were vacant and 12 of those which were 

vacant were vacant due to seasonal use. No one in the 

community lived in group quarters. Approximately 

83.3% of the population age 25 years and over had 

graduated from high school and gone on to further 

schooling, 19.5% had obtained a bachelor’s degree 

or higher, and 2.3% had a graduate or professional 

degree. 

History 

The history of Port Lions is intimately tied to the 

history of the city of Kodiak. The town of Port Lions 

was established in December, 1964 for the inhabitants 

of the village of Afognak after the Good Friday 

earthquake’s tsunami destroyed their village. The new 

village was named in honor of the Lions Club because 

of the service group’s support and help in rebuilding 

and relocating the village. Many members of the 

community still visit the old village of Afognak, and 

archeological excavation of the area commenced in 

1999. In 1966, the city of Port Lions was incorporated. 

The Wakefield Cannery on Peregrebni Point existed in 

the community for many years, but burned down in 

1975. The village corporation purchased the Smokwa, 

a 149 foot floating processor quickly after, which 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Port Lions Port Lions

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

30 20 10 0 10 20 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Port Lions 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Port Lions Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races 

2.0% 

Male 

Female 

30 

White 

34.8% 

Native 

63.2% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Port Lions 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Port Lions Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 2.0% 

Non-Hispanic,

98% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Port Lions 
215

processed crab between 1975 and 1980. There was 

also a small sawmill that operated until 1976 and was 

situated south of the community. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Port Lions’ economy is mainly based on 

commercial fishing, fish processing, and tourism. A 

total of 49 commercial fishing permits were issued to 

residents of Port Lions in 2000, and the community 

had 41 licensed crew members who were residents. 

Subsistence is very important to the community 

as well with all of the residents using subsistence 

resources. Of the population age 16 and over in 2000, 

47.6% were employed, 2.1% were unemployed, and 

50.3% were not in the labor force at the time of the 

Census. Of those which were reported as working, 

62.6% were classified as government workers. A 

total of 29.7% of those working were categorized as 

being in the industries of education, health, and social 

services. The per capita income in the community in 

2000 was $17,492 with the median household income 

of $39,107. A total of 12.1% of the population lived 

below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Port Lions is a second-class city incorporated in 

1966, and has a mayor form of government which 

includes the mayor, a seven person city council, a three 

person advisory school board, and various municipal 

employees including a Village Public Safety Officer 

(VPSO). There is no Sales Tax in the community, but 

there are taxes imposed by the Borough including 9.25 

mills (0.925%) property tax, 5% accommodations tax, 

and 0.925% severance tax. The community is part 

of the Kodiak Island Borough. The regional Native 

corporation for the area is Koniag, Inc., and the nonprofit half of the corporation is the Kodiak Area Native 

Association (KANA). The Native village corporation 

is the Afognak Native Corporation, the merged 

corporation of both Afognak and Port Lions. The 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized traditional 

council for the area is the Port Lions Traditional Tribal 

Council which is also merged from the Port Lions 

and Afognak councils. The closest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS), Alaska Department of Fish 

& Game (ADF&G), and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) offices are all located 

within the city of Kodiak. 

Facilities 

The community of Port Lions is reachable by 

both the air and water. Regular and charter flights are 

available for around $263 from Anchorage to Kodiak, 

according to Expedia and Travelocity websites (price 

given for date as close to September 1, 2003 as 

possible). Then there is the additional cost to fly into 

the Port Lions from Kodiak. There is a state-owned 

2,200 foot gravel airstrip, and seaplanes can use the 

City dock. Between the months of May and October, 

the State Ferry runs bi-monthly from Kodiak. The boat 

harbor and breakwater hold a total of 82 boat slips. 

Barge service is offered from Seattle. There is one K12 school is in the community, the Port Lions School, 

which had a total of 48 students and six teachers in 

2000. Accommodations are available at the Lions Den 

Lodge and the Port Lions Lodge & Charters. Health 

care is available at the Port Lions Health Clinic which 

is operated by KANA and owned by the City. Police 

services are provided by a State VPSO. The electric 

utility is the Kodiak Electric Association which is 

operated by REA Co-op with the main power source 

being diesel, although 91.4% of households in 2000 

heated using kerosene. The water, sewer, and refuse 

systems are all operated by the City. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

There were a total of 49 commercial fishing permits 

issued to residents of Port Lions in 2000, and there 

were 41 licensed crew members from the community. 

There were five owners of vessels participating in 

federal fisheries and eight involved in the commercial 

fishing of salmon. Of the total 49 permits issued in 

2000, only 27 were fished. 

Two permits were issued to Port Lions residents 

for crab; one for Dungeness crab on a pot gear 

vessel under 60 feet westward (not fished), and one 

for king crab on a pot gear vessel over 60 feet in 

Bristol Bay (fished). There were 11 permits issued for 

halibut: seven for halibut in a longline vessel under 

60 feet statewide (4 fished), one for halibut using 

a mechanical jig statewide (one fished), and 3 for 

halibut in a longline vessel over 60 feet statewide. 

Seven permits were issued for herring in 2000, (one 

fished): one was issued for herring roe using a purse 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Port Lions 
216

seine in Cook Inlet (none fished), one for herring roe 

using a purse seine in Kodiak (none fished), two for 

herring roe using a purse seine in Bristol Bay (one 

fished), and three for herring roe using a gillnet in 

Kodiak (none fished). There were a total of 13 permits 

issued for other groundfish (6 fished): one was issued 

for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a hand troll 

statewide (none fished), 2 for miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish in a longline vessel under 60 feet statewide (one 

fished), 3 for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using pot 

gear in a vessel under 60 feet statewide (one fished), 6 

for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a mechanical 

jig statewide (3 fished), and one for miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish using pot gear in a vessel 60 feet or 

over statewide (one fished). One permit was issued to 

a community member for sablefish using a longline 

vessel under 60 feet statewide and the permit was 

fished. There were 15 commercial fishing permits 

issued for salmon (10 fished): 12 permits were issued 

for salmon using a purse seine in Kodiak (8 fished), 

one for salmon using a beach seine in Kodiak (none 

fished), one for salmon using a set gillnet in Kodiak 

(one fished), and one for salmon using a set gillnet in 

Bristol Bay (one fished). 

There were no vessels delivering landings to Port 

Lions because as there is no processor located in the 

community. Landings are likely being delivered to 

nearby Kodiak. The community was recently allotted 

$1,749 in federal salmon disaster funds and the Kodiak 

Island Borough was allotted $362,963. The Borough 

was also granted $69,687 by the Southwest Alaska 

Municipal Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion 

Mitigation Program “in recognition of the negative 

economic impacts of federal measures to protect the 

Steller sea lion” with money which had been allocated 

by the U.S. government (Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference 2003). 

Sport Fishing 

There are quite a few sport fishing businesses in 

the community of Port Lions. There were 11 listings 

for saltwater guide businesses, eight for freshwater 

guide businesses, four for drop-off services, and five 

for full service guides in 2002. The Port Lions Lodge 

offers accommodations and sport fishing services such 

as float trips. There were a total of 18 sport fishing 

licenses sold in Port Lions to Alaskan residents in 

2000, and 148 sold to non-residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence in 1993, 100% of households used all 

subsistence resources:100% used salmon, 95.6% used 

non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, 

sculpin, shark, skates, sole, wolffish, char, grayling, 

pike, trout, and whitefish), 17.8% used marine 

mammals, and 53.3% used marine invertebrates. The 

per capita harvest of all subsistence resources in Port 

Lions was 331.46 lbs in 1993. The breakdown of that 

harvest was: 47.57% salmon, 19.22% non-salmon fish, 

1.34% marine mammals, 9.12% marine invertebrates, 

1.17% birds and eggs, 16.94% land mammals, and 

4.65% vegetation. Also according to ADF&G there 

were 46 household subsistence salmon permits 

which were issued to residents of the community in 

1999. Residents are also eligible to apply for halibut 

subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kodiak/Port Lions 
217

4.2.3 Kenai Peninsula 

Communities 

Anchor Point Kenai

Clam Gulch Nikiski

Halibut Cove Nikolaevsk

Homer Ninilchik

Kasilof Port Graham

Geographic Location 

The Kenai Peninsula is located immediately south 

of Anchorage, at approximately 60.55 °North Lat. and 

151.26667 °West Long. 2000 U.S. Census recording 

districts located on the Peninsula include the Kenai, 

Seward, Homer, and Seldovia districts. The total land 

area of the Kenai Peninsula Borough, which includes 

the Peninsula and some land area across Cook Inlet, 

is 16,013.3 square miles of land and 8,741.3 square 

miles of water. The borough includes portions of the 

Chugach National Forest, the Kenai National Wildlife 

Refuge, the Kenai Fjords National Park, and portions 

of the Lake Clark and Katmai National Parks. 

Weather 

The Kenai Peninsula is in the maritime climate 

zone of Alaska. The Alaska Mountain Range, coupled 

with plentiful moisture, produces relatively moderate 

temperatures and a fair amount of rainfall. Winters on 

the Kenai Peninsula are relatively mild compared to 

other regions of Alaska, with temperatures ranging 

from 4 o - 38 oF. Summer temperatures range from 46o 

- 70 oF. Rainfall totals vary widely on the Peninsula, 

from an annual average of 20 inches in Kenai to an 

average of 66 inches in Seward. Snowfall is common 

in the wintertime. 

General Characterization 

The Kenai Peninsula is one of the most affluent 

and developed regions in Alaska, owing to three major 

factors: commercial fishing, the oil industry, and 

recreation. Cook Inlet is home to some of the most 

productive halibut and salmon fisheries in the world. 

Sport fishing for halibut, salmon, trout, and other 

species, in saltwater and fresh water (including the 

famous Kenai River) attracts tourists and fishermen 

from around the world. Hundreds of thousands of sport 

fishing licenses are sold on the Peninsula annually. 

With the discovery of oil in Cook Inlet in the 1950s, 

Seldovia

Seward

Soldotna

Sterling

job opportunities and increased incomes caused the 

population of the Kenai Peninsula to boom. 

In terms of demography, the Peninsula is largely 

White (70-80%), with a relatively balanced male-tofemale ratio, owing to the fact that most employment 

opportunities are not as variable by season as other 

parts of Alaska.

Institutional Framework 

The Kenai Peninsula was incorporated as a secondclass borough in 1964. Kenai Peninsula communities 

profiled in this document include: Anchor Point, 

Beluga, Clam Gulch, Homer, Kasilof, Kenai, Nikiski, 

Seldovia, Seward, and Soldotna. Schools are operated 

by the Kenai Peninsula School District, which had 

a total of 609 teachers and 9,697 students in 2000. 

Expenditures were $7,379 per student in that year. 

The Kenai Native Association, an Alaska Native 

urban corporation, was formed in 1971 in accordance 

with the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). The association engages in activities that 

promote economic development, environmental 

conservation, and Native cultural heritage preservation 

on the Kenai Peninsula. 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

The importance of fishing activities on the Kenai 

Peninsula to local and state economic development 

cannot be overstated. Commercial fleets operate out 

of the cities with larger ports, and commercial fish 

processing plants are located in many communities 

throughout the Peninsula. Fleet activity is concentrated 

in Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound halibut and 

salmon fisheries, but vessels operate in the crab, 

herring, and groundfish fisheries as well. 

Sport fishing in both saltwater and freshwater 

environments is a huge driver of economic growth on 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Sub-Regional Introduction 
218

the Peninsula. Sport fishing license sales in the larger 

towns of Seward, Homer, and Kenai are typically 

greater than entire local populations, and fishermen 

from around the world come to enjoy the sport. Major 

sport species include salmon, halibut, trout, northern 

pike, and Dolly Varden. 

Subsistence fishing and hunting are still relatively 

important to the local economy on the Kenai Peninsula; 

about 70-80% of households use subsistence resources. 

Beginning in 1980 with the adoption of Title VIII of 

the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 

(ANILCA), “non-rural” area residents were prohibited 

from harvesting subsistence resources on federal lands 

and waters. A 1989 court case, McDowell v. State of 

Alaska, challenged this designation and a decade-long 

legal battle ensued. By 1999 the federal government 

had taken over management of its own lands and waters. 

Peninsula residents designated “non-rural” were now 

ineligible to harvest on federal lands and waters. Any 

subsistence activities after this point on the Kenai 

Peninsula took place on state lands and waters only. 

Nevertheless, subsistence hunting for land mammals 

and fishing for salmon and other species continues. 

Regional Challenges 

Many issues affecting life on the peninsula are 

compounded by the region’s rapid population. The 

larger towns on the peninsula have all seen a doubling 

or tripling of their populations in the last two decades. 

This has underscored the need to rapidly develop 

infrastructure and social services. 

Dependence on salmon fishing, combined with 

falling salmon prices in recent years, has spelled 

economic hardship for some communities. Homer, 

Kenai, and Seward have all received substantial 

sums from federal salmon disaster funds; smaller 

communities on the peninsula have received lesser 

amounts. 

The controversy over rights to subsistence 

harvesting, as described above, has also been a sore 

point for many communities. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Sub-Regional Introduction 
����

����

����

���

����

219

Anchor Point (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Anchor Point is an unincorporated city in the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough, approximately 14 miles northwest 

of Homer. The area encompasses 90.8 square miles of 

land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Anchor Point had 1,845 residents in 711 

households. All residents live in households rather 

than group quarters. The gender composition of the 

community is slightly skewed, at 53.6% male and 

46.4% female. The racial makeup of Anchor Point is 

as follows: White 91.8%, Alaska Native or American 

Indian (3.4%), Black (0.1%), Asian (0.3%), other 

(0.6%), and two or more races (3.8%). A total of 

6.4% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Residents 

of Hispanic origin make up 1.7% of the population. 

The median age in Anchor Point was 39 years, slightly 

older than the U.S. national median of 35.3 years. In 

terms of educational attainment, 87.4% of residents 

25 years of age or older held a high school diploma.

History 

Kenaitze Indians, so named by early Russian 

fur traders, have occupied the Kenai Peninsula area 

near Anchor Point for thousands of years. The area 

is historically considered to be Dena’ina Athabascan 

Indian territory, although archaeological sites on 

Kachemak Bay suggest the presence of Pacific 

Eskimo or Alutiiq people as early as 4,500 years ago 

(Halliday 1998: 183). The present-day community got 

its name from the 1778 crew of Captain James Cook 

who, while sailing into Cook Inlet looking for the 

Northwest Passage, lost an anchor in the strong local 

tidal currents. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial and sport fishing activities form the 

backbone of Anchor Point’s economy. The tourism 

industry is also growing. The North Pacific Volcano 

Learning Center, a $22 million facility, is currently 

under development. The median annual per capita 

income is $18,668, and the median household income 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Anchor Point ������������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

����

������

���������������������

����������������������

������������ 2000 Racial Structure 

���������������������� Anchor Point Data source: US Census 

����� �����

������������

������ �����

���� ����

�����

����� ������������������������ ����� �������������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Anchor Point Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Anchor Point 
����

�������������

����������������������

220

is $41,094. Approximately 8.7% of the total potential 

labor force is unemployed, and 35.3% of residents 16 

years of age and older were not in the labor force (i.e. 

not working and not seeking work). Approximately 

11.9% of residents live below the poverty level.

Governance 

Anchor Point is an unincorporated city under 

the jurisdiction of the Kenai Peninsula Borough. The 

borough is responsible for the administration of taxes 

and services. There is a National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) office and an Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office located nearby 

in Homer. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Anchor Point is accessible by road via the Sterling 

Highway. Air service and state ferry service, through 

the nearby city of Homer, connect Anchor Point to 

other cities in Alaska. Roundtrip airfare from Homer 

to Anchorage is $175. 

Utilities such as water and sewer are supplied by 

individuals through wells and septic tanks. Electricity 

comes from the Homer Electric Association, which 

generates power at the Bradley Lake Hydroelectric 

Plant and from a gas turbine plant located in Soldotna. 

The borough provides police services and the city has 

a volunteer fire department. 

There is one school located in Anchor Point, 

offering instruction to students from kindergarten 

through eighth grade. There are a total of 14 teachers 

and 149 students in the local schools. High school 

students attend school in Homer. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon 

and groundfish fisheries, is an important part of the 

economy of Anchor Point. In 2000, 80 residents held 

a total of 168 commercial fishing permits for the 

following fisheries: salmon, halibut, sablefish, other 

groundfish, herring, and crab. There were 19 vessel 

owners for federal fisheries and 130 registered crew 

members residing in the community. The following 

section contains a detailed description of commercial 

permits.

2000 Employment Structure 

Anchor Point Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

Crab: Nine residents held a total of 10 commercial 

permits in the crab fishery, but none of these permits 

was fished. A detailed breakdown of crab permits is 

as follows: one Dungeness crab pot gear permit for 

vessels under 60 feet in the westward region; one 

Dungeness crab ring net permit for Cook Inlet; and 

8 Dungeness crab pot gear permit for vessels over 60 

feet in Cook Inlet. 

Halibut: Thirty-three residents held a total of 34 

permits for the halibut fishery (24 fished). A detailed 

breakdown of halibut permits is as follows: 2 halibut 

hand troll permits for statewide waters (none fished); 

19 halibut longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (16 fished); one halibut mechanical 

jig permit for statewide waters (none fished); and 12 

halibut longline permits for vessels over 60 feet in 

statewide waters (eight fished).

Herring: Five residents held a total of eight 

commercial permits in the herring fishery, and only 

one permit was fished. A detailed breakdown of the 

herring permits is as follows: one herring roe purse 

seine permit for Prince William Sound (none fished); 

one herring roe purse seine permit for Cook Inlet (none 

fished); one herring roe purse seine permit for Bristol 

Bay (none fished); two herring roe gillnet permits for 

Security Cove (none fished); two herring roe gillnet 

permits for Bristol Bay (one fished); and one herring 

roe kelp spawn permit for Prince William Sound (none 

fished).

Sablefish: Fifteen residents held a total of 17 

commercial permits for the sablefish fishery, and nine 

permits were actually fished. A detailed breakdown 

of these permits is as follows: 13 sablefish longline 

permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Anchor Point 
221

(seven fished); two sablefish fixed gear permits for 

vessels under 50 feet in Prince William Sound (none 

fished); one sablefish fixed gear permit for vessels 

under 35 feet in Prince William Sound (one fished); 

and one sablefish longline permit for vessels over 60 

feet in statewide waters (one fished).

Other Groundfish: Twenty-eight residents held 

a total of 46 commercial permits for the groundfish 

fishery, and 27 permits were fished. A detailed 

breakdown of these permits is as follows: one lingcod 

longline permit for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (none fished), 6 lingcod mechanical jig permits 

for statewide waters (4 fished), 2 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish hand troll permits for statewide waters 

(none fished), 23 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (14 fished, one miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

pot gear permit for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (one fished), 9 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

mechanical jig permits for statewide waters (5 fished), 

2 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (2 fished), and 

2 miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (one fished). 

Salmon: Forty-eight residents held a total of 48 

commercial permits in the salmon fishery, and 43 

permits fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits 

is as follows: one salmon purse seine permit for Prince 

William Sound (one fished), 3 salmon purse seine 

permits for Kodiak (none fished), one salmon beach 

seine permit for Kodiak (none fished), 5 salmon drift 

gillnet permits for Prince William Sound (5 fished), 15 

salmon drift gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (16 fished), 

2 salmon drift gillnet permits for the Alaska Peninsula 

(2 fished), 5 salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol 

Bay (6 fished), 10 salmon drift gillnet permits for 

Cook Inlet (9 fished), 3 salmon drift gillnet permits for 

Bristol Bay (4 fished), one salmon hand troll permit 

for statewide waters (none fished), and 2 salmon 

fish wheel permits for the Upper Yukon River (none 

fished). 

In 2000, there were no fish processors in Anchor 

Point and no registered landings. Most local vessels 

make landings to processors in Homer, approximately 

15 miles away. In 2002, the Kenai Peninsula Borough 

was granted $810 in federal funds to compensate for 

fisheries losses due to Steller sea lion habitat protection 

under the Endangered Species Act. In 2003, the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough was granted $623,295 in federal 

disaster funds to compensate for falling salmon 

prices. A portion of these sums will likely be used for 

programs that affect Anchor Point. 

Sport Fishing 

The sport fishing industry primarily revolves 

around halibut in Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay, but 

silver, sockeye and pink salmon are also important. 

Nearby rivers offer fishing for steelhead and Dolly 

Varden, as well. 

In 2000, sport fishing license sales in Anchor Point 

totaled 3,217, including 2,194 sold to non-residents. 

There were 26 registered saltwater sport fishing guides 

and 13 freshwater sport fishing guides in Anchor Point 

in 2002. 

Subsistence 

Because of its location on the populous Kenai 

Peninsula, Anchor Point is not eligible to participate 

in subsistence fishing in federally managed waters. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Anchor Point 
����

���

����

222

Clam Gulch (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Clam Gulch is located on the Kenai Peninsula, 

24 miles south of the city of Kenai via the Sterling 

Highway. The area encompasses 13.7 square miles of 

land. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, there were 173 residents in 67 households 

in Clam Gulch. All residents lived in households 

rather than group quarters. The gender composition 

of the community was slightly skewed, at 51.4% 

male and 48.6% female. The racial makeup of Clam 

Gulch is predominantly White (92.5%), with small 

Alaska Native (2.9%) and Asian (1.2%) populations. 

Approximately 3.5% of the population consists of 

residents of two or more races, primarily White and 

Alaska Native. A total of 5.8% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. In addition, 1.7% of residents 

were of Hispanic ethnicity. The median age of the 

community is 37.5 years, slightly older than the U.S. 

national average of 35.3. The community has grown 

steadily, more than tripling its population since 1970. 

Census data was not collected in Clam Gulch prior 

to 1970. The educational situation is such that 89.7% 

of residents have a high school diploma or higher 

educational attainment. 

History 

Although the Kenai Peninsula itself has been 

occupied by Athabascan people for thousands of 

years, there were no known early settlements in the 

vicinity of Clam Gulch. It has only been permanently 

occupied by White settlers since the early 20th century. 

The present-day community gets its name from the 

abundant razor clams that thrive along the area’s 

sandy shorelines. A post office was established in the 

community in 1950. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Clam Gulch revolves around 

commercial fishing, primarily in the Cook Inlet salmon 

and halibut fisheries. In addition, many residents seek 

employment in the larger economy of nearby Kenai. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Clam Gulch ����������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � � � �� �� �� ��

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Clam Gulch Data source: US Census 

������������ ����� �����

������ ����

�����

�����

����

������������������������

�����������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Clam Gulch Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Clam Gulch 
223

�����������

����������������������

Other employment opportunities include a tourist 

lodge and post office. 

In 2000, the average per capita income was 

$17,983, and the average household income was 

$37,500. Approximately 15.3% of the total potential 

labor force is unemployed, and 43.1% of residents 16 

years of age and older were not in the labor force (i.e. 

not employed and not seeking work). Approximately 

8.1% of residents were living below the poverty level.

Governance 

Clam Gulch is an unincorporated city under the 

jurisdiction of the Kenai Peninsula Borough. The 

borough administers a 2% sales tax and a 0.65% (6.5 

mills) property tax. Schools in Clam Gulch are operated 

by the Kenai Peninsula School District. There is an 

office of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

located nearby in Kenai. The nearest National Marine 

Fisheries Services (NMFS) office and U.S. Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services office are both 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Clam Gulch is accessible by road from Anchorage 

via the Sterling Highway. The nearby airport in Kenai 

provides access to communities throughout Alaska. 

Roundtrip airfare from Kenai to Anchorage is $134. 

Most homes use individual wells and septic 

tanks. Electricity is supplied by the Homer Electric 

Association, which uses both hydroelectric power 

stations and natural gas generators. The nearest health 

care services are at Central Peninsula Hospital in 

Soldotna. There are no schools located in Clam Gulch; 

students attend school in nearby Kenai. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon 

fishery, is a major part of the local economy of 

Clam Gulch. In 2000, there were four vessel owners 

operating in federal fisheries who resided in the 

community. There were 35 registered crew members. 

During the same year, 29 local residents held a total of 

46 commercial fishing permits, and 29 of these permits 

were actually fished. This section contains a detailed 

description of commercial fishing activities. 

Halibut: Seven local residents held a total of 

seven permits for the halibut fishery, and six permits 

2000 Employment Structure 

Clam Gulch Data source: US Census 

�������� ����������� ����� �����

����������

�����

were fished. A detailed breakdown of the permits is 

as follows: three halibut longline permits for vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (two fished); and 

four halibut longline permits for vessels over 60 feet 

in statewide waters (four fished).

Herring: Five local residents held a total of six 

permits for the herring fishery, but no permits were 

fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits is as 

follows: two herring roe purse seine permits for Cook 

Inlet (none fished), and four herring roe gillnet permits 

for Cook Inlet (none fished).

Other Groundfish: Three local residents held a 

total of three permits for the groundfish fishery, but 

only one permit was actually fished. All three permits 

were for miscellaneous saltwater finfish, for longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters.

Salmon: Twenty-eight residents held a total of 30 

permits for the salmon fishery, and 22 permits were 

fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits is as 

follows: two salmon purse seine permits for Cook 

Inlet (none fished), one salmon purse seine permit for 

Kodiak (one fished), three salmon drift gillnet permits 

for Cook Inlet (three fished), and 24 salmon set gillnet 

permits for Cook Inlet (18 fished). 

There were no processors and no registered 

landings for Clam Gulch in 2000. In 2002, the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough was granted $810 in federal funds 

to compensate for fisheries losses due to Steller sea 

lion habitat protection under the Endangered Species 

Act. In 2003, the Kenai Peninsula Borough was granted 

$623,295 in federal disaster funds to compensate for 

falling salmon prices. A portion of this sum will likely 

be used for programs that affect Clam Gulch. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Clam Gulch 
224

Sport Fishing 

The area is a major destination for sport fishermen 

around the world who come to fish in Cook Inlet for 

halibut and in the Kenai River for salmon. There is 

also sport fishing for trout in the nearby Kasilof and 

Ninilchik Rivers. The Major sport fish species include 

halibut, Chinook, Coho, Pink and Sockeye salmon, 

rainbow trout, steelhead, and Dolly Varden. 

In 2000, a total of 290 sport fishing permits 

were sold in Clam Gulch, including 144 to nonAlaska residents. In 2002 there were three registered 

freshwater sport fishing guides in Clam Gulch and six 

saltwater guides. 

Subsistence 

Because of its location on the populous Kenai 

Peninsula, Clam Gulch is ineligible for subsistence 

fishing in federal waters. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Clam Gulch 
����

���

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

225

Halibut Cove 2000 Population Structure �������������������������� (return to communities) Halibut Cove �������������

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

People and Place �����������

�������� Location ��������

Halibut Cove lies on the south shore of the ��������

����

������

Kachemak Bay within the Kachemak Bay State Park 

����������

on the Kenai Peninsula. It is located 12 miles across the 

��������

��������

inlet from the Homer Spit. The area encompasses 8.1 

square miles of land and 3.2 square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Halibut Cove was 35. Total population numbers 

have remained relatively stable over the latter half of 

the 20th century. The number of residents may rise into 

the thousands in the summer when visitors swell the 

population. This trend is substantiated by the relatively 

high number of seasonally vacant housing units. 

There were substantially more males (57.1%) 

than females (42.9%) in Halibut Cove in 2000. The 

racial composition of the population in included 

97.1% White, and 2.9% of the population recognized 

themselves as two or more races (all or part Alaska 

Native or American Indian). None of the population 

identified as Hispanic. The median age was 47.3 years 

which is above the national median of 35.3 years. 

According to 2000 census data only 14.3% of the 

population was under 19 years of age while 34.4% of 

the population was over 55 years of age.

There were 123 housing units in Halibut Cove in 

2000 and of these, 104 were vacant due to seasonal 

use. None of the population lived in group quarters. 

About 100% of the population had a high school 

diploma or higher, while 33.3% had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

Due to its maritime climate and easy access, Southcentral Alaska has long been a gathering place for 

diverse Native Alaskans. The area around Kachemak 

��������

��������

������

� � � � � �

���������������������

����������������������

�������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Halibut Cove 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

�����

% Group Quarters ����������������� Halibut Cove ������������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

��

���

��

����

����

�

���� ������������������

��������������

Bay is historically considered to be Dena’ina 

Athabascan Indian territory, although archaeological 

sites suggest the presence of Pacific Eskimo or Alutiiq 

people as early as 4,500 years ago (Halliday 1998: 

183). ��

Halibut Cove itself was named by W.H. Dall of ��

the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey in 1880. Russian, �

and subsequently American, attempts to exploit 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Halibut Cove 
��

������������

����������������������

226

Kachemak Bay coal in the area in late 1800’s proved 

to be unsuccessful (Alaska Historical Commission). 

Between 1911 and 1928, Halibut Cove had a high 

number of herring salteries and a population of over 

1,000, according to one resident. Later, fox farming 

and homesteading became important endeavors in the 

area. From 1928 to 1975 the population stayed around 

40 - mostly fishermen.

The contemporary community of Halibut Cove 

is primarily an artist colony, pioneered by Diana and 

former state legislature Clem Tillion. Several artists 

live and work in Halibut Cove, attracting visitors and 

apprentices to their galleries and studios.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Halibut Cove is largely an artist colony. Seasonal 

construction jobs are also prevalent. A total of 11 

commercial fishing permits were held by eight permit 

holders in 2000 according to the Alaska Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission (ACFEC). At the time 

of the 2000 U.S. Census, 61.7% of the potential labor 

force was employed and there was no unemployment 

rate. A high percentage, 38.3% of the population over 

16 years of age, was not in the labor force but may 

be seasonally involved with the commercial fishing 

industry, and 10.6% of the population was below the 

poverty level. The median household income in the 

same year was $127,010 and the per capita income 

was $89,895.

Governance 

Halibut Cove is an unincorporated city within 

the Kenai Peninsula Borough. Because of the city’s 

status as unincorporated, there are no city or borough 

officials, nor are there municipal or borough finances 

dispersed to the city. Halibut Cove is not a member 

of Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), 

therefore there was no land allotted under the Act. 

Halibut Cove is not a federally recognized Native 

village nor does it have a Native village corporation or 

belong to a regional Native corporation. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) office is in Homer, as is the nearest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). The nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BSIC) office is located in Anchorage.

2000 Employment Structure 

Halibut Cove 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

Facilities 

Halibut Cove is accessible only by air and sea 

as the Sterling Highway ends in Homer on the north 

shore of Kachemak Bay. Boat and floatplanes are the 

primary means of transportation. Several air service 

companies charter flights to and from Halibut Cove, 

however, there are no regular scheduled flights. 

Kachemak Bay Ferry Service provides transportation 

to Homer. The community is therefore linked indirectly 

to the network of communities visited by ferries on 

the Alaska Marine Highway and receives year-round 

barge services and state ferry service. In Homer, the 

city-owned airport has a 6,700 foot paved runway, as 

well as a seaplane base. There is also a deep-water 

dock capable of accommodating 340 foot-long vessels 

and a boat harbor with moorage for 920 vessels. 

Halibut Cove residents derive water from a central 

water source or have water delivered. Only a few 

homes have individual wells. Half of all residences 

have individual septic systems or are fully plumbed. 

Sewage is dealt with on an individual basis. Refuse 

collection is operated by private operators. Electricity 

is provided by the Homer Electric Association. There 

are no local health care facilities or public safety 

providers. Halibut cove is within the Kenai Peninsula 

School District, but there are no schools located directly 

in Halibut Cove. There are eight schools located in 

nearby Homer, including three elementary schools, 

one middle school, two high schools, and two multigrade academies. There are a total of 101 teachers and 

1,452 students in the local schools. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Halibut Cove 
227

Involvement with North Pacific fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

According to the ADF&G, and reported by 

ACFEC, 11 permits were held by 8 permit holders, but 

only 7 permits were fished in Halibut Cove in 2000. 

There was one vessel owner in the federal fisheries, 

three vessel owners in the salmon fishery and only 

one crew member claiming residence in Halibut Cove. 

There are no fish processing plants in Halibut Cove and 

therefore no landings delivered to the community. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Halibut Cove for 2000 

related to halibut, sablefish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of three permits issued 

for halibut in Halibut Cove in 2000, two of which were 

fished. Permits for halibut pertained to one longline 

vessel under 60 feet and two longline vessels over 

60 feet. All permits designated for halibut were for 

statewide waters. 

Sablefish: A total of two sablefish permits were 

issued, one of which was fished. Permits pertained to 

one longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(not fished) and one longline vessel over 60 feet in 

statewide waters. 

Salmon: A total of six permits were issued for 

the salmon fishery, four of which were fished. Salmon 

permits pertained to two purse seine restricted to Cook 

Inlet (one fished), one purse seine restricted to Kodiak 

(not fished), three drift gillnets limited to Cook Inlet.

It was announced in July 2003 that the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough, in which Halibut Cove is located, 

has been allocated $623,295 worth of federal salmon 

disaster funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected by 

falling salmon prices. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services for which 

fish taxes become insufficient. In 2002, the Kenai 

Peninsula received $810 as part of a federal fund setup in accordance with the Endangered Species Act to 

offset costs to fisheries and communities due to Steller 

sea lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

There are a few fishing charter companies 

operating in Halibut Cove. Nearby Homer is major 

sport fishing destination and may inspire people to 

visit surrounding communities such as Halibut Cove 

for a less crowded scene. Kachemak Bay is considered 

to be one of Alaska’s most popular destinations for 

halibut fishing, with frequent catches purportedly 

weighing 100 to 200 lbs. In fact, halibut, weighing up 

to 350 lbs are fished between June and September.

Subsistence Fishing 

There is no archival evidence of, or information 

on, contemporary subsistence practices in Halibut 

Cove. Though many residents in Halibut Cove may 

engage in subsistence practices to some extent, in 

recent years the Kenai Peninsula has been classified 

as “non-rural,” so residents have not been permitted to 

harvest subsistence resources from federally managed 

lands and waters.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Halibut Cove 
���

����

228

Homer (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Homer is a first-class city located on the 

southwestern edge of the Kenai Peninsula, in the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough. It encompasses 10.6 square miles 

of land and 11.9 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

As a result of the recent boom in the commercial 

and sport fishing industries, the population of Homer 

has tripled since 1960. In 2000, the community had 

3,946 residents in 1,599 households. A small proportion 

of the population (106 people, or 2.7%) live in group 

quarters. The gender composition of the community 

is relatively equal, at 49.4% male and 50.6% female. 

The racial makeup of Homer is as follows: White 

90.5%, Alaska Native or American Indian (4.2%), 

Black (0.3%), Asian (0.9%), Hawaiian Native (0.1%), 

other (0.7%), and two or more races (3.1%). A total of 

6.2% of the population recognized themselves as all or 

part Alaska Native or American Indian. Residents of 

Hispanic origin make up 2.4% of the population. The 

median age in Homer is 38.8 years, slightly older than 

the U.S. national average of 35.3. 

History 

Kenaitze Indians, so named by early Russian fur 

traders, have occupied the Homer area for thousands of 

years. The area is historically considered to be Dena’ina 

Athabascan Indian territory, although archaeological 

sites on Kachemak Bay suggest the presence of Pacific 

Eskimo or Alutiiq people as early as 4,500 years ago 

(Halliday 1998: 183). The modern community of 

Homer was named for Homer Pennock, a gold mining 

company promoter, who arrived in 1896 with a crew 

of 50 men. Since that time, Homer’s economy has 

depended upon natural resource industries such as 

coal and oil. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Homer is dominated by the 

commercial and sport fishing industries. Fish 

processing is also a significant factor in the local 

economy, as are marine-related trades, welding, canvas 

work, and electronics. Tourism is a growing industry in 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

����� Homer ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ��� ���

���������������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

����� Homer

���������������������� Data source: US Census

White 

Two or more 

3.1% 

Other 

0.7% 

Pacific Islander 

0.1% 

Black 

0.3% 

Native 

4.2% 

Asian 

0.9% 

������������������������ 90.7%

�����

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Homer 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Homer 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

����

229

Homer; in recent years, the city has developed a small 

but growing artist community. The South Peninsula 

Hospital, located in Homer, is a major source of 

employment. Because of the city’s dependence on 

fishing, the population swells during the summer 

months as seasonal laborers come to take advantage of 

jobs in fishing, fish processing, and related activities. 

The median annual per capita income in 2000 

was $21,823, and the median household income was 

$42,821. Approximately 5.8% of the total potential 

labor force was unemployed, and 32.7% of residents 

aged 16 and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not 

employed and not seeking work). Approximately 9.3% 

of residents lived below the poverty level

Governance 

Homer was incorporated in 1964 and has a manager 

form of government. The city is in the Kenai Peninsula 

Borough. Government revenues come from a 3.5% 

sales tax administered by the city, and a 2% sales tax 

administered by the borough. There is also a 0.69% 

(or 6.85 mill) property tax administered by the city 

and a 0.65% (or 6.5 mill) property tax administered 

by the borough. 

There is a National Marine Fisheries Services 

(NMFS) office and an Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) office located in Homer. The nearest 

office of the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Homer is accessible by air from many of Alaska’s 

cities, and by road via the Sterling Highway. The cityowned airport has a 6,700 foot paved runway, as well 

as a seaplane base. Roundtrip airfare from Homer to 

Anchorage is $175. There is also a deep-water dock 

capable of accommodating 340 foot-long vessels and 

a boat harbor with moorage for 920 vessels. 

Major utilities, including water, sewer, and 

electricity, are provided by the city. Electricity comes 

from the Bradley Lake Hydroelectric Plant and from 

a gas turbine plant located in Soldotna. The city also 

provides police and volunteer fire services. The city 

operates eight cranes at the docks for fish landings. 

There are eight schools located in Homer, including 

three elementary schools, one middle school, two

high schools, and two multi-grade academies. There 

are a total of 101 teachers and 1,452 students in the

local schools. 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Homer����� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

�����

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Homer 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the halibut, 

salmon, and groundfish fisheries, is a major part of 

the economy of Homer. In 2000, there were 132 vessel 

owners with operations in federal fisheries and 262 

vessel owners with operations in state fisheries who 

resided in Homer. There were 759 registered crew 

members. In 2000, 539 Homer residents held a total 

of 1,150 commercial fishing permits. The following 

section describes the permits in detail by fishery group, 

gear, and vessel type.

Crab: Fifty-nine residents held a total of 75 

commercial permits in the crab fishery, and 27 of 

these permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of 

crab permits is as follows: 41 Dungeness crab pot gear 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Homer 
230

permits for vessels over 60 feet in Cook Inlet (none 

fished), one Korean hair crab pot gear permit for 

vessels over 60 feet in the Bering Sea (none fished), 

three King crab pot gear permit for vessels under 60 

feet in Norton Sound (two fished), one pot gear permit 

for red, blue, brown, king, and Tanner crab in the 

southeast region (one fished), one king crab pot gear 

permit for vessels over 60 feet in Dutch Harbor (one 

fished), two king crab pot gear permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in the Bering Sea (none fished), 12 king 

crab pot gear permit for vessels over 60 feet in Bristol 

Bay (11 fished), 13 Tanner crab pot gear permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in the Bering Sea (11 fished), and 

one Tanner crab pot gear permit, issued to the Bering 

Sea Community Development Quota, for vessels over 

60 feet in the Bering Sea (one fished).

Other Shellfish: Twenty-three residents held a 

total of 26 permits for other shellfish, and 10 permits 

were fished. A detailed breakdown of the permits 

is as follows: one octopus/squid longline permit 

for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (none 

fished), 3 octopus/squid pot gear permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (one fished), 2 shrimp 

pot gear permits for vessels under 60 feet in Prince 

William Sound (none fished), 2 shrimp pot gear 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in the westward region 

(none fished), 3 sea cucumber diving gear permits for 

statewide waters excluding the southeast region (two 

fished); 13 clam shovel permits for statewide waters (6 

fished), one sea urchin diving gear permit for statewide 

waters, excluding the southeast region (none fished), 

and one scallop dredge permit for statewide waters 

(one fished). 

Halibut: One hundred ninety-seven residents 

held a total of 210 commercial halibut permits, and 

167 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of 

the permits is as follows: 8 halibut hand troll permits 

for statewide waters (2 fished), 136 halibut longline 

permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(114 fished), 10 halibut mechanical jig permits for 

statewide waters (2 fished), and 56 halibut longline 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters 

(49 fished).

Herring: Eighty-one residents held a total of 

133 commercial permits in the herring fishery, and 

42 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of the 

permits is as follows: 4 herring roe purse seine permits 

for the southeast region (four fished), 17 herring roe 

purse seine permits for Prince William Sound (none 

fished), 20 herring roe purse seine permits for Cook 

Inlet (none fished), 10 herring roe purse seine permits 

for the Kodiak fishery (two fished), 3 herring roe 

purse seine permits for the Alaska Peninsula (none 

fished), 27 herring roe purse seine permits for Bristol 

Bay (21 fished); seven herring roe gillnet permits for 

the Kodiak fishery (one fished, six herring roe gillnet 

permits for Security Cove (3 fished), 9 herring roe 

gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (4 fished), one herring 

roe gillnet permits for Nunivak Island (one fished), 

8 herring roe gillnet permits for Norton Sound (4 

fished), 3 herring bait purse seine permits for the 

Alaska Peninsula (2 fished), 3 herring roe dive/hand 

pick permits for Bristol Bay (none fished), and 15 

herring roe kelp spawn permits for Prince William 

Sound (none fished). 

Sablefish: Seventy-one residents held a total of 

81 commercial permits for the sablefish fishery, and 

58 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of the 

permits is as follows: 53 sablefish longline permits for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (40 fished), 

one sablefish mechanical jig permit for statewide 

waters (none fished), 8 sablefish fixed gear permit for 

vessels under 50 feet in Prince William Sound (one 

fished), one sablefish fixed gear permit for vessels 

under 35 feet for Prince William Sound (none fished), 

2 sablefish longline permits for vessels over 60 feet 

in the northern southeast region (3 fished), and 16 

sablefish longline permits for vessels over 60 feet in 

statewide waters (14 fished).

Other Groundfish: One hundred eighty-four 

residents held a total of 274 commercial permits in 

the groundfish fishery, and 113 permits were fished. A 

detailed breakdown of the permits is as follows: two 

lingcod hand troll permits for statewide waters (none 

fished), 5 lingcod longline permits for vessels under 

60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), 29 lingcod 

mechanical jig permits for statewide waters (13 fished), 

5 miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand troll permits 

for statewide waters (one fished), 96 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline permits for vessels under 60 

feet in statewide waters (44 fished), 2 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish otter trawl permits for statewide 

waters (2 fished), 23 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

pot gear permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (8 fished), 67 miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

mechanical jig permits for statewide waters (20 fished), 

18 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (9 fished), 24 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Homer 
231

miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (16 fished), 

one demersal shelf rockfish mechanical jig permit in 

the southeast region (none fished), and two demersal 

shelf rockfish longline permit for vessels over 60 feet 

in the southeast region (none fished). 

Salmon: Three hundred thirty-four residents held a 

total of 350 commercial permits in the salmon fishery, 

and 291 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown 

of these permits is as follows: one salmon purse 

seine permit for the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian 

Islands (one fished), 2 salmon beach seine permits 

for the Kodiak fishery (none fished), 41 salmon drift 

gillnet permits for Prince William Sound (41 fished), 

102 salmon drift gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (92 

fished), 21 salmon drift gillnet permits for the Alaska 

Peninsula (22 fished), 46 salmon drift gillnet permits 

for the Bristol Bay fishery (50 fished), one salmon set 

gillnet permit for Yakutat (none fished), 2 salmon set 

gillnet permits for Prince William Sound (2 fished), 

23 salmon set gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (17 

fished), one salmon set gillnet permit for the Kodiak 

fishery (none fished), 2 salmon set gillnet permits for 

Prince William Sound (2 fished), 23 salmon set gillnet 

permits for Cook Inlet (17 fished), one salmon set 

gillnet permits for the Kodiak fishery (two fished), one 

salmon set gillnet permit for the Alaska Peninsula (one 

fished), 19 salmon set gillnet permits for Bristol Bay 

(18 fished), one salmon hand troll permit for statewide 

waters (none fished), and one salmon power gurdy 

troll permit for statewide waters (one fished). 

Other Finfish: There was one freshwater 

miscellaneous finfish set gillnet permit issued in 

Homer, but the permit was not fished.

Homer is also an important hub for commercial 

fish processing, with six registered processors and a 

total of 2,660 tons of processed fish from federally 

managed fisheries in 2000. For that year, vessels made 

deliveries to processors in Homer for the following 

fisheries: sablefish (41 vessels), halibut (142 vessels), 

other groundfish (109 vessels), and salmon (4 

vessels). 

In 2002, the Kenai Peninsula Borough received 

$810 in federal funds in compensation for fisheries 

losses due to Steller sea lion habitat protection under 

the Endangered Species Act. In 2003, Homer received 

$80,914 in federal salmon disaster funds to compensate 

the community for falling salmon prices. The Kenai 

Peninsula Borough as a whole received $623,295 in 

salmon compensation funds. 

Sport Fishing 

The importance of sport fishing to the economy of 

Homer cannot be overstated. Fishermen from Alaska, 

the lower 48 U.S. states, Canada and elsewhere come 

to Homer to fish in Cook Inlet, Kachemak Bay, and 

nearby rivers. The sport fishing industry primarily 

revolves around halibut, but silver, sockeye and pink 

salmon are also important. Nearby rivers offer fishing 

for steelhead and Dolly Varden, as well. 

In 2000, sport fishing license sales in Homer totaled 

20,550, including 14,664 sold to non-residents. There 

were 84 registered saltwater sport fishing guides and 

21 freshwater sport fishing guides in Homer in 2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Many residents in Homer depend to some degree 

upon subsistence resources for their livelihoods. 

In recent years, however, the Kenai Peninsula has 

been classified as “non-rural” under subsistence 

designation, so residents have not been permitted to 

harvest subsistence resources from federally managed 

lands and waters. Significant harvesting of subsistence 

resource still occurs on state-managed lands and 

waters. 

In terms of historical reliance on subsistence, the 

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence reported in 1982 

that 86.7% of households in Homer used salmon for 

subsistence (all five Pacific species), and 92.5% used 

non-salmon fish (including halibut, trout, herring, and 

other species). A significant portion of households 

(87.9%) also used marine invertebrates (including 

clams, crabs, mussels, and shrimp) for subsistence.

The average annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Homer residents in 1982 was 93.8 pounds, 

and was comprised of the following resources: salmon 

(21.2%), non-salmon fish (31.9%), land mammals 

(25.4%), marine invertebrates (17.9%), birds and eggs 

(2.1%), and vegetation (1.9%). The most important 

variety of non-salmon fish for Homer residents is 

halibut, primarily from Cook Inlet. Salmon is landed 

from Cook Inlet, Kachemak Bay, and nearby rivers. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Homer 
���

����

����

����

232

Kasilof (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Kasilof is located on the Kenai Peninsula, 12 miles 

south of the city of Kenai. Its area encompasses 10.4 

square miles of land and 0.2 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, there were 471 residents in Kasilof living 

in 180 households. The racial makeup was as follows: 

White (92.4%), Alaska Native or American Indian 

(3.2%), Black (0.6%), Asian (0.2%), other (0.2%), 

and two or more races (3.4%). Residents of Hispanic 

origin comprised less than 0.2% of the population. 

The Alaska Native population, including those of 

mixed race, comprised 6.2% of the total population of 

Kasilof. The gender ratio was skewed towards males 

who comprised 51.8% of the population, whereas 

females made-up 48.2% of the population. The median 

age of Kasilof residents was 39.6 years, slightly older 

than the U.S. national median of 35.3 years. 

All residents lived in households rather than group 

quarters, and the average household size was 2.6 

people. Population growth has been steady in recent 

years, more than doubling since 1980. Approximately 

85.3% of residents over age 25 have a high school 

diploma or higher educational attainment. 

History 

Archaeological surveys have revealed the 

presence of numerous Dena’ina Athabascan sites 

along the Kasilof River, suggesting that the area has 

been inhabited since the 18th century (Reger 1981). 

Kasilof itself is believed to have been an agricultural 

settlement of the Dena’ina, called “Kenaitze” by the 

early Russian traders who built a stockade there. 

European and American homesteaders started arriving 

and forming permanent settlements in the early 20th 

century. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Kasilof is largely focused on the 

fishing industry. Nearly one in three local residents 

holds a commercial fishing permit. Sport fishing is 

also a significant contributor to the local economy. 

Because of the town’s close proximity to Kenai and 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������� Kasilof Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � �� �� ��

���������������������

��������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

������� Kasilof Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����

������ �����

���� ���� ������������

�����

����� ����

�����

������������������������ �����

�������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Kasilof 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

����� Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Kasilof 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

233

Soldotna, many Kasilof residents work in these cities. 

Approximately 26.4% of residents lived below the 

poverty level in 2000. The median per capita income 

was $21,211 and the median household income 

was $43,929. The 2000 U.S. Census reported no 

unemployment, but 48.1% of residents aged 16 years 

and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not employed 

and not seeking work).

Governance 

Kasilof is an unincorporated city under the 

jurisdiction of the Kenai Peninsula Borough. The 

borough administers a 2% sales tax and a 0.65% (6.5 

mills) property tax. 

There is an office of the Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game (ADF&G) located nearby in Kenai. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) office and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office are both located 

in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Kasilof is accessible by air and by road via the 

Sterling Highway. The state operates a 2,165 foot air 

strip in town. Roundtrip airfare from the nearby Kenai 

airport to Anchorage is $134. There is also a boat 

launch on the Kasilof River. Most residents operate 

their own wells for water and their own septic tanks. 

Electricity in Kasilof comes from the Homer Electric 

Association and is generated by a hydroelectric station 

and a natural gas generator. There is one elementary 

school in Kasilof, with 14 teachers and 229 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the nearby 

Cook Inlet salmon fishery, is very important in Kasilof. 

In 2000, there were 8 vessel owners with operations in 

federal fisheries and 51 vessel owners with operations 

in state fisheries who resided in Kasilof. There 

were 142 registered crew members. There were 154 

residents who held a total of 208 commercial fishing 

permits; this constitutes significant involvement in 

Alaska fisheries, despite the community’s relatively 

small size. The following section contains detailed 

information about commercial permits issued to 

Kasilof residents in 2000.

Crab and Other Shellfish: One resident held a 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Kasilof ������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

���� ���

��� �

����������

���� ����

�������������������������� ������������������

��������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Kasilof 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

����� ��������

�����

king crab pot gear permit for vessels under 60 feet in 

length, but this permit was not fished. One resident 

held one clam shovel permit for statewide waters, but 

this permit was also not fished. 

Halibut: Twenty residents held a total of 20 

commercial permits for the halibut fishery, and 12 of 

these permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of 

the permits is as follows: 13 halibut longline permits 

for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (6 fished), 

and 7 halibut longline permits for vessels over 60 feet 

in statewide waters (6 fished). 

Herring: Twenty-three residents held a total of 

28 commercial permits for the herring fishery, and 

12 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of 

these permits is as follows: one herring roe purse 

seine permit for the southeast region (none fished), 

2 herring roe purse seine permits for Prince William 

Sound (none fished), 2 herring roe purse seine permits 

for Cook Inlet (none fished), 2 herring roe purse seine 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Kasilof 
234

permits for Bristol Bay (2 fished), 11 herring roe 

gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (8 fished), 5 herring roe 

gillnet permits for the Kodiak fishery (one fished), 

one herring roe gillnet permit for Security Cove (none 

fished), 2 herring roe gillnet permits for Bristol Bay 

(one fished), and 2 herring roe gillnet permits for 

Norton Sound (none fished). 

Other Groundfish: Eight residents held a total 

of eight permits for the groundfish fishery, but only 

one permit was fished. A detailed breakdown of these 

permits is as follows: one lingcod longline permit 

for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (none 

fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand 

troll permit for statewide waters (none fished), two 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permits for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), 

one miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear permit for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), 

and three miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical 

jig permits for statewide waters (one fished). 

Salmon: One hundred forty-five residents held a 

total of 150 permits for the salmon fishery, and 112 of 

these were fished. A detailed breakdown of the permits 

is as follows: 4 salmon purse seine permits for Prince 

William Sound (2 fished), 7 salmon purse seine permits 

for Cook Inlet (none fished), one salmon purse seine 

permit for Kodiak (none fished), one salmon purse 

seine permit for the Chignik fishery (one fished), one 

salmon beach seine permit for Kodiak (none fished), 3 

salmon drift gillnet permits for Prince William Sound 

(3 fished), 32 salmon drift gillnet permits for Cook 

Inlet (30 fished), one salmon drift gillnet permit for the 

Alaska Peninsula (none fished), 4 salmon drift gillnet 

permits for Bristol Bay (4 fished),; 91 salmon set gillnet 

permits for Cook Inlet (67 fished), 4 salmon set gillnet 

permit for Bristol Bay (4 fished), and one salmon set 

gillnet permits for Kotzebue (none fished). 

In 2002, the Kenai Peninsula Borough received 

$810 in federal funds to compensate for fisheries losses 

due to Steller sea lion habitat protection under the 

Endangered Species Act. In 2003, the Kenai Peninsula 

Borough received $623,295 in federal salmon disaster 

funds to compensate the community for falling salmon 

prices. A portion of these sums will likely be used for 

programs that affect Kasilof. 

Sport Fishing 

The sport fishing industry is an important part of 

the Kasilof economy. The area is a major destination 

for sport fishermen around the world who come 

to fish in Cook Inlet as well in the Kenai River, the 

most heavily fished river in Alaska The major sport 

fish species include halibut, chinook, coho, pink and 

sockeye salmon, rainbow trout, steelhead, and Dolly 

Varden. 

In 2000, a total of 1,794 sport licenses were sold 

in Kenai—935 to Alaska residents and 859 to nonresidents. There were 24 freshwater sport fishing 

guides and 10 saltwater sport fishing guides registered 

in Kasilof in 2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Under federal subsistence regulations, Kasilof is 

not designated as “rural” and therefore its residents 

are not eligible to harvest subsistence resources 

from federally managed land or waters. In 1999, 

five households in Kasilof held subsistence salmon 

harvesting permits. There is no detailed information 

available from the ADF&G regarding specific 

subsistence activities in Kasilof. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Kasilof 
���

����

235

Kenai (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Kenai is a Home Rule city of 6,942 residents 

located in the Kenai Peninsula Borough, about 65 air 

miles and 155 highway miles southwest of Anchorage. 

The area encompasses 29.9 square miles of land and 

5.6 miles of water. Kenai is the largest community on 

the Kenai Peninsula and is the hub of the region’s oil 

and gas, commercial and sport fishing, and tourism 

industries. 

Demographic Profile 

The vast majority of the 6,942 Kenai residents 

(99.7%) live in households rather than group quarters. 

The gender composition in the community is relatively 

equal, at 49.4% male and 50.6% female. The racial 

makeup is as follows: White (82.8%), Alaska Native 

or American Indian (8.7%), Black (0.5%), Asian 

(1.7%), Hawaiian Native (0.2%), other (1.1%), two or 

more races (5.0%). A total of 12.1% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. In addition, 3.8% of residents were of 

Hispanic ethnicity. The median age of Kenai residents 

is 32.3 years, slightly younger than the U.S. national 

median of 35.3 years. Along with the discovery of oil 

near Kenai and offshore in Cook Inlet in the 1950s and 

1960s, the population has boomed in recent decades. 

There was a four-fold increase in population between 

1960 and 1970 alone. 

History 

Kenai has been the site of a Dena’ina Athabascan 

village since prehistory. When Russian fur traders 

arrived in 1741, there were about 1,000 people living 

in a settlement near the Kenai River. A permanent 

Russian settlement was established in the late 1700s 

to support fur and fish trading. Later, in 1869, Kenai 

was the site of a short-lived U.S. military post. During 

the early 2oth century, commercial fishing was the 

primary economic activity. The federal government 

established at this time an agriculture experimental 

station in Kenai meant to foster a more permanent 

land-based settlement (Naske and Slotnick 1987: 88). 

In 1957, the first major Alaska oil strike was made near 

Kenai, and in 1965 offshore oil was discovered nearby 

in Cook Inlet. The growth of the oil industry, along 

with commercial fishing and recreational activities, 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

����� Kenai Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ��� ���

���������������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Kenai����� Data source: US Census ����������������������

Pacific Islander 

0.2% Other Two or more 

Asian 1% races 

1.7% 5.0% 

Native 

8.7% 

Black 

0.5% 

White 

������������������������82.8% 

�����

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Kenai 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Kenai 
����

����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

236

combine to make Kenai one of the fastest growing 

communities in contemporary Alaska. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Kenai is relatively diverse. 

Residents are employed in the oil and gas industry, 

commercial and sport fishing, fish processing, 

agriculture, and timber harvesting. Tourism for both 

in-state and out-of-state visitors is an increasingly 

important part of Kenai’s economy. 

In 2000, the average per capita income was 

$20,789, and the average household income was 

$45,962. Approximately 8.2% of the total potential 

labor force was unemployed, and 34% of residents 

aged 16 years and older were not in the labor force (i.e. 

not employed and not seeking work). Approximately 

9.8% of residents lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Kenai was incorporated as a first-class city in 

1960 and has a city manager form of government. 

It is in the Kenai Peninsula Borough. In terms of 

Native governance, there is the village council 

(the Kenaitze Indian Tribe) and the Kenai Natives 

Association. Government revenues come from a 3% 

sales tax administered by the city and a 2% sales tax 

administered by the borough. There is also a 0.4% (or 

4.0 mill) property tax administered by the city and a 

0.65% (or 6.5 mill) property tax administered by the 

borough. There is an office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) located directly in 

Kenai. The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) office and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office are both located 

in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Utilities are provided primarily by the city and 

include piped water, sewage, and garbage collection. 

Electricity is provided by the Homer Electric 

Association, which uses both hydroelectric and gas 

turbines. The Dena’ina Health Clinic is operated by 

the village council. Police services are provided by 

the city, and fire/rescue services are provided by the 

borough. 

Kenai is accessible both by air and by road via 

the Sterling Highway. Roundtrip airfare from Kenai to 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Kenai����� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

�����

����������������������� 2000 Employment Structure 

Kenai 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

Anchorage costs approximately $134. 

There are two elementary schools, one middle 

school, and one high school located in Kenai, all of 

which are operated by the borough. There are a total 

of 107 teachers and 1,559 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Commercial fishing is a major part of the 

local economy in Kenai. The Cook Inlet salmon 

fishery accounts for the most significant portion of 

commercial fishing activities for Kenai residents. In 

2000, there were 18 vessel owners with operations in 

federal fisheries and 75 vessel owners with operations 

* Commercial fishing permit data from the CFEC is given for 

the communities of Kenai and Nikishka 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Kenai 
237

in state fisheries who resided in Kenai. There were 

271 registered crew members. In 2000, there were 235 

residents who held a total of 317 commercial fishing 

permits. The following section contains detailed 

information about commercial permits issued to Kenai 

residents in 2000.

Crab: Three residents held a total of four permits 

in the crab fishery, and three of these were fished. A 

detailed breakdown of these permits was as follows: 

one Dungeness crab pot gear permit for vessels over 

60 feet in Cook Inlet (none fished), one King crab pot 

gear permit for vessels over 60 feet in Bristol Bay 

(one fished), and two Tanner crab pot gear permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in the Bering Sea (two fished).

Other Shellfish: Four residents held a total of six 

permits for other shellfish, and four of these permits 

were fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits is 

as follows: one shrimp beam trawl permit for Prince 

William Sound (one fished), one shrimp beam trawl 

permit for the Westward region of the Alaska Peninsula 

(one fished), three clam shovel permits for statewide 

waters (one fished), and one scallop dredge permit for 

statewide waters (one fished); 

Halibut: Forty-nine residents held a total of 52 

permits in the halibut fishery, and 33 of these were 

fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits is as 

follows: 4 halibut hand troll permits for statewide 

waters (one fished), 32 halibut longline permits for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (20 fished), 

one halibut mechanical jig permit for vessels in 

statewide waters (none fished), and 15 halibut longline 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (12 

fished).

Herring: Fourteen residents held a total of 20 

permits in the herring fishery, but only one permit was 

fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits is as 

follows: 2 herring roe purse seine permits for Prince 

William Sound (none fished), 3 herring roe purse 

seine permits for Cook Inlet (none fished), 3 herring 

roe purse seine permits for Bristol Bay (none fished), 

2 herring roe gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (none 

fished), 5 herring roe gillnet permits for the Kodiak 

fishery (none fished), one herring roe gillnet permit 

for Security Cove (none fished), one herring roe 

gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (one fished), 2 herring 

roe gillnet permits for Norton Sound (none fished), 

and one herring permit to collect eggs in kelp fields in 

Prince William Sound (none fished).

Sablefish: Three residents held a total of four 

permits in the sablefish fishery, but only one of 

these permits was fished. A detailed breakdown of 

these permits is as follows: one sablefish mechanical 

jig permit for statewide waters (none fished), one 

sablefish fixed gear permit for vessels under 50 feet 

in length in Prince William Sound (one fished), one 

sablefish longline permit for vessels over 60 feet in 

the northern southeast region (none fished), and one 

sablefish longline permit for vessels over 60 feet in the 

southern southeast region (none fished).

Other Groundfish: Seventeen residents held a 

total of 22 permits for the groundfish fishery, and 11 

of these were actually fished. A detailed breakdown 

of these permits is as follows: one lingcod longline 

permit for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(one fished), one lingcod mechanical jig permit for 

statewide waters (none fished), five miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline permits for vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), 3 

miscellaneous salt water finfish pot gear permits for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (3 fished),7 

seven miscellaneous salt water finfish mechanical jig 

permits for statewide waters (4 fished), 3 snail pot gear 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (3 

fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish for vessels 

using other gear in statewide waters (none fished), and 

one demersal shelf rockfish hand troll permit for the 

southeast region (none fished).

Salmon: Commercial salmon fishing, particularly 

in the Cook Inlet fishery is very important in Kenai. 

In 2000, 208 residents held a total of 209 permits, and 

156 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of these 

permits is as follows: one salmon purse seine permit 

for the southeast region (one fished), 2 salmon purse 

seine permits for Prince William Sound (none fished), 

2 salmon purse seine permits for the Kodiak fishery 

(2 fished), one salmon purse seine permits for the 

Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands (one fished), 2 

salmon drift gillnet permits for Prince William Sound 

(one fished), 66 salmon drift gillnet permits for Cook 

Inlet (61 fished), one salmon drift gillnet permit for 

the Alaska Peninsula (one fished), eight salmon drift 

gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (7 fished), 112 salmon 

set gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (70 fished), 12 

salmon set gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (12 fished), 

one salmon set gillnet permit for Kuskokwim (none 

fished), and one salmon hand troll permit for statewide 

waters (none fished).

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Kenai 
238

Kenai is also an important hub for commercial fish 

processing. In 2000 there were 6 processing plants with 

a combined total of 906 tons in landings for federally 

managed species and 4,269.3 tons in landings for 

state-managed species. The salmon fishery accounted 

for the vast majority of landings.

In 2002, the Kenai Peninsula Borough received 

$810 in federal funds to compensate for fisheries 

losses due to Steller sea lion habitat protection 

under the Endangered Species Act. In 2003, Kenai 

received $155,035 in federal salmon disaster funds to 

compensate the community for falling salmon prices. 

The Kenai Peninsula Borough as a whole received 

$623,295 in salmon disaster funds. 

Sport Fishing 

The sport fishing industry in Kenai is very large, 

accounting for a major portion of local economic 

activity. The area is a major destination for sport 

fishermen around the world who come to fish in Cook 

Inlet as well in the Kenai River, the most heavily 

fished river in Alaska The Major sport fish species 

include halibut, chinook, silver, pink and sockeye 

salmon, rainbow trout, steelhead, and Dolly Varden. 

The largest recorded king salmon taken by rod and 

reel, weighing 97 pounds 4 ounces, was landed from 

the Kenai River. 

In 2000, a total of 9,350 sport licenses were sold 

in Kenai—4,263 to Alaska residents and 5,087 to nonresidents. The sport fishing guide industry is very 

strong in Kenai, with 20 saltwater and 35 freshwater 

guides registered in 2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence reported 

in 1993 that 98% of Kenai households used at least 

some subsistence resources. Approximately 95% of 

households used fish for subsistence, including salmon 

and non-salmon species. Approximately 54.5% of 

households used marine invertebrates for subsistence, 

and a small portion of households (1%) used marine 

mammals. A total of 107 in Kenai held subsistence 

salmon harvesting permits in 1999. The member 

of the Kenaitze Indian Tribe in Kenai who hold a 

valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Kenai in 1993 was 83.8 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (46.2%), nonsalmon fish (19.5%), land mammals (20.2%), marine 

mammals (0.7%), birds and bird eggs (1.1%), marine 

invertebrates (6.1%), and vegetation (6.2%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Kenai 
���

����

239

Nikiski (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Nikiski is located 9 miles 

north of the City of Kenai on the Kenai Peninsula on 

the Sterling Highway. Nikiski is also known as Port 

Nikiski and Nikishka and is located in the Kenai 

Recording District. It is made up of 69.6 square miles 

of land and 6.6 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Nikiski had a total population of 4,327 in 2000. 

The gender composition in the community was 52.2% 

male and 47.8% female. Since 1980, the population 

has increased from 1,109 inhabitants to 4,409 in 2002, 

as established by a State Demographer. At the time of 

the 2000 U.S. Census the racial makeup was: 87.2% 

White, 0.1% Black, 7.6% American Indian and Alaska 

Native, 0.7% Asian, 0.5% Native Hawaiian and Other 

Pacific Islander, 0.8% other, and 3.1% two or more 

races. A total of 10.1% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. 

About 1.3% of the population was of Hispanic. 

The median age in the community in 2000 was 34.2 

years old, compared to the national average of 35.3 

years. About 33.5% of the population was under the 

age of 18. There were a total of 1,766 housing units in 

the community and of those 252 were vacant with 93 

having been vacant due to seasonal use. No one lived 

in group quarters. About 88.5% of the population age 

25 years and over had graduated from high school 

and gone on to further schooling, 16.8% had obtained 

a bachelor’s degree, and 4.3% had a graduate or 

professional degree. 

History 

The area of Nikiski was historically in Kenaitze 

Indian territory. For the most part Athabascan Indian 

groups live in interior Alaska, and Eskimo and Aleut 

groups live in the coastal areas; the Kenaitze Indians 

are the exception. The Kenaitze Indians were Dena’ina 

Athabascan people who replaced the Kachemak 

people in around 1000 A.D. (VisitKenai.com 2003). 

The Native people of the area were called Kenaitze by 

the Russians which meant ‘the people who live along 

the Kenai River’, although “the Kenaitze, however, 

called themselves Kahthuht’ana, an Athabascan word 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������� Nikiski Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Nikiski ������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

Pacific Islander Other 

0.5% 0.8% 

Asian Two or more 0.7% 

Native races 

3.1% 7.6% 

Black 

0.1% 

White 

87.2% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Nikiski 

������������������������

������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

��������

����

������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Nikiski 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

240

meaning ‘the people of the Kenai’” (Halliday 1998, 

p.182). Between 1786 and 1791 Russian fur traders 

came to the Kenai area and established settlements. 

Around 1795 Russian Orthodoxy was introduced 

into the area by Father Juvenaly. In 1838, there was 

a smallpox epidemic and approximately 50% of the 

Dena’ina people died from the disease. The Native 

population was hit again in the years 1918 to 1920 

during the worldwide influenza epidemic. The first 

cannery in Kenai was built in 1888 by the Northern 

Packing Company. In 1923 the Alaska Railroad was 

finished and in 1937 construction was started on the 

Kenai airport. The area of Nikiski was homesteaded 

in the 1940’s. Construction began on the Sterling 

Highway in 1947, was finished in 1951, and was paved 

in 1954 which provided greater access to the area. The 

region grew with the discovery of oil on the Kenai 

Peninsula in 1957. Oil-related industries had located to 

the area by 1964 including Tesoro, Chevron, Phillips 

66, and Unocal. A fire department was organized for 

Nikiski beginning the 1960’s and has since “developed 

one of the best and most aggressive training programs 

in petroleum firefighting you can find anywhere in the 

states” (Nikiski Fire Department 2003). 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Nikiski is the most industrial area on the Kenai 

Peninsula because the oil industry is so important 

to the economy of the community. It is the site of a 

Tesoro oil refinery where crude oil from Cook Inlet 

(and some from the North Slope) is processed into 

diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel. A BP natural gas to 

liquid fuel pilot plant has also been constructed in the 

area. Natchiq, Inc. and Alaska Petroleum Contractors 

are building portable modules which will be shipped 

to the Alpine oil field in the North Slope for oil 

service work and are being constructed in Nikiski. 

Five hundred residents are employed at Agrium, 

Inc.’s fertilizer plant which produces 600,000 tons 

of ammonia and 1 million tons of urea yearly. The 

Captain Cook Recreation Area is located about 10 

miles outside of the community, drawing visitors to 

the area. Employment is also provided by the timber 

industry, retail, government, tourism-related services, 

and commercial and sport fishing. There were a total 

of 71 commercial fishing permits issued to residents 

of Nikiski in 2000 and 93 licensed crew members 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Nikiski ������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

���� ���

��� �

����������

���� ����

�������������������������� ������������������

��������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Nikiski 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

lived in the community. Subsistence activities do seem 

to be present to a certain degree in the community, 

although there is little data available. Of those age 

16 and over about 52.0% were employed, 9.7% were 

unemployed, and 38.3% were not in the labor force. Of 

those employed, approximately 24.0% were classified 

as being in construction, extraction, and maintenance 

occupations. The per capita income in the community 

was $20,129, and the median household income was 

$51,176. About 11.4% of the population lived below 

the poverty level at the time of the 2000 U.S. Census. 

Governance 

Nikiski is unincorporated; therefore, no city or 

borough officials or employees live in the community. 

Nikiski is included in part of the Kenai Peninsula 

Borough and the North Peninsula Chamber of 

Commerce is present. There is neither a regional 

Native corporation, nor any Native village corporation 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Nikiski 
241

for the community. Nikiski was not included as part 

of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) 

and is not federally recognized as a Native village. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in Soldotna, which is also 

on the Kenai Peninsula, whereas the closest Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration (BCIS) and National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) offices are located 

in Anchorage. There is also a NMFS office in Homer 

as well. 

Facilities 

Nikiski is accessible by land with the Sterling 

Highway providing access to Anchorage, and roads 

linking the community to Kenai where airport and 

docking facilities are available. The approximate cost 

to fly to Kenai from Anchorage roundtrip was $114 

according to Travelocity and Expedia (price given for 

date as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). Two 

private airstrips are present in the area, one owned by 

the Shell Oil Company. Offshore drilling platforms are 

serviced by the Port Nikiski docks. Accommodations 

are available at Lynn’s Inn B&B, Moose Haven Lodge, 

Daniel’s Lake Lodge, Bishop Creek Campground, 

and Discovery Campground. There are three schools 

in the community; Nikiski Elementary, North Star 

Elementary, and Nikiski Middle/Senior High School 

which had a collective enrollment of 967 students 

taught by 58 teachers in 2000. There is no health care 

available directly in the community, but a hospital 

is located in Soldotna and emergency care can be 

obtained from the Nikiski Fire Department. There are 

also no police in the community. The electric utility 

is the Homer Electric Association, operated by REA 

Co-op with the main power sources of hydroelectric 

and natural gas. Most of the houses in Nikiski use 

individual water wells and septic tanks as no public 

sewer system or piped water systems are available. 

Refuse is collected by Peninsula Sanitation and is 

operated by the Borough transfer facility and Unocal 

Oil. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Nikiski saw a total of 71 commercial fishing 

permits issued to its residents in 2000, and 93 licensed 

crew members lived in the area. There were 5 vessel 

owners participating in commercial federal fisheries, 

and 15 vessel owners participating in the commercial 

salmon fishery.

Out of the 71 commercial fishing permits issued 

to Nikiski residents, 51 were fished. There were 11 

permits issued for halibut: 6 were issued for halibut 

using longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (2 

fished), two using a mechanical jig statewide (one 

fished), and 3 using longline on a vessel over 60 

feet statewide (3 fished). Five permits were issued 

to Nikiski residents for herring: two for herring roe 

using gillnets in Cook Inlet (none fished) and three 

for herring roe using gillnets in Kodiak (none fished). 

Five permits were issued for other groundfish, one for 

lingcod using a mechanical jig statewide (none fished), 

one for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a hand 

troll statewide (none fished), one for miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish using pot gear on a vessel under 60 

feet statewide (none fished), and two for miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish using a mechanical jig statewide (two 

fished). A total of 50 salmon permits were issued of 

which 43 were fished: one was issued for salmon using 

a purse seine in Prince William Sound (none fished), 2 

using drift gillnets in Prince William Sound (2 fished), 

13 using drift gillnets in Cook Inlet (14 fished), one 

using a drift gillnet in Bristol Bay (one fished), 29 

using set gillnets in Cook Inlet (22 fished), 2 using set 

gillnets in Kodiak (2 fished), and 2 using set gillnets in 

Bristol Bay (2 fished).

No vessels delivered landings to Nikiski in 

2000, since there were no processors located in the 

community. Landings are most likely delivered to 

nearby Kenai which has processors for a variety of 

species. The community of Nikiski was not allotted 

any federal salmon disaster funds, although the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough was allotted $623,295. The Kenai 

Peninsula Borough was also recently granted $810 by 

the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of 

the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003). 

Sport Fishing 

There are quite a few sport fishing related 

businesses present in the community of Nikiski. In 

2002, there were 10 freshwater guide business listings 

according to ADF&G, 4 aircraft/fly-in services listings, 

4 drop-off services listings, and 7 full service guide 

listings. There were 20 sport fishing licenses sold in 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Nikiski 
242

Nikiski to residents of the state of Alaska, and a total 

of 274 sold to non-residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Nikiski is considered a Federal non-rural area, 

meaning the residents of the community are not 

eligible to harvest subsistence resources on Federal 

land (of which 60% of the land in the state of Alaska 

is designated). In order to have the right to harvest 

subsistence wildlife, fish, and shellfish on Federal 

land, a status of “rural” must be granted. Rural status 

had been temporarily granted to all communities in 

the Kenai in 2000 as requested by the Kenaitze Indian 

Tribe, although this decision has been overturned and 

currently only certain Kenai communities are given 

the designation of rural. Nikiski is not one of them, 

and therefore, not eligible to harvest subsistence on 

Federal lands. Residents of Nikiski are eligible to 

harvest on State lands because the State considers all 

the communities of Alaska as rural. Most likely, some 

form of subsistence is occurring in the city, although 

there is no information (except for salmon) available 

from the ADF&G because of this Federal non-rural 

designation. According to the ADF&G there was 

one salmon household subsistence permit issued to 

a resident of Nikiski in 1999 for an estimated total 

harvest of 66 fish. It does not appear that residents 

of the community are eligible to apply for halibut 

subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Nikiski 
��

���

����

243

Nikolaevsk �������������������������� (return to communities) 2000 Population Structure 

���������� Nikolaevsk Data source: US Census ����������������������

People and Place �����������

�������� Location ��������

Nikolaevsk is located on the Kenai Peninsula, ��������

�������� inland from Anchor Point and approximately 15 miles ����

������ from Homer. The area encompasses 36.3 square miles 

of land. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Nikolaevsk was a community of 345 

residents in 96 households. Most community members 

are of Russian ancestry. The racial composition of the 

community was as follows: White (81.7%), American 

Indian and Alaska Native (1.7%), Asian (0.3%), 

Hawaiian Native (1.2%), two or more races (13%), 

and other (2.0%). A total of 4.9% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. In addition, 0.3% of residents 

were of Hispanic ethnicity. The gender makeup of 

the community was relatively equal, at 51% male and 

49% female. The age median in the community was 

a young 20.9 years, whereas the national age median 

was 35.3 years. Approximately 63.9% of residents 

aged 25 years or older had a high school diploma or 

higher level of educational attainment. 

The most striking feature of Nikolaevsk is 

its Russian influence. About 67.5% of the local 

population report having Russian ancestry; a similarly 

high percentage report speaking Russian at home. 

Nikolaevsk is a relatively stable community with little 

in- or out-migration. 

History 

Nikolaevsk got its name from St. Nicholas, the 

patron saint of the local Russian Orthodox Church. 

The town’s first settlers came from Woodburn, Oregon, 

where they lived after being expelled from Russia 

following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. After 

receiving a grant from the Tolstoy Foundation in New 

York, the settlers bought land on the Kenai Peninsula 

in 1967 and settled in Nikolaevsk. Today the town 

maintains a traditional Russian Orthodox atmosphere. 

There are three distinct settlements within the town 

boundaries: Russian Orthodox, Russian Old Believers, 

and some non-Russians. 

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ����������

Nikolaevsk ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races 

Other 13.0% 

Pacific Islander 2.0% 

1.2% 

Asian 

0.3% Native 

1.7% 

White 

81.8% 

������������������������

����������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Nikolaevsk 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Nikolaevsk 
��

����������

����������������������

244

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Nikolaevsk is relatively diverse. 

Commercial and subsistence fishing are both important 

sources of income in the community. In addition, 

because of its location on the Kenai Peninsula, near 

the larger towns of Anchor Point and Homer, many 

Nikolaevsk residents work outside the community. 

The median per capita income in Nikolaevsk for 

2000 was $10,390, and the median household income 

was $37,500. Approximately 12.5% of the local labor 

force was unemployed, and 46.8% of residents aged 16 

and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not employed 

and not seeking work). Approximately 19.2% of 

residents lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Nikolaevsk is an unincorporated city under the 

jurisdiction of the Kenai Peninsula Borough. It is 

governed by a community council. In addition, there is 

a community non-profit organization, the Nikolaevsk 

Community Council, Inc. The borough administers 

a 2% sales tax and a 0.65% (6.5 mills) property tax. 

There is an office of the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) located nearby in Homer. The nearest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office 

and Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) office are both located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Nikolaevsk is accessible via the Sterling Highway, 

which runs from Anchorage to Homer. There is an 

airport in Homer, approximately 15 miles away. 

Roundtrip airfare from Homer to Anchorage is about 

$175. There is a piped water system in the community, 

and all homes have indoor plumbing. Most homes 

have individual septic tanks. Electricity is delivered to 

Nikolaevsk by the Homer Electric Association; power 

is produced by a hydroelectric station and by natural 

gas. Fire and emergency medical services are provided 

by the city of Anchor Point. The nearest health clinic is 

the South Peninsula Hospital in Homer. 

There is one school in the community, offering 

instruction to students from K-12. There are 7 teachers 

and 100 students. 

2000 Employment Structure 

Nikolaevsk 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����� �����������

�����

����������

�����

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon and 

halibut fisheries, is an important part of Nikolaevsk’s 

economy. In 2000, there were 5 vessel owners with 

operations in federal fisheries and 10 vessel owners 

with operations in state fisheries who resided in 

the community. There were 44 registered crew 

members. Seventeen local residents held a total of 31 

commercial fishing permits. This section contains a 

detailed description of commercial permits issued to 

Nikolaevsk residents in 2000. 

Halibut: Ten local residents held a total of 10 

permits in the halibut fishery, including: 7 halibut 

longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (6 fished), and 3 halibut longline permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (2 fished). 

Sablefish: Five local residents held a total of five 

permits in the sablefish fishery, including: 4 sablefish 

longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (3 fished), and one sablefish longline permit for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (one fished).

Other Groundfish: Five local residents held a total 

of six permits in the groundfish fishery, including: 

four miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand troll permits 

for statewide waters (four were actually fished), 

one miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical jig 

permit for statewide waters (none fished), and one 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Nikolaevsk 
245

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permit for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished).

Salmon: Ten local residents held a total of 10 

permits in the salmon fishery. These permits included 

the following: two salmon drift gillnet permits for 

Prince William Sound (two fished), five salmon 

drift gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (four fished), one 

salmon drift gillnet permit for the Alaska Peninsula 

(three fished), and two salmon drift gillnet permits for 

Bristol Bay (two fished). 

In 2002, the Kenai Peninsula Borough received 

$810 in federal funds to compensate for fisheries losses 

due to Steller sea lion habitat protection under the 

Endangered Species Act. In 2003, the Kenai Peninsula 

Borough received $623,295 in salmon disaster funds to 

compensate for falling salmon prices. It is anticipated 

that a portion of these sums will be used for programs 

that affect Nikolaevsk. 

Sport Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have detailed information 

about sport fishing activities in Nikolaevsk.

Subsistence Fishing 

Although located on the populous Kenai Peninsula, 

Nikolaevsk is designated as rural for subsistence 

standards. The ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence 

reports that, in 1998, 100% of households in Nikolaevsk 

used subsistence resources. Approximately 97.3% 

of households used subsistence salmon (including 

all five Pacific species), and 94.6% used non-salmon 

subsistence fish (especially cod, halibut, greenling, and 

rockfish). Approximately 29.7% of households used 

marine invertebrates (especially crabs) for subsistence. 

Marine mammals were not used.

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Nikolaevsk in 1998 was 133 pounds, and 

was comprised of the following resources: salmon 

(50.3%), non-salmon fish (25.1%), land mammals 

(16.9%), marine invertebrates (2.9%), and vegetation 

(4.9%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Nikolaevsk 
���

����

����

����

246

Ninilchik (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Ninilchik is located on the Kenai Peninsula, 

approximately 38 miles south of Kenai and 30 miles 

north of Homer, on the Sterling Highway. The area 

encompasses 207.6 square miles of land and 0.1 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, there were 772 residents in 320 

households. The racial composition of the community 

was as follows: White (82.3%), American Indian and 

Alaska Native (14.0%), Asian (0.5%), other (0.1%) 

and two or more races (3.1%). A total of 16.6% of 

the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 0.6% 

of residents were of Hispanic ethnicity. The gender 

makeup of the community was slightly skewed, at 

52.5% male and 47.5% female. The median age was 

42.5 years, significantly older than the U.S. national 

average of 35.3 years. Approximately 79% of residents 

aged 25 years or older had a high school degree or 

higher level of educational attainment. 

History 

The Kenai Peninsula is historically considered 

to be Dena’ina Athabascan Indian territory, although 

archaeological sites on Kachemak Bay suggest the 

presence of Pacific Eskimo or Alutiiq people as early 

as 4,500 years ago (Halliday 1998: 183). The Dena’ina 

word “Niqnikchint” means “lodge by the river.” In the 

1820s, the Russian-American Fur Company established 

a permanent settlement in present-day Ninilchik as a 

place for disabled and sick employees who could not 

return to Russia. 

Nine families originally settled Ninilchik, all of 

whom were descendants of Grigorii Kvasnikoff, a 

Russian Orthodox missionary from Moscow, and 

Mavra Kvasnikoff, a Russian-Sugpiaq from Kodiak. 

In 1846, the early founders built the Transfiguration 

of Our Lord Russian Orthodox Church; this church, 

the most recognizable feature of Ninilchik, was 

constructed on its present site in 1901. By the 1940s, 

homesteaders began settling in the community, and 

today Ninilchik is comprised of many ethnicities. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

��������� Ninilchik Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� �� � �� ���

���������������������

����������������������

���������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

Ninilchik Data source: US Census 

�����

������������

����� �����

������ ����

�����

�����

�����

������������������������

���������

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Ninilchik 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Ninilchik 
��

247

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The local economy revolves around fishing, 

including commercial, sport, and subsistence. Many 

residents hold commercial fishing permits. Sport 

fishing guide services, especially during the summer 

season, constitute another important source of local 

employment. 

In 2000, the median per capita income was $18,463 

and the median household income was $36,250. 

Unemployment was 10.5%, and 41.7% of residents 

aged 16 and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not 

working and not seeking work). The poverty rate was 

13.9%. 

Governance 

Ninilchik is unincorporated. It is governed by a 

traditional village council, which is recognized by 

the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). It is under the 

jurisdiction of the Kenai Peninsula Borough. The 

nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

office and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

office are about 30 miles away in Homer. The nearest 

Bureau of Immigration and Citizenship Services 

(BCIS) office is in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Ninilchik is accessible by road via the Sterling 

Highway. The nearby Kenai airport provides access 

to communities throughout Alaska. Roundtrip airfare 

from Kenai to Anchorage is $134. Most homes use 

individual water wells and septic tanks. Studies 

are currently underway to determine the feasibility 

of installing a community-wide water and sewer 

system. Electricity is provided by the Homer Electric 

Association, which uses both hydroelectric and natural 

gas. The local health clinic is owned and operated by 

the village council. Police services are provided by the 

state troopers. There is one school in the community 

that offers instruction to students from K-12. There 

are 13 teachers and 186 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing operations constitute a major 

portion of the economy in Ninilchik. Seven vessel 

owners with operations in federal fisheries and 22 

���������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Ninilchik 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

�����

��������

�����

vessel owners with operations in state fisheries resided 

in the community in 2000. There were 58 registered 

crew members. Forty-nine local residents held a total 

of 68 commercial fishing permits, predominantly in 

the salmon and halibut fisheries. This section contains 

a detailed description of commercial permits issued to 

Ninilchik residents in 2000. 

Crab: Two local residents held a total of two 

Dungeness crab pot gear permits for vessels over 60 

feet in Cook Inlet (none fished).

Halibut: Nine residents held a total of 10 

commercial permits in the halibut fishery, including: 

6 halibut longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (4 fished), one halibut mechanical jig 

permit for statewide waters (one fished, and 3 halibut 

longline permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide 

waters (3 fished). 

Herring: Five residents held a total of five permits 

in the herring fishery, including: four herring roe gillnet 

permits for Cook Inlet (two fished), and one herring 

roe gillnet permit for Norton Sound (none fished).

Other Groundfish: Four residents held a total of 

eight permits in the groundfish fishery, including the 

following: two lingcod mechanical jig permits for 

statewide waters (none fished), two miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline permits for vessels under 60 

feet in statewide waters (one fished), two miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish pot gear permits for vessels under 

60 feet in statewide waters (one fished), and two 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical jig permit 

for statewide waters (one fished).

Salmon: Forty-two local residents held a total of 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Ninilchik 
248

43 commercial permits in the salmon fishery. These 

permits included the following: one salmon purse 

seine permit for Prince William Sound (none fished), 2 

salmon purse seine permits for Cook Inlet (one fished), 

2 salmon purse seine permits for Kodiak (3 fished), 2 

salmon drift gillnet permits for the Southeast region 

(2 fished), 2 salmon drift gillnet permits for Prince 

William Sound (3 fished), 11 salmon drift gillnet 

permits for Cook Inlet (9 fished),one salmon drift 

gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (one fished), 21 salmon 

set gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (14 fished), and one 

salmon set gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (one fished). 

In 2000, there was one commercial fish 

processing plant located in Ninilchik. In accordance 

with confidentiality regulations, data for fish landings 

in Ninilchik is unavailable. In 2002, the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough received $810 in federal funds to 

compensate for fisheries losses due to Steller sea lion 

habitat protection under the Endangered Species Act. 

In addition, the Kenai Peninsula Borough received 

$623,295 in salmon disaster funds to compensate for 

falling salmon prices. A portion of these sums will 

likely be used for projects that affect Ninilchik. 

Sport Fishing 

Fishermen from Alaska, the lower 48 U.S. states, 

Canada and elsewhere come to the Kenai Peninsula to 

fish in Cook Inlet, Kachemak Bay, and nearby rivers. 

The sport fishing industry in Ninilchik primarily 

revolves around halibut, but silver, sockeye and pink 

salmon are also important. Nearby rivers offer fishing 

for steelhead and Dolly Varden, as well. 

In 2000, sport fishing license sales in Ninilchik 

totaled 5,251—more than six times the total population 

of the community. Of these, the majority (3,753) 

were sold to non-Alaskans. There were 41 registered 

saltwater sport fishing guides and 12 freshwater sport 

fishing guides in Ninilchik in 2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence reports 

that, in 1998, 99% of households in Ninilchik used 

subsistence resources. Approximately 90.1% of 

households used subsistence salmon (including all 

five Pacific species), and 92.1% used non-salmon 

subsistence fish (especially cod, halibut, greenling, 

rockfish and char). Only 2% of households used marine 

mammals for subsistence, but 78.2% used marine 

invertebrates (especially crabs, clams, and mussels).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Ninilchik in 1998 was 163.8 lbs, and was 

comprised of the following resources: salmon (25.9%), 

non-salmon fish (23.4%), land mammals (40.4%), 

marine invertebrates (6.7%), birds and eggs (0.9%), 

and vegetation (2.7%). 

Beginning in 2000, the North Pacific Fisheries 

Management Council designated non-Native residents 

of Ninilchik as ineligible to harvest subsistence halibut. 

Residents have filed an appeal to this decision, and the 

appeal is still pending. 
��

���

����

���� ����

249

Port Graham (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Port Graham is located on the Kenai Peninsula, 

about 7.5 miles southwest of Seldovia and 28 air miles 

south of Homer. The area encompasses 5.9 square 

miles of land. 

Demographic Profile 

Port Graham is a predominantly Alutiiq, or 

Sugpiaq, village. In 2000, there were 171 residents in 

70 households; all residents lived in family households 

rather than group quarters. The racial composition of 

the community was as follows: American Indian and 

Alaska Native (84.8%), White (11.1%), two or more 

races (3.5%), and other (0.6%). A total of 88.3% of 

the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 3.5% 

of residents are of Hispanic ethnicity. The gender 

makeup was slightly skewed, at 53.2% male and 46.8% 

female. The median age in Port Graham was 37.8 years, 

whereas the national age median was 35.3 years. In 

terms of educational attainment, approximately 67.5% 

of residents aged 25 years and older held at least a high 

school diploma. These demographic characteristics 

show a relatively stable Native community marked by 

self-reliance and minimal in- or out-migration. 

History 

The Kenai Peninsula has been inhabited by 

Dena’ina (Athabascan) Indians for thousands of years. 

Alutiiq people have also occupied the region since the 

distant past. The earliest known permanent settlement 

was established by Russians from the nearby trading 

post at Nanwalek, about seven miles away. The 

Russian-American company, first concerned with the 

fur trade, became interested in the rich coal reserves 

at the current site of Port Graham. By the 1850s, 

the company had extracted nearly 800 tons of coal, 

shipping it south to feed the growing gold rush in San 

Francisco (Alaska Historical Society, Unit 5 1982: 15). 

The coal mine lasted only a few years before it became 

economically infeasible and was abandoned. 

A fish cannery has been in operation in Port 

Graham off and on since the early 1900s. Today Port 

Graham is predominantly a community of Alutiiq 

people with strong ties both to their Native cultural 

traditions and to the Russian Orthodox Church. 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Port Graham ������������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�� �� � � � �� �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ������������

���������������������� Port Graham Data source: US Census 

������������

����� �����

�����

�����

������

�����

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

������������������������ Port Graham 

Data source: US Census ������������

����������������������

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Port Graham 
��

������������

����������������������

250

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Port Graham is heavily influenced 

by commercial fishing. Although only a small number 

of local residents are directly engaged in fishing 

activities themselves, there is a salmon cannery in the 

village that is a major source of employment. There is 

also a pink salmon hatchery that provides fish to the 

cannery. In addition to the formal economy, all residents 

of Port Graham depend heavily on subsistence fishing 

and hunting. 

The median per capita income in Port Graham for 

2000 was $13,666, and the median household income 

was $40,250. During that year, 13.2% of the potential 

labor force was unemployed, and 18.8% of residents 

lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Port Graham is an unincorporated community 

governed by a traditional village council and is located 

within the Kenai Peninsula Borough. The village 

council is recognized by the U.S. Bureau of Indian 

Affairs. There is also a local village corporation, which 

holds a land entitlement under the Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA). Port Graham is a member 

of a regional Native corporation, the Chugach Alaska 

Corporation. The nearest Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) and National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) offices are both located in Homer. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Port Graham is not accessible by road. A stateowned 1,975 foot airstrip is available for local charter 

flights. Roundtrip airfare to Anchorage, after a short 

charter flight to Homer, is approximately $175. There 

are no roads in the community, but a trail connects Port 

Graham with the nearby village of Nanwalek. There is 

a piped water and sewer system, operated by the village 

council. All houses have indoor plumbing. Electricity 

is provided by the Homer Electric Association and is 

produced by a hydroelectric facility and natural gas 

generator. There is a local health clinic operated by 

the village council. Police services are provided by a 

village public safety officer. The village has a small 

port with docking facilities. There is a salmon cannery 

in the village. There is one school in Port Graham that 

provides instruction to students from kindergarten 

2000 Employment Structure 

Port Graham 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

�����

through 10th grade. The school has three teachers and 

32 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Despite its relatively small size, Port Graham is 

significantly involved in North Pacific fisheries. One 

vessel owner with operations in federal fisheries and six 

vessel owners with operations in state fisheries resided 

in the community in 2000. There were 12 registered 

crew members. There were 12 local residents who held 

a total of 15 commercial fishing permits; the salmon 

fishery constituted most of these permits. This section 

contains a detailed breakdown of commercial permits 

issued to residents of Port Graham in 2000. 

Halibut: Only one local resident held a halibut 

permit. This was a longline permit for vessels over 

60 feet in length in statewide waters. The permit was 

actually fished.

Herring: Only one local resident held a herring 

permit. This was a herring roe purse seine permit 

for the Bristol Bay fishery. The permit was actually 

fished.

Sablefish: Only one local resident held a permit 

for sablefish. This was a longline permit for vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters. The permit was not 

actually fished.

Other Groundfish: Only one local resident held a 

groundfish permit. This was a miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish longline permit for vessels over 60 feet in 

statewide waters. The permit was not actually fished.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Port Graham 
251

Salmon: Eleven local residents held a total of 11 

permits for the salmon fishery. These included the 

following: one salmon purse seine permit for Prince 

William Sound (none fished); eight salmon purse seine 

permits for Cook Inlet (three fished), and two salmon 

drift gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (none fished). 

In addition to direct involvement in commercial 

fisheries, Port Graham has a pink salmon hatchery

and cannery. In 2002, the Kenai Peninsula Borough 

received $810 in federal funds to compensate for

fisheries losses due to Steller sea lion habitat protection under the Endangered Species Act. In addition, 

the Kenai Peninsula Borough as a whole received

$623,295 in salmon disaster funds in 2003. A portion 

of these sums will likely be used for programs that

directly affect Port Graham. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing accounts for a fair percentage of 

economic activity in Port Graham, although its role 

is less significant than in other towns on the Kenai 

Peninsula. Because of its relatively small size and outof-the-way location far from the sport fishing hubs of 

Seward and Homer, sport fishing in Port Graham is 

limited. In 2000, 43 sport licenses were sold in Port 

Graham, the majority to Alaska residents. In 2002, 

there were no registered sport fishing guides. 

Subsistence Fishing 

As a predominantly Alutiiq village, Port Graham 

relies heavily on subsistence resources. The ADF&G 

reports that, in 1997, 100% of households in Port 

Graham used subsistence resources. All households 

used subsistence salmon (including all five Pacific 

species), and 93.2% used non-salmon subsistence fish 

(especially cod, herring, and halibut). Approximately 

86.4% of households used marine invertebrates 

(especially clams, chitin, and octopus) for subsistence, 

and 81.8% used marine mammals (including seal, sea 

lion, and sea otter). 

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence

foods for Port Graham in 1997 was 253.4 pounds,

and was comprised of the following resources: salmon (56.9%), non-salmon fish (29.8%), marine mammals (3.7%), marine invertebrates (5.0%), vegetation

(3.6%), and land mammals (0.5%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Port Graham 
���

����

252

Seldovia (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Seldovia is situated on the southern tip of the Kenai 

Peninsula facing Cook Inlet and across the water from 

Homer on the south shore of Kachemak Bay. The area 

encompasses 0.4 square miles of land and 0.2 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Seldovia was 286 in 2000. Total population numbers 

increased steadily over the century between 1890, when 

the population totaled 99, to 1980 when there were 

479 residents. Over the last two decades, however, the 

population has declined to nearly half of its maximum 

number. Unlike many fishing communities, the genders 

are in fairly equal balance in Seldovia. The racial 

composition of the population in 2000 included 73.4% 

White, 17.5% Alaska Native or American Indian, 1% 

Black or African American and 0.7% Asian, and 0.3% 

classified themselves as ‘Other’. Overall, 6.6% of the 

population identified with two or more races. A total of 

23.1% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 2.1% 

of the population identified as Hispanic. The median 

age was 45.3 years which is quite a bit higher than the 

national median of 35.3 for the same year. According 

to census data only 26.7% of the population was under 

19 years of age while 32.7% of the population was 

over 55 years of age in 2000.

There were 232 housing units in Seldovia, 98 

of which were vacant in 2000 and of these, 40 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 

U.S. Census, none of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 86.4% of the population had a high 

school diploma or higher while 21% had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

The original residents of Seldovia were of Dena’ina 

Indian and Sugpiaq Eskimo, or Alutiiq. Prehistoric 

evidence of occupation is suspected to lie beneath 

the local Russian Orthodox Church and residential 

homes in the town. Seldovia’s modern history began 

in the late 1800’s when Russian explorers came to the 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Seldovia Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

����

������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � �� �� ��

���������������������

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure ��������

Seldovia ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

Other

0.3%

Pacific Islander 

Two or more 

races 

6.6% 

0.3% 

Asian 

0.7% 

Native 

17.5% 

Black 

1.0% 

White 

73.5% 

������������������������

��������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Seldovia 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seldovia 
��

����

253

��������

����������������������

area. The bay was originally named ‘Zaliv Seldevoy,’

meaning ‘Herring Bay’, from which the present name 

of Seldovia is derived. In the 1870s, Seldovia became 

a fur hunting and trading and center, making the town 

one of the oldest in Cook Inlet. In the early 1900’s, 

Seldovia became a stopping off place for prospectors 

en route to the gold fields in Alaska’s interior. In 1910, 

the first salmon cannery was built and since then 

processing of salmon, herring and crab have been 

important to the community, which is ideally located 

to receive the catches from boats coming into to Cook 

Inlet. In the 1920s, many Scandinavians immigrated to 

Seldovia to capitalize on the herring boom. Seldovia 

became known throughout south-central Alaska as 

‘the boardwalk town’ after a boardwalk was built to 

facilitate travel through town. The boardwalk became 

an important social gathering place for trading 

information and stories. The City of Seldovia was 

incorporated in 1945. In 1964, the land mass on which 

Seldovia was built subsided four feet due to the Good 

Friday earthquake and the town was subsequently 

rebuilt above high tide levels. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Seldovia is intimately linked to 

the local and national fishing industries. Seldovia is 

both a commercial fishing and processing center and a 

popular sport fishing destination. The timber industry 

is small but significant to the community and tourism 

is increasing in importance. A total of 104 commercial 

fishing permits were held by 57 permit holders in 2000 

according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission (ACFEC). 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 55.4% 

of the potential labor force was employed and there 

was a 6.4% unemployment rate. A seemingly high 

38% of the population over 16 years of age was not in 

the labor force, though this may be explained by the 

intensely seasonal nature of the fishing industry, and 

7.9% of the population was below the poverty level. 

The median household income in the same year was 

$45,313 and the per capita income was $23,669. 

Governance 

The City of Seldovia was incorporated in 1945. 

The Seldovia has a Council-Manager form of 

government. The mayor and six council members 

2000 Employment Structure 

Seldovia 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

are elected officials. Seldovia is located in the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough, which is therefore responsible for 

many services. The City of Seldovia implements a 

2%-4% sales tax, and the borough has a 2% sales tax. 

In addition, there is a 7.53 mills (0.75%) property tax 

from the city and a 6.5 mills (0.65%) property tax by 

the borough. Seldovia has a for-profit Native village 

corporation, the Seldovia Native Association, Inc. The 

Association is a business involved in natural resource 

management such as land leasing and timber sales and is 

beginning to venture strongly into tourism enterprises. 

The total land to which Seldovia is entitled under 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) 

amounts to about 181,000 acres. The Seldovia Village 

Tribe is federally recognized and eligible for funding 

and services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

by virtue of their status as an Indian tribe. It provides 

and administers funds for governmental services, such 

as health care, to its members in both Seldovia and in 

Homer. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMSF) regional office is in Homer, as is the nearest 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Anchorage.

Facilities 

Seldovia is accessible only by air and sea as 

the Sterling Highway ends in Homer, across the 

Kachemak Bay. The cost of a roundtrip flight from 

Seldovia to Homer is approximately $50, and from 

there a roundtrip to Anchorage costs about $200 

(prices are based on the closest available date to 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seldovia 
254

September 1, 2003). The community is linked directly 

to the network of communities visited by ferries on 

the Alaska Marine Highway and receives year-round 

barge services and State Ferry service. There is a 

state-owned and city-operated airport with a 1,845 

foot gravel runway, but this is unlit and there are no 

fuel supplies. Daily scheduled jet flights and air taxis 

are available. Harbor facilities include a breakwater, 

dock, a small boat harbor, boat launch, boat haul-out, 

a ferry terminal, and marine repair services. 

Seldovia derives water from the Fish Creek 

Reservoir which is treated and stored in a tank before 

being distributed via water mains. Sewage is piped 

to a community septic tank for primary treatment, 

and then discharged to an ocean outfall. All homes 

are completely plumbed. The borough operates a 

landfill. Electricity is provided by the Homer Electric 

Association. Health services are provided by the 

Seldovia Health Clinic which is city-owned and 

operated by the Seldovia Natives Association. Public 

safety is provided by a city-backed police department. 

Seldovia is within the Kenai Peninsula School District 

and there is one school in Seldovia itself. At Susan 

B. English School six teachers instruct 75 in K-12 

students. Seldovia is developing its tourism industry 

and is increasing the amount of facilities and businesses 

that cater to tourists. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

Commercial fishing is a main contributor to 

the economy of Seldovia, along with other natural 

resource uses. According to the ADF&G, and reported 

by the ACFEC, 104 permits were held by 57 permit 

holders in 2000 (60 fished). There were 10 vessel 

owners in the federal fisheries, 9 vessel owners in the 

salmon fishery and overall 45 crew members claiming 

residence in Seldovia. One vessel in the salmon fishery 

delivered its landings to Seldovia (in accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, other landings data for the 

community is unavailable).

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, 

and fishing area. Permits issued in Seldovia in 2000 

related to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, 

crab, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 18 permits issued 

for halibut in Seldovia in 2000, 16 of which were 

fished. Permits for halibut pertained to 14 longline 

vessels under 60 feet (12 fished) and four longline 

vessels over 60 feet. All permits designated for halibut 

were for statewide waters. 

Herring: There were a total of 11 permits issued 

for the herring fishery, none of which were fished that 

year. Permits for herring roe pertained to five purse 

seine limited to Prince William Sound (none fished), 

four purse seine limited to Cook Inlet (none fished), 

one purse seine limited to Bristol Bay (not fished), and 

one gillnet restricted to Norton Sound (not fished).

Sablefish: A total of five sablefish permits were 

issued, all of which were fished. Permits pertained to 

three longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

and two longline vessels over 60 feet also in statewide 

waters 

Other groundfish: A total of 23 permits were 

issued for other groundfish in Seldovia, only 7 of 

which were actually fished. Permits pertained to one 

lingcod dinglebar troll in statewide waters (not fished), 

two lingcod mechanical jigs in statewide waters 

(none fished), three miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(none fished), three miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

pot gear vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(none fished), seven miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

mechanical jigs in statewide waters (none fished), two 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessels over 

60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), and five 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear vessel over 60 

feet in statewide waters (four fished). 

Crab: Eight permits were issued in Seldovia for 

crab in 2000, two of which were fished. Two permits 

pertained to Dungeness crab pot gear vessels over 60 

feet in Yakutat (none fished). Two permits pertained to 

king crab pot gear vessels over 60 feet in the Bering 

Sea (none fished). Two permits pertained to king crab 

pot gear vessels over 60 feet in Bristol Bay (one fished). 

Two permits pertained to Tanner crab pot gear vessels 

over 60 feet in the Bering Sea (one fished). 

Salmon: A total of 39 permits were issued for 

the salmon fishery, 30 of which were fished. Salmon 

permits pertained to 2 purse seine restricted to Cook 

Inlet (one fished), 3 purse seine restricted to Kodiak 

(2 fished), 3 purse seines restricted to Chignik, 6 drift 

gillnets limited to Cook Inlet (2 fished), one drift gillnet 

in Bristol Bay, 16 set gillnets in Cook Inlet (15 fished), 

5 set gillnets in Bristol Bay, 2 set gillnets restricted to 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seldovia 
255

Kotzebue (none fished), and one power gurdy troll in 

statewide waters (not fished).

Although fish processing, especially of shellfish, 

is considered an important endeavor in Seldovia, only 

one processing plant was operating in the town in 

2000. In accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

data for fish landings in the community is unavailable. 

Port Graham Seafoods, Inc. had the capacity to process 

salmon that year. 

It was announced in July 2003 that Seldovia would 

receive $3,824 worth of federal salmon disaster funds 

to be distributed to several municipalities statewide 

which have been affected by low salmon prices in order 

to compensate for consequent losses of salmon taxes or 

raw fish taxes. The Kenai Peninsula Borough, in which 

Seldovia is located, has been allotted $623,295. The 

disbursement of these disaster funds illustrates state 

and federal responses to communities and boroughs 

affected by recent falling salmon prices. Communities 

and boroughs are ultimately responsible for the 

allocation of the funds. Further disbursements are 

expected in the future to offset the costs of basic public 

services for which fish taxes become insufficient. In 

2002 the Kenai Peninsula Borough received $810 as 

part of a federal fund set up in accordance with the 

Endangered Species Act to offset costs to fisheries 

and communities due to Steller sea lion protection 

regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2002, there were seven sport fishing saltwater 

guides in operation. In 2000, there was a total of 597 

sport fishing licenses sold in Seldovia, 242 of which 

were sold to Alaska residents. Several species are 

targeted for sport fishing in Seldovia, including halibut, 

chinook, silver, pink, jack, sockeye and chum salmon, 

Dolly Varden, steelhead, pollock, rainbow trout, arctic 

char, manta ray, and black bass. The City of Seldovia’s 

website proclaims: ‘Life doesn’t get any better than 

fishing on one of Seldovia’s charter boats.’

Subsistence Fishing 

Data from 1993 compiled on behalf of the 

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Seldovia. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for all 

95.4% of households which participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, 89.2% used salmon, 86.2% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, greenling, 

halibut, rockfish, sablefish, and trout), many fewer 

households, only13.8%, used marine mammals, and a 

high percentage, 90.8%, used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for1993 was 183.55 

lbs. The composition of the total subsistence harvest 

can be shown by the percentages of the resources 

which demonstrate the amount of each resource 

category used by the community relative to other 

resources categories. The total subsistence harvest was 

composed of 35.01% salmon, non-salmon fish made 

up 23.76%, land mammals 12.85%, marine mammals 

only 0.67%, birds and eggs accounted for 0.70% of 

the total subsistence harvest, marine invertebrates for 

18.5%, and vegetation made up 8.51%. The wild food 

harvest in Seldovia made up 119% of the recommended 

dietary allowance of protein in 1993 (corresponding to 

49 g of protein per day or 0.424 lbs of wild food per 

day) (Wolfe, Division of Subsistence, ADF&G).

A total of 15 permits were held by households in 

Seldovia for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to ADF&G records from 1999. Sockeye and chinook 

made up the largest proportions of the salmon harvest, 

followed by chum. Residents of Seldovia and members 

of the Seldovia Village Tribe, an Alaska Native Tribe, 

who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seldovia 
���

����

256

Seward 2000 Population Structure �������������������������� (return to communities) ������ Seward Data source: US Census ����������������������

People and Place �����������

�������� Location ��������

Seward is located on Resurrection Bay on the ��������

�������� southeast coast of the Kenai Peninsula. It lies at the ����

������ foot of a mountain range, ending in the South with 

Mount Marathon. Seward is the gateway to Kenai 

Fjords National Park. The area encompasses 14.4 

square miles of land and 7.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Seward was 2,830. Total population numbers have 

increased steadily from 1910 when there were 534 

residents of the community. There are substantially 

more males (60% of the population) in the community 

than females (40% of the population). The racial 

composition of the population in 2000 included 

72.1% White, 16.7% Alaska Native or American 

Indian, 2.4% Black, 1.8% Asian, and 0.9% classified 

themselves as ‘Other’. Overall, 5.9% of the population 

identified with two or more races. A total of 20.9% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 2.4% of the 

population identified as Hispanic. The median age was 

37.1 years which is slightly above the national median 

of 35.3 years. According to census data, 24.7% of 

the population was under 19 years of age while only 

15.5% of the population was over 55 years of age.

There were 917 housing units in Seward, 141 

of which were vacant in 2000 and of these, 63 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of U.S. Census 

in 2000, 22.2% of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 86.7% of the population had a high 

school diploma or higher according to the 2000 census 

data while 15.9% had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Seward does not have a large Native presence and 

there is little evidence that the immediate area was 

inhabited or used prior to Russian arrival. Alexander 

Baranof, a Russian fur trader and explorer, gave 

Resurrection Bay its name in 1792 when he found 

shelter from a storm in the bay. The unexpected shelter 

was discovered by the Russians on the Russian Sunday 

of the Resurrection. Seward itself was named for U.S. 

Secretary of State William Seward who negotiated the 

purchase of Alaska from Russia during the Lincoln 

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

���������������������

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure ������

Seward ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

Other 

1% Two or more Pacific Islander 

0.2% races 

6% Asian 

2% 

Native 

17% 

Black 

2%

White 

72% 

������������������������

������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Seward

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seward 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

257

administration in the 1860s. Settlers first arrived in 

Seward in the 1890s and the settlement became the 

main supply base for south-central Alaska with the 

completion of the Alaska Railroad not long afterwards. 

Construction on the Railroad was begun in 1903 

and completed around 1920. Seward was the largest 

community on the Kenai Peninsula. Community 

members hoped that Seward would become the main 

metropolis of Alaska because of its optimum location, 

ice-free port, and easy access to the interior of the 

state. Tsunamis created by the magnitude 9.2 Good 

Friday earthquake in March 1964 destroyed part of the 

town and killed several people. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Seward became a major transportation hub when 

the Alaska Railroad, which terminates in the town, was 

built in the early 1900s. Seward is also an overland link 

both to Anchorage and to the Interior via highways. 

The economy is based on commercial fishing, tourism, 

ship services and repair and the fossil fuel industry as 

well as the transportation of goods. The University of 

Alaska’s Institute of Marine Sciences operates a coastal 

facility, the Seward Marine Center in the community. 

The Alaska SeaLife Center, the Chugach Heritage 

Center, Kenai Fjords National Park, and the Mount 

Marathon Race and Fourth of July festivities attract 

visitors throughout the year. In fact, over 320,000 

cruise ship passengers visit Seward annually. There 

are several fish processing plants in Seward with the 

collective capacity to process halibut, sablefish, other 

groundfish, and salmon. Salmon is major component 

of the harvest and the current reduction in salmon 

prices has adversely affected the economy of Seward.

A total of 164 commercial fishing permits were 

held by 80 permit holders in 2000 according to the 

Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC). At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 43.9% 

of the potential labor force was employed and 9.1% 

were unemployed. A high percentage, 46.4% of the 

population over 16 years of age, was not in the labor 

force but may be largely seasonally involved with 

the commercial fishing industry, and 10.6% of the 

population lived below the poverty level. The median 

household income in the same year was $44,306 and 

the per capita income was $20,360. 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Seward������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

��������������������������

����

����

����

���

���� ���� ������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Seward 

Data source: US Census 

����������

������������������

��������������

�������� ����������� �����

�����

����������

Governance 

The City of Seward was incorporated in 1912 and 

residents subsequently voted to adopt a Home Rule 

Charter. The City of Seward has a Council-Manager 

form of government. The mayor and six council 

members are elected officials. The city manager, city 

clerk, and the city attorney are appointed by the council. 

Seward belongs to the Kenai Peninsula Borough. The 

city of Seward implements a 4% sales tax and the 

borough collects a 2% sales tax in Seward. The city 

collects a 3.22 mills (0.32%) tax on property and the 

borough also collects 6.5 mills (0.65%) on property. 

Additionally, the city implements a 4% accommodations 

tax. Seward is a member of the for-profit Native 

regional corporation Chugach Corporation under the 

Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

The Chugach Alaska Corporation Region includes the 

four communities of Cordova, Seward, Valdez, and 

Whittier, and the five Native villages of Port Graham, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seward 
258

Chenega Bay, Eyak, Nanwalek (English Bay) and 

Tatitlek. Approximately 550,000 acres of the lands 

are subsurface estate from the region’s Native village 

surface entitlements. It includes more than 5,000 miles 

of coastline, at the heart of which lies Prince William 

Sound. The Qutekcak Native Tribe is the local village 

council, but is not recognized as an ANCSA village. 

There are two local village corporations in Seward: the 

Grouse Creek Corporation and the Mount Marathon 

Native Association. 

The most easily accessible National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) regional office, Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS), and 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

office are all in Anchorage.

Facilities 

Seward is readily accessible by road, air, and 

sea. Seward is connected to the extensive Alaska 

Highway system by the Seward Highway. Because of 

Seward’s proximity to Anchorage and the accessibility 

of the Seward Highway, no airline offers regular 

scheduled flights between Seward and Anchorage. 

A flight can be chartered for approximately $1,700. 

Two paved runways, of 4,240 and 2, 300 feet each are 

available for chartered and daily flights to the stateowned airport. The small boat harbor at Seward has 

can accommodate up to 650 boats and has two boat 

launch ramps. The Port of Seward receives national 

and international ships, including the State Ferry, 

cargo barges, and ocean freighters from Seattle and 

further away connecting to the Alaska Railroad, which 

transports over 14 billion pounds of cargo annually. 

The Alaska Railroad imports cargo to the Interior and 

exports coal to the Pacific Rim. 

Seward’s treated water supply is drawn from 

eight wells. Sewage is piped to a secondary treatment 

lagoon. Nearly all homes in Seward are plumbed and 

the Borough provides landfill facilities. Electricity 

is purchased by the Seward Electric system from 

Chugach Electric. Health services are provided 

privately by the Providence Seward Medical Center 

and North Star Health Clinic. Public safety is provided 

by a city-backed police department and state troopers. 

Seward is within the Kenai Peninsula Schools district 

and there are three schools in Seward itself. At Seward 

Elementary School 23 teachers instruct 356 students, 

26 teachers instruct 406 students at Seward Middle/

high School, and 4 teachers instruct 33 students in 

11th and 12th grades at Spring Creek School. Seward 

has a highly developed tourism industry and there are 

several businesses including numerous accommodation 

providers which cater to visitors all year. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is important to the economy 

of Seward. According to the ADF&G, and reported 

by the ACFEC, 164 permits were held by 80 permit 

holders but only 86 permits were fished in Seward 

in 2000. There were 25 vessel owners in the federal 

fisheries, 24 vessel owners in the salmon fishery, and 

198 crew members claiming residence in Seward. The 

commercial vessel fleet delivering landings to Seward 

was involved in halibut (169 vessels), sablefish (129 

vessels), other ground fish (203 vessels), and salmon 

(211 vessels) fisheries in 2000. Landings included 

2,678.79 tons of federally managed fish species (in 

accordance with confidentiality regulations, landings 

data for specific species are unavailable) and 11,530.35 

tons of salmon. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Seward for the year 

2000 related to halibut, herring, other finfish, sablefish, 

other groundfish, crab, other shellfish, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of 29 permits issued 

for halibut, 27 of which were fished. Permits for halibut 

pertained to one hand troll, 21 longline vessels under 

60 feet (19 fished), and 7 longline vessels over 60 feet. 

All permits designated for halibut were for statewide 

waters. 

Herring: There were a total of 14 permits issued for 

the herring fishery in Seward in 2000, only 2 of which 

were fished that year. Permits for herring roe pertained 

to three purse seine limited to Prince William Sound 

(none fished), three purse seine limited to Cook Inlet 

(none fished), five purse seine limited to Bristol Bay 

(one fished), two gillnets restricted to Norton Sound 

(one fished), and one permit for harvesting herring 

food/bait with a purse seine in Prince William Sound 

(not fished).

Other finfish: Three permits were issued for other 

finfish, none of which were fished. Permits pertained 

to one fresh water fish beach seine in statewide waters 

(not fished), one freshwater fish set gillnet in statewide 

waters (not fished), and one freshwater fish longline 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seward 
259

vessel under 60 feet in statewide waters (not fished).

Sablefish: A total of 18 sablefish permits were 

issued in 2000 in Seward, 12 of which were fished. 

Permits pertained to 11 longline vessels under 60 

feet in statewide waters (6 fished), one mechanical 

jig in statewide waters (not fished), one for a fixed 

gear vessel of maximum 60 feet length restricted to 

Prince William Sound, one for a fixed gear vessel of 

maximum 50 feet length restricted to Prince William 

Sound, one longline vessel over 60 feet restricted to 

northern southeast waters, two longline vessels over 

60 feet in statewide waters and one longline vessel 

over 60 feet in southern southeast waters. 

Other groundfish: A total of 44 permits were 

issued in 2000 for other groundfish in Seward, only 13 

of which were fished. Permits pertained to one lingcod 

hand troll in statewide waters (not fished), one lingcod 

longline vessel under 60 feet in statewide waters (not 

fished), one lingcod dinglebar troll in statewide waters 

(not fished), 2 lingcod mechanical jigs in statewide 

waters (none fished), 3 miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish hand troll in statewide waters (none fished), 5 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessels under 

60 feet in statewide waters (7 fished), 4 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish pot gear vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (none fished), 12 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish mechanical jigs in statewide waters 

(4 fished), 3 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (one fished), 

and 2 miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear vessel 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (one fished). 

Crab: Five permits were issued in Seward 

for crab, three of which were actually fished. One 

permit pertained to 75 pots or 25% of maximum for 

Dungeness crab in southeast waters (not fished), 2 

permits pertained to pot gear for king and Tanner crab 

in southeast, one permit for a king crab pot gear vessel 

over 60 feet in Bristol Bay (not fished) and one Tanner 

crab pot gear vessel over 60 feet in the Bering Sea. 

Other shellfish: Of five other shellfish permits, only 

one was fished. Permits issued in Seward pertained to 

one shrimp pot gear vessel under 60 feet in westward 

waters (not fished), one shrimp pot gear in southeast 

waters (not fished), one shrimp pot gear vessel over 60 

feet in westward waters (not fished), one sea cucumber 

diving gear permit for statewide waters but excluding 

southeast waters, one sea urchin diving gear permit for 

statewide waters but excluding southeast waters (not 

fished).

Salmon: A total of 46 permits were issued for 

the salmon fishery, 28 of which were fished. Salmon 

permits pertained to one purse seine restricted to 

southeast waters, 10 purse seine restricted to Prince 

William Sound (3 fished), 9 purse seine restricted to 

Cook Inlet (five permits were actually fished), five 

purse seines restricted to Kodiak (4 fished), 4 purse 

seine restricted to Chignik (5 fished), one drift gillnet 

limited to southeast waters, 6 drift gillnets limited 

to Prince William Sound (4 fished), 2 drift gillnets 

limited to Cook Inlet, one set gillnet in Prince William 

Sound, 5 set gillnets in Bristol Bay (3 fished), and 2 

hand trolls in statewide waters (none fished).

Between the five processors registered in Seward 

in 2000, there were facilities for processing halibut, 

salmon, sablefish, and groundfish. These processors 

are significant seasonal employers and providers 

of harbor and portside facilities. Resurrection Bay 

Seafoods, a processing plant in Seward owned by 

Wards Cove Packing Company, was purchased by 

Seattle-based Smoki Foods in the spring of 2003, just 

before the opening of the halibut season. In recent 

years, the Seward plant has primarily been a halibut 

and black cod processing facility. It was put on the 

market in December after Wards Cove announced it 

was closing the doors of its Alaska salmon processing 

facilities.

It was announced in July 2003 that Seward would 

receive $117,135 worth of federal salmon disaster 

funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The Kenai Peninsula 

Borough, in which Seward is located, has been allocated 

$623,295. The disbursement of these disaster funds 

illustrates state and federal responses to communities 

and boroughs affected by recent falling salmon prices. 

Communities and boroughs are ultimately responsible 

for the allocation of the funds. Further disbursements 

are expected in the future to offset the costs of basic 

public services for which fish taxes become insufficient. 

In 2002, the City of Seward received $810 and the 

Aleutians East Borough, in which Seward is located, 

received $140,063 as part of a federal fund set up in 

accordance with the Endangered Species Act to offset 

costs to fisheries and communities due to Steller sea 

lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

The considerable diversity of fish species available 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seward 
260

for recreational fishing in the waters around Seward, as 

well as the town’s easy accessibility, make it popular 

destination for sport fishers. Chinook salmon, silver 

salmon, red salmon, halibut, rockfish, and lingcod 

are common sportfishing species found in the nearby 

marine waters. There were 37 saltwater sport fishing 

businesses registered in Seward in 2002 and four 

freshwater businesses. There was a total of 13,923 

sport fishing licenses sold in Seward in 2000, 4,099 of 

which were sold to Alaska residents. The high numbers 

are due to Seward’s famous river fishing which 

attract people from all over the world and necessitate 

arranging accommodation and fishing guides well in 

advance during summer months.

Subsistence Fishing 

According to 2003-2004 Federal subsistence 

fishery regulations, Seward is designated as a Federal 

nonrural area. Correspondingly, residents of Seward 

are not eligible for subsistence fishing permits and are 

not permitted to harvest fish or shellfish under Federal 

subsistence regulations. 

A total of five permits were held by households in 

Seward for subsistence fishing of salmon according to 

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records from 1999. 

Salmon is not a federally managed fish, and is therefore 

not subject to the same restriction as other fisheries. 

Pink salmon made up the largest proportions of the 

salmon harvest, followed by sockeye and chum. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Seward 
���

����

261

Soldotna (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Soldotna is located on the Kenai Peninsula, 

approximately 150 miles southwest of Anchorage on 

the Sterling Highway. It lies on the Kenai River and 10 

miles inland from Cook Inlet. The area encompasses 

6.9 square miles of land and 0.5 square miles of 

water. 

Demographic Profile 

Since its founding after WWII, the community 

of Soldotna has grown rapidly. The population tripled 

between 1970 and 2000 alone, due to increased 

employment opportunities and the growth of the 

local oil industry. In 2000, the community had 3,759 

residents in 1,465 households. A small proportion of 

the population (51 people, or 1.4%) lived in group 

quarters. The gender composition of the community 

was slightly unequal, at 52.4% female and 47.6% male. 

The racial makeup of Soldotna is as follows: White 

(88.1%), Alaska Native or American Indian (5.0%), 

Black (0.3%), Asian (1.7%), Hawaiian Native (0.4%), 

Other (1.3%), and two or more races (3.3%). A total 

of 6.9% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Residents 

of Hispanic origin make up 3.2% of the population. 

The median age in Soldotna is 34.9 years, slightly 

younger than the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. 

Approximately 87.6% of residents have educational 

attainment of a high school degree or higher. 

History 

Like other areas on the Kenai Peninsula, the 

area surrounding Soldotna is known to have been 

inhabited by Athabascan people since prehistory. The 

first permanent White settlers, however, were WWII 

veterans who were given a 90-day preference over 

non-veterans for filing for homestead property in 

1947. During that same year, the Sterling Highway 

right-of-way was constructed from Cooper Landing to 

Kenai; Soldotna was established at the point where the 

highway crossed the Kenai River. 

In 1949, a post office was established in the 

community. In 1957, oil was discovered in the Swanson 

River region; oil continues to be a major force for 

growth in Soldotna. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Soldotna Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ��� ���

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure ����������������������

Soldotna �������� Data source: US Census �������������������������

Pacific Islander 

Other 0.4% Asian 

White 

88.0% 

Two or more 

races 

3.3% 

1.3% 

Black 

0.3% 

Native 

5.0% 

1.7% 

������������������������

��������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Soldotna

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Soldotna 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

262

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Soldotna has three major 

components: the oil industry in Cook Inlet, commercial 

fishing and fish processing, and the service sector, 

including the Central Peninsula General Hospital, 

Peninsula Community College, and the borough and 

school district offices. 

The median annual per capita income is $21,740, 

and the median household income is $48,420. 

Approximately 6.2% of the total potential labor force 

is unemployed, and 30.7% of residents 16 years of 

age and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not 

working and not seeking work). Approximately 6.6% 

of residents live below the poverty level.

Governance 

Soldotna was first incorporated as a city in 1960, 

and has a manager form of government. It is under 

the jurisdiction of the Kenai Peninsula Borough, and 

received first-class city status in 1967. Government 

revenues come from a 3% sales tax, administered 

by the city, and a 2% sales tax administered by the 

borough. There is also a 0.475% (4.75 mills) property 

tax administered by the city and a 0.65% (6.5 mills) 

property tax administered by the borough. 

Facilities 

Access to Soldotna is via the Sterling Highway 

from Kenai. There is also a 5,000 foot municipal airport, 

and the Kenai Municipal Airport, with scheduled 

flights and floatplane facilities, is located 10 miles 

away. Roundtrip airfare from Kenai to Anchorage is 

approximately $134. In addition, there are four other 

private landing strips in Soldotna.

Water and sewer services are provided by the 

city. Electricity is provided by the Homer Electric 

Association by a hydroelectric generator and natural 

gas generator. The city provides police services. 

Other important facilities located in Soldotna include 

the Central Peninsula General Hospital, the Kenai 

Peninsula Community College, and the borough 

school district offices. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is a major part of the local 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Soldotna �������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

��� ����

� ���

���� ����

����������

�������������������������� ������������������

��������������

��������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Soldotna 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

���������� �����

economy in Soldotna. The Cook Inlet salmon fishery 

accounts for the most significant portion of commercial 

fishing activities for Soldotna residents. In 2000, there 

were 173 residents who held a total of 220 commercial 

fishing permits. There were 255 registered crew 

members. The following section contains detailed 

information about commercial permits issued to 

Soldotna residents in 2000.

Halibut: Thirty-nine residents held a total of 40 

commercial permits for the halibut fishery, and 27 

permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of these 

permits is as follows: one halibut hand troll permit 

for statewide waters (none fished), 32 halibut longline 

permit for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(22 fished), one halibut mechanical jig permit for 

statewide waters (one fished), and 6 halibut longline 

permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (4 

fished). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Soldotna 
263

Herring: Fourteen residents held a total of 16 

permits in the herring fishery, and 5 permits were 

fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits is as 

follows: seven herring roe gillnet permits for Cook 

Inlet (two fished), one herring roe gillnet permit for 

Kodiak (none fished), two herring roe gillnet permits 

for Security Cove (none fished), four herring roe gillnet 

permits for Bristol Bay (two fished), and two herring 

roe gillnet permits for Norton Sound (one fished). 

Sablefish: Three local residents held a total of three 

permits in the sablefish longline fishery for vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters, but no permits were 

fished. 

Other Groundfish: Eight local residents held 

a total of 10 permits for the groundfish fishery, and 

3 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of 

these permits is as follows: two lingcod mechanical 

jig permits for statewide waters (none fished), four 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permits for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), 

three miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical jig 

permits for statewide waters (two fished), and one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline permit for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (one fished). 

Shellfish: Four residents held a total of five 

commercial permits for the shellfish fishery, and two 

permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of these 

permits is as follows: one shrimp pot gear permit for 

the southeast region (one fished), and four clam shovel 

permits for statewide waters (one fished).

Salmon: There were 145 local residents holding 

a total of 146 permits for the salmon fishery, and 122 

permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of these 

permits is as follows: one salmon purse seine permit 

for the southeast region (one fished), one salmon 

purse seine permit for Prince William Sound (one 

fished), one salmon purse seine permit for the Kodiak 

fishery (one fished), one salmon beach seine permit 

for the Kodiak fishery (none fished), 5 salmon drift 

gillnet permits for the southeast region (5 fished), 55 

salmon drift gillnet permits for Cook Inlet (53 fished), 

9 salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (10 

fished), 56 salmon set gillnet permits for Cook Inlet 

(39 fished), 2 salmon set gillnet permits for the Kodiak 

fishery (2 fished), one salmon set gillnet permit for the 

Alaska Peninsula (one fished), one salmon set gillnet 

permit for the Upper Yukon River (none fished), 11 

salmon set gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (9 fished), 

one salmon set gillnet permit for Norton Sound (none 

fished), and one salmon power gurdy troll permit for 

statewide waters (none fished).

In 2000, there was one commercial fish processing 

plant in Soldotna. In accordance with confidentiality 

regulations, landings data for the community are 

unavailable. In 2002, the Kenai Peninsula Borough 

received $810 in federal funds to compensate for 

fisheries losses due to Steller sea lion habitat protection 

under the Endangered Species Act. In 2003, Soldotna 

received $500 in federal salmon disaster funds to 

compensate for falling salmon prices. The Kenai 

Peninsula Borough as a whole received $623,295 in 

salmon disaster funds, a portion of which will likely 

be used for programs that affect Soldotna. 

Sport Fishing 

Fishermen from Alaska, the lower 48 states, 

Canada, and elsewhere come to Soldotna to fish the 

Kenai River for chinook, sockeye, and coho salmon. 

There is also easy access to Cook Inlet for Halibut, 

as well as to nearby lakes and streams for trout, Dolly 

Varden, and other species. 

Fishermen from outside Alaska, particularly those 

from the lower 48 U.S. states, play an important role in 

Soldotna’s sport fishing industry. In 2000, sport fishing 

license sales in Soldotna totaled 31,917; of these, 

21,244 (or 66.6%) were sold to non-residents. There 

were 79 registered saltwater sport fishing guides and 

156 freshwater sport fishing guides in 2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence hunting and fishing are practiced in 

Soldotna. However, detailed data on subsistence uses 

from the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence is lacking. 

In 1999, 8 households in Soldotna held subsistence 

salmon harvesting permits, and collected a total of 

611 salmon, the vast majority of which were sockeye. 

Soldotna is not considered a rural community by the 

Federal Subsistence Board; community residents 

are not eligible to harvest subsistence resources on 

federally managed lands and waters. All subsistence 

harvesting must take place on state lands and waters. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Soldotna 
���

���

����

264

Sterling (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Sterling is situated inland 

from the Cook Inlet along the Sterling Highway at the 

confluence of the Moose and Kenai Rivers. The area 

encompasses 77.3 square miles of land and 2.1 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Sterling was 4,705. Total population numbers have 

increased steadily since the 1960’s when the population 

numbered in the 100s. The gender was skewed in 

Sterling towards males: 52% of the population, and 

48% females in 2000. The racial composition of the 

population was predominantly White at 92.7%, 3.3% 

Alaska Native or American Indian, 0.4% Black, 0.5% 

Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 

and 0.6% other. Overall, 2.5% of the population 

identified with two or more races. A total of 4.6% of 

the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 1.2% of the 

population identified as Hispanic. The median age was 

36.4 years which is comparable to the national median 

of 35.3 years. According to census data, 33.6% of 

the population was under 19 years of age while only 

16.1% of the population was over 55 years of age.

There were 2,554 housing units in Sterling, 878 of 

which were vacant in 2000. Of these, 706 were vacant 

due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 Census, a 

small number, 0.3%, of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 89.2% of the population had a high 

school diploma or higher while 17.8% had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

Due to its maritime climate and easy access, 

south-central Alaska has long been a gathering place 

for Native Alaskans from diverse places. Human 

occupation and migration across the Kenai Peninsula 

is known to date from some several thousand years 

ago at places such as Beluga Point along the Seward 

Highway and at the Isaac Walton Campground. The 

area around Sterling was traditionally Kenaitze Indian 

territory. Sterling’s name was formalized in 1954 

when a post office was established in the town which 

became an industrial hub after the arrival of explorers 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

Asian 

0.5% 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Sterling Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure

Sterling ����������������������

��������

Data source: US Census 

����������������������

Two or more 

races 

2.5% 

Other 

0.6% 

Pacific Islander 

0.1% 

Native 

3.3% 

Black 

0.4% 

White 

92.6% 

������������������������

��������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Sterling

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Sterling 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

265

and prospectors. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The community of Sterling caters to the sport 

fishing industry and summer influx of recreational 

enthusiasts who stop while passing by on the Sterling 

Highway or who make the attractive region around 

Sterling their vacation destination. Like elsewhere on 

the Kenai Peninsula, the economy is diverse; oil and 

gas processing, timber, fishing, government, retail, 

and tourism-related services provide employment. 

A total of 26 commercial fishing permits were held 

by 16 permit holders in 2000 as reported by ACFEC. In 

2000, 62% of the potential labor force was employed 

and 6% was unemployed. A high percentage, 38% of 

the population over 16 years of age, was not in the 

labor force but may be largely seasonally involved 

with the summer sport fishing industry and 10% of the 

population lived below the poverty level. The median 

household income in the same year was $47,700 and 

the per capita income was $20,741. 

Governance 

Sterling is an unincorporated city within the 

Kenai Peninsula Borough. Because of the city’s status 

as unincorporated, there are neither city officials nor 

borough officials located in the city, nor are there 

municipal or borough finances dispersed to the city. 

Sterling is not a member of the Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA), with no land allotment 

under the Act. It is not a federally recognized Native 

village nor does it have a Native village corporation or 

belong to a regional Native corporation.

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office is in Homer, as is the nearest 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Anchorage.

Facilities 

The community of Sterling is readily accessible 

by road along the Sterling Highway which connects 

the community to Anchorage. There is an impressive 

total of four private airstrips in the vicinity as well as a 

private seaplane base at Scout Lake. No airline provides 

regularly scheduled flights to or from Sterling. Two 

privately-operated boat launches serve the community. 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Sterling�������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

��� ����

� ���

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

���� ���� ��������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Sterling 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

Both airport and docking facilities are available at the 

nearby towns of Soldotna and Kenai. 

The vast majority of homes in Sterling use 

individual wells and septic systems and are fully 

plumbed. The school has its own well. The Borough 

provides a refuse transfer station along the Sterling 

Highway. Electricity is provided by the Homer Electric 

Association. There are no local health care facilities or 

public safety providers. Sterling is within the Kenai 

Peninsula School District and there is one school 

in Sterling itself. At Sterling Elementary School, 

225 students in kindergarten through 6th grade are 

instructed by 12 teachers. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although it is located several miles inland from 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Sterling 
266

Cook Inlet, commercial fishing is significant to the 

economy of Sterling. According to the ADF&G and 

reported by (ACFEC), 26 permits were held by 16 

permit holders, but only 19 permits were fished in 

Sterling in 2000. There were 3 vessel owners in the 

federal fisheries, 8 vessel owners in the salmon fishery 

and overall 48 crew members claiming residence in 

Sterling. Sterling is located inland from Cook Inlet 

and has no access to the open waters, so there are no 

harbor or fish processing facilities and no fish landings 

were made. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Sterling for 2000 related 

to halibut, herring, other groundfish, other shellfish, 

and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of seven permits 

issued for halibut, six of which were fished. Permits 

for halibut pertained to one hand troll (not fished), 

three longline vessels under 60 feet, and three longline 

vessels over 60 feet. All permits designated for halibut 

were for statewide waters. 

Herring: There were a total of three permits issued 

for the herring fishery, none of which were fished that 

year. Permits for herring roe pertained to one gillnet 

in Cook Inlet (not fished) and two gillnets restricted to 

Kodiak (none fished). 

Other groundfish: One permit was issued for 

groundfish, pertaining to one miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish longline vessel under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(not fished).

Other shellfish: Three permits were issued, and all 

permits were fished. These pertained to three permits 

for clamming with shovels statewide.

Salmon: A total of 12 permits were issued for 

the salmon fishery, 10 of which were fished. Salmon 

permits pertained to one purse seine restricted to 

southeast waters, one beach seine in Kodiak (not 

fished), five drift gillnets limited to Cook Inlet and five 

set gillnets limited to Cook Inlet (four fished).

It was announced in July 2003 that the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough, in which Sterling is located, had 

been allocated $623,295 worth of federal salmon 

disaster funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by recent falling salmon prices. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. In 2002, the 

Kenai Peninsula received $810 as part of a federal fund 

set up in accordance with the Endangered Species Act 

to offset costs to fisheries and communities due to 

Steller sea lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

Although little archival or recorded information is 

available to reflect and detail the importance of sport 

fishing to the community of Sterling, it is a significant 

element of the lifestyle and a major attraction to 

visitors. There was a total of 2,775 sport fishing 

licenses sold in Seward in 2000, 533 of which were 

sold to Alaska residents. The high numbers are due to 

Seward’s famous salmon derbies which attract people 

from all over the world and necessitate arranging 

accommodation and fishing guides well in advance.

Subsistence Fishing 

Although the ADF&G have not obtained a 

profile of subsistence practices in Sterling, subsistence 

is alluded to, though not detailed, in other material. 

Hunting, gathering, and fishing are the means by which 

a significant portion of wild-foods are collected. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Sterling 
267

4.2.4 Prince William Sound 

Communities 

Cordova

Fritz Creek

Valdez

Whittier

Geographic Location 

Price William Sound is situated between the 

Kenai Peninsula on the west and Southeast Alaska on 

the east. The sound consists of a labyrinth of fjords at 

roughly 61 °North Lat. 

Weather 

The climate of Prince William Sound is influenced 

by its coastal location. Temperatures are mild, with 

average highs in the summertime around 60 °F and 

average wintertime lows around 20 °F. Precipitation in 

the Sound is quite heavy, averaging around 60 inches 

of rain annually. Valdez, located at the north edge of 

the sound, receives an incredible 325 inches (roughly 

27 feet) of snow each year. 

General Characterization 

Prince William Sound has been the home of 

Alutiiq (Sugpiaq) people for some 5,000 years. 

Athabascan and Tlingit groups, who migrated into 

the sound from other areas, have also been present 

since prehistory. Since the late 1700s, the region has 

been a crossroads for explorers, miners, fishermen, 

and the Native inhabitants of the region. In particular, 

the presence of a protected, deep-water port at Valdez 

has been a key ingredient in the development of the 

region, culminating in the construction of the TransAlaska oil pipeline terminus in the 1970s. 

Today, Prince William Sound, most of which lies 

within the Valdez-Cordova Census Area, is home 

to some 10,000 inhabitants. Most residents live 

within the large towns of Valdez and Cordova; the 

other residents are scattered throughout a few dozen 

small communities. The demographics of the region 

have changed quite dramatically through time. The 

construction of the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline, the 

build-up and withdrawal of U.S. military personnel, 

particularly in Whittier, and the 1989 Exxon Valdez 

oil spill— are all factors that have influenced the 

dramatic flux in the composition of Prince William 

Sound. Today, some 13% of residents are all or part 

Alaska Native. The gender composition of the region, 

at over 53% male, reflects the imbalance of labor 

opportunities. 

Institutional Framework 

Communities in Prince William Sound belong to 

the Valdez-Cordova Census Area but are not under 

the jurisdiction of an organized borough. As a result, 

the communities themselves are responsible for basic 

services and tax administration. The communities 

profiled here also belong to the Prince William 

Sound Economic Development Council, a forum that 

deals with regional economic issues and community 

development. In addition, the communities have 

membership in the Chugach Corporation, a Native 

regional corporation created under the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1971. Some 

communities also have Native village councils. 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

Fishing is a major part of the regional economy 

in Prince William Sound. The communities here all 

have significant numbers of registered crew members, 

vessel owners, and permit holders. In addition, vessels 

from around the region make landings here; salmon 

landings alone were made by more than 1,000 vessels 

in 2000. To that extent, commercial fishing and fish 

processing account for a large portion of employment 

opportunities in the region.

Sport and subsistence fishing are also important 

components of regional involvement in the fishery. 

Sport fishing license sales for the communities profiled 

in this section totaled more than the population of the 

communities combined. A large portion of incoming 

sport fishermen are from elsewhere in Alaska, but 

sport fishermen from the lower 48 states and Canada 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Sub-Regional Introduction 
268

are increasingly coming to the region. Major sport 

species include all five species of Pacific salmon, 

halibut, rockfish, and lingcod. 

In addition, more than 95% of local households 

use subsistence resources, including salmon and nonsalmon fish. Annual per capita harvests ranged from 

79.9 lbs in Whittier to 179.4 lbs in Cordova. 

Regional Challenges 

Prince William Sound faces several particular 

challenges. The first is the result of the 1989 Exxon 

Valdez oil spill, which leaked some 11 million 

gallons of oil into the Sound. Ecological damages and 

economic losses due to declines in fishing and tourism 

revenues have been significant. 

The second challenge, declining salmon 

returns, is one that is familiar to many regions in Alaska. 

Salmon prices have fallen drastically in recent years, 

in part because of increased foreign competition. Both 

Valdez and Cordova received relatively small sums to 

compensate for economic losses due to salmon price 

declines. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Sub-Regional Introduction 
����

����

����

���

����

269

Cordova 2000 Population Structure �������������������������� (return to communities) ������� Cordova 

People and Place 

Location 

Cordova is located on the western edge of the 

Copper River Delta in the Chugach National Forest 

in the Gulf of Alaska and at the southeastern end of 

Prince William Sound. The community was built on 

Orca Inlet, at the base of Eyak Mountain. The area 

encompasses 61.4 square miles of land and 14.3 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Cordova was 2,434. Total population numbers were 

reasonably stable between the early 1900s and late 

1970s. Since the 1980s there has been a steady increase 

in the population corresponding with the growth of the 

commercial fishing industry. The genders in Cordova 

were slanted towards males (54.5%), and 45.5% 

females. The racial composition of the population in 

2000 included 71.7% White, 10.4% American Indian 

and Alaska Native, 10.1% Asian, 0.4% Black, and 1.3% 

classified themselves as ‘Other’. Overall, 6.7% of the 

population identified with two or more races. A total of 

15% of the population recognized themselves as all or 

part Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 3.1% of 

the population identified as Hispanic. The median age 

was 36.9 years which is similar the national median 

of 35.3 years. According to census data, 30.2% of the 

population was under 19 years of age and 15.2% of the 

population was over 55 years of age. 

There were 958 housing units in Cordova, 141 of 

which were vacant in 2000. Of these, 68 were vacant 

due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 U.S. 

Census, about 3.1% of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 88.6% of the population had a high 

school diploma or higher, and 21.4% had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

The first inhabitants living in the area that is now 

Cordova, along the edges of Prince William Sound, 

were the Alutiiq people who subsisted for centuries 

on the natural resources at hand. At some point, they 

were joined by migrating Athabaskans and Tlingit who 

called themselves Eyaks. Eyak Mountain and a large 

lake east of the current town take there names from 

these people. Alaska Natives of other descents have 

Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� � ��� ��� ���

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure �������

���������������������� Cordova Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

�����

�����

������

�����

�����

�����

�����

������������������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Cordova Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Cordova 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

����

270

also joined the settlements in the area. Reportedly, 

there is only one full-blooded Eyak alive today, a 

woman in her 80s, who speaks the Eyak language.

Orca Inlet was known to the non-Native world as 

‘Puerto Cordova,’ named by Don Salvador Fidalgo in 

1790. By the late 1880s the first copper miners began 

arriving. A century later, one of the first producing 

oil fields in Alaska was discovered at Katalla, 47 

miles southeast of Cordova. Subsequently, the town 

of Cordova was named in 1906 by Michael Heney, 

builder of the Copper River and Northwestern 

Railroad, and the City was formed in 1909. The 

Katalla oil field was in operation until 1933 when it 

was destroyed by a disastrous fire. Cordova became the 

railroad terminus and ocean shipping port for copper 

ore from the Kennecott Mine up the Copper River. 

The Bonanza-Kennecott Mines which operated from 

the early 1900s yielded over $200 million in copper, 

silver, and gold, but closed in 1938. The railway was 

consequently shut down. The Good Friday earthquake 

in 1964 halted the state’s attempt to build a highway 

along the old railroad grade. Twenty-five years later, in 

1989, the Exxon Valdez oil spill devastated the local 

ecology and had far-reaching environmental, political, 

economic, and cultural ramifications. Commercial 

fishing has somewhat recovered, and scenic Cordova 

has remained an unspoiled location for a variety of 

outdoor activities.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economic base of Cordova has been the 

fishing industry since the 1940s and roughly half of all 

households have at least one member directly involved 

in commercial harvesting or processing. There are 

several fish processing plants in Cordova which serve 

a large fleet relative for Prince William Sound. Salmon 

is major component of the harvest and the current 

reduction in salmon prices has adversely affected 

the economy of Cordova. The largest employers are 

Bear and Wolf Processing, Cordova School District, 

Cordova Hospital, the City, and the Department of 

Transportation. Additionally, the U.S. Forest Service 

and the U.S. Coast Guard maintain personnel in 

Cordova.

A total of 621 commercial fishing permits were held 

by 343 permit holders in 2000 according to the Alaska 

Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (ACFEC). 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Cordova ������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

��� ���

���� ���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Cordova 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

�����

��������

����� ����������

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 62.2% of the 

potential labor force was employed, there was a 4.6% 

unemployment rate, and 3.6% of the population was in 

the armed forces. A total of 29.1% of the population 

over 16 years of age was not in the labor force and 

7.5% of the population was below the poverty level. 

The median household income in the same year was 

$50, 114 and the per capita income was $25,256. 

Governance 

The City of Cordova was incorporated in July of 

1909 and in October of 1960 residents voted to adopt a 

Home Rule Charter. The City of Cordova has a CouncilManager form of government. The mayor and seven 

council members are elected officials, each elected to 

three-year terms. The city manager, city clerk, and the 

city attorney are appointed by the council. Cordova 

does not belong to an organized borough; therefore 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Cordova 
271

the city is responsible for many services. The city of 

Cordova implements a 6% sales tax, 14.0 mills (1.4%) 

property tax, 6% accommodations tax, and 6% car 

rental tax. Cordova is a member of the for-profit Native 

regional corporation Chugach Corporation under the 

Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

The Chugach Alaska Corporation Region includes the 

four communities of Cordova, Seward, Valdez, and 

Whittier, and the five Native villages of Port Graham, 

Chenega Bay, Eyak, Nanwalek (English Bay) and 

Tatitlek. Approximately 550,000 acres of the lands 

are subsurface estate from the region’s Native village 

surface entitlements. It includes more than 5,000 miles 

of coastline, at the heart of which lies Prince William 

Sound. The Native village corporation is the Chenega 

Corporation, which also has shareholders in Chenega 

Bay, Anchorage, Valdez, Tatitlek, Talkeetna, other 

Alaskan cities, Washington, Oregon, Arizona, and 

several other Lower 48 states. As mentioned above, 

Cordova has a significant Eyak Athabascan population 

with an active Village Council. The Native Village of 

Eyak is federally recognized and eligible for funding 

and services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

by virtue of their status as an Indian tribe. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office is in Anchorage, as is the 

nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office. There is an Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) field office in Cordova.

Facilities 

Cordova is accessible only by air and sea. The 

cost of a roundtrip flight from Cordova to Anchorage 

is approximately $250 (based on the closest available 

date to 1 September, 2003). The community is linked 

directly to the North Pacific Ocean shipping lanes 

through the Gulf of Alaska and receives year-round 

barge services and State Ferry service. There is a 

state-owned and city-operated airport with a 1,840 

foot gravel runway. Daily scheduled jet flights and air 

taxis are available. It is also possible for floatplanes 

to land at the Lake Eyak seaplane base or the boat 

harbor. Harbor facilities include a breakwater, dock, 

small boat harbor with 850 berths, boat launch, boat 

haul-out, ferry terminal, and marine repair services. 

Cordova’s small boat harbor is one of the state’s largest 

single basin harbors. The port at Cordova consists of 

three larger docks and the municipal dock is the main 

commercial port facility in the area. A 48-mile gravel 

road provides access to the Copper River Delta to the 

east. However, plans for a highway up the Copper 

River to connect with the statewide road system have 

been controversial

Cordova draws water from various lakes and 

reservoirs in the vicinity and total water storage 

capacity is 2.1 million gallons. The City operates a 

piped water and sewer system which is treated before 

discharge. Over 90% of homes are fully plumbed; 

others use individual wells and septic systems. A 

landfill and a sludge disposal are available outside of 

town. The community participates in recycling and 

has a household hazardous waste program. 

Cordova Electric Cooperative operates a dieselpowered electricity plant, and two hydroelectric 

plants, one at Humpback Creek and one at Power 

Creek. Health services are provided by the Cordova 

Community Medical Center and the Ilanka Health 

Center operated by the City. Public safety is provided 

by a city-backed police department. Cordova is within 

the Cordova City School District and there are two 

schools in Cordova itself. At Cordova High School 18 

teachers instruct 232 students and 17 teachers instruct 

225 students at Mount Eccles Elementary. Cordova is 

developing a tourism industry and there are several 

businesses that cater to visitors, including at least 

eight accommodations providers.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Like many towns in the region, the fishing industry 

is the major component of Cordova’s economy. 

According to the ADF&G, and reported by ACFEC, 

621 permits were held by 343 permit holders, and 

425 of these were fished in Cordova in 2000. There 

were 42 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 328 

vessel owners in the salmon fishery and 411 crew 

members claiming residence. The commercial vessel 

fleet delivering landings to Cordova was involved in 

groundfish (74 vessels), sablefish (32 vessels) halibut 

(81 vessels), and salmon (660 vessels) fisheries. In 

2000, there were 4,269.11 tons of federally managed 

fish, including 530.02 tons of sablefish, 3250.51 tons of 

other groundfish, 508.58 tons of halibut, and 21,975.02 

tons of salmon landed at the docks in Cordova.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, 

and fishing area. Permits issued in Cordova for 2000 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Cordova 
272

related to crab, halibut, herring roe, other finfish, other 

shellfish, sablefish, and salmon. 

Crab: One permit was issued for a Dungeness 

crab pot gear vessel over 60 feet restricted to Yakutat 

(not fished). 

Halibut: There were a total of 64 permits issued 

for halibut in 2000, 51 of which were fished. Permits 

for halibut pertained to 36 longline vessels under 60 

feet in statewide waters (30 fished), 3 mechanical jigs 

in statewide waters (none fished), and 25 longline 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (21 fished).

Herring: A total of 124 permits were issued for 

herring roe in Cordova in 2000 (14 fished). Permits 

issued for herring pertained to 21 purse seine restricted 

to Prince William Sound (none fished), one purse 

seine restricted to the Cook Inlet (not fished), 2 purse 

seine restricted to Kodiak (one fished), one purse seine 

restricted to the Alaska Peninsula (not fished), 9 purse 

seine restricted to Bristol Bay (six fished), 2 gillnets 

restricted to Southeast Alaska (one fished), 20 gillnets 

limited to Prince William Sound (none fished), one 

gillnet restricted to Kodiak (not fished), 5 gillnets 

restricted to security cove (one fished), 9 gillnets in 

Bristol Bay (5 fished), one gillnet restricted to Norton 

Sound (not fished), 2 herring food/bait purse seine 

restricted to Prince William Sound (none fished), 

and 50 permits to harvest herring spawn on kelp in 

northern southeast Alaska (none fished). 

Other finfish: One experimental/special permit 

was issued for freshwater finfish with unspecified gear 

in statewide waters (not fished).

Other Groundfish: There were 54 permits issued 

for groundfish excluding sablefish in Cordova in 

2000, 19 of which were actually fished. Permits 

issued for groundfish pertained to 2 lingcod longline 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), one 

lingcod dinglebar troll in statewide waters, 4 lingcod 

mechanical jigs in statewide waters (2 fished), one 

lingcod pot gear vessel over 60 feet long in statewide 

waters, 21 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (7 fished), 

one miscellaneous saltwater finfish otter trawl in 

statewide waters (not fished), 3 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish pot gear vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (one fished), 13 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish mechanical jigs statewide waters (2 

fished), 5 miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (3 fished), and 

3 miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear vessels over 

60 feet in statewide waters.

Other Shellfish: One permit was issued for an 

octopi/squid longline vessel under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (not fished), and one for a shrimp pot gear 

vessel under 60 feet limited to Prince William Sound 

(not fished).

Sablefish: There were 11 permits issued for 

sablefish in Cordova in 2000, 10 of which were fished. 

Permits issued for sablefish pertained to one fixed gear 

vessel of maximum 90 feet in Prince William Sound, 

5 fixed gear vessels of maximum 50 feet in Prince 

William Sound, one fixed gear vessel of maximum 

35 feet in Prince William Sound (not fished), and 4 

longline vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters.

Salmon: There were 364 permits issued in Cordova 

for Salmon in 2000, 331 of which were fished. Permits 

issued for salmon pertained to three purse seine in 

southeast waters, 95 purse seine in Prince William 

Sound (65 fished), one purse seine in Chignik, 3 

drift nets in Bristol bay (12 fished), one set gillnet in 

Yakutat (not fished), 9 set gillnets in Prince William 

Sound, 3 set gillnets in Bristol Bay, one set gillnet in 

Kotzebue (not fished), one set gillnet in Norton Sound 

(not fished), and one hand troll in statewide waters 

(not fished). 

In 2000 there were eight fish processing plants 

operating in Cordova with the capacities to process 

halibut, sablefish, other groundfish, and salmon. 

Some of the larger companies operating processing 

facilities, such as North Pacific Processors and Ocean 

Beauty Seafoods, also contributed to the port facilities 

available at the docks. 

Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corporation 

is a non-profit corporation founded in 1974 by a 

local commercial fishermen’s organization with its 

headquarters in Cordova. Four remote hatcheries in 

Prince William Sound are operated by the Corporation 

and benefit commercial, sport fishing, personal and 

subsistence users. 

It was announced in July 2003 that Cordova would 

receive $101,644 worth of federal salmon disaster 

funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by recent falling salmon prices. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 
273

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. In 2002, the 

City of Cordova received $1,592 as part of a federal 

fund set up in accordance with the Endangered Species 

Act to offset costs to fisheries and communities due to 

Steller sea lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

Most of the fresh waters of Prince William Sound, 

particularly those in the Cordova area, are open the 

entire year to salmon fishing. Chinook salmon, silver 

salmon, sockeye salmon, halibut, rockfish and lingcod 

are other popular sportfishing species found in the 

marine waters of Orca Inlet, Simpson Bay, Sheep Bay 

and as close as Spike Island, located just outside the 

harbor. Prince William Sound is closed to all crab 

fishing, but is open to shrimping by permit between 

April 15 through September 15 and other marine 

invertebrate collecting. In total there were 15 businesses 

involved in saltwater sportfishing in Cordova in 2002 

and 15 engaged in freshwater sportfishing. There were 

3,215 sport fishing licenses sold in Cordova in 2000, 

1,251 of which were sold to Alaska residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Data from 1997 compiled on behalf of the 

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Cordova. 

About 97.6% of households participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Approximately 

88.5% of the total population used salmon and 84.6% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, 

bass, cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, 

sablefish, sculpin, shark, wolfish, sole, char, grayling, 

and trout), many fewer households, only 11%, used 

marine mammals and about half the households in the 

community, 51.7%, used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for 1997 was 

179.43 lbs. The composition of the total subsistence 

harvest can be shown by the percentages of the 

resources which demonstrate the amount of each 

resource category used by the community relative 

to other resources categories. The total subsistence 

harvest was composed of 34.87% salmon, non-salmon 

fish made up 42.61%, land mammals 54.49%, marine 

mammals 3.64%, birds and eggs accounted for 2.23%, 

marine invertebrates for 5.52% and vegetation made 

up 8.36%. The wild food harvest in Cordova made up 

83% of the recommended dietary allowance of protein 

in 1993 (corresponding to 49 g of protein per day or 

0.424 lbs of wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of 

Subsistence, ADF&G).

Only one permit was held by a household in 

Cordova for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records from 

1999. The permit was used solely for sockeye salmon. 

Residents of Cordova and members of the Native 

Village of Eyak, an Alaska Native Tribe, who hold 

a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Additional Information 

Cordova is locally famous for two festivals, the 

Copper River Salmon Festival and the Copper River 

Delta Shorebird Festival. The former, held in early June, 

celebrates the beginning of the Alaska salmon run. The 

ferries servicing the Alaska Marine Highway and the 

daily jet service carriers which fly between Cordova 

and Anchorage, Juneau and Seattle all offer special 

festival timetables and fares. The Shorebirds Festival 

occurs a month earlier and attracts avid professional 

and amateur bird watchers to the spectacle of as may as 

5 million shorebirds pausing on their mass migration 

northwards. 

Cordova also hosts the Iceworm Festival in 

February, the only known celebration of the glacial 

iceworm in the world. The Iceworm Festival includes 

a parade, talent shows, arts & crafts exhibits, and the 

Miss Iceworm Pageant and Coronation. 
����

����

����

����

���

����

274

Fritz Creek (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Fritz Creek is situated on the Kenai Peninsula, 

seven miles northeast of Homer off the Sterling 

Highway. It is located on the north shore of Kachemak 

Bay and lies at the foot of Bald Mountain. The area 

encompasses 54.4 square miles of land but does not 

include any water area.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Fritz Creek was 1,603. Total population numbers 

have increased substantially since the 1970’s when the 

community was established. By 1980, the community 

had 404 members and by 1990 the population had 

reached 1,426. The genders were in almost equal 

balance. The racial composition of the population 

included 93.0% White, 2.4% Alaska Native or 

American Indian, 0.2% Black, and 0.6% Asian, and 

0.9% classified themselves as ‘Other’. Overall, 3.1% 

of the population identified with two or more races. A 

total of 5.1% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 

2.2% of the population identified as Hispanic. The 

median age was 38.1 years which is slightly above the 

national median of 35.3 years. According to the census 

data 31.5% of the population was under 19 years of 

age while only 14.8% of the population was over 55 

years of age.

There were 854 housing units in Fritz Creek; 

152 were vacant due to seasonal use. At the time of 

2000 Census, none of the population lived in group 

quarters. About 93.4% of the population had a high 

school diploma or higher, while 34.5% had a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

Due to its maritime climate and easy access, southcentral Alaska has long been a gathering place for Native 

Alaskans from diverse places. Human occupation and 

migration across the Kenai Peninsula is known to date 

from some several thousand years ago at places such 

as Beluga Point along the Seward Highway. The area 

around Kachemak Bay is historically considered to 

be Dena’ina Athabascan Indian territory, although 

archaeological sites suggest the presence of Pacific 

Eskimo or Alutiiq people as early as 4,500 years ago 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������������ Fritz Creek Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� �� � �� ��� ��� ���

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ������������ Fritz Creek Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����

����� ������������

�����

������ ����

�����

�����

����������������������� �����

�����������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Fritz Creek Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Fritz Creek 
����

275

�����������

����������������������

(Halliday 1998: 183). 

Fritz Creek itself was named by R.W. Stone of 

the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey in 1904. Russian, 

and subsequently American, attempts to exploit 

Kachemak Bay coal in the area in late 1800’s proved 

to be unsuccessful (Alaska Historical Commission). 

Fritz Creek is the “End of The Road,” and is also 

known as the “Cosmic Hamlet by the Sea.” It was

popularized by Tom Bodett in his series of books 

about life at the “End of the Road.” Fritz Creek, like

Halibut Cove, is now a mecca for famous and aspiring artists, as well as those who enjoy the wilderness

experience. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Fritz Creek is intimately linked 

with that of nearby Homer which is relatively diverse, 

though predominantly based on fishing and fish 

processing. 

A total of 26 commercial fishing permits were 

held by 13 permit holders in 2000 according to the 

Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

(ACFEC). In 2000, 71.7% of the potential labor force 

was employed and 9.6% were unemployed. A high 

percentage, 28.3%, of the population over 16 years 

of age was not in the labor force but may be largely 

seasonally involved with the commercial fishing 

industry, and 9.6% of the population lived below the 

poverty level. The median household income in the 

same year was $41, 400 and the per capita income was 

$18, 937. 

Governance 

Fritz Creek is an unincorporated city within the 

Kenai Peninsula Borough. Because of the city’s status 

as unincorporated, there are neither city officials nor 

borough officials located in the city, nor are there 

municipal or borough finances dispersed to the city. 

Fritz Creek is not a member of the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), therefore no land 

was allotted under the Act, and is not a federally 

recognized Native village nor does it have a Native 

village corporation or belong to a regional Native 

corporation.

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office is in Homer, as is the nearest 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office. 

2000 Employment Structure 

Fritz Creek Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Anchorage.

Facilities 

Fritz Creek is readily accessible by road along the 

Sterling Highway which connects the community to 

Anchorage. Airport, harbor, and docking facilities are 

available at nearby Homer. The community is linked 

indirectly to the network of communities visited by 

ferries on the Alaska Marine Highway and receives 

year-round barge services and State Ferry service. The 

city-owned airport in Homer has a 6,700foot paved 

runway, as well as a seaplane base. Round trip flights 

between Homer and Anchorage cost approximately 

$200-250. Homer also has a deep-water dock capable 

of accommodating 340 foot-long vessels and a boat 

harbor with moorage for 920 vessels. 

The vast majority of people living in Fritz Creek 

hauls water or has water delivered. Some residences 

and buildings have individual wells. Most residences 

have septic systems for sewage disposal and the 

remainder use out houses. Over half of all residences 

are fully plumbed. The Borough does provide a refuse 

transfer station in Anchor Point, or sanitation facilities 

in Homer are used. Electricity is provided by the 

Homer Electric Association. There are no local health 

care facilities or public safety providers. Fritz Creek is 

within the Kenai Peninsula School District and there 

are two schools in Fritz Creek itself. At Kachemak 

Selo School, 79 students in grades K-12 are instructed 

by 6 teachers, At Voznesenka Elementary School 137 

students are instructed by 10 teachers. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Fritz Creek 
276

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

According to the ADF&G, and reported by 

ACFEC, 26 permits were held by 13 permit holders in 

Fritz Creek in 2000, but only 18 permits were fished. 

There were 2 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 

6 vessel owners in the salmon fishery and 23 crew 

members claiming residence in Fritz Creek. There are 

no fish processing plants, and no fish landing in the 

community.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Fritz Creek for 2000 

related to halibut, herring, sablefish, other groundfish, 

crab, and salmon. 

Halibut: There were a total of six permits issued 

for halibut in Fritz Creek, three of which were fished. 

Permits for halibut pertained to one hand troll (not 

fished), 3 longline vessels under 60 feet (2 fished), 

and two longline vessels over 60 feet (one fished). 

All permits designated for halibut were for statewide 

waters. 

Herring: There were two permits issued for the 

herring fishery pertaining to herring spawn on kelp in 

Prince William Sound (none fished).

Sablefish: There were two permits issued for the 

sablefish fishery pertaining to longline vessels under 

60 feet in statewide waters 

Other groundfish: A total of nine permits were 

issued for other groundfish, only seven of which were 

fished. Permits pertained to two lingcod mechanical 

jigs in statewide waters, one miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish longline vessel under 60 feet in statewide 

waters, three miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (two fished), 

and three miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical 

jigs in statewide waters (two fished). 

Crab: Three permits were issued in for crab, 

none of which were fished. All permits pertained to 

Dungeness pot gear vessels over 60 feet restricted to 

the Cook Inlet (none fished) 

Other shellfish: Only one permit for other shellfish 

was fished. Permits issued in Seward pertained to

one shrimp pot gear vessel under 60 feet in westward

waters (not fished), one shrimp pot gear in southeast waters (not fished), one shrimp pot gear vessel 

over 60 feet in westward waters (not fished), one sea 

cucumber diving gear permit for statewide waters 

but excluding southeast waters, and one sea urchin

diving gear permit for statewide waters, excluding

southeast waters (not fished). 

Salmon: A total of four permits were issued for 

the salmon fishery. Six permits were fished, which 

may reflect the ability of fishing permit holders to hold 

emergency transfer permits. Salmon permits pertained 

to drift gillnets restricted to Prince William Sound (one 

fished), two drift gillnets in Cook Inlet (three fished), 

one drift gillnet in Bristol Bay, and one power gurdy 

troll in statewide waters.

It was announced in July 2003 that the Kenai 

Peninsula Borough, in which Fritz Creek is located, 

has been allocated $623,295 worth of federal salmon 

disaster funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by these falling salmon prices. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. In 2002, the 

Kenai Peninsula received $810 as part of a federal fund 

set up in accordance with the Endangered Species Act 

to offset costs to fisheries and communities due to 

Steller sea lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

There are a few charter sport fishing companies 

operating in Fritz Creek. Easy access to Anchorage 

makes Fritz Creek a frequently chosen tourist 

destination. Nearby Homer is a major sport fishing 

destination and may inspire people to visit surrounding 

communities such as Fritz Creek for a less crowded 

scene. Kachemak Bay is considered to be one of 

Alaska’s most popular destinations for halibut fishing, 

with frequent catches purportedly weighing 100 to 

200 lbs. In fact, halibut, weighing up to 350 lbs are 

fished between June and September.

Subsistence Fishing 

According to 2003-2004 Federal subsistence 

fishery regulations, Fritz Creek is designated as a 

Federal non-rural area. Correspondingly, residents 

of Fritz Creek are not eligible for subsistence fishing 

permits and are not permitted to harvest fish or shellfish 

under Federal subsistence regulations. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Fritz Creek 
277

Data from 1998 compiled on behalf of the 

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Fritz 

Creek. Records describe the subsistence patterns 

for all 100% of households that participated in the 

use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. 

Of the total population, 93.8% used salmon, 90.8% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, shark, 

sole, char, grayling, trout, and whitefish), many fewer 

households, only 3.1%, used marine mammals, and a 

high percentage, 76.9%, used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for the year 1998 

was 105.35 pounds. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources that were used which demonstrate 

the amount of each resource category used by the 

community relative to other resources categories. The 

total subsistence harvest was composed of 29.7% 

salmon, non-salmon fish made up 28.34%, land 

mammals 27.93%, no significant amount of marine 

mammals was used, birds and eggs accounted for 

only 1.64% of the total subsistence harvest, marine 

invertebrates for 7.15%, and vegetation made up 

5.24%.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Fritz Creek 
���

���

����

���

278

Valdez (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Valdez is situated on the far 

north shore of Port Valdez, a deep water fjord in north 

Prince William Sound. Importantly, it is also the 

northernmost ice-free port at the southern terminus of 

the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline. The area encompasses 

222.0 square miles of land and 55.1 square miles of 

water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Valdez was 4,036. Total population numbers have 

increased steadily over the past century, with the 

greatest growth occurring since the 1960s. The gender 

ratio was skewed towards males in 2000 at 51.9% 

versus 48.1% female. The racial composition of the 

population included 83.6% White, 7.2% Alaska Native 

or American Indian, 2.2% Asian, 0.4% Black, 0.4% 

Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and 1.4% 

classified themselves as ‘Other’. Overall, 4.7% of the 

population identified with two or more races. A total 

of 10.2% of the population recognized themselves as 

all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. In 2000, 

4.0% of the population identified as Hispanic. The 

median age was 35.4 years which is slightly above the 

national median of 35.3 years. According to census 

data, 31.9% of the population was under 19 years of 

age while only 10.1% of the population was over 55 

years of age.

There were 1,494 housing units in Valdez, 151 that 

were vacant, with 46 vacant due to seasonal use. At the 

time of the 2000 Census, only 1.4% of the population 

lived in group quarters. About 90.8% of the population 

had a high school diploma or higher, while 21.9% had 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The Alutiiq people were the dominant culture 

around the Valdez area, settling Prince William Sound 

more than 5,000 years ago. Eyak Athabascans migrated 

down the Copper River and were also present in the 

eastern portion of the region. There is a great amount 

of temporal depth in the human inhabitation of the 

Sound. In fact, archaeological evidence suggests that 

Chugach people occupied the area from the time 

when it was still largely covered by glaciers during the 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Valdez Data source: US Census ����������������������

��� ��� � ���

���������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ���

2000 Racial Structure 

���������������������� Valdez 

Data source: US Census ������

�����������������������

Pacific Islander Other

0.4% 

Native 

7.2% 

Black 

0.4% 

1.4% 

Two or more 

Asian races 

4.7% 2.2% 

White 

83.7% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

������������������������ Valdez 

Data source: US Census ������ ����������������������

��������

������������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Valdez 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

����

279

last ice age. The Chugach were the first Alaskans to 

meet Vitus Bering, the European explorer for whom 

the Bering Strait is named, the man who ‘discovered’

Alaska at Kayak Island under the auspices of the 

Russian flag. Russian culture has played an important 

role in Chugach history, beginning with the founding 

of Fort Saint Constantine at Nuchek Village in 1793. 

Subsequently explorers, traders, entrepreneurs, 

fishermen, gold miners, and missionaries from around 

the globe have left their mark on the history of the 

region. 

In 1790, the Port of Valdez was named by Don 

Salvador Fidalgo for the celebrated Spanish naval 

officer Antonio Valdes y Basan. Because of its 

convenient ice-free port and well protected harbor, 

a town developed just over a century later, and was 

incorporated soon after, which became a debarkation 

point for prospective miners heading off to the Eagle 

Mining District and the Klondike gold fields. Before 

long, Valdez had become a major supply hub for the 

gold mining region. The devastating Good Friday 

earthquake in 1964, with a magnitude of 9.2 and with 

an epicenter only a few miles outside of the town, was 

the largest earthquake on record in the U.S. and resulted 

in a significant loss of waterfront property and several 

lives in Valdez. The community was rebuilt on more 

stable bedrock a few miles to the west. This prime 

location set the stage for Valdez’s profitable future as 

the terminus for the Trans-Alaskan oil pipeline which 

was constructed in the 1970s. The Exxon Valdez oil 

spill in March of 1989, however, severely damaged 

the long-term economy and the environment and had 

serious political, moral, and cultural ramifications. 

The oil spill once again put Valdez on the map for the 

largest disaster of its kind in U.S. history. During the 

cleanup process, centered in Valdez, the population of 

the town tripled. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Seasonal commercial fishing and tourism form 

the economic base of Valdez. Four fish processors 

operate in the city and serve the fleet. Salmon is a 

major component of the harvest and the current drop 

in salmon prices has adversely affected the economy. 

A total of 63 commercial fishing permits were held by 

42 permit holders in 2000 according to ACFEC. The 

oil industry is a further significant enterprise. Four of 

the top 10 employers in Valdez are directly connected 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Valdez ������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

���� ����

��� ���

����������

���� ����

������������������

�������������������������� ��������������

������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Valdez 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

to the oil terminus. Valdez has one of the highest 

municipal tax bases in Alaska as the southern terminus 

and loading point of oil extracted from Prudhoe Bay on 

the North Slope. Additionally, city, state, and federal 

agencies combined provide significant employment. 

Subsistence is also vital to people of Valdez.

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 68.3% of 

the potential labor force was employed and there 

was a 4.5% unemployment rate. Only 26.1% of the 

population over 16 years of age was not in the labor 

force and 6.2% of the population lived below the 

poverty level. The median household income in the 

same year was $66, 532 and the per capita income was 

$27, 341. 

Governance 

The City of Valdez was incorporated in June 

1901 and in February 1961 residents voted to adopt a 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Valdez 
280

Home Rule Charter. The City of Valdez has a CouncilManager form of government. The mayor and six 

council members are elected officials, each elected to 

two-year terms. The city manager, the city clerk, and 

the city attorney are appointed by the council. Valdez 

does not belong to an organized Alaskan borough; 

therefore, the city is responsible for many services. 

The City of Valdez does not implement a sales tax, but 

does establish the mill rate for taxation on property, 

20.0 mills property tax (2.0%), and imposes a 6% 

accommodations tax. 

Valdez is a member of the for-profit Native 

regional corporation, Chugach Alaska Corporation, 

under the Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). The Chugach Alaska Corporation Region 

includes the four communities of Cordova, Seward, 

Valdez, and Whittier, and the five Native villages of 

Port Graham, Chenega Bay, Eyak, Nanwalek (English 

Bay), and Tatitlek. Approximately 550,000 acres 

of the lands are subsurface estate from the region’s 

Native village surface entitlements. It includes more 

than 5,000 miles of coastline, at the heart of which 

lies Prince William Sound. The Valdez Native tribe is 

the local village council, but is not recognized as an 

ANCSA village. The Valdez Native Association is the 

village non-profit organization. The Prince William 

Sound Economic Development Council serves as a 

forum for the discussion of regional economic issues 

and community development for the communities of 

Chenega Bay, Cordova, Tatitlek, Valdez, and Whittier. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office is in Cordova. The nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) is Anchorage. There is an ADF&G field office 

in Cordova.

Facilities 

Valdez is accessible by road via the Richardson 

Highway which connects Valdez to Anchorage, 

Fairbanks and Canada, and also by air and sea, along 

the Alaska Marine Highway and via ferries between 

Whittier, Cordova, Kodiak, Seward, Homer, Bartlett 

and Tustumena. The cost of a round trip flight from 

Valdez to Anchorage is about $250.00 (based on the 

closest available date to 1 September, 2003). The 

airport, with a 6,500 foot paved runway, is operated by 

the state. The world’s largest floating concrete dock is 

located in the port of Valdez along with numerous other 

facilities for cargo and commercial ships. The small 

harbor at Valdez can accommodate 546 commercial 

fishing boats and recreational vessels. 

Water in Valdez is supplied primarily from wells 

and stored in five 750, 000 gallon reservoirs from where 

it is piped throughout the city. Sewage is processed and 

released into a secondary treatment lagoon. Almost all 

houses are plumbed, and many have their own wells 

and septic tanks. The city operates a landfill and in 

1998 an oil and hazardous waste recycling center was 

completed. 

The local utility company, Copper Valley Electric, 

purchases power from the Four Dam Pool Power 

Agency and the Petro Star Refinery, and also owns 

diesel plants in Valdez and nearby Glennallen. Health 

services are provided by the Valdez Community 

Hospital, Valdez Medical Clinic, and the Valdez 

Native Tribe Clinic. Public safety is provided by a citybacked police department and state troopers. Valdez is 

within the Valdez City School District and there are 

four schools in Valdez itself. At Valdez High School 

18 teachers instruct 298 students, 11 teachers instruct 

136 students at George H. Gilson Junior High School, 

27 teachers instruct 422 students at Hermon Hutchens 

Elementary School, and 1 teacher instructs 123 

students through Chugach Extension Correspondence 

School. Valdez has a well developed tourism industry 

and there are several businesses including at least seven 

accommodation providers which cater to visitors. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is of great import to the 

economy of Valdez. According to the ADF&G, and 

reported by ACFEC, 63 permits were held by 42 permit 

holders but only 30 permits were fished in Valdez 

in 2000. There were 9 vessel owners in the federal 

fisheries, 25 vessel owners in the salmon fishery, 

and 69 crew members claiming residence in Valdez. 

The commercial vessel fleet delivering landings to 

Valdez was involved in halibut (11 vessels), sablefish 

(three vessels), other ground fish (seven vessels), and 

salmon (524 vessels) fisheries in 2000. In accordance 

with confidentiality regulations, landings data for the 

community are unavailable.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in Valdez for 2000 related 

to halibut, herring roe, sablefish, other groundfish, 

shellfish (excluding crab), and salmon. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Valdez 
281

Halibut: There were a total of 16 permits issued 

for halibut, nine of which were fished. Permits for 

halibut pertained to 9 longline vessels under 60 feet (5 

fished), and 7 longline vessels over 60 feet (4 fished). 

All permits designated for halibut were for statewide 

waters. 

Herring: There were a total of four permits issued 

for the herring fishery, none of which were fished that 

year. Permits for herring roe pertained to one purse 

seine limited to Prince William Sound (not fished), 

one gillnet restricted to Norton Sound (not fished) and 

two permits for harvesting herring spawn on kelp in 

Prince William Sound (none fished).

Sablefish and other groundfish: Two sablefish 

permits were issued for fixed gear vessels of maximum 

50 feet length (one fished). A total of eight permits 

were issued for other groundfish (none fished). 

Permits pertained to two lingcod longline vessels 

under 60 feet for statewide waters (none fished), 

four miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished), one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish pot gear vessel under 

60 feet in statewide waters (not fished), and one 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish longline vessel over 60 

feet in statewide waters (not fished).

Shellfish: One permit was issued in Valdez for 

a shrimp pot gear vessel under 60 feet restricted to 

Prince William Sound (not fished).

Salmon: A total of 32 permits were issued for the 

salmon fishery, none of which were fished. Salmon 

permits pertained to 17 purse seine restricted to Prince 

William Sound (10 fished), 10 drift gillnets restricted 

to Prince William Sound (7 fished), one drift gillnet 

limited to Cook Inlet, 2 drift gillnets for Bristol Bay, 

one gillnet for Bristol Bay (not fished), and hand troll 

for statewide waters (not fished). 

Sea Hawk Seafoods operates processing facilities 

in Valdez with the capacity to process halibut, 

groundfish, and salmon. Peter Pan Seafoods processes 

these species as well as sablefish. The Waterkist 

Corporation processes salmon. These processors are 

significant seasonal employers and providers of harbor 

and portside facilities. Commercial fisheries were very 

hard hit by the Exxon Valdez disaster in 1989 (see 

Additional Information below). 

It was announced in July 2003 that Valdez would 

receive $7,759 worth of federal salmon disaster funds 

to be distributed to several municipalities statewide 

which have been affected by low salmon prices in 

order to compensate for consequent losses of salmon 

taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement of these 

disaster funds illustrates state and federal responses 

to communities and boroughs affected by recent 

falling salmon prices. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services for which 

fish taxes become insufficient. In 2002 Valdez did 

not receive allocations from a federal fund set up in 

accordance with the Endangered Species Act to offset 

costs to fisheries and communities due to Steller sea 

lion protection regulations. 

Prince William Sound Aquaculture Corporation 

is a non-profit corporation founded in 1974 by a 

local commercial fishermen’s organization with 

headquarters in Cordova but it is also active in Valdez. 

Four remote hatcheries in Prince William Sound 

operated by the Corporation benefit commercial, sport 

fishing, personal use, and subsistence users. 

Sport Fishing 

Most of the fresh waters of Prince William Sound 

are open the entire year to salmon fishing. Chinook 

salmon, silver salmon, sockeye salmon, halibut, 

rockfish, and lingcod are other popular sportfishing 

species found in the nearby marine waters. Prince 

William Sound is closed to all crab fishing, but 

is open to shrimping by permit between April 15 

through September 15 and to collecting other marine 

invertebrates. In total there were 37 businesses 

involved in saltwater sport fishing in Valdez in 2002 

and 15 engaged in freshwater sport fishing. A total of 

8,600 sport fishing licenses were sold, 3170 to Alaska 

residents. The high numbers of licenses testifies to 

Valdez’s popular sport fishing and indicates that the 

waters around Valdez are international destinations for 

sport fishers. The local chamber of commerce hosts 

three fishing derbies during the summer, giving away 

$10,000 first-place prizes in both the halibut and silver 

salmon derbies. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to 2003-2004 Federal subsistence 

fishery regulations, Valdez is designated as a Federal 

nonrural area. Correspondingly, residents of Valdez 

are not eligible for subsistence fishing permits and are 

not permitted to harvest fish or shellfish under Federal 

subsistence regulations. 

Data from 1992 compiled on behalf of the 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Valdez 
282

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in the past in 

Valdez. Records describe the subsistence patterns for 

all 97% of households which participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, 83% used salmon and 81% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, bass, cod, eel, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sculpin, skates, 

sole, wolfish, char, grayling, pike, whitefish, sablefish, 

trout), many fewer households, only 2%, used marine 

mammals and nearly half of the households in Valdez, 

49%, used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for1992 was 103.41 

lbs. The composition of the total subsistence harvest 

can be shown by the percentages of the resources 

which demonstrate the amount of each resource 

category used by the community relative to other 

resources categories. The total subsistence harvest was 

composed of 42.98% salmon, non-salmon fish made 

up 31.2%, land mammals 18.45%, marine mammals 

made up a very small percentage, birds and eggs 

accounted for 1.37% of the total subsistence harvest, 

marine invertebrates for 3.09% and vegetation made 

up 2.92%. The wild food harvest in Valdez made up 

51% of the recommended dietary allowance of protein 

in 1993 (corresponding to 49 grams of protein per day 

or 0.424 pounds of wild food per day).

A total of 41 permits were held by households in 

Valdez for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence records from 

1999. Sockeye made up the largest proportion of 

the salmon harvest by a vast majority, followed by 

chinook. Residents of Valdez were not eligible to 

harvest subsistence halibut according to regulations 

implemented through the Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) program initiated 

in 2002 and administered by the National Marine 

Fisheries Service. 

Additional Information 

The Exxon Valdez oil spill is one of the most 

publicized and studied environmental disasters in 

history. On March 24, 1989 the oil tanker Exxon 

Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef after exiting the 

Valdez harbor and spilled an estimated 11 million 

gallons of crude oil across 1,300 miles of coastline. 

The vast majority of the spill area now appears to have 

recovered, but small pockets of crude oil remain in 

some locations, and there is evidence that damage is 

continuing. 

The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council was 

established as part of settlement between the State 

of Alaska, the Federal Government, and Exxon. The 

settlement was approved by the U.S. District Court 

on October 9, 1991 and attempted to resolve various 

criminal charges against Exxon including damage to 

natural resources. The settlement includes a criminal 

plea agreement, criminal restitution orders, and civil 

settlement, totaling over one billion dollars. Although 

federal and state governments did settle their civil and 

criminal litigation with Exxon in the 1990s, claims by 

private parties continued to be litigated and remained 

unresolved as of March 2002. The Trustee Council was 

charged with carrying out research and development 

on habitat restoration and conservation for the area. 

The Trustee Council administers projects carried out 

by NMFS researchers and contractors. 

The economic impacts of the spill were researched 

with federal grants in the years immediately following 

the spill. The five studies funded by the State of Alaska 

were: ‘a Preliminary Economic Analysis of Recreational 

Fishing Losses Related to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill’

December 1992, ‘Alaska Sportfishing in the Aftermath 

of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill’ December 1992, ‘An 

Assessment of the Impact of he Exxon Valdez Oil 

Spill on the Alaska Tourism Industry’ August 1990, 

‘Replacement costs of Birds and Mammals’December 

1992, ‘A Contingent Valuation Study of Lost Passive 

Use Values Resulting from the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill’

November 1992.

These and other studies of sport fishing activity 

and general tourism indicators (such as vacation 

planning, visitor spending and cancelled reservations) 

all appeared to indicate decreases in recreational and 

tourism activity. The fourth study listed above identified 

a per-unit replacement cost on various seabirds and 

mammals. The fifth study listed above equated the 

lost passive use value at $2.8 billion. It is difficult 

to decipher, however, which long-term changes in 

the ecosystem are resultant from the oil spill and 

which may be due to natural causes. Future studies 

will continue to assess the impacts of residual oil on 

the environment and economy and a new initiative, 

the Gulf Ecosystem Monitoring Program, will aim 

to develop long-term strategies for investigating the 

relative roles of human and natural factors as sources 

of change in the ecosystem.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Kenai Peninsula/Valdez 
����

����

����

���

����

283

Whittier (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The City of Whittier is at the head of Passage 

Canal, a fjord of Western Prince William Sound, and is 

situated on the northeast shore of the Kenai Peninsula. 

The townsite lies on the delta mouth on the south side 

of the Canal, so the port is ice free all year. The area 

encompasses 12.5 square miles of land and 7.2 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of Whittier was 182. Total population numbers have 

decreased steadily since the population peaked in 

1960 at 809 residents. The gender ration in Whittier 

was skewed toward a larger number of males at 52.7%, 

while 47.3% of the population of the community was 

female. The racial composition of the population 

in 2000 included 79.1 % White, 7.1% Asian, and 

5.5% Alaska Native or American Indian. Overall, 

8.2% of the population identified with two or more 

races. A total of 12.6% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. Only 1.1% of the population identified as 

Hispanic. The median age was 39.3 years, which was 

above the national median of 35.3 years. According to 

the census data 22.4% of the population was under 19 

years of age while 17.5% of the population was over 

55 years of age.

There were 213 housing units in Whittier, 127 of 

which were vacant, and of these, 79 were vacant due 

to seasonal use. In 2000, none of the population lived 

in group quarters. About 87.9% of the population had 

a high school diploma or higher according to the 2000 

census data while 15.9% had a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. 

History 

The area around Whittier has long been used as 

fishing grounds. Chugach Indians would portage to 

Turnagain Arm on fishing expeditions. Whittier sits 

at a fascinating historical crossroads, traveled for 

hundreds of years by Natives, traders, explorers, gold 

rushers, the U.S. military, and now visitors from all 

over the world. The area surrounding Whittier and 

Portage Pass had significant roles in the expansion of 

Russian America, the Alaskan Gold Rush, WWII, and 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Whittier Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� �� � � � �� �� ��

����������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ��������

���������������������� Whittier Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

������

�����

�����

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

������������������������ Whittier Data source: US Census �������� ����������������������

��������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Whittier 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

284

the Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964.Whittier took 

its name from the nearby Whittier Glacier which itself 

was named for the American Poet John Greenleaf 

Whittier. J.G. Whittier lived during the 1800s and 

devoted his life to campaigning against slavery in the 

United States. His poetry reflected his anti-slavery 

ideology as well as his appreciation for the wonders of 

the non-human world.

Whittier has been the site of various government 

projects, and much of the current community 

infrastructure was built by the U.S. Amy during the 

first years of WWII. Most residents of Whittier live 

within with one large, 14-story building, now called 

the Begich Towers which was originally built as army 

barracks. The Buckner Building, completed in 1953, 

has 1,000 apartments and was once the largest building 

in Alaska. It was called the ‘’city under one roof,’’with 

a hospital, bowling alley, theater, gym, swimming pool, 

and shops for Army personnel. A port and railroad 

terminus were also constructed during the year and 

now make Whittier a valuable port and entrance into 

the Anchorage and Kenai Peninsula area. The port 

remained an active Army facility until 1960, but is 

now becoming increasingly popular as a place for nonresidents to moor private fishing boats, especially with 

the opening in 2000 of the war era Anton Anderson 

Memorial Tunnel, the longest highway tunnel in North 

America. The tunnel connects Whittier to the Seward 

Highway and to the rest of south-central Alaska. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The sources of employment in Whittier are limited; 

the major employers are the city and a transportation 

company which transports cargo to anchorage via the 

railroad that terminates in Whittier. A small but icefree port serves as a gateway from Whittier to Prince 

William Sound and tourism is a significant component 

of the economy. Jobs are also made available on a 

seasonal basis by Great Pacific Seafoods, Inc. which 

operates a processing plant in Whittier. A total of 18 

commercial fishing permits were held by 9 permit 

holders in 2000 according to the Alaska Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission (ACFEC). 

In 2000, 62.9% of the potential labor force was 

employed and there was an 11.9% unemployment rate. 

A total of 25.2% of the population over 16 years of age 

was not in the labor force and 7.1 % of the population 

% Group Quarters �����������������

Whittier �������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

���� ���

��� �

����������

���� ����

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

��������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Whittier Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

���������� ��������

����� �����

lived below the poverty level. The median household 

income in the same year was $47,500 and the per 

capita income was $25,700. 

Governance 

The City of Whittier was incorporated in 1969 and 

is now a second-class city. The City of Whittier has a 

council-manager form of government. The mayor and 

seven council members are elected officials. The mayor 

of Whittier is responsible for administering the City’s 

day-to-day operations and carrying out the policy 

direction of the City Council. Central staff support to 

the Manager is provided by the city clerk, deputy city 

clerk, and the finance clerk. Whittier does not belong 

to an organized borough, so the city is responsible 

for many services. The City of Whittier implements 

a 3% sales tax between April and September, and a 

5.0 mills (0.5%) property tax. Whittier is a member 

of the for-profit Native regional corporation Chugach 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Whittier 
285

Corporation under the Alaska Natives Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA). The Chugach Alaska 

Corporation Region includes the four communities of 

Cordova, Seward, Valdez, and Whittier, and the five 

Native villages of Port Graham, Chenega Bay, Eyak, 

Nanwalek (English Bay) and Tatitlek. Approximately 

550,000 acres of the lands are subsurface estate from 

the region’s Native village surface entitlements. It 

includes more than 5,000 miles of coastline, at the 

heart of which lies Prince William Sound. There is no 

village corporation or Native council in Whittier. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office, Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS), and Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game Regional Office (ADF&G) are in 

Anchorage.

Facilities 

Whittier is accessible by road via the Anton 

Anderson Memorial Tunnel which connects to the 

Seward Highway, as well as by air and by sea along 

the Alaska Marine Highway and via ferries between 

Whittier, Cordova, Kodiak, Seward, Homer, Bartlett, 

and Tustumena. No airlines provide regular scheduled 

flights in or out of Whittier. The State-owned 1,480 

foot gravel airstrip accommodates charter aircraft, and 

a City-owned seaplane dock is available for passenger 

transfer. Whittier is has an ice-free port and a 70 foot 

city dock. A small boat harbor has slips for 360 fishing, 

recreation, and charter vessels.

Water is derived from wells and a reservoir. Water 

storage capacity is 1.2 million gallons. The entire 

community is served by a piped water and sewer system, 

and over 95% of homes are fully plumbed. Refuse is 

hauled out by a private contractor to Anchorage - the 

landfill has been closed. An oil and hazardous waste 

recycling center was completed in 1998. Electricity 

is provided by the Chugach Electric Association. 

Health services are provided by the city of Whittier 

Medical Clinic which is operated and owned by the 

City. Public safety is provided by a city-backed police 

department and state troopers. Whittier is within the 

Chugach School District and there is one school in 

Whittier itself. At Whittier Community School five 

teachers instruct 40 students. Whittier is developing a 

tourism industry, which, with the opening of the Anton 

Anderson memorial Tunnel in 2000 to vehicular traffic 

means that more and more facilities are available to 

tourists.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is an important component of 

life in Whittier. According to the ADF&G, and reported 

by the ACFEC, 18 permits were held by 9 permit holders 

but only 2 permits were fished in Whittier in 2000. 

There were two vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 

one vessel owner in the salmon fishery, and 17 crew 

members claiming residence in Whittier. These low 

figures, however, are not indicative of the amount of 

fish which crossed the docks in Whittier as illustrated 

by the numbers of vessels delivering their catch to the 

fish processing plant there. The commercial vessel fleet 

delivering landings to Whittier was involved in halibut 

(13 vessels), sablefish (nine vessels), other ground 

fish (11 vessels), and salmon (321 vessels) fisheries in 

2000. In accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

landings data for the community are unavailable.

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, 

and fishing area. Permits issued in Valdez for 2000 

related to halibut, sablefish, other groundfish, shellfish 

(excluding crab), and salmon. 

Halibut: There was one permit for halibut issued 

pertaining to a longline vessel under 60 feet for 

statewide waters. 

Sablefish and other groundfish: One sablefish 

permit was issued for fixed gear vessels of maximum 

35 feet length in Prince William Sound (not fished). 

A total of 11 permits were issued for other groundfish 

(none fished). Permits pertained to one lingcod 

hand troll for statewide waters (not fished), three 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand trolls in statewide 

waters (none fished), two miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide 

waters (none fished), one miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish pot gear vessel over 60 feet in statewide waters 

(not fished), three miscellaneous salt water finfish 

mechanical jigs in statewide waters (none fished), and 

one miscellaneous salt water finfish longline vessel 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (not fished). 

Shellfish: One permit was issued for a shrimp pot 

gear vessel under 60 feet restricted to Yakutat (not 

fished), another was issued for one shrimp beam trawl 

restricted to Prince William Sound (not fished), and 

one shrimp pot vessel restricted to southeast waters 

(not fished).

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Whittier 
286

Salmon: One permit was issued for the salmon 

fishery pertaining to a drift net in southeast waters.

Great Pacific Seafoods operates a small processing 

facility in Whittier capable of processing halibut, 

sablefish, other groundfish, and salmon. 

Whittier did not receive federal aid either from 

the federal salmon disaster funds allotted to several 

Alaskan communities or from the Steller sea lion 

funds. Both funds were designed to offset financial 

losses. In the case of salmon, losses are due to the 

competition between wild and farmed fish. The Steller 

sea lion funds were designed to compensate for losses 

which occur because of regulations put in place to 

protect the sea lions. 

Sport Fishing 

In total there were seven saltwater businesses 

operating in Whittier in 2002 and two businesses 

engaged in freshwater sport fishing. There was a total 

of 1, 032 sport fishing licenses sold in Whittier in 2000, 

323 of which were sold to Alaska residents, figures 

which indicate that Whittier is an attractive destination 

to out-of-state sport fishers. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Data from 1990 compiled on behalf of the 

ADF&G’s Division for Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Whittier. 

Records describe the subsistence patterns for all 

93.7% of households which participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, 89.5% used salmon and 82.1% used 

non-salmon fish (herring, smelt, cod, eel, flounder, 

greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, wolfish, burbot, 

char, grayling, and trout), many fewer households, 

only 7.6%, used marine mammals, and about half 

of the households in Whittier, 52.4%, used marine 

invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for the year 

1993 was 79.93 lbs. The composition of the total 

subsistence harvest can be shown by the percentages 

of the resources which demonstrate the amount 

of each resource category used by the community 

relative to other resources categories. The total 

subsistence harvest was composed of 42.37% salmon, 

non-salmon fish made up 24.73%, land mammals 

13.73%, marine mammals only 1.19%, birds and eggs 

accounted for 1.72% of the total subsistence harvest, 

marine invertebrates for 11.18%, and vegetation made 

up 5.08%. The wild food harvest in Whittier made up 

52% of the recommended dietary allowance of protein 

in 1990 (corresponding to 49 g of protein per day or 

0.424 lbs of wild food per day) (Wolfe, Division of 

Subsistence, ADF&G).

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South Central Alaska/Prince William Sound/Whittier 
287

4.3 South West Alaska
288

4.3.1 Alaska Peninsula / Aleutian Islands

Communities 

Adak Iliamna

Akutan Ivanof Bay

Atka King Cove

Chignik (Bay) King Salmon

Chignik Lagoon Kokhanok

Chignik Lake Levelock

Dutch Harbor/Unalaska Naknek

Egegik Nelson Lagoon

False Pass Newhalen

Igiugig Pedro Bay

Geographic Location 

The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands cover 

a vast geographical distance. Roughly 1,300 air miles 

separate the community of Iliamna, in the Lake and 

Peninsula Borough, from the town of Attu, at the 

extreme western edge of the Aleutian Islands. This 

is a distance comparable to the entire length of the 

West Coast of the U.S., from Seattle to Los Angeles. 

The Aleutian Island Chain dips to the south; its 

southernmost point, at approximately 52.9 °N Lat., lies 

at a latitude similar to London, England. This region 

contains four boroughs: the Bristol Bay Borough, 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough, the Aleutians East 

Borough, and the Aleutians West Borough. 

Weather 

The Alaska Peninsula / Aleutian Islands region is in 

Alaska’s maritime climate zone. Communities located 

along the coastline have mild winters with temperatures 

ranging from 10 °F to 35 °F and cool summers with 

temperatures from 45 °F to 65 °F. Precipitation averages 

20-25 inches annually. Communities located inland on 

the Alaska Peninsula lie within the transitional climate 

zone but still exhibit a strong maritime influence. Two 

weather features are predictable features of life on the 

Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Island chain: wind, and 

fog. In particular, communities which face the Bering 

Sea experience average winds of 15 knots year-round, 

with severe winter storms bringing winds in excess 

of 100 miles per hour. The warm Japanese Current 

keeps Bering Sea ports ice-free during all seasons, 

contributing to one of the richest marine ecosystems 

on earth. 

Perryville

Pilot Point

Port Alsworth

Port Heiden

Port Moller

Saint George

Saint Paul

Sand Point

South Naknek

Ugashik

General Characterization 

The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands have 

a long history of interaction between Europeans and 

Alaska Natives. The area is currently characterized 

by a high degree of interconnection between local, 

national, and transnational economies. Since at least 

the 18th century, when Russian traders first came to 

the Aleutians for valuable fur seals, the region and its 

natural resources have been part of a broad web of 

economic activity. 

Today, the most important part of that web is the 

commercial fishing industry. The Bering Sea is the most 

productive groundfish fishery on Earth, and nearly all 

communities in this region are involved in the fishery, 

at-sea or on-shore in fish processing facilities. 

There is a strong Native Alaskan presence--

primarily Aleut and Alutiiq peoples--in the region; 

individual communities vary, ranging from 8% to 

95% Native. The other demographic features of the 

region are highly influenced by the commercial fishing 

industry. Because most employment opportunities 

relate to fishing, nearly all communities have a strong 

male bias (often more than 60% male). 

Institutional Framework 

The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands region 

is comprised of three boroughs and one census area: the 

Bristol Bay Borough, the Lake and Peninsula Borough, 

the Aleutians East Borough, and the Aleutians West 

Census Area. Some communities profiled in this 

section are unincorporated and rely on their respective 

boroughs for government services. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Sub-Regional Introduction 
289

There are two Community Development Quota 

(CDQ) groups that operate in the region: the Bristol 

Bay Economic Development Corporation, and the 

Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Community Development 

Association. These groups distribute a portion 

of commercial fishing proceeds to their various 

communities and sponsor economic and infrastructural 

development. In addition, there are a number of 

regional Native corporations and Native village 

corporations with recognized status under the Alaska 

Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

Fishing is the backbone of the regional economy 

in the Alaska Peninsula / Aleutian Islands region. 

Commercial fleets operate out of most of the 

communities profiled in this section. In addition, 

commercial fish processing is a source of value-added 

revenue for many communities. Much of the seafood 

processing labor force comes from outside the region, 

although individual communities vary as to what 

portion of labor comes from local sources.

The epicenter of commercial fishing in the region is 

unquestionably Unalaska/Dutch Harbor, with its large 

commercial fleet and processors, as well as offshore 

floating processors. The most revenue is generated by 

groundfish. Landings for a given year typically are 

measured in the hundreds of thousands of tons. Bering 

Sea and Aleutian Islands crab is also an important part 

of the commercial fishery. In Bristol Bay Borough, the 

salmon fishery is a major part of the area’s economic 

activity, and is one of the largest salmon fisheries in 

the world.

Sport fishing is not as extensive in this region as it 

is in south-central and southeastern Alaska. The sport 

fishing that does take place is primarily centered in the 

community of King Salmon, where sockeye salmon 

runs draw sport fishermen from all over Alaska and the 

globe. Major sport species include all five species of 

Pacific salmon, as well as trout, halibut, and northern 

pike. Sport-caught halibut in the area can be some of 

the largest in the world (over 400 lbs). 

Subsistence fishing and hunting form a major 

part of residents’ livelihoods on the Alaska Peninsula 

and Aleutian Islands. In nearly all communities, a 

substantial majority of residents use subsistence 

resources. The most common subsistence fish species 

include salmon (all five Pacific species), cod, char, and 

trout. 

Regional Challenges 

The region’s high dependence on commercial 

fishing is both an asset and a liability. In recent years, 

foreign competition has driven down the market price 

of salmon in the U.S., causing financial trouble for 

many Alaska communities. In 2003, the Aleutians 

East Borough received a total of $1,101,638 in federal 

disaster funds to compensate for falling salmon prices. 

A handful of individual communities in the region 

have received lesser amounts. 

New federal regulations governing fishing activities 

in areas with populations of Steller sea lion have also 

placed an economic burden on many communities. 

These regulations prohibit fishing near known sea lion 

rookeries, and may have resulted in financial loss in 

some cases. A handful of communities in the region 

have received federal Steller sea lion compensation 

funds. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Sub-Regional Introduction 
����

��

���

����

����

����

290

Adak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The city of Adak is located on Adak Island, part 

of the Aleutian Island chain. It is situated on Kuluk 

Bay about 1,300 miles southwest of Anchorage and 

350 miles west of Unalaska. It is the southern-most 

community in Alaska and is on the same latitude 

as Vancouver Island in Canada. The area of Adak 

includes 122.4 square miles of land and 4.9 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, the second-class city of Adak had a 

recorded population of 316 people: 64.9% male and 

35.1% female. By 2002, the population had reduced 

to 149 people, according to a state demographer. The 

population of Adak has fluctuated quite extensively 

over the years due to changing military activities. In 

1944, there were more than 30,000 people in Adak, 

because of WWII action in the Aleutian Islands. A 

population was first recorded by the Census in 1970 at 

which time there were 2,249 inhabitants, but with the 

closing of the naval facility the population decreased 

by about 2,000 persons. 

The breakdown of the racial composition of the 

316 people living in Adak as recorded by the 2000 

U.S. Census was as follows: 49.7% White, 35.1% 

Alaska Native or American Indian, 9.8% Asian, 1.9% 

Hawaiian Native, 1.3% Black, and about 2.2% were 

recorded as being two or more races. Of the 9.8% of 

the population that was classified as Asian, all were 

identified as Filipino. The total percent of people in 

Adak who were Alaska Native alone or in combination 

with one or more races was 37.3%. About 5.1% of the 

population was of Hispanic origin. 

The median age for Adak in 2000 was 35.2 

years, whereas the national age median was 35.3 

years. No percentage of the population lived in group 

quarters in Adak in 2000, which was a great change 

from the 1990 Census which describes 30% of the 

population living in group quarters, because the navy 

base was still in operation on the island at that time. 

Approximately 96.1% of the population over 25 years 

of age had graduated from high school or obtained 

higher degrees. Of those age 25 or older, 10.3% had 

obtained a Bachelor’s degree or higher. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Adak Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � ��

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Adak ��������������������� Data source: US Census 

����������������������

Two or more 

1.9% races 

2.2% 

Asian 

Pacific Islander 

Alaska Native 

35.1% 

Black 

1.3% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Adak ������������������������ Data source: US Census 

����������������������

��������

9.8% 

������������

�����

����

������

White 

49.7% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Adak 
����

����

����

����

����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

291

History 

The Aleutian Islands “drew humans to the 

island chain as early as 8,000 years before the 

present” (National Park Service 2003). The historical 

inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands area are known 

today as Aleuts (Unangan), and the Native Aleut 

people once heavily populated the island of Adak. 

The island was abandoned in the early 17th century 

when Aleut hunters moved or were moved eastward 

because of the Russian fur trade. The Native people 

continued to use the island as a place to fish and hunt 

until the beginning of WWII. In 1913, the island was 

designated as part of the Aleutian Island Reservation, 

but in the 1940’s became “a key operations and supply 

location for United States military forces after the 

Japanese occupation of Kiska and Attu Islands during 

World War II” (EPA 2002). Adak’s population in the 

spring of 1944 was made up of at least 32,000 military 

personnel. After WWII, Adak was turned into a Naval 

Air Station, playing an important role during the Cold 

War as a submarine surveillance center. The navy 

base housed 6,000 personnel and their families during 

its peak, but harsh cut-backs occurred in 1994 and 

navy family housing and schools were closed. Adak 

naval station officially closed on March 31, 1997. The 

EPA has been performing Superfund clean-up and 

restoration of Adak because of the 40-year period that 

hazardous substances were disposed of on the island, 

including materials such as transformer oils containing 

PCBs, petroleum, chlorinated solvents, and batteries. 

Live explosives were also present on the island and the 

navy neither confirms nor denies that the island was 

the site of nuclear depth charges and torpedoes. There 

were large earthquakes in the years of 1957, 1964, 

and 1977. Aleut Corporation has recently acquired 

Adak’s facilities in a land transfer agreement and in 

1998 about 30 families with children, mostly Aleut 

Corporation shareholders relocated to Adak. Adak 

became incorporated as a second-class city in April 

2001. In April of 2003 Adak “was chosen for a $900 

million radar system as part of the national missile 

defense system” which is expected to arrive in the 

community by the summer of 2005 (Kenai Peninsula 

Online 2003). 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Since the closure of the naval facilities at Adak there 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Adak 

Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

��

���

��

�

���� ���� ������������������

��������������

��������������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Adak 

����������������������

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����������

����������

��������

�����

has been an attempt to reinvent the industry of the city 

by Aleut Corporation. According to Kenai Peninsula 

Online “the Aleut Corporation hopes to transform 

Adak into a fishing community.” Aleut Corporation 

has recently received U.S. Navy and Department of 

Interior land in Adak in exchange for other lands held 

by Aleut Corporation elsewhere in the Aleutian Islands. 

Most of the naval facilities have also been transferred 

to the corporation. Members of Aleut Corporation have 

moved to Adak where they have opened an office and 

established Aleut Enterprise Corporation (AEC) “to 

encourage new business on Adak” (Adak Island, Open 

to the World 2003). The AEC “leases commercial land, 

buildings, rents housing, rents vehicles, and operates 

port services and fuel sales” (Adak Island, Open to the 

World 2003) within the city. According to the Alaska 

Journal of Commerce, as of February 2001, Aleut 

Corporation “with $2.4 million in earnings last year, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Adak 
292

has already invested $2.5 million in various expenses 

related to Adak, although government contracts with 

Aleut Corporation subsidiaries have recouped some of 

that” (Bradner 2001). 

It was announced in April of 2003 that Adak has 

been chosen as the site for the national missile defense 

system, which has been budgeted at $9.1 billion. It is 

estimated that this facility will require approximately 

80 to 95 people to operate the system. According to 

the Kenai Peninsula Online newspaper, “Sen. Ted 

Stevens, R-Alaska, said the decision to put the radar 

system on Adak will benefit the Native people who 

have taken over running Adak facilities.” The system 

is expected to arrive by summer 2005 and will “[use] 

a finely focused beam to track incoming ballistic 

missiles while they are in space” (Kenai Peninsula 

Online 2003). 

The local processor, Norquest-Adak Seafood Co., 

is located in the city. Four commercial fishing permits 

were issued in the year of 2000 to Adak residents 

for commercial fishing of groundfish. Subsistence 

fishing of salmon is also of great importance to the 

local economy. Contractors perform environmental 

clean-up for the ongoing projects for the EPA within 

the community. Jobs are also provided by the airport, 

restaurant, grocery, ship supply store, and Aleut 

Corporation.

About 75.6% of the population in 2000 was part 

of the total potential work force, 16 years of age and 

older. Out of the population age 16 and over, 82.0% 

were employed, 6.7% were unemployed, 1.7% were 

part of the armed forces, and 9.6% were not in the 

labor force. The per capita income in 2000 for Adak 

was $31, 747 and the median household income was 

$52,727. About 4.7% of Adak’s population in 2000 

lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

The city of Adak, established as a municipality 

in 2001, has a manager form of government which 

includes a mayor, a seven person city council, 

an advisory school board, and various municipal 

employees including a police chief and fire chief. The 

city is not part of an organized borough. There is a 3% 

Sales Tax in the city as well as a $.02 per gallon Fuel 

Transfer Tax. 

The Aleut Corporation is the regional Native 

corporation active in the area, although Adak was 

not included in Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA) and is not federally recognized as a Native 

village. In Adak, Aleut Corporation has taken a very 

active role in the development of the city, taking over 

responsibilities of almost all services to the community, 

the ownership of a large amount of the land, and taking 

action to bring new businesses to the community. It 

appears that Aleut Corporation acquired the Navy and 

Department of Interior lands in Adak in part because 

they had historically been the location of an early Aleut 

community and also for the existing facilities. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Dutch Harbor and 

is a satellite interviewing and processing office. The 

closest National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and 

office of Sustainable Fisheries are in Dutch Harbor, as 

is the nearest ADF&G office. 

Facilities 

The city of Adak is accessible by air or by sea. 

Present in the city of Adak are an airport, docks, 

housing facilities, restaurant, grocery, and ship supply 

store. The airport has two 7,800 foot paved runways 

and Alaska Airlines operates passenger and cargo 

airline service to Adak on Tuesdays and Sundays. 

The approximate price to fly roundtrip from Adak to 

Anchorage, according to Travelocity and Expedia, is 

$1,124 (price given for date as close to September 1st 

2003 as possible). There are three deep water docks and 

fueling facilities in Adak. Funds have been requested 

to expand the small boat harbor which would include 

new breakwaters, new moorage fleets, and a 315 foot 

dock. Because the port facilities were built to handle 

naval ships, they can now handle a large assortment 

of vessels. The city has about 16 miles of paved roads 

and also has other dirt and gravel roads. 

Aleut Corporation operates the city’s landfill and 

the electric power is supplied by the City of Adak from 

diesel fuel. The City runs a piped water system from 

stored water tanks and also runs the sewer system. 

Adak Medical Clinic is located in the community and 

is operated by Eastern Aleutian Tribes. It is a qualified 

Emergency Care Center and is staffed by a physician’s 

assistant who provides emergency care, family 

practice, and referral services. The police services 

available within the community are operated by City 

Public Safety. Car rentals are available at Adak Car 

Rentals, and Hotel Adak is the hotel in the community. 

Both are run by Aleut Enterprise Corporation. Adak 

School, the only school present, teaches K-12th grade. 

The school had 18 students in 2000 and 3 teachers. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Adak 
293

There is a weight room and a racquetball court at the 

high school. Also available in the community are an 

Olympic size swimming pool, auto hobby shop, and 

bowling alleys, although it is unclear if these facilities 

are still in operation. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Since Aleut Corporation acquired the land on 

Adak there has been an attempt to turn the village into 

a fishing center for the area. In 2000, there were four 

commercial fishing permits issued. There was one 

community member who owned a vessel participating 

in federal commercial fisheries who was a resident 

of Adak, and according to the Alaska Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission (ACFEC) there were two 

licensed crew members from Adak in 2000. 

Of the four commercial fishing permits issued 

to residents of the community all were issued for the 

harvesting of groundfish. Of those four, one was issued 

for miscellaneous salt water finfish using a hand troll, 

one was for miscellaneous salt water finfish using a 

mechanical jig, one was for demersal shelf rockfish 

with a longline vessel under 60 feet in the southeast, 

and one permit was for demersal shelf rockfish using a 

mechanical jig in the southeast (not fished). There were 

49 vessels that delivered ‘Other Groundfish’ landings 

in Adak, 24 for sablefish, 32 for halibut, and 12 vessels 

that delivered Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) 

crab landings to the community. In accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, data for fish landings in the 

community are unavailable. There is one land-based 

processing plant, Norquest-Adak Seafood Co., located 

in the community of Adak which processes BSAI crab, 

groundfish, halibut, and sablefish. The plant has been 

in operation as Norquest since 2000 and the land for 

the plant is leased from Aleut Corporation. 

The city of Adak was recently granted $88,548 by 

the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of 

the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003). 

Sport Fishing 

The tourism industry in Adak is currently made up 

of visitors attracted by sightseeing on cruise vessels, 

but there is no recent evidence of sport fishing. It is 

expected that tourism will grow in Adak in the next 

few years. Accommodations facilities exist to make 

the sport fishing industry a possibility in the future. 

No sport fishing permits were sold in 2000 in Adak. 

Subsistence Fishing 

In recent history Adak has been considered a Federal 

non-rural area because of the naval base and the large 

population on the island at the time. Recently, with the 

establishment of the 2003-2004 Federal Subsistence 

Fishery Regulations, Adak was still considered a nonrural with regard to Federal subsistence. In order to 

have the right to harvest subsistence wildlife, fish, and 

shellfish on Federal lands, a status of rural must be 

granted. Rural status has been requested by Adak, but 

has not been granted. Adak is, however, considered 

rural by the State of Alaska, so residents are eligible to 

harvest subsistence resources on State lands. Based on 

the island’s location, history, isolation, ethnic makeup, and salmon harvests, it may be surmised that Adak 

residents are engaging in a variety of subsistence 

activities. However, there is no information available 

from the ADF&G for any species other than salmon 

because of the non-rural designation.

Prior to 1988, the non-commercial salmon net 

fishery at Adak was classified as a subsistence fishery. 

In 1988 it became a personal use fishery, but was 

reclassified as a subsistence fishery again in 1998 

(Division of Subsistence ADF&G 2001). In 1999, all 

fresh water on Adak Island and all salt water within 100 

yards of a stream terminus were closed to subsistence 

fishing for salmon because of the federal position on 

non-rural subsistence. In the Adak district in 1999 it 

is estimated that five subsistence salmon permits were 

issued in the area by the State and that 164 sockeye and 

4 chum salmon were harvested. In the community of 

Adak itself, one household salmon permit was issued 

in 1999.

In 2003, NOAA began a program to distribute 

subsistence halibut permits to certain rural residents 

in Alaska. Because the NOAA program uses the 

State designations of rural and non-rural, residents of 

Adak were classified as rural for the purposes of this 

program and have been eligible to apply for permits. 

The application process for this fishery began in May 

2003 and is ongoing.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Adak 
���

294

Akutan (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Akutan is a second-class city located in the 

Aleutians East Borough. It is on the Bering Sea side 

of Akutan Island, one of the Krenitzin Islands of the 

Fox Island Group, 35 miles east of Unalaska and 766 

miles southwest of Anchorage by air. The land area of 

Akutan is 14 square miles, and the water area is 4.9 

square miles. 

Demographic Profile 

Akutan has only about 75 permanent year-round 

residents in 34 households. The 2000 census, however, 

reports a total population of 713, and the majority of 

these (638, or 89.5%) are fish processing workers that 

live in group quarters. Fish processing has a huge 

impact on the demographic makeup of the community: 

77.0% of residents are male, and 78.4% are between 

the ages of 25 and 54. The median age is 40.2 years 

old, whereas the national age median is 35.3 years of 

age. The current racial makeup of Akutan is as follows: 

White (23.6%), Alaska Native or American Indian 

(15.7%), Black (2.1%), Asian (38.6%), Hawaiian 

Native (0.03%), other (18.2%), and two or more races 

(1.5%). A total of 16.4% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. Residents of Hispanic origin make up 20.8% 

of the population. Among the community’s population 

as a whole, 48.5% of residents 25 years old and over 

have a high school diploma, and 19.3% have some 

college education. 

History 

Archaeological evidence, though scarce, suggests 

that Akutan has been the site of a traditional Unangan 

(Aleut) village since prehistory (Black et. al 1999:35). 

In 1878 the Western Fur and Trading Company started 

a fur storage and trading port there, and a Russian 

Orthodox church and school were built during that year. 

A commercial cod fishing and processing business 

was started shortly thereafter. The Pacific Whaling 

Company built a whale processing station across the 

bay from Akutan in 1912 which operated until 1939. 

After the Japanese attacked Unalaska in June 1942, 

the U.S. government evacuated Akutan residents, 

along with many other Aleuts, to the Ketchikan area, 

and many residents never returned, even after the re2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������ Akutan Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

����

������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� ��� �� � ��

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ������

���������������������� Akutan 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races

1.5% Other White 

18.2% 23.6% 

Pacific Islander 

0.3% 

Black 

2.1% 

Alaska Native 

15.7% 

Asian 

38.6% 

������������������������

������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Akutan 

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Akutan 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

295

establishment of the village in 1944. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

In addition to the subsistence economy, Akutan 

depends heavily upon commercial fishing. The median 

annual per capita income is $12,259, and the median 

household income is $33,750. Given the extremely 

transient nature of the workforce in Akutan, it is 

difficult to obtain an accurate picture of employment. 

The 2000 U.S. Census, for instance, reported that 

78.9% of residents were unemployed, and 5.9% 

were not in the labor force (i.e. not working and not 

seeking work). Approximately 45.5% lived below 

the poverty level. A more likely interpretation is that 

labor opportunities are highly uncertain and depend 

upon the season, catch, and other variables. Residents 

and transient workers go through frequent periods of 

temporary unemployment. 

Governance 

Akutan was incorporated as a second-class city in 

1979 and has a “strong mayor” form of government. 

Government revenues come entirely from a 1% raw 

fish tax imposed by the city and a 2% raw fish tax 

imposed by the Aleutians East Borough. There is no 

sales tax or property tax in Akutan. In terms of tribal 

governance, the city is under the jurisdiction of the 

Aleut Corporation, a regional Native corporation 

created in 1971 by the Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act. Akutan is also a member of the Aleutian Pribilof 

Islands Association, a regional Native non-profit 

organization, and the Aleutian Pribilof Islands 

Community Development Association, which is 

responsible for allocating proceeds from community 

development quotas and investing in infrastructural 

development. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) , National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS), and Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) offices are all located in Dutch Harbor. 

Facilities 

Major utilities, including water, sewer, and garbage, 

are operated by the city. Electricity is generated at a 

hydroelectric facility managed by Akutan Electric 

Utility. A plan to develop two new water catchment 

dams and construct a new 125,000 gallon water 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Akutan 

������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

�� ����

�� ����

���� ����

����

����������

������������������

��������������

��������������������������

������

2000 Employment Structure

Akutan

����������������������

Data source: US Census 

����������� ��������

�����

����������

�����

storage tank and treatment plant is currently under 

consideration. In addition to public utilities, the city’s 

primary employer, Trident Seafoods, operates its own 

water, sewer and electric facilities, and its own vessel 

dock. The following public services are also provided: 

health care (Anesia Kudrin Memorial Clinic), police 

(public security office), city public library, and youth 

center. 

Transportation to and from Akutan is limited 

because of its rugged topography. An airport 

construction plan is being considered, but access is 

currently only by boat and amphibious craft. Roundtrip 

airfare from Akutan to Anchorage, via Dutch Harbor, 

is approximately $952 (Travelocity 2003). Privately 

operated businesses include one grocery store, two 

hotels, and an automobile repair shop. The Akutan 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Akutan 
296

School, under the jurisdiction of the Aleutians East 

School District, offers instruction to students in grades 

K-12. There are two teachers and 18 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Akutan is located in the middle of the world’s most 

productive groundfish fishery. In 2000, 7 residents 

held a total of 10 commercial fishing permits for the 

following fisheries: halibut, king crab, and various 

groundfish. In 2000, there were 4 vessel owners for 

federal fisheries and 18 registered crew members 

residing in the community. The following is a detailed 

description of commercial permits in Akutan.

There were five total commercial permits in the 

groundfish fishery, including four miscellaneous finfish 

hand troll permits (one fished), and one miscellaneous 

finfish pair trawl permit (none fished). In the halibut 

fishery, four longline permits for vessels under 60 feet 

were issued (four fished). In the crab fishery, one king 

crab pot gear permit for vessels over 60 feet in Bristol 

Bay fishery was issued (one fished). 

Akutan’s main role in the commercial fishery is 

as the home of a Trident Seafood processing plant, the 

largest such facility in North America (Kenai Peninsula 

Online 2003). In 2000, there were vessels delivering 

the following species to Akutan for processing: crab 

(73 vessels), halibut (56 vessels), other groundfish 

(75 vessels), herring (41 vessels), salmon (40 

vessels), and sablefish (7 vessels). In accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, data for fish landings in 

Akutan are unavailable.

In 2003, the Aleutians East Borough was granted 

$1,101,638 in federal disaster funds to compensate for 

falling salmon prices. A portion of this sum will likely 

be used for programs that affect Akutan. In 2002, the 

city of Akutan was granted $147,417 in federal funds to 

compensate the community for fisheries losses related 

to the protection of Steller sea lion habitat under the 

Endangered Species Act. The Aleutians East Borough 

as a whole was granted $140,063 in Steller sea lion 

funds. The Aleutian Pribilof Islands Community 

Development Association, the local CDQ group, was 

granted $57,163 in Steller sea lion funds. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing in Akutan is limited, with only 2 

licenses sold in the community in 2000, both to Alaska 

residents. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence fishing is a major part of the economy 

for Akutan residents. The ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence reported that, in 1990, 100% of Akutan 

households used subsistence resources. Ninetysix percent of Akutan households used subsistence 

salmon (all five Pacific species, with coho, pink, and 

sockeye being particularly important), and 100% used 

non-salmon subsistence fish (including cod, flounder, 

greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, sculpin, sole, 

char, and trout). Ninety-two percent of households 

used marine mammals for subsistence, and 88% used 

marine invertebrates.

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Akutan in 1990 was 466.1 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (26.0%), nonsalmon fish (30.8%), land mammals (5.9%), marine 

mammals (22.7%), birds and bird eggs (6.1%), marine 

invertebrates (6.0%), and vegetation (2.4%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Akutan 
����

���

����

����

����

297

Atka (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Atka is located on Atka Island towards the end of 

the Aleutian Island archipelago. 

Atka is the western most fishing community in 

the Aleutian Islands chain: 1,200 air miles southwest 

of Anchorage and 350 miles west of Unalaska. Atka 

encompasses 8.7 square miles of land and 27.4 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

A population of 92 was recorded for Atka by 

the 2000 U.S. Census. The population has fallen 

consistently from the maximum of 132 listed for 

the 1880s and 1890s when census records we first 

calculated. The racial composition of Atka in 2000 

included: 80.4% Alaska Native, 6.5% White, 1.1% 

Asian, 1.1% Hawaiian Native, and 10.9% two or more 

races. A total of 91.3% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. Only 1.1% of the population identified 

themselves as Hispanic.

Unlike many fishing communities, the genders 

were in equal balance in Atka according to the 2000 

U.S. Census. While 15.2% of the population was over 

55 years of age, 31.5% of the population was 19 years. 

The median age was 35.5 years, comparable to the 

2000 national median of 35.3 years. 

Of a total of 41 houses in the community, 32 were 

occupied year-round in 2000, 9 housing structures were 

vacant and 4 of these were occupied seasonally. Only 

6.5% of the total population lived in group quarters. 

Almost 40% of the total population had a highschool 

diploma while 25% had some college education, but 

no degree. 

History 

Atka Island has been populated by Unangans, 

speakers of the Aleut language, for at least 2,000 

years. Archaeological evidence suggests that the 

contemporary village site itself has been occupied since 

prehistoric times. Atka was valuable to Russians, who 

first arrived on the island in 1747, as both a trade site 

and a safe harbor. A number of hunters were enslaved 

and relocated to the Pribilof Islands to work in the fur 

seal harvest 40 years after Russians first made contact 

with the people of Atka. The remaining population 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Atka Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� � � � �� ��

���������������������

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Atka 

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races 

White 10.9% Pacific Islander 6.5% 

1.1% 

Asian 

1.1% 

Native 

80.4% 

������������������������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Atka

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Atka 
����

����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

298

was largely dependant on sea otter hunting and had no 

immediately viable cash economy after this subsided 

in the late1800s. Atka remained heavily resource 

dependant, though. Reindeer were introduced to the 

Island in 1914 (currently a herd of over 2,500 head of 

reindeer continues to provide fresh meat). During the 

1920s the community became relatively affluent due 

to fox farming.

Following the Japanese attack on Unalaska in June 

1942, the U.S. government evacuated Atka residents to 

internment camps in the Ketchikan area in Southeast 

Alaska while the town of Atka was burned to the 

ground to prevent Japanese forces from making use 

of the structures and resources. Residents were not 

permitted to bring belongings, so family heirlooms, 

religious icons, and other elements of material culture 

were destroyed. The village was later rebuilt by the 

U.S. Navy and residents were permitted to return in the 

summer of 1945. Several of the people who moved to 

Atka at that stage had previously lived in Attu, a village 

located at the end of the Aleutian Island archipelago, 

and had been captured as prisoners of war by Japanese 

forces in 1942. Significant reparation measures are 

being taken on behalf of the federal government to 

compensate people from Atka for wartime damages 

and losses.

The Aleutian language is still spoken in onefourth of homes. The St. Nicholas Russian Orthodox 

Church, rebuilt after the wartime destruction of the 

town, remains a central part of village life. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Atka is predominantly based 

on subsistence living as well as commercial fishing. 

There were 9 permit holders who held 17 permits in 

2000 according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries 

Entry Commission (ACFEC). A small on-shore fish 

processor, Atka Pride Seafoods, services the local 

fleet. A number of offshore fish processors carry out 

crew changes through Atka which, because of limited 

facilities, may place stress on the community, but 

is also an opportunity to be capitalized on by local 

businesses. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 70.9% of 

the potential labor force was employed and there was 

no unemployment. A total of 29.1% of the population 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Atka 

Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

��� ����

�

���

���� ����

������������������������� ������������������

��������������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Atka 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

over 16 years of age were not in the labor force, and 

7.5% of the population lived below the poverty level. 

Year-round income opportunities in the village are 

mostly limited to education and government related 

work. The median household income in the same year 

was $30,938 and the per capita income was just over 

$17,000. 

Governance 

Atka is a second-class city which was incorporated 

in 1988. It is governed locally by a “strong mayor” 

and seven-member city council which meets monthly. 

Atka does not belong to an organized borough; 

therefore, the city is responsible for many services. The 

Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association, Inc., a federally 

recognized, nonprofit, tribal organization of the Aleut 

people in Alaska which contracts with federal, state 

and local governments, also provides services in 

Atka. Some of these services include public safety 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Atka 
299

(Village Public Safety Officers) and health programs 

(emergency, elders, behavioral, outreach and advocacy 

oriented programs). Special taxes in Atka include a 2% 

raw fish tax and a 10% accommodation tax. Atka is a 

member of the for-profit regional Aleut Corporation 

under the Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). Atxam Corporation is the Native village 

corporation. The total land entitlement under ANCSA 

is over 100,000 acres. The Native village of Atka is 

federally recognized and eligible for funding and 

services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) by 

virtue of their status as an Indian tribe. It has organized 

itself under the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), 

with a constitution and elections as prescribed by the 

Act. Atka is involved in a Community Development 

Quota program under the Aleutian Pribilof Islands 

Community Development Association. The nearest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) regional 

office, Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) office, and Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) office are all in Unalaska.

Facilities 

The community water and sanitation systems, 

which service all households, are operated by the 

City. Hydroelectric potential is under development 

at Chuniisax Creek. Electricity is currently diesel 

powered and provided by Andreanof Electric 

Corporation. All houses use fuel oil for heating and 

there are three providers of fuel on the island which 

also service vehicles.

Atka has a state-owned 3,200 foot lighted paved 

runway which is currently being renovated with federal 

grants. Scheduled air services are available twice 

weekly from Unalaska and can also be chartered from 

Cold Bay. The cost of a roundtrip plane ticket from 

Atka to Anchorage is about $900 (based on the closest 

available date to September 1, 2003 for Peninsula 

Airways flights). Coastal Transportation provides 

freight services during the peak fishing season from 

May to October. A new dock and port facility, operated 

by the City, were recently completed 5 miles from 

town. The development of several facilities associated 

with the fishing industry, with the help of the Aleutian 

Pribilof Island Community Development Association 

in the 1990s, has resulted in significant economic 

enhancement in the community (Obeso, 1994).

Tourism is limited in Atka. There are shortterm accommodations available. Atka is within the 

Aleutian Region school district and one school on the 

island, with two teachers, serves 19 pupils ranging 

from grades K-12. The school gym is used widely for 

community gatherings including bingo nights. Public 

security is provided by a VPSO associated with the 

Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association, Inc. Health 

care is provided locally primarily by the Atka Health 

Clinic also operated by the Aleutian Pribilof Island 

Association.

North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is of great significance to 

the economy of Atka. According to the ADF&G 

and reported by ACFEC, 17 permits were held by 9 

permit holders in Atka in 2000 (10 fished). There were 

three vessel owners in the federal fisheries, no vessel 

owners in the salmon fishery, and 19 crew members 

with residence in Atka. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. The commercial vessel fleet delivering 

landings to Atka was involved in halibut (10 vessels) 

and sablefish (five vessels) fisheries in 2000. In 

accordance with confidentiality regulations, data for 

fish landings in the community are unavailable.

Permits for halibut issued in Atka for 2000 

pertained to one hand troll (not fished), 7 longline 

vessels under 60 feet (6 fished), and one longline 

vessel over 60 feet. All permits designated for halibut 

for statewide waters. Permits for sablefish issued in 

2000 pertained to four longline vessels under 60 feet 

for statewide waters (three fished). Additionally, one 

permit for a salmon set gillnet limited to the Atka/

Amlia Islands and three permits for miscellaneous 

salt water finfish longline vessels under 60 feet for 

statewide waters were issued but not fished. 

The existence of processing facilities in some 

communities is an important part of the community’s 

involvement in the fishing industry. Atka Pride 

Seafoods, the only processor in Atka, is a small 

plant with the capacity to process crab, halibut, and 

sablefish, operating seasonally to serve the local 

fleet and employing only local residents. The plant 

struggled with initial economic hardship due to the 

extension of start-up costs over several years, but is 

now experiencing consecutive years of profitability. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Atka 
300

Atka Seafoods operates its own electric system.

Atka did not receive federal salmon disaster relief 

funds in 2003 to offset any loss of revenue from fish 

taxes due to low salmon prices. In 2002, the Aleutian 

Pribilof Islands Community Development Association 

(APICDA) received $57,163 as part of a federal fund 

set up in accordance with the Endangered Species Act 

to offset costs to fisheries and communities due to 

Steller sea lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

Recreational sport fishing activity is very limited 

in Atka. No sport fishing licenses were sold in Atka 

in 2000. This may be due in part to the remoteness of 

the community and the infrequency of transportation 

from larger population centers. Additionally, the town 

does not have the facilities to support a large tourism 

industry.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1994 compiled on behalf 

of the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides 

useful information about subsistence practices in 

Atka. All households participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Of the total 

population, 96.4% used salmon, 92.9% used nonsalmon (cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, 

sablefish, sculpin, char, and trout), 92.9% used marine 

mammals, and 85.7% marine invertebrates. 

The total per capita harvest for the year was 439.28 

lbs. The composition of the total subsistence harvest 

can be shown by the percentages of the resources which 

demonstrate the amount of each resource category 

used by the community relative to other resource 

categories. Salmon constituted 21.58% of the total 

subsistence harvest while non-salmon fish made up 

9.03%, land mammals 21%, marine mammals 34.3%, 

birds and eggs made up 1.81%, marine invertebrates 

were 1.19%, and vegetation made up 1.09% (ADF&G, 

2000). The wild food harvest in Atka made up 284% 

of the recommended dietary allowance of protein in 

1994 (corresponding to 49 g of protein per day or .424 

lbs of wild food per day). 

Permits are not required for subsistence fishing 

in the waters fished by the community of Atka and 

there were no annual harvest assessment programs in 

place as of 2001. Residents of Atka and members of 

the Native Village of Atka, an Alaska Native Tribe, 

who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Atka 
���

����

301

Chignik (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Chignik, from a Koniag (Sugpiaq) word meaning 

“big wind,” is located on the south shore of the Alaska 

Peninsula on Anchorage Bay. The three Chignik 

communities are clustered on the south side of Chignik 

Bay. In fact, the complete name of this community 

is Chignik Bay. This town lies 450 miles southwest 

of Anchorage and 260 miles southwest of Kodiak. 

Chignik, part of the Lake and Peninsula Borough, 

encompasses 11.7 square miles of land and 4.2 square 

miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, the city had 79 inhabitants in 29 

households. About 60.8% of the recorded inhabitants 

of Chignik were Alaska Native, 31.6% White, 2.5% 

Asian, 2.5% Hawaiian Native, 1.3% other, and 1.3% 

were two or more races. A total of 60.8% of the 

population recognized themselves as all or part Alaska 

Native or American Indian. At the same time, 1.7% 

of the population identified themselves as having 

Hispanic origins. 

This community, in comparison to other 

communities of the area, has a fairly balanced gender 

ratio, although it is still significantly skewed compared 

to national patterns: 53.2% of the population was male 

and 46.8% female. This ratio may vary significantly, 

especially in summer when the population increases 

by 600 to 800 people (mostly male) when seasonal 

employees arrive to work for the processing plants. 

There were 42 empty households for seasonal use. 

The median age of this community, in contrast to most 

neighboring communities is similar to the national 

average: 36.3 years and 35.3 years, respectively. The 

historical records of the census are inconclusive with a 

high degree of variability. This may be a consequence 

of the seasonality of the fishing industry, corresponding 

employment opportunities, and associated short term 

migratory movements. 

Of the population 25 years of age and over, a total 

of 25.9% of the population never completed 9th grade, 

74.1% had graduated from high school and gone on to 

further schooling, and 13.0% of the population had a 

bachelor’s degree or higher.

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

������������ Chignik Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� � � � ��

���������������������

���������������������

2000 Racial Structure ������������

Chignik ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

Other Two or more 

1.3% races 

Pacific Islander 1.3% 

2.5% 

Asian 

2.5% 

White 

31.6% 

Native

60.8%

������������������������

������������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Chignik 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik (Bay) 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

302

History 

The earliest peoples in the Chignik area were 

Aleuts, the Native peoples of the Aleutian Islands 

and the Alaska Peninsula. There is evidence of early 

settlements in the Chignik area dating back to at least 

1900 years ago. A Kaniagmuit village referred to as 

‘Kalwak’ was originally located in the area where 

Chignik is today, but it was destroyed by the Russian 

fur industry in the late 1700s when locals were enslaved 

to provide work for the fur trade. These changes 

translated to massive relocation of populations. The 

area received important population influxes. 

The village of Chignik began in the late 19th 

century as a salmon cannery and a fishing village. 

Workers and supplies were transported from San 

Francisco to Chignik by the Star of Alaska, a ship 

that brought Chinese crews to make tin cans for the 

cannery, as well as Japanese workers to process the 

fish. 

The population of Chignik was reported as having 

193 people in 1890. By the early 20th century the 

village had two large canneries, which provided a 

large part of the infrastructure for the village. A post 

office was set up in Chignik in 1901 and coal mining 

was popular in the area from 1899 to 1915. Chignik 

was incorporated in 1983. 

Two historical canneries are still in operation in the 

city. Today they are part of the Norquest Adak and the 

Trident Seafoods processing companies. Historically, 

many native Alutiiq women of the Chignik area married 

men who were Scandinavian, Chinese, Japanese, 

Mongolian, Hawaiian, or Filipino. Still present in the 

community today are many of the Scandinavian and 

Russian names of those original immigrants. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The current economy of the City of Chignik is based 

on both commercial fishing and subsistence practices. 

The city has 18 residents holding commercial fishing 

permits and two processing plants: Aleutian Dragon 

and Chignik Pride Fisheries. The processing facilities 

are a fundamental factor in Chignik’s demography and 

economy; between 600 to 800 people come to Chignik 

to fish or work in the plants each summer from places 

such as Mexico, the Philippines, and U.S. states. The 

city also employs residents for road rebuilding and the 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Chignik ������������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

��� �

���� ���

���� ���� �������������������������� ������������������

��������������

������������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Chignik 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

����������

�����

construction of the new boat harbor. 

In 2000, the employment structure of the 

community showed that a 53.8% of the total 

workforce was employed, a very significant 29.2% was 

unemployed, and 16.9% of the adults were not seeking 

jobs. Overall, 41.5% of the total workforce worked 

for the government. The community had an average 

per capita income of $16,166 and a median household 

income of $34,250. A total of 4.5% of the population 

lived below the line of poverty. 

Trapping is a source of income during the offseason. Subsistence practices are present in the area 

and play a significant role in the local economy. These 

practices include the harvesting of salmon, trout, crab, 

clams, caribou, moose, and porcupine.

Facilities 

Chignik can be reached both by air and sea. The 

city has a state-owned gravel runway, a state-owned 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik (Bay) 
303

seaplane base, and a gravel airstrip owned by Chignik 

Fisheries. Regular air flights run to Chignik from King 

Salmon and Port Heiden. The price of a roundtrip 

airplane ticket from Chignik to Anchorage in early 

September of 2003 was $752. 

The State Ferry operates over the summer from 

May to October and travels to the area bi-monthly. 

Barges carry transported goods to the city weekly 

from late spring to early fall, and arrive monthly from 

fall to spring. The city has a public dock and a 110-slip 

small boat harbor currently under development, and 

there is already a privately owned 600 foot dock and 

boat haul-out present in the Bay. The primary means 

of local transportation are ATVs and skiffs. 

There is only one store in Chignik and it is owned 

by one of the processors, Trident Seafoods. The store is 

only open during the salmon processing season which 

ends in September. During the rest of the year residents 

must order their supplies, usually from Seattle, and 

have them shipped by barge. During winter some 

staple goods are held in a community store room and 

are available for sale.

There is a local health clinic, the Chignik Bay 

Sub-Regional Health Clinic, but for all major medical 

services such as births, residents must travel to other 

cities. The town has centralized water and sewage 

systems managed by the municipality. Chignik 

Electric, operated by the city, provides power to the 

town. The community has a school, the Chignik Bay 

School, with 14 students and 2 teachers. There is no 

local police department. 

Governance 

The second-class City of Chignik, incorporated in 

1983, has a “strong mayor” form of government with 

a seven-member city council. The city has no sales tax 

and no property tax, but it does have a 1% salmon and 

2% other seafood landing tax. The taxes on fish are a 

fundamental income for these communities and a main 

incentive to incorporate. There is also a 2% raw fish 

tax which is imposed and collected by the borough. 

Far West Inc. is the local Native corporation 

managing approximately 119.000 acres. The Bristol 

Bay Native Corporation (BBNC) is the regional Native 

corporation for the area. Its counterpart, the regional 

Native non-profit institution, is the Bristol Bay Native 

Association. Also located in the community is the 

Chignik Bay Tribal Council which is a traditional 

council accepted by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Chignik has an Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) office open during summer. Sand 

Point or Kodiak are the closest permanent offices. 

In order to access to a Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office the inhabitants of 

Chignik have to get in touch with Kodiak, Unalaska, 

or Anchorage. The National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) has its closest quarters in Kodiak, Unalaska, 

or Homer.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Chignik is the central community of the 

Chignik cluster due to the presence of two processing 

plants, the importance of commercial fishing for the 

community cannot be understood without taking 

into account the combination of the employmentbusinesses-fleet structure of the three Chigniks 

combined. 

According to ADF&G records for 2000, Chignik 

had 18 commercial permit holders holding 41 allfisheries combined permits. Simultaneously 37 of its 

residents were registered as crewmen. There were 4 

federal fisheries vessel owners plus 11 owners of 

salmon vessels resident in the community. The Chignik 

fleet fished most of Alaska’s significant species: crab, 

halibut, herring, other types of groundfish, other 

shellfish, and salmon. 

Fishing permits issued for the Alaskan fishing 

industry are specific to species, size of the vessel, type 

of gear and fishing area. 

Groundfish: The groundfish sector accumulated 

eleven permits (three fished): two permits for vessels 

under 60 feet and one for a vessel 60 feet or over, all 

of them to fish with pot gear (3 fished). The remaining 

groundfish permits, one hand troll, two longline vessels 

under 60 feet, one beam troll and one with mechanical 

jig, were not fished in 2000. All groundfish permits 

had a statewide range.

Herring: The herring fleet also has a significant 

presence in Chignik’s harbor. In 2000 there were nine 

issued permits (two fished). Three permits were issued 

for herring roe with purse seine in Bristol Bay (two 

fished). Five permits were issued for herring roe with 

purse seine: one in Prince William Sound, one in Cook 

Inlet, one in Kodiak, one in Chignik, one in the Alaska 

Peninsula, and one for herring food/bait with purse 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik (Bay) 
304

seine in Prince William Sound (none fished).

Salmon: The salmon fleet held 13 permits for 

purse seine restricted to Chignik (14 fished). 

Other fisheries: In the community there was one 

non-fished Dungeness crab permit for a pot gear vessel 

under 60 feet with westward range. There were also 

four permits to fish halibut (three fished). All of them 

were for longline vessels over 60 feet with statewide 

range. There was also a non-fished permit for a vessel 

under 60 feet with pot gear fishing to catch octopus/

squid. 

The commercial fishing plants in Chignik process 

salmon, herring roe, halibut, cod, and crab. At the 

NorQuest processing plant they work with halibut, 

sablefish, groundfish, and salmon. At the Trident 

Seafoods (Sea Catch Inc.) facility they process and 

can salmon and groundfish.

In accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

data for fish landings in Chignik are not available. 

The composition of the fleet delivering at Chignik’s 

harbor though, offers a perspective on the capacity and 

particularities of its fishing industry: groundfish (36 

vessels), sablefish (6 vessels), halibut (20 vessels), and 

salmon (112 vessels). The fleet delivering landings is 

clearly larger than the number of ships home-ported 

or anchored in that particular harbor. The presence of 

processing plants automatically turns a harbor into a 

regional center for the local fishing industry.

The Chignik Seafood Producers Alliance (CSPA) 

is a new organization and a fundamental development 

in the fishing industry. CSPA is made up of purse 

seine salmon permit holders and “in 2002, 77 Chignik 

permit holders joined the Co-op, 22 permit holders 

chose to fish independently in the open fishery, and 

one permit holder did not join the cooperative and also 

did not fish” (Knapp et, al. 2002). Permit holders can 

choose to join the Co-op and the Co-op is allowed a 

percentage of the sockeye salmon harvest in Chignik. 

Permit holders can also choose to not join the Co-op 

and can still fish independently.

Chignik received a direct allocation of $56,421 

in federal salmon disaster funds at the same time 

that Lake and Peninsula Borough received $442,002. 

These allocations were to compensate for loses due 

to prices plummeting in the international market. This 

allocation was implemented in 2003. 

The community, the borough, and the BBEDC 

(CDQ) received $24,860, $29,832, and $ 75,026 

respectively to reduce the impact of Steller sea lion 

protective regulations that came up after the inclusion 

of this species into the endangered species list. This 

allocation, under ESA regulations, was implemented 

in 2002.

The funds not directly allocated to the city were 

added to the general budget of the borough or the 

CDQ and helped to compensate for the decline in fish 

taxes income and to relieve the budgetary tensions of 

the institutions of the area.

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing is not a significant source of income 

in the community of Chignik. In 2000 this community 

did not issue a single sport fishing permit. The area, 

though, is visited by numerous non-residents who get 

their permits elsewhere. One company offers fishing 

services to outsiders.

Subsistence Fishing 

In 1991, Chignik demonstrated the significance 

of subsistence practices for traditional Alaska 

communities. All households participated in the use 

of harvested resources. In relation to the main marine 

resources: 100% used subsistence salmon, 96.7% 

used other types fish (cod, halibut, prowfish, rockfish, 

sablefish, sculpin, wrymouth, char, grayling, and 

trout), 33.3% marine mammals, and 100% marine 

invertebrates. The results reflect that the inhabitants of 

the community were harvesting 357.5 lbs per person 

per year. This statistic emphasizes the importance of 

subsistence fishing, hunting, and gathering for these 

communities. 

In order to understand the relative importance of 

each resource we have to break down the composition 

of the harvest: salmon 47.9%, other fish 30.7%, land 

mammals 6.82%, marine mammals 0.7%, birds and 

eggs 1.2%, marine invertebrates 10.9%, and vegetation 

1.8%. 

In 1999 Chignik had 11 Alaska salmon household 

subsistence permits: the catch was mainly sockeye. 

Residents of Chignik and member of Alaska Native 

Tribes who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik (Bay) 
����

���

305

Chignik Lagoon (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Chignik Lagoon is located on the south shore of the 

Alaska Peninsula, 450 miles southwest of Anchorage. 

It lies 180 air miles south of King Salmon, 8.5 miles 

west of Chignik, and 16 miles east of Chignik Lake. 

The three Chignik communities are clustered off the 

south side of Chignik Bay. Chignik Lagoon took its 

name from its location and proximity to Chignik. 

Chignik is the Koniag (Sugpiaq) word for “big wind.” 

The area encompasses 13.1 square miles of land and 

no water area.

Demographic Profile 

Chignik Lagoon had 102 inhabitants in 2000 

according to the U.S. Census. The racial composition 

of Chignik Lagoon was: 81.6% Alaska Native or 

American Indian, 11.7% White, 1% Black, and 2.9% 

belonged to two or more races. A total of 82.5% of the 

population recognized themselves as all or part Alaska 

Native or American Indian. In 2000, this was a very 

young community with a median age of 26.3 years, 

versus the U.S. median of 35.3 years. A significant 

percentage of the population (23.8%) was under 19 

years of age. As with many Alaskan communities, 

males outnumbered females, 57.3% to 42.7%. 

Chignik Lagoon’s demographics vary by season. 

Although it is hard to make accurate estimates of 

the transient population, different accounts seem 

to confirm that during the fishing season the village 

increases its population by several hundred. Permanent 

residents of the village lived in 33 households. Most of 

the summer residents lived in the 35 otherwise vacant 

houses in the community and in boats offshore. 

Chignik Lagoon does not show up in the U.S. 

Census until the 1960s. A number of communities 

on the Peninsula and the Islands have had important 

levels of mobility due to high seismic activity in 

the area. In any case, the 80s and the 90s showed a 

relatively unchanged population ranging from 40 to 50 

inhabitants. In 2000, however, the population almost 

doubled in size since the last count. Of the population 

25 years of age and over, about 70% had graduated 

from high school and gone on to further schooling, 

and 12% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

About 30% had not graduated from high school. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Chignik Lagoon ���������������

Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����

������

�� �� � � � �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

���������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Chignik Lagoon 

����������������������

Data source: US Census 

������������

����� �����

���� �����

�����

������

�����

�������������������������

���������������

����������������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Chignik Lagoon 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

����� ��������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lagoon 
306

History 

The history of Chignik Lagoon, as with other 

aspects of the community, cannot be detached from 

the history of the whole Bay. Although the U.S. 

Census does not mention Chignik Lagoon until the 

1960s, the area, as evident from a nearly 2,000 yearold site near Chignik, has long been populated. The 

Chignik area was originally populated by Kaniagmuit 

Eskimos. After the Russian occupation, intermarriage 

between Kaniags and Aleuts (Unangan) produced the 

Koniags. 

The Russian era, the 18th century, had a deep impact 

on the area: a village was destroyed (Kaniagmiut), 

others moved or were ravaged by disease or warfare, 

sea mammal populations were decimated during the 

‘golden age’of the fur trade, and the Russian Orthodox 

Church became part of the local heritage. The Native 

population decreased to half of its pre-contact size at 

the same time that the population began to include high 

numbers of Russian and Scandinavian fishermen. 

In spite of recent increases in population, Chignik 

Lagoon remains largely a summer camp for hundreds 

of fisher folk. A fundamental factor that helped to 

consolidate a permanent population in the area was 

the succession of canneries and processing plants that 

came to the area throughout the course of the 20th 

century.

Infrastructures 

Current Economy 

More than half of Chignik Lagoon’s workforce 

is involved in the fishing industry, specifically the 

salmon fishery. Chignik is famous for its sockeye runs 

and the community is very dependant on its salmon 

fleet. Chignik Lagoon has become a regional fishing 

center with the combined influences of Chignik Bay 

and Chignik Lake. 

In 2000, 29 residents held fishing permits. There 

is a seafood preparation and packaging company, the 

Chignik Kipper. There are two on-shore processing 

plants operating in the vicinity of Chignik (Aleutian 

Dragon Fisheries and Chignik Pride). However, 

the primary year-round employers are the village 

council, the electric plant, and the school. In 2000, the 

community had 19 governmental workers. From the 

potential total workforce, 52.6% were employed and 

the remaining 47.4% were not seeking jobs. 

The per capita income in the community was 

$28,940 and a very high $92,297 in median household 

income. Only a 1.8% of the population lived below 

the line of poverty. Subsistence activities like fishing, 

hunting, and gathering were still a significant part of 

the local economy.

Governance 

Chignik Lagoon is an unincorporated village 

located in the Lake and Peninsula Borough. The 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation is the regional Native 

corporation, while the Chignik Lagoon Corporation 

is the local corporation managing approximately 

96,000 acres. The Chignik Lagoon Village Council is 

recognized by the BIA as a traditional council. 

This community is part of the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC) and 

receives community development quotas (CDQ) from 

this organization. This community also benefits from a 

regional nonprofit organization, the Bristol Bay Native 

Association. 

Although only open seasonally, the closest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) offices are 

located in Chignik and Port Moller. Sand Point or 

Kodiak hold the closest permanent ADF&G offices. 

In order to access to a Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office, inhabitants of 

Chignik Lagoon have to get in touch with Kodiak, 

Unalaska, or Anchorage. The nearest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) offices are in Kodiak, 

Unalaska, or Homer. 

Facilities 

Chignik Lagoon is primarily accessible by air 

and sea. There are no roads connecting it to other 

villages, although there is strong regional interest in 

constructing roads in the area connecting Chignik, 

Chignik Lagoon, Chignik Lake, and the landfill. 

There is a State-owned gravel airstrip and seaplane 

base. There are scheduled flights operated by Peninsula 

Airways as well as charters that connect the town to 

others, mainly nearby King Salmon. Because of the 

length of the airstrip, only small aircraft can take-off 

and land at Chignik Lagoon. The price of a roundtrip 

ticket by plane from Anchorage, with a connection 

in King Salmon is $752. There is also a small boat 

harbor. The State ferry provides service four times 

a year. A cargo ship brings supplies weekly in the 

summer and bi-weekly in the winter. Boat haul-outs 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lagoon 
307

are available. Local transportation is mostly via ATVs 

and skiffs. Although limited, there are car rentals and 

accommodations for visitors. 

There is no police service. Basic health care is 

provided by the Chignik Lagoon Health Clinic and the 

Chignik Lagoon First Responder Group. The Chignik 

Lagoon Council owns and operates its water, sewer, 

and power systems. There is also an incinerator and 

landfill for garbage disposal. The town has its own 

school, the Chignik Lagoon School, with 22 students, 

5 teachers, and a gym. The community has a collective 

power provider, Chignik Lagoon Power Utility, piped 

sewage, and a piped water system mostly operated by 

the village council.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

The importance of commercial fishing for the 

Chignik Lagoon community cannot be understood 

without taking into account the combination of the 

employment-businesses-fleet structure of the three 

Chigniks combined. 

According to ADF&G records for 2000, Chignik 

Lagoon had 29 commercial permit holders, with a total 

of 70 permits across all fisheries. In Chignik Lagoon, 

53 individuals were registered as crewmen and there 

were 9 federal fisheries vessel owners plus 18 owners 

of salmon vessels. The Chignik Lagoon fleet was 

involved in most of the Alaskan fisheries: crab, halibut, 

herring, other groundfish, other shellfish, and salmon. 

The permits issued for Alaskan fisheries are 

specific to species, size of vessel, type of gear, and 

fishing area. 

Halibut:There were five issued permits pertaining 

to halibut fisheries. Four permits were fished, all of 

them for longline vessels over 60 feet in statewide 

waters. 

Groundfish: Groundfish had the highest number 

of permits: 30 permits for 19 holders (8 fished). The 

community had one permit for a hand troll vessel (not 

fished), 12 for vessels under 60 feet with pot gear (6 

fished), 14 for mechanical jig, 2 for longline vessels 

over 60 feet (none fished), and one for pot gear over 60 

feet. All these permits were for statewide waters. 

Salmon: The salmon fleet was also very significant 

to Chignik Lagoon’s commercial fisheries, accounting 

for 22 permits (21 fished): all were purse seine, 21 

restricted to Chignik, and one restricted to the Kodiak 

waters. 

Other: One Dungeness crab permit was issued 

for a pot gear vessel over 60 feet. Other fisheries in 

Chignik Lagoon included herring and other shellfish: 

the former included 10 permits, from which only one 

for herring roe with purse seine in Bristol Bay was 

actually fished (two herring roe with purse seine in 

Kodiak, four herring roe with purse seine in Chignik 

and four herring roe with purse seine in Bristol Bay). 

Two issued permits that were fished: they both related 

to the combined category of octopus and squid (one 

permit for a longline and one for a pot gear, both of 

them over 60 feet and statewide range). 

Besides the two fish processing plants operating 

in neighboring Chignik, Chignik Lagoon had its own 

seafood preparation and packing plant, Chignik Kipper. 

Although Chignik Lagoon had a fleet anchored in its 

waters, there was no real landing of fish due to the 

absence of a large processing plant. This lack pushes 

the vessels of this community to deliver somewhere 

else, probably Chignik Bay. 

In 2003, the Lake and Peninsula Borough received 

an allocation of $442,002 in federal salmon disaster 

funds to compensate for loses due to salmon prices 

plummeting, and $29,832 to reduce the impact of 

Steller sea lion protective regulations. The BBEDC also 

received $75,026 for this reason. The funds, added to 

the general budget of the borough or the CDQ, helped 

to compensate for the decline in fish taxes income and 

to relieve budget tensions for institutions in the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 this community did not issue any sport 

fishing permits. The area, though, is visited by numerous 

non-residents that get their permits elsewhere. Locals 

rely on subsistence fisheries. The village had three 

business licenses issued for fishing guide enterprises, 

and two licenses for fishing activities. 

Subsistence Fishing 

In 1989 Chignik Lagoon demonstrated the 

significance of subsistence practices for traditional 

Alaska communities. All households participated 

in the use of harvested resources. In relation to the 

main marine resources: 100% of the households used 

salmon, 100% used other fish (herring, smelt, cod, 

halibut, rockfish, sablefish, char, and trout), 13.3% 

used marine mammals, and 86.7% used marine 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lagoon 
308

invertebrates. The results reflect that the inhabitants of 

the community were harvesting an average of 211.4 

lbs of subsistence resources per person per year. 

In order to understand the relative importance of 

each resource it is useful to break down the composition 

of the harvest: salmon 47.4%, other fish 21%, land 

mammals 17.3%, marine mammals 0, birds and eggs 

2.5%, marine invertebrates 9.8% and vegetation 2%. 

In this community, most of this subsistence practices 

are focused on fish: in 1999 Chignik Lagoon had 32 

Alaska salmon household subsistence permits: the 

catch was mainly sockeye. In addition, the inhabitants 

of this community (rural residents or members of an 

Alaska Native tribe) are eligible to harvest subsistence 

halibut by holding Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificates (SHARCs). These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lagoon 
����

����

���

����

309

Chignik Lake (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The town of Chignik Lake is located on the south 

side of the Alaska Peninsula on the shore of Chignik 

Lake. The three Chignik communities are clustered off 

of the south side of Chignik Bay. Chignik Lake took 

its name from its location and proximity to Chignik, 

the Koniag (Sugpiaq) word for “big wind.” This 

community is situated 13 miles from Chignik, 265 

miles southwest of Kodiak and 474 miles southwest of 

Anchorage. The area encompasses 12.3 square miles 

of land and 9.6 square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Chignik Lake 

had 145 inhabitants. The racial composition in 2000 

was: 86.9% Alaska Native or American Indian, 11.7% 

White, 0.7% Asian, and 0.7% two or more races. A 

total of 87.6% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. A 

small 1.4 % of the population was of Hispanic origin. 

All the permanent residents of the village lived in 

40 households. Ten housing units were vacant in 

the community and of those one was vacant due to 

seasonal use.

In 2000, the median age of Chignik Lake was 

20.8 years versus the U.S. median of 35.3 years. A 

high percentage (49%) of the population was under 

19 years old. In 2000, females outnumbered males 

51.7% to 48.3%. Chignik Lake does not show up 

in the Census until the 1960s. A historical analysis 

depicts a community with a slow but constant growth 

tendency. Of the population age 25 years and older, 

42.9% never completed high school, 57.1% graduated 

from high school or higher schooling, and 8.6% of the 

population had a bachelor’s degree or higher.

History 

The building of a school in the early 1950s was 

a turning point in the emergence of Chignik Lake. 

It attracted a group of families, mostly Russian 

Orthodox, eager to protect their identity and educate 

their offspring in near-isolation. Before that event, the 

community seems to have been a winter residence for 

a few families, the first of which settled in the area 

around 1903. It is hard to understand the population 

dynamics of Chignik Lake in the first half of the 20th 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

Chignik Lake ������������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����

������

�� �� �� � � � �� �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

������������� 2000 Racial Structure

Chignik Lake ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

����� �����

�����

������

�����

������������������������

�������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Chignik Lake 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lake 
����

��������������������������

������������

����������������������

310

century because the community does not appear in 

any census before the 1960s. 

The population, mostly Aleuts or of Aleut descent, 

seem to be originally from Kanatag and Illnik on the 

opposite shore of the Alaska Peninsula. Prior to the 

foundation of the school, all of these communities 

used to meet in different semi-permanent camps. The 

community still keeps the winter camp character of its 

origin. During the summer months an important part 

of the town travels down the river to fish in the Chignik 

salmon fishery or to work in fish processing industry. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of this small community is based 

exclusively on commercial fishing and subsistence. 

A significant number of residents, still following the 

old seasonal pattern, leave the community to work at 

the commercial fishing industry in the Chignik Bay 

processing plants or as crewmen of the fleet of the area. 

Eight residents of the community hold commercial 

fishing permits. In addition, Chignik Lake relies 

heavily on subsistence hunting and fishing (salmon, 

other fish, caribou, moose, and seal). It is important to 

point out that an attempt to establish a tourism industry 

seems to be developing, including accommodations 

and fishing guides. 

The employment structure shows that 38.1% of 

the potential labor force was employed, 3.6% was 

unemployed, and 58.3% were not seeking jobs. The 

singularity of these results, as well as its accuracy 

to represent social reality, needs to be understood in 

the context of a community completely dominated 

by a seasonal industry. Censuses, with their tendency 

project a ‘snapshot’ of a community, are not well 

equipped to represent communities that in fact are 

extremely variable across the year. An appalling 22% 

of the population is reported to live below the line of 

poverty. The per capita income was $13,843 with the 

median household income having been $41,458 in 

Chignik Lake in 2000.

Governance 

Chignik Lake is an unincorporated village 

located in the Lake and Peninsula Borough. The 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation is the regional forprofit Native corporation while the Chignik River 

Ltd. is the local corporation managing 100,000 acres. 

2000 Employment Structure 

Atka 

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

�����������

�����

����������

This community is part of the Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation (BBEDC) and receives 

community development quotas (CDQ) from this 

organization. Bristol Bay Native Association is the 

regional nonprofit. The community is also part of the 

region-wide nonprofit Bristol Bay Native Association. 

Chignik Lake Traditional Council is recognized by the 

BIA. 

Although only open seasonally, the closest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) offices are 

located in Chignik and Port Moller. Sand Point or 

Kodiak are the closest permanent ADF&G offices. In 

order to access a Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office residents of Chignik Lagoon 

have to go to Kodiak, Unalaska, or Anchorage. The 

nearest National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

offices are in Kodiak, Unalaska, and Homer. 

Facilities 

The easiest way to access Chignik Lake is by 

airplane. The community has a State-owned gravel 

airstrip and seaplanes land at nearby Chignik Lagoon. 

Regularly-scheduled and charter flights are provided 

mainly by Peninsula Airways. The price of a roundtrip 

ticket from the community to Anchorage in early 

September of 2003 was $752. 

Chignik Lagoon is the port of arrival of most 

commodities destined for Chignik Lake. These 

goods are transported weekly during the summer 

and monthly during winter. By sea, the inhabitants 

of Chignik Lake have to rely on the services that the 

State Ferry provided to Chignik Lagoon four times per 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lake 
311

year. There is no harbor, dock, barge access, or boat 

haul-outs. Skiffs and ATVs are the primary means of 

local transportation. The three Chigniks are currently 

lobbying for the construction of roads between them. 

Chignik Lake has two registered businesses 

licensed for visitors’ accommodation. The community 

has one school, the Chignik Lake School, with 38 

students and four teachers. The town had no police 

presence. Primary health care is provided by the 

Chignik Lake Health Clinic or, alternatively, by the 

Chignik Lake Rescue Squad. The town has centralized 

systems of water and sewage management, and during 

the summer, power is provided by the Chignik Lake 

Electric Utility Inc. In winter power is purchased from 

the school district.

Involvement in the North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

As mentioned in the Current Economy section, 

the importance of commercial fishing for Chignik 

Lake community cannot be understood without taking 

into account the combination of the employmentbusinesses-fleet structure of the three Chigniks 

combined. 

According to ADF&G records for 2000, Chignik 

Lake had 8 commercial permit holders, holding 10 

all-fisheries combined permits. In Chignik Lake 38 

individuals were registered as crewmen and there was 

one vessel-owner fishing in federal fisheries, and 5 

owners of salmon vessels. The small fleet of Chignik 

Lake was mainly focused on salmon, although it 

was also engaged with herring and other groundfish 

fisheries. 

Permits issued for Alaskan fisheries are specific 

to species, size of the vessel, type of gear, and fishing 

area. 

The community had only one permit that was 

fished which pertained to a vessel under 60 feet with pot 

gear for miscellaneous salt water finfish. The salmon 

fleet encompasses most of Chignik Lake’s commercial 

fisheries. It accounted for eight permits, six of which 

were fished: six were purse seine restricted to Chignik 

(five fished), one for a drift gillnet which was fished, 

and one for a set gillnet which was not fished, both 

restricted to the Bristol Bay waters. There was also 

one permit issued and fished to catch herring roe with 

purse seine in Bristol Bay which was actually fished 

in 2000.

Although Chignik Lake did have a fleet, there was 

no real landing of fish due to the absence of a large 

processing plant. This lack pushes the vessels of this 

community to deliver elsewhere, probably Chignik 

Bay. 

In 2003, the Lake and Peninsula Borough, where 

Chignik Lake is located, received an allocation 

of $442,002 in federal salmon disaster funds to 

compensate for loses due to plummeting salmon 

prices, and $29,832 to reduce the impact of Steller 

sea lion protective regulations. The BBEDC also 

received $75,026 for this reason. The funds, added to 

the general budget of the borough or the CDQ, helped 

to compensate the decline on fish taxes income and to 

relieve the budgetary tension of the institutions of the 

area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, this community did not issue a single 

sport fishing permit. The area is visited by numerous 

outsiders that get their permits elsewhere, though. In 

2002, the village had two business licenses related to 

sport fishing as a tourist activity.

Subsistence Fishing 

In a survey conducted on behalf of ADF&G in 

1991, Chignik Lake demonstrated the great significance 

of subsistence practices for traditional Alaska 

communities. All households participated in the use 

of harvested resources. In relation to the main marine 

resources: 100% of the households used subsistence 

salmon, 100% used other types of fish (herring, smelt, 

cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, 

sculpin, char, and trout), 70.8% marine mammals, and 

100% marine invertebrates. The results reflect that the 

inhabitants of the community were harvesting 442.4 

lbs per person per year. These statistics emphasize 

the importance of subsistence fishing, hunting, and 

gathering for these communities. 

In order to understand the relative importance 

of each resource it is helpful to break down the 

composition of the harvest: salmon 46.06%, other fish 

9.4%, land mammals 34.5%, marine mammals 0.9%, 

birds and eggs 3%, marine invertebrates 4.7%, and 

vegetation 1.5%. 

In 1999, residents of Chignik Lake had 11 Alaska 

salmon household subsistence permits and the catch 

was mainly sockeye. In addition, the inhabitants of 

this community (rural residents or members of an 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lake 
312

Alaska Native tribe) are eligible to harvest subsistence 

halibut by holding Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificates (SHARCs). These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Chignik Lake 
���

313

Dutch Harbor / Unalaska

(return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Unalaska is a town located on Unalaska Island in 

the western Aleutian Islands. The Dutch Harbor portion 

of the community is located on Amaknak Island and is 

mainly an industrial port area, connected by a bridge 

to Unalaska Island, where most of the population is 

concentrated. Unalaska and Dutch Harbor are treated 

as a single community here, in accordance with their 

inseparability in certain data sets and an underlying 

socioeconomic interconnectivity. 

Demographic Profile 

Unalaska is a town of 4,283 people in 988 housing 

units (Census 2000). During peak fishing seasons the 

population of the city can swell to over ten thousand. 

The size of Unalaska’s temporary population is 

illustrated by the fact that 51.2% of the population 

lives in group housing quarters. 

Though few non-Natives lived in the community 

before WWII, 7.7% of the population recorded by 

the Census in 2000 was Alaska Native or American 

Indian in race. Approximately 3.7% was Black, 

44.2% percent was White, 30.6% percent was Asian 

(Filipinos, in particularly, make up a large portion of 

the Asian population), 9.3% consisted of other races, 

0.6% was Hawaiian Native or Other Pacific Islander, 

and 3.9% was two or more races. A total of 9.3% of the 

population recognized themselves as all or part Alaska 

Native or American Indian. Residents of Hispanic 

origin made up 12.9% of the population. 

Male residents comprise 66.1% of the local 

population, and females 33.9%. The median age of 

Unalaska, at 36.5 years, is similar to the U.S. national 

average of 35.3 years. Approximately 78.1% of the 

adult population has an educational level of high 

school or higher. 

History 

The Aleutian Islands have been populated for 

3000-6000 years by Aleut (Unangan) people. The 

Aleuts of Unalaska and Umnak Island are known as 

Qawalangin, which means “sons of sea lions.” In 1759 

there were estimated to be more than 3,000 Unangan 

in 24 settlements on Unalaska and Amaknak. 

2000 Population Structure �������������������������

�������� Unalaska Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

���� ��� ��� ��� ��� � ��� ���

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ��������

���������������������� Unalaska

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races 

Other 3.9% 

9.3% 

Pacific Islander 

0.6% 

White 

44.2% 

Asian

30.6%

Black 

7.7% 3.7% 

Native 

������������������������

��������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Unalaska 

����������������������

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Dutch Harbor Unalaska 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

314

Russian traders and explorers began visiting the 

Aleutian Islands in 1741, and established a permanent 

fur-trading post at Unalaska in 1774. The Russian 

period brought forced labor in the fur trade for the 

Russian American Company, depletion of local furbearing animals, epidemic disease outbreaks, the 

Russian Orthodox religion, and an alphabet for the 

Aleut language. The 1867 purchase of Alaska by 

the U.S. introduced different forms of commerce, 

including the establishment of the Alaska Commercial 

Company, a fishing outfit. 

The U.S. military presence on the island began 

gradually with a naval radio command station in 1911. 

However, in the years leading up to the U.S. entrance 

into WWII, the strategic importance of the Aleutians 

prompted an intense build-up of bases and personnel, 

with the population reaching a staggering 50-70,000 

by 1943 (AWCRSA Profile, 2002). The Japanese 

bombed Dutch Harbor on June 3, 1942, resulting in 

43 deaths, and, on July 19, of that year, the Aleuts of 

Unalaska were forcibly evacuated and interned at an 

abandoned cannery at Burnett Inlet, near Wrangell 

in southeast Alaska. By 1951 the military presence 

was all but gone from the city. By 1960 Unalaska 

was the only surviving settlement out of the 24 that 

had existed on Unalaska and Amaknak Islands at the 

beginning of Russian contact (Veltre, 1980). In the 

recent past, Unalaska was heavily involved in the cod, 

herring, salmon, King crab, and snow crab commercial 

fisheries. Today Unalaska/Dutch Harbor is the center 

of the Bering Sea groundfish fishery. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The Unalaska/Dutch Harbor economy is based 

almost entirely on commercial fishing. It is the 

major source of employment, accounting for over 

90% of jobs. Employment occurs in the harvest and 

processing sectors, and in fishing-related services such 

as fuel, vessel maintenance, trade, and transportation 

(Alaska Department of Community and Economic 

Development). A nascent tourism industry is present 

in the community, with cruise ship stopovers, sport 

fishing, kayaking, and bird-watching attracting visitors. 

The subsistence economy is also still important in the 

community.

The median per capita income in 2000 was 

$24,676, and the median household income was 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� Unalaska 

����������

�������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

���� ����

���� ����

���� ����

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

��������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Unalaska 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

�����

��������

�����

$69,539. Approximately 12.5% of the population was 

below the poverty level. In 2000, 11.1% of residents 

were unemployed and seeking work, and 16.8% were 

unemployed and not seeking work (not in the total 

potential labor force).

Facilities 

Unalaska is accessible only by air (800 air miles 

from Anchorage) or sea. Scheduled commercial flights 

provided by Alaska Airlines and Peninsula Airways are 

often cancelled due to weather, stranding passengers 

for days at a time. Roundtrip airfare from Unalaska/

Dutch Harbor to Anchorage is approximately $772 

(Travelocity 2003) The State ferry service operates 

from April until October every year and commonly 

there is only one trip per month.

Dutch Harbor/Unalaska has ten major docks, three 

of which are managed by the city. These docks contain 

5,200 feet of moorage and 1,232 feet of floating dock. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Dutch Harbor Unalaska 
315

The city’s small boat harbor has 238 moorage slips 

and 900 linear feet of dock space, but the boats are 

often crowded and moored three vessels out from the 

dock. Currently there are plans to build a new small 

boat harbor which would help to provide more space 

with 250 additional slips. 

Two schools, both operated by the city, provide 

instruction for students: one primary school and one 

secondary school, with a combined total of 30 teachers 

and 390 students. The city also operates all major 

utilities, including electricity, sewer, and water. There 

are two health clinic facilities in Unalaska: the Iluliuk 

Family Health Clinic, which is operated by a non-profit 

board of directors, and the Wellness Clinic, which is 

operated by the Aleutian Pribilof Island Association. 

The city also provides police and fire services. 

In terms of privately owned facilities, there are 

four hotels, two grocery stores, and a wide variety of 

businesses in the service sector. 

Governance 

Unalaska was incorporated in 1942. Because of its 

standing as a first-class city which has elected not to be 

included in a borough, it has greater taxation powers. It 

also has greater public administration responsibilities, 

such as the funding and operation of its public schools 

and utilities. The city government includes an elected 

mayor, a six-member City Council, and a staff that 

make up various departments. The City of Unalaska 

has a 3% sales tax, a 5% accommodations tax, and a 

2% raw fish tax. 

The Ounalashka Corporation, the Qawalangin 

Tribal Council, the Aleut Corporation, and the Aleutian 

Pribilof Island Community Development Association 

also provide services to the city’s residents such as 

public functions, projects, or funding.

The Ounalashka Corporation (OC) is a for-profit 

corporation which was formed by the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). The corporation 

contributes to many community organizations, 

including but not limited to programs supporting 

traditional culture. 

Located in Dutch Harbor/Unalaska are a National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office of Sustainable 

Fisheries and an Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) Division of Commercial Fisheries office. 

There is also an officer of the Bureau of Citizenship 

and Immigration Services (BCIS) stationed in town.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Unalaska/Dutch Harbor is located at the center of 

the most productive groundfish fishery in the world. 

Pollock generates the most revenue of the commercially 

fished species in Dutch Harbor/Unalaska. Other species 

processed in Dutch Harbor/Unalaska include Pacific 

cod, black cod, halibut, flatfish, salmon, herring, opilio 

and Tanner crab, and king crab. In 2000 there were 50 

residents who held a total of 103 commercial fishing 

permits. There were 17 resident vessel owners operating 

in federal fisheries and six vessel owners operating 

in non-federal fisheries. There were 200 registered 

crew members residing in Unalaska/Dutch Harbor in 

2000. This section contains detailed information about 

commercial permits in 2000 for Unalaska and Dutch 

Harbor as a single entity.

Crab: Permits in the crab fishery totaled 16 (13 

fished). A detailed breakdown of these permits was 

as follows: one Dungeness crab pot gear permit for 

vessels under 60 feet in the Aleutian Islands westward 

area (none fished), one king crab pot gear permit for 

vessels under 60 feet in Bristol Bay (one fished), two 

king crab pot gear permits for vessels over 60 feet in 

Dutch Harbor (one fished), one Dungeness crab pot 

gear permit for vessels over 60 feet in the Aleutian 

Islands westward region (one fished), one king crab 

pot gear permit for vessels under 60 feet in Norton 

Sound (one fished), four king crab pot gear permits 

for vessels over 60 feet in Bristol Bay (three fished), 

and six Tanner crab pot gear permits for vessels over 

60 feet in the Bering Sea (six fished). 

Other Shellfish: A total of four permits for other 

shellfish were issued, but none were fished. A detailed 

breakdown of these permits is as follows: one shrimp 

permit for vessels with otter trawl gear in Prince 

William Sound (none fished), two octopus/squid pot 

gear permits for vessels over 60 feet in statewide 

waters (none fished), and one sea urchin permit for 

individuals using diving gear in statewide waters, 

southeast Alaska (none fished). 

Halibut: Permits in the halibut fishery totaled 25 

(13 fished). A detailed breakdown of these permits is 

as follows: one halibut hand troll permit for statewide 

waters (none fished), 15 halibut longline permits for 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (13 fished), 5 

halibut mechanical jig permits in statewide waters (4 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Dutch Harbor Unalaska 
316

fished), and 4 halibut longline permits for vessels over 

60 feet in statewide waters (3 fished). 

Herring: There was only one permit issued in the 

herring fishery (none fished). This permit was for a 

vessel with purse seine gear in Bristol Bay.

Other Groundfish: Permits in the groundfish 

fishery totaled 40 (18 fished). A detailed breakdown 

of these permits is as follows: one lingcod mechanical 

jig permit for statewide waters (none fished), 9 

miscellaneous finfish longline permit for vessels under 

60 feet in statewide waters (4 fished), 2 miscellaneous 

finfish pot gear permits for vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (none fished), 18 miscellaneous 

finfish mechanical jig permits in statewide waters (7 

fished), 4 miscellaneous finfish longline permits for 

vessels over 60 feet in statewide waters (2 fished), and 

6 miscellaneous finfish pot gear permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (5 fished). 

Sablefish: Permits in the sablefish fishery totaled 

seven (five fished). A detailed breakdown of these 

permits is as follows: four sablefish longline permits 

for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (three 

fished), and three sablefish longline permits for vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (two fished). 

Salmon: Permits in the salmon fishery totaled eight 

(five fished). A detailed breakdown of these permits is 

as follows: one salmon drift gillnet permit for vessels 

operating in Prince William Sound (one fished), one 

salmon purse seine permit for the Chignik fishery 

(one fished, one salmon purse seine permit for the 

Alaska Peninsula/Aleutian Islands (none fished), one 

salmon drift gillnet permit for the Alaska Peninsula 

(none fished), three salmon drift gillnet permits for 

the Bristol Bay fishery (three fished), and one salmon 

hand troll permit for statewide waters (not fished). 

Dutch Harbor/Unalaska is the busiest fishing port 

in the Nation in terms of landings; nine processors 

reported a total of 316,312.6 tons in landings for 

2000. Of this, the vast majority of landings (305,394.8 

tons, or 96.5%) were in the groundfish fishery. Vessels 

delivered landings to Dutch Harbor/Unalaska for the 

following species: groundfish (192 vessels), sablefish 

(56 vessels), halibut (197 vessels), BSAI crab (136 

vessels), salmon (50 vessels), herring (46 vessels), 

and scallops (1 vessel). 

The largest onshore processors in Dutch Harbor/

Unalaska are Unisea, Westward Seafoods, and Alyeska 

Seafoods. Osterman Fish, Prime Alaska, and Royal 

Aleutian also operated in Dutch Harbor. The off-shore 

processors in the area are the Bering Star, which is a 

floating processor that spends most of its time in Dutch 

Harbor/Unalaska, and the Fishing Company of Alaska 

(FCA), which is an at-sea processing company. 

In 2002 the city of Unalaska was granted $876,540 

in federal funds to compensate for fisheries losses due 

to the protection of Steller sea lion habitat under the 

Endangered Species Act. 

Sport Fishing 

There are at least four charter boat companies 

that operate out of Unalaska/Dutch Harbor, taking 

customers on sport fishing cruises to catch sockeye 

salmon, coho salmon, pink salmon, halibut, and Dolly 

Varden. There are three registered fishing guides for 

fresh water and six for salt water. Sport fishing permit 

sales for Unalaska totaled 833 in 2000, including 485 

to Alaska residents. 

Some participants in the halibut charter fleet 

report a recent increase in competition on the local 

fishing grounds from commercial fishing boats which 

have responded to a decrease in the ex-vessel value of 

salmon by moving into halibut fisheries.

Subsistence Fishing 

Many residents of Unalaska use subsistence 

resources. The ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence 

reports that, in 1994, 96.8% of Unalaska households 

used subsistence resources. Approximately 91.9% of 

households used salmon, particularly coho and sockeye. 

Approximately 94.6% of households used non-salmon 

fish species, including cod, halibut, herring, rockfish, 

sablefish, and char. In addition, 13.8% used marine 

mammals for subsistence, and 86.5% used marine 

invertebrates.

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Unalaska in 1994 was 194.5 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (27.7%), nonsalmon fish (41.6%), land mammals (4.9%), marine 

mammals (4.9%), birds and bird eggs (0.8%), marine 

invertebrates (14.1%), and vegetation (6.0%). In 1999, 

206 households in Unalaska and Dutch Harbor held 

subsistence salmon harvesting permits. The local 

Qawalingin Tribe of Unalaska holds a Subsistence 

Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC), which 

allows them to harvest halibut for subsistence. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Dutch Harbor Unalaska 
317

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the other corporate member processors and was designed 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective to address the issues of its members. PSPA’s office is in 

May 2003. Seattle, but its members are located in Dutch Harbor/

Unalaska. 

Additional Information 

The Unalaska Native Fisheries Association (UNFA) 

is a local fishing organization based in Unalaska 

which acquired a herring gill-net quota for the small 

boat fleet of the city as well as a 2% quota on cod in 

the Northern Pacific. The Pacific Seafood Processors 

Association (PSPA) is an association made up of three 

of the processors in Dutch Harbor/Unalaska: Unisea, 

Westward Seafoods, and Alyeska Seafoods as well as 

Many different religions are practiced in the city 

of Unalaska and many religious organizations are 

present including Eastern Orthodox, United Methodist, 

Christian Fellowship, Roman Catholic, Mormon, 

Bahai, and the Aleutian Bible Church. Buddhism 

is also practiced by many Vietnamese and Japanese 

residents. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Dutch Harbor Unalaska 
����

���

����

Egegik 2000 Population Structure �������������������������� (return to communities) ������ Egegik 

318

People and Place 

Location 

The second-class city of Egegik is located on the 

south bank of the Egegik River on the Alaska Peninsula, 

making it a prime spot for harvesting salmon. Egegik 

is part of the Lake and Peninsula Borough and is 

about 326 air miles southwest of Anchorage and 100 

miles southwest of Dillingham. The area of Egegik 

encompasses 32.8 square miles of land and 101.2 

square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

The city of Egegik had a population of 116 people 

in 2000 as recorded by the U.S. Census. Of those 

inhabitants, 59.5% were male and 40.5% were female. 

By 2002 the population had decreased to 88 people 

as reported by a State Demographer. However, this 

fluctuation in population seems to be typical of the 

community since about 1920, during which time the 

population has stayed between 75 to 150 inhabitants 

at the time of year in which the censuses were 

conducted. During the commercial fishing season the 

population of Egegik swells by 7 to 13 times its normal 

population and gains 1,000 to 2,000 cannery workers 

and fishermen seasonally. 

In 2000, out of the 166 inhabitants of Egegik, about 

48% of the population was between the ages of 25 and 

54 years. The median age for Egegik was 35.3 years 

which was the same as the national median age. About 

19% of the population was White, 58% Alaska Native 

or American Indian, 22% were of two or more races, 

and a little less than 1% was Asian. About 76.7% of 

the population reported being Alaska Native alone or 

in combination with one or more races. Approximately 

6.9% were of Hispanic origin. One hundred percent of 

the population lived in households rather than group 

quarters. There were a total of 286 housing units in 

Egegik, although only 44 were occupied, with 236 

households vacant due to seasonal use. Approximately 

54.7% of the population age 25 and over had graduated 

from high school or gone on to further schooling, and 

five people (4.3% of the population) had an associate’s 

degree. 

Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� � � � �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure ������ Egegik ����������������������

Data source: US Census 

������������ ����� ����� ����� �����

�����

������

�����

������������������������

������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Egegik 

Data source: US Census 

��������

����

������

������������

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Egegik 
319

��������������������������

������

����������������������

History 

The Bristol Bay region is estimated to have been 

inhabited since approximately 6000 years ago by 

Yup’ik Eskimos and Athabascan Indians. In later years 

it was settled by the Aleuts. The initial contact between 

Native peoples and the Russian fur traders occurred 

around 1818 to 1867. The Russians reported that in 

1876 the village site was a fish camp named ‘Igagik’

meaning throat. According to the Lake & Peninsula 

School District website, Egegik is an Alutiiq word 

which means ‘between the rivers.’ Historically, local 

Native peoples would travel each summer to the area 

of Egegik for a seasonal fish camp. 

In 1895 the Alaska Packers Association built a 

commercial salmon saltery in Egegik, and a town built 

up around this historic fish camp site. Native peoples 

from other villages moved to Egegik at the time of the 

influenza outbreaks which began in 1918, in an effort 

to escape the disease. Around 1930 another saltery 

was built on the site where the current Alaska General 

Seafoods support camp is located today. 

During WWII many Egegik men served in the 

military in Dutch Harbor as well as other areas, and 

many were enlisted to help build the King Salmon 

airport. Egegik became incorporated as a second-class 

city in 1995. Today Egegik has five on-shore processors 

in the area and numerous floating processors, making 

it an important salmon production port. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Egegik is based on subsistence 

living and commercial fishing, as well as fish 

processing. Subsistence fishing, hunting, and 

gathering are very important to the inhabitants of 

Egegik and they make use of a variety of animals and 

plants consisting mainly of salmon, trout, smelt, seal, 

grayling, clams, moose, bear, caribou, porcupine, 

waterfowl, ptarmigan, berries, and greens. There are 

five on-shore processors and many floating processors 

in Egegik. These processors bring seasonal workers to 

the area each commercial fishing season. In 2000, 72 

permits were issued to residents of Egegik and there 

were 48 licensed crew members who were residents. 

Of those residents age 16 and over, 26.3% were 

employed, 10.0% were unemployed, and 63.8% were 

not in the labor force. A large percentage (66.7%) of 

2000 Employment Structure 

Egegik 

Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

����������� ����������

����� �����

those who were employed worked for the government. 

The per capita income for Egegik was $16,352 with 

the median household income being $46,000. About 

6.9% of the inhabitants of Egegik lived below the 

poverty level. 

Governance 

Egegik is a second-class city with a mayor form of 

government. The elected officials for the city include: 

the mayor, a six person city council, the advisory school 

board, and a few municipal employees including a fire 

chief. The City has a 2% Raw Fish Tax and in addition 

the Borough imposes its own 2% Raw Fish Tax as well 

as a 6% Accommodations Tax. The city is located in 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough. 

The regional Native corporation in the area is the 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation (BBNC). The Becharof 

Corporation is the for-profit Native village corporation 

in Egegik. The President of the corporation, Hazel 

Nelson was recently appointed to the North Pacific 

Fishery Management Council (NPFMC) in August of 

2002 and is one of the eleven voting members on the 

Council. The Egegik Village Council is the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized traditional council for 

the village. The tribal council and the president of the 

council “work jointly with the city council in receiving 

funds for the village projects” (Lake & Peninsula 

Borough 2003) such as the local road project and 

putting together other village improvement projects 

and services. The council has received many federal 

grants such as the $113,986 awarded in 2002 and 

$117,060 awarded in 2001. The Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation (BBEDC) is the local 

Community Development Quota (CDQ) group for 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Egegik 
320

the area and whose home office is in Dillingham. The 

regional Native non-profit for the area is the Bristol 

Bay Native Association. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in King Salmon. The 

closest National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

office and Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office are both located in Kodiak. 

Facilities 

Egegik is accessible by air and water and also by 

snow machine in the winter. It is 326 miles southwest 

of Anchorage and 35 miles southwest of King Salmon. 

Barge services are transported from both Anchorage 

and Seattle to the area. Scheduled air flights are 

available to the community as well as charter flights. 

The approximate price to fly roundtrip to Anchorage 

from Egegik according to Travelocity and Expedia is 

$537.00 (price given for date as close to September 

1st 2003 as possible). There is a 5,600’ lighted gravel 

runway located two miles northwest of Egegik. The 

Egegik boat harbor can lodge up to 150 vessels; a 

public dock has been recently constructed, and a boat 

haul-out is available for use. Privately owned facilities 

are also present: two docks and marine storage. 

Egegik belongs to the Lake and Peninsula Schools 

school district and there is one school located in the 

community, Egegik School which teaches grades 

Kindergarten through 12th grade. Egegik School had 

10 students and 1 teacher in the year 2000 which sets 

the community in danger of losing the school if the 

number of students drops below ten. A recreation 

center is present in the community as well as a 

public library and school library. Accommodations 

are available at the Fun N Wash Hotel and Becharof 

Lodge. Egegik Health Clinic is the clinic located 

in the area for which funds have been requested for 

the construction of a Regional Health Clinic and the 

purchase of an ambulance. City police are present as 

well as the city volunteer fire and the VPSO office. 

Electricity is provided by Egegik Light & Power 

Company, which uses diesel as a primary fuel source. 

All local homes are heated using kerosene. Individuals 

are responsible for collecting their own refuse, but the 

city and International Seafoods operate the landfill. 

The sewer system and water system are both run by 

the city, although only 17.9% of the households use 

the public water system and only 28.4% use the public 

sewer system. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In the year of 2000, 72 permits were issued to 

residents of Egegik and according to the Commercial 

Fisheries Entry Commission (CFEC) there were 48 

licensed crew members who identified themselves as 

residents of Egegik in the same year. There were two 

vessel owners involved in federal fisheries which were 

residents of Egegik in the year 2000 and 22 vessel 

owners involved in commercial fishing for salmon. 

Out of the 72 permits issued in 2000, 46 were 

actually fished. Of the total permits issued to 

community members 10 were for the harvesting 

of halibut, 21 were for herring, two were for other 

groundfish, and 39 were for salmon. There were 23 

salmon permits issued using a drift gillnet in Bristol 

Bay (20 were fished), 15 for a set gillnet in Bristol 

Bay (12 were fished), and one using a fish wheel in 

the Upper Yukon, although the fish wheel permit was 

not fished. Of the two permits issued for groundfish 

one was issued for miscellaneous salt water finfish 

using a mechanical jig statewide and one was issued 

for miscellaneous salt water finfish using a longline 

vessel under 60 feet statewide, although neither permit 

was fished. There were 11 permits issued for herring 

roe using gillnets in Bristol Bay (nine were fished), 

nine issued for herring roe using gillnets in Security 

Cove (three were fished), and one issued for herring 

roe using a purse seine in Kodiak (zero were fished. 

There were nine permits issued to Egegik residents for 

halibut using a longline vessel under 60 feet statewide, 

although only one was fished and there was one permit 

issued for halibut using a hand troll statewide which 

was also fished. 

There were six vessels which participated in the 

halibut fishery in 2000 and delivered landings to the 

community, 429 delivered salmon, and 213 which 

delivered herring. In accordance with confidentiality 

regulations, data for fish landings in the community 

is unavailable. There are five on-shore processors and 

several floating processors in Egegik including but not 

limited to: Woodbine Alaska Fish Co., M/V Woodbine, 

Alaska General Seafoods, Clark Fish Co., International 

Seafoods, and Big Creek Fish Co. Halibut and herring 

are processed by Woodbine Alaska Fish Co. Salmon 

is processed by the Clark Fish Co. and by Woodbine 

Alaska Fish Co. 

Recently $63,664.59 was allocated to the 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Egegik 
321

community of Egegik as part of the salmon disaster 

funds. The amount of $442, 001 in salmon disaster 

funds was also allocated to the Lake and Peninsula 

Borough, which Egegik is a part of. The Borough was 

also recently granted $29,832 by the Southwest Alaska 

Municipal Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion 

Mitigation program “in recognition of the negative 

economic impacts of federal measures to protect the 

Steller sea lion” with money which had been allocated 

by the United States government (Southwest Alaska 

Municipal Conference 2003). The CDQ which 

Egegik is part of as well, the Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation was also granted $75,026 

as part of the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation funds. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishers as well as subsistence fishers for the 

most part target coho salmon in an area downstream 

of the Becharof Lake outlet, although “in recent years 

residents of Egegik have expressed concern over 

apparently declining numbers of coho salmon and 

other species in the outlet area” which was associated 

with an increase in the number of fly-in sport fishers 

(U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service 2003). One sport fishing 

license was sold in Egegik in the year 2000 to an 

Alaska resident. 

Subsistence Fishing 

For the Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G), Division of Subsistence study year of 

1984 which was the most representative year for the 

community; 100% of the households in Egegik used 

all subsistence resources, 96% used salmon, 64% 

used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, 

flounder, halibut, char, grayling, trout, and whitefish), 

4% used marine mammals, and 44% of the households 

in Egegik used marine invertebrates. The per capita 

harvest of all subsistence resources was 384.34 lbs 

in the community in 1984. Of that per capita harvest 

24.37% was salmon, 4.10% was non-salmon fish, 0% 

was marine mammals, 3.54% was marine invertebrates, 

4.20% was birds and eggs, and 63.79% was land 

mammals. No harvest quality information was collected 

in the community for vegetation; therefore the amount 

was given as 0% for that particular year. In 1999 also 

according to ADF&G, there were 24 household salmon 

permits issued to residents of Egegik. Rural residents 

and tribal members of Egegik are eligible to apply for 

halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Egegik 
����

����

���

����

322

False Pass (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of False Pass is located on the 

eastern shore of the first Aleutian Island, Unimak, on 

Isanotski Strait, midway between the Bering Sea and 

the Gulf of Alaska. Located 646 air miles southwest of 

Anchorage, False Pass encompasses 26.8 square miles 

of land and 41.4 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of False Pass was 64. Total population numbers have 

been reasonably stable since the 1930s.Unlike many 

fishing communities, the genders were in equal balance 

in False Pass in 2000.

The racial composition of the population in 

2000 was: 62.5% Alaska Native or American Indian, 

26.6% White, 1.6% other, and 9.4% of the population 

identified with two or more races. A total of 65.6% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. Only 1.6% of the 

population identified as Hispanic. The median age was 

31.5 years which is slightly below the national median 

of 35.3 years. According to the 2000 census, 37.5% 

of the population was under 19 years of age while 

only 10% of the population was over 55 years of age. 

The pattern of this age structure shows a fairly young 

population. In fact, about 33% of the population in 

2000 was 14 years old or below and the median age 

in False Pass was 5 years younger then the national 

average in 2000.

There were 40 housing units in False Pass, 18 of 

which were vacant in 2000 and of these, 2 were vacant 

due to seasonal use. At the time of the 2000 census, 

none of the population lived in group quarters. About 

65.2% of the population had a high school diploma 

or higher, while 17.4% had a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. 

History 

The False Pass area has been inhabited since 

prehistory by Aleuts or Unangan. At the time of 

Russian contact during the fur trade in the 18th century, 

the area had the largest population of Aleuts anywhere 

in the Aleutian Islands, with twelve Aleut settlements 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

False Pass ����������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

� � � � � � � � � ��

���������������������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure �����������

���������������������� False Pass

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

�����

�����

������

�����

������������������������

�����������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

False Pass 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/False Pass 
323

��������������������������

����������

����������������������

on Unimak Island alone. Disease and war during 

the Russian fur trade destroyed most of the Aleut 

settlements in the area, and the Russians consolidated 

the remnants of the surviving villages into one newly 

created village on the tip of the Alaska Peninsula on 

Isanotski Strait, opposite the present community of 

False Pass. This village was called Morzhovoi. 

The P.E. Harris Company from Seattle established 

a salmon cannery in False Pass in 1919, and the 

community grew with an increasingly large and 

diverse population. Alaska Natives immigrated from 

Akutan, Unalaska, Morzhovoi, Sanak Island, Ikatan, 

and elsewhere, attracted to the opportunities provided 

by the cannery. A local post office was established at 

this time. After Alaska became a U.S. Territory, new 

immigrants, mostly of Scandinavian origin, began to 

settle in the area. They brought with them commercial 

fishing and fish preservation technologies, most 

importantly salting. The first commercial fisheries 

in the area were thus focused on salted cod and 

salmon. In addition, hunting and trapping has been an 

important means of subsistence for the people of False 

Pass. People from this area have often moved between 

nearby towns in the area in response to cannery 

and school closures. History, family ties, and social 

networks continue to provide links between local 

Native communities in the area, so intra-community 

cohesion is strong (Black and Jacka, 1999). The 

cannery in False Pass has operated annually, except 

between 1973 and 1976, when it was closed due to 

a combination of harsh winters and depleted fish 

resources. The cannery was subsequently purchased 

by Peter Pan Seafoods in 1962. It was destroyed by fire 

in March 1981 and was not rebuilt, leading to some 

population drain. 

Isanotski Strait, accessible by vessels up to 200 

feet in length, is the major pass between the Gulf 

of Alaska and the Bering Sea. For this reason, both 

Isanotski Strait and the community of False Pass have 

long been called “the Pass” by fishermen from all over 

southwestern Alaska. Despite its name, there is nothing 

“false” about the pass. Because the north entrance 

to Isanotski Strait is shallow, it was historically very 

difficult for non-motorized sailing vessels to navigate 

the channel, so the sailing ship captains gave it the 

name “False Pass” and the name stuck. False Pass is 

situated in a volcanic region, but this is not considered 

to pose an immediate threat. 

2000 Employment Structure 

False Pass Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The local economy of False Pass is driven by 

the fishing industry, relies on associated services, 

and is supplemented by subsistence practices and 

government. A total of 24 commercial fishing permits 

were held by 11 permit holders in 2000 according to 

ACFEC. False Pass’ opportune location makes it an 

important refueling and supply stop for Bristol Bay, 

Bering Sea and northern Gulf of Alaska fishing fleets. 

The City of False Pass has finalized plans for a 

small boat harbor, which will be built in the summer of 

2005. This will allow fishermen and other users to keep 

boats in protected moorage throughout the year. The 

Aleutian Pribilof Islands Community Development 

Association (APICDA), through its subsidiary, Bering 

Pacific Seafoods, will build a seafood processing plant 

during the summer of 2005, with plans to make it 

operational in 2006. 

Although False Pass is largely surrounded by the 

Unimak Wilderness Area (designated in 1980) of the 

Izembek National Wildlife Refuge, tourism does not 

play a significant role in the local economy at this 

time.

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 74.5% of 

the potential labor force was employed and there was 

no reported unemployment (those actively seeking 

work). A total of 25.5% of the population over 16 

years of age were not in the labor force (not actively 

seeking work) and 8% of the population lived below 

the poverty level. The government is a significant 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/False Pass 
324

employer in False Pass; 51.2% of the potential labor 

force was government workers in 2000. The median 

household income in the same year was $49,375 and 

the per capita income was $21,465. 

Governance 

False Pass is a second-class city that was 

incorporated in 1990. It is governed locally by a 

mayor and seven-member city council that meets 

monthly. Taxes in False Pass include a 2% raw fish tax 

implemented by the city on local commercial landings 

and a 3% sales and use tax on goods and services. There 

is a further 2% raw fish tax from the borough on all 

landings in the borough. The Aleutian Pribilof Islands 

Association, Inc., a federally recognized non-profit 

tribal organization of the Aleut people in Alaska which 

contracts with federal, state and local governments, also 

provides services in False Pass, some of which include 

public safety (Village Public Safety Officers) and health 

programs (emergency, elders, behavioral, outreach and 

advocacy oriented programs). False Pass is a member 

of the regional for-profit Aleut Corporation under the 

Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

Isanotski Corporation is the local Native village 

corporation. The total land entitlement under ANCSA 

is almost 80,000 acres. The False Pass Tribal Council 

is federally recognized and eligible for funding and 

services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). False 

Pass belongs to the Aleutians East Borough, which is 

responsible for many services. False Pass is involved 

in a Community Development Quota program under 

the Aleutian Pribilof Island Community Development 

Association (APICDA) which provides mechanisms 

for the distribution of money from a fishing quota in 

the Bering Sea to community development initiatives. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office is in Unalaska, as is the nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS). The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) office is seasonally located in Cold 

Bay (between May and October) while the nearest 

permanent office is located in Unalaska. 

Facilities 

False Pass is accessible only by air and sea. Its 

location offers protection from ocean swells, and 

coves within the pass itself provide safe anchorages 

during severe weather. The pass is almost always free 

of sea ice. Unimak Pass, at the western end of Unimak 

Island, is used only by the largest oceangoing ships; 

the north channel of Isanotski Strait into the Bering 

Sea has navigation buoys so that passage is routine 

and safe. The cost of a round trip flight from False Pass 

to Anchorage is $843, which includes $643 for the 

Alaska Airlines flight between Anchorage and Cold 

Bay (based on the closest available date to 1 September 

2003), and $200 for the Pen Air flight between Cold 

Bay and False Pass three times a week year-round. A 

state-owned 2,100 foot gravel airstrip and a seaplane 

base are available. Currently, there is no boat harbor, 

but a dock and boat ramp are available. A boat haulout and storage facility are under construction and the 

need for protected moorage has been identified. The 

Corps of Engineers is designing a $13 million small 

boat harbor, which will be built during the summer of 

2005. As of 2003, navigational improvements are also 

underway. The project is sponsored by the Aleutians 

East Borough and in cooperation with NMFS and 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Cargo freighters 

arrive from Seattle every 2 weeks or every week, 

depending on demand. The State Ferry operates once 

a month between May and October from Homer and 

Seldovia. Local taxi and delivery services exist in 

False Pass only on demand. Freashwater is supplied 

by a nearby spring and storage tanks. All residents are 

connected to the piped water system. The city water 

system has been upgraded with standard fire hydrants 

and underground distribution to all residences, but the 

Peter Pan Seafoods facility has its own above-ground 

water system. Septic tanks provide for domestic and 

business sewage disposal. A city-wide sewage system 

is currently being designed. Electricity is provided by 

False Pass Electric.

False Pass is within the Aleutians East School 

District and two teachers currently instruct 12 students 

in grades K-12 at the False Pass School. Local 

healthcare is provided by False Pass Health Clinic 

operated in part by the Borough. Public safety is 

provided by city police and VPSO associated with the 

Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association, Inc. There are 

no hotels in False Pass, but short-term accommodation 

is available at the Isanotski Bed and Breakfast.

In February of 2004, Peter Pan decided to put the 

entire fisheries support facility up for sale. The grocery 

store and hardware store were closed in July of 2004, 

but fuel sales continue. Other services previously 

provided by the company have been eliminated. The 

local Native Corporation, Isanotski Corporation, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/False Pass 
325

started a new grocery store near the city dock that now 

serves the community and the fishing fleet. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is of great significance to the 

economy of False Pass. According to the ADF&G, 

and reported by ACFEC, 24 permits were held by 

11 permit holders in 2000 (15 fished). There were 

two vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 10 vessel 

owners in the salmon fishery, and 13 licensed crew 

members claiming residence in False Pass. Although a 

floating processor facility owned by the APICDA CDQ 

group was to begin operating in 2000, no commercial 

landings are recorded in False Pass in 2000 - 2002. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. Permits issued in False Pass for 2000 were 

for halibut, herring roe, sablefish, other groundfish, 

and salmon. Permits for halibut consisted of two hand 

trolls and one halibut longline vessel over 60 feet (not 

fished). All permits designated for halibut were for 

statewide waters. Permits for herring roe consisted of 

two purse seine limited to the Alaska Peninsula (none 

fished) and three purse seine limited to Bristol Bay. 

Permits for groundfish excluding sablefish consisted 

of one miscellaneous saltwater finfish hand troll with 

statewide jurisdiction (not fished), one miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish longline vessel under 60 feet for 

statewide waters (not fished), two miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish pot gear vessels under 60 feet for 

statewide waters (one fished), and two miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish dinglebar trolls (none fished). Permits 

for sablefish pertained to one longline vessel under 60 

feet for statewide waters. Permits issued for salmon 

pertained to three purse seine limited to the waters of 

the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands (two fished), 

four drift gillnets for the Alaska Peninsula, and two set 

gillnets for the Alaska Peninsula. 

It was announced in July 2003 that False Pass 

would receive $27,732 worth of federal salmon 

disaster relief funds that were distributed to selected 

municipalities statewide which have been adversely 

affected by low salmon prices in order to compensate 

for consequent losses of salmon taxes or raw fish 

taxes. The Aleutians East Borough, in which False 

Pass is located, has been allocated $1,101,638. The 

disbursement of these disaster funds illustrates the 

state response to communities and boroughs affected 

by recent falling salmon prices due to competition with 

imported farmed fish. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services for which 

fish taxes become insufficient. In 2002, the Aleutians 

East Borough received $140,063 and the Aleutian 

Pribilof Island Community Development Association 

(APICDA) received $57,163 as part of a federal fund 

set up in accordance with the Endangered Species 

Act to offset costs to fisheries and communities due 

to Steller sea lion protection regulations. False Pass 

belongs to both the Aleutians East Borough and to 

APICDA. 

Sport Fishing 

Recreational sport fishing activity is very limited 

in False Pass. There were four sport fishing licenses 

sold in False Pass in 2000, all to False Pass residents 

and one sport fishing business is currently operating. 

This may be due in part to the remoteness of the 

community and the infrequency of transportation 

from larger population centers. Additionally, the town 

does not have the facilities to support a significant 

tourism industry at this time. Sport fish landings data 

are not available at the community level, however, fish 

landed under the four local licenses may be included in 

ADF&G’s household use surveys, which are reported 

below under subsistence. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence permits for fishing and hunting are 

obtained from the ADF&G office in Cold Bay. Data 

from 1988 compiled on behalf of the ADF&G’s 

Division of Subsistence provides useful information 

about subsistence practices in False Pass. One hundred 

percent of households participated in the use of 

subsistence resources, including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. All households 

used salmon and 95% used non-salmon fish (herring, 

cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, 

sculpin, sole, char, and trout), 60% used marine 

mammals, and all 100% used marine invertebrates. 

The average per capita harvest for 1988 was 412.51 

lbs. The total subsistence harvest was composed of 

46.82% salmon, 14.65% non-salmon fish, 9.24% 

land mammals, 6.13% marine mammals, 4.43% birds 

and eggs, 5.63% marine invertebrates, and 3.09% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/False Pass 
326

vegetation. The wild food harvest in False Pass made 

up 267% of the recommended dietary allowance of 

protein in 1988 (corresponding to 49 g of protein per 

day or 0.424 lbs of wild food per day) (Wolfe, division 

of Subsistence, ADF&G).

Eight permits were held by households in False 

Pass for subsistence fishing of salmon according 

to records from 1999. Coho made up the largest 

proportion of the salmon harvest, followed by sockeye 

and chum. Residents of False Pass and members of the 

Native Village of False Pass, an Alaska Native Tribe, 

who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. Registration 

for the program is still underway.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/False Pass 
���

327

2000 Population Structure �������������������������� Igiugig (return to communities) ������� Igiugig Data source: US Census ����������������������

People and Place 

Location 

Igiugig is located approximately 370 miles 

southwest of Anchorage, on the Kvichak River near 

the south shore of Lake Iliamna. The area encompasses 

19.8 square miles of land and 1.3 square miles of 

water. 

Demographic Profile 

Igiugig is a mixed village of Alutiiq and Eskimo 

residents. The U.S. Census has only spotty data on 

Igiugig’s population prior to 1960; since that time, 

the community has grown steadily. In 2000, Igiugig 

had a population of 53 in 16 households. The racial 

composition of the community was as follows: 

American Indian and Alaska Native (71.7%), White 

(17%), and two or more races (11.3%). A total of 83% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 1.9% 

of residents were of Hispanic ethnicity. The gender 

makeup of the community was somewhat skewed, at 

56.6% female and 43.4% male. The median age was 

36.3 years, similar to the U.S. national average of 35.3 

years. In 2000, all of Igiugig’s population lived in 

households rather than group quarters, and 20% of all 

local housing units were vacant due to seasonal use. 

In terms of educational attainment, 72.2% of residents 

aged 25 or older held a high school diploma. 

History 

The Lake Iliamna area has been occupied by 

humans since prehistory. Its population, even today, 

is comprised primarily of Yupik Eskimos and Aleuts. 

Prior to the turn of the 20th century, Kiatagmuit 

Eskimos lived on the Kvichak River, downriver to 

the present site of Igiugig. At the turn of the century, 

these people moved to Igigugig, as did many residents 

from the nearby village of Branch. Today, Igiugig 

is a community comprised primarily of Alutiiq and 

Eskimo residents whose livelihood depends heavily 

upon subsistence hunting and fishing. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Igiugig centers on commercial, 

subsistence, and sport fishing, primarily in the Bristol 

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����

������

� � � � � � � �

���������������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure 

������� Igiugig ���������������������� Data source: US Census 

������������

����������� �����������

������������

������������������������

�������

���������������������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Igiugig 

Data source: US Census 

��������������

������������

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Igiugig 
��

�������

����������������������

328

Bay fishery. Some residents hold commercial fishing 

permits. Many residents travel to Naknek during the 

summer to fish or work in the canneries. 

The median annual per capita income in 2000 

was $13,172, and the median household income was 

$21,750. The U.S. Census reported no unemployment 

in 2000. Approximately 55% of residents were not in 

the labor force (not formally employed and not seeking 

work). A more appropriate interpretation is that 

employment is highly seasonal in Igiugig; particularly 

during the summer season, many residents seek 

work outside the community. Approximately 6.9% of 

residents live below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Igiugig is an unincorporated village governed 

by a village council. It is under the jurisdiction of 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough. The Igiugig Native 

Corporation is a federally recognized entity and holds 

a land entitlement under the Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA). In addition, Igiugig is a 

member of the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, a 

for-profit organization, and the Bristol Bay Native 

Association, a non-profit organization. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is in Anchorage. The nearest 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

office is located in King Salmon. The nearest NMFS 

enforcement office is in Homer.

Facilities 

Igiugig is accessible primarily by air and water. 

There is a state-owned gravel runway located in the 

village. Roundtrip airfare from Igiugig to Anchorage 

is approximately $507, including a charter connecting 

flight to King Salmon. There is also a small public 

dock, where barges deliver goods from Naknek or 

Dillingham via the Kvichak River. 

The village operates a piped water and sewer 

system, but not all homes are connected. The Igiugig 

Electric Company, operated by the village council, 

provides diesel-generated power to the community. 

There is a local health clinic, owned by the village 

council and operated by the Bristol Bay Area Health 

Corporation. There is one school located in the village 

that offers instruction to students from kindergarten 

through twelfth grade. The school has two teachers 

and 14 students. 

2000 Employment Structure 

Igiugig Data source: US Census 

��������

�����

�����������

�����

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Despite its small size, Igiugig has a presence in 

North Pacific fisheries, primarily in the Bristol Bay 

salmon and herring fisheries. In 2000, there were 8 

registered crewmembers and 13 vessel owners for 

federal fisheries residing in the community. In addition, 

five local residents held a total of seven commercial 

fishing permits, including the following: one herring 

roe purse seine permit for Bristol Bay (one fished), 

two herring roe gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (one 

fished), and four salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol 

Bay (three fished). 

In 2000, there were no processing plants and 

therefore no registered landings in Igiugig. In 2002, 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough, in which Igiugig 

is located, was granted $29,832 in federal funds to 

compensate for fisheries losses due to the protection 

of Steller sea lion habitat under the Endangered 

Species Act. In 2003, the Lake and Peninsula Borough 

was granted $442,002 in federal disaster funds to 

compensate for falling salmon prices. A portion of 

these sums will likely be used for programs that affect 

Igiugig. 

Sport Fishing 

The sockeye salmon fishing in the Kvichak River 

and surrounding areas is well known. Other sport 

species include trout and northern pike. There are 

seven commercial lodges that serve sport fishermen in 

Igiugig. In 2002, there was one registered freshwater 

fishing guide service in the community. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Igiugig 
329

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence resources are a mainstay of the Igiugig 

economy. The ADF&G’s, Division of Subsistence 

reports that, in 1992, 100% of Igiugig households 

used subsistence fish, including salmon and nonsalmon fish species. The salmon harvest consisted of 

chum, coho, chinook, and, primarily, sockeye. Nonsalmon fish harvests included halibut, blackfish, 

char, grayling, pike, and trout. In addition, 70% of 

households used marine mammals (including seals 

and whales) for subsistence, and 20% of households 

used marine invertebrates (primarily crab).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Igiugig in 1992 was an astounding 2,826.3 lbs, and 

was comprised of the following resources: salmon 

(24.6%), non-salmon fish (13.9%), land mammals 

(44.7%), marine mammals (10%), birds and eggs 

(2.4%), and vegetation (2.4%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Igiugig 
��

���

330

Iliamna (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Iliamna is located on the northwest side of Iliamna 

Lake in the Kvichak River basin which connects the 

community with Bristol Bay. The town lies 225 miles 

southwest of Anchorage. It is near the Lake Clark Park 

and Preserve. The area encompasses 35.9 square miles 

of land and 0.6 square miles of water. This is one of 

the numerous examples of inshore communities which 

are intimately involved in saltwater fisheries.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Iliamna had 

102 inhabitants. Since the 1980s, and after 40 years 

of steady population numbers, Iliamna seems to be 

experiencing a slow but steady increase of population 

probably related to its consolidation as a recreational 

fishing location. About 50% of the population was 

Alaska Native or American Indian, 39.2% White, and 

2.9% as belonging to more than two races. A total 

of 57.8% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The 

population is a relatively young, with a 31.5 years 

median age (compared to the national average of 

35.3 years) and with a 36.3% of the population under 

19 years old. The gender balance is skewed towards 

males with 52.9% male and 47.1% female. Of 58 

housing units, 23 were vacant. Of the population age 

25 years and over in Iliamna, 92.1% had completed 

high school or gone on to further schooling and 28.9% 

had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The current village was founded in 1935. Prior to 

1935, “Old Iliamna” was located near the mouth of the 

Iliamna River, a traditional Athabascan village. A post 

office was established there in 1901, but was moved 

with the town a few decades later. 

Iliamna’s current size and character can be 

attributed to the development of fishing and hunting 

lodges. The first lodge opened in the 1930s. A second 

lodge was built in the 1950s. During the 70s and 80s, 

land lots were made available by the Baptist Church, 

and additional lodges were constructed. In recent 

years Iliamna has become a recreational and tourist 

attraction due to the excellent fishing at Iliamna Lake. 

The population is mixed, with non-Natives, Tanaina 

����������������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Iliamna 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

�����

�����

�����

������

�����

��������������������������

�������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

Iliamna 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

2000 Population Structure �������������������������

������� Iliamna Data source: US Census ����������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� � � �

���������������������

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Iliamna 
331

Athabascans, Alutiiq, and Yup’ik Eskimos. The sale 

of alcohol is prohibited in the community, although 

importation or possession is allowed. Recent mineral 

discoveries seem to suggest that the socioeconomic 

future of Iliamna may be very different from what we 

encounter there today.

Infrastructures 

Current Economy 

The current economic structure of Iliamna 

revolves around three complementary main activities: 

commercial fishing, sport fishing, and tourism. Even 

though Iliamna is an inshore community, 17 residents 

hold commercial fishing permits and many depart 

each summer to fish in Bristol Bay. The fresh waters 

of Lake Iliamna, the second largest lake in the U.S., 

offer a famous opportunity for freshwater fishing and 

tourism. The tourism industry though, hires most of its 

employees from outside of Alaska. 

Many residents are dependent on subsistence 

practices. Northern Dynasty Minerals Ltd. and 

independent mining consultants have established that 

the Pebble deposit, 15 miles from Iliamna, is one 

of the world’s largest reservoirs of gold and copper. 

Presumably the exploitation of these mineral resources 

will significantly alter the current economic structure. 

Massive mining may have an impact on existing 

activities. 

The employment structure of the community 

according to the 2000 U.S. Census showed that 71.6% 

of the population is currently working while 28.4% of 

the workforce is not searching for a job. The yearly 

per capita income in this community is $19,741 while 

the median household income is $60,625. A small 

total of 3.1% of the population lives below the line of 

poverty. The government employs 29 members of the 

community in different capacities.

Governance 

Iliamna is an unincorporated community which 

lacks of its own managing institution. It is located in the 

Lake and Peninsula Borough. The village corporation 

is the Iliamna Natives Limited which manages 

approximately 73,000 acres of land. The regional 

corporation is the Bristol Bay Native Corporation. The 

Iliamna Village Council, known as well as Nilavena 

Tribal Council, and recognized by the BIA, is also part 

of Iliamna’s institutional structure. 

Iliamna is part of the Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation (BBEDC) and receives 

community development quotas (CDQs) from this 

organization. This community also benefits from the 

works of a nonprofit organization, the Bristol Bay 

Native Association.

The closest regional offices of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) are in King 

Salmon and Dillingham. Kodiak and Homer have the 

nearest NMFS offices although Anchorage is also a 

potential accessible office for the people of this area. 

Anchorage has the closest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Service (BCIS) office. 

Facilities 

Iliamna is primarily accessible by air and water. It 

has a large airstrip, legacy from its past as a military 

base. The town is serviced by 3 daily flights to 

Anchorage. Heavy supplies arrive by barge up river 

from Kvichak Bay. There is also a State-owned gravel 

airstrip, located between Iliamna and Newhalen, with 

aircraft facilities and three daily flights to Anchorage. 

In addition, there are floatplane facilities at Slop 

Lake, East Bay, and Pike Lake, and a private airstrip 

at Iliamna Roadhouse, as well as a private floatplane 

access at Summit Lake. The price of a roundtrip ticket 

by plane from the community to Anchorage early 

September of 2003 was $255. 

The village has a breakwater, a boat harbor and a 

dock. In recent years, road connectivity has improved 

and may keep doing so in the future. An 8-mile gravel 

road connects Iliamna to Newhalen, and a 22-mile 

road to Nondalton is under construction. A statemaintained road connects the community with Cook 

Inlet. Past and future mining activities may have had, 

and will have, an impact on infrastructure. 

The INN Electric Cooperative owns a diesel 

plant in Newhalen and 50 miles of distribution line 

to connect three nearby communities. The Tazimina 

Hydroelectric Project was recently completed, 

powering Iliamna, Newhalen and Nondalton. 

Iliamna has its own State police station (Village 

Public Safety Officer) that also services Newhalen. 

Healthcare is provided by the Iliamna Health Clinic, as 

well as the Iliamna/ Newhalen Rescue Squad. Iliamna 

though, has no school. The town has a considerable 

amount of tourist accommodations available. Iliamna 

residents are using individual water wells and septic 

systems. A total of 85% of homes are fully plumbed. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Iliamna 
332

A 270 foot well provides water to the community 

building/village office. 

Involvement in the North Pacific fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Iliamna is an inland community, it 

is still deeply involved with the fishing industry. Its 

characteristics cannot be completely understood 

without taking into account this inland character which 

implies involvement with freshwater fishing industries 

and as well as Bristol Bay’s fishing industry.

According to the official records from 2000, Iliamna 

had 16 commercial permit holders with a total of 16 

permits. In Iliamna, 45 individuals were registered as 

crewmen and there were 12 owners of salmon vessels 

and no owners of federal fisheries vessels. In 2000, the 

Iliamna fleet was exclusively involved in the Salmon 

industry. Due to its geographic location, no landings 

may be made at Iliamna; therefore, its fleet always 

delivers elsewhere in Bristol Bay. 

Permits are issued specific to species, size of the 

vessel, type of gear, and fishing area. In 2000, salmon 

was the only saltwater commercial fishery of Iliamna. 

It accounted for 16 permits: 8 drift gillnet and 7 set 

gillnet (both restricted to the Bristol Bay), and one set 

gillnet restricted to the Lower Yukon River. All permits 

were fished.

In 2003, the Lake and Peninsula Borough, where 

Iliamna is located, received an allocation of $442,001 

in federal salmon disaster funds to compensate for 

loses due to prices plummeting, and $29,832 to reduce 

the impact of Steller sea lion protective regulations. 

The BBEDC also received $75,026 for this reason. 

The funds, added to the general budget of the borough 

or the CDQ, helped to compensate for the decline of 

income from fish taxes and to relieve the resulting 

budgetary tension of the institutions of the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, this community issued 1301 sport fishing 

permits: 93 of them were bought by local and Alaskan 

residents. In 2002 the village had 14 licensed businesses 

related to sport fishing as a tourist activity: 13 focused 

on freshwater activities and one in saltwater fisheries.

Subsistence Fishing 

In a survey conducted in 1991 on behalf of 

ADF&G, Iliamna demonstrated the significance of 

subsistence practices for most Alaskan communities. 

All households participated in the use of harvested 

resources. In relation to the main marine resources: 

100% of the households used salmon, 87% other fish 

(herring, flounder, halibut, grayling, burbot, sucker, 

pike, white fish, char, and trout), 39.1% marine 

mammals, and 47.8% marine invertebrates. The 

results reflect that the inhabitants of the community 

were harvesting 847.6 lbs per person per year. These 

statistics emphasize the importance of subsistence for 

such communities. 

In order to understand the relative importance of 

each resource we have to break down the composition 

of the harvest: salmon 50.9%, other fish 9%, land 

mammals 31%, marine mammals 4.9, birds and eggs 

1.8%, marine invertebrates 0.4%, and vegetation 

2%. In 1999, Iliamna had 34 household with salmon 

subsistence permits; the catch was mainly sockeye 

with almost 9000 units. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Iliamna 
����

���

333

Ivanof Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Ivanof Bay is located at the western edge of the 

Lake and Peninsula Borough, 500 miles southwest of 

Anchorage. The area encompasses 3.4 square miles of 

land. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Ivanof Bay had 22 residents in nine 

households. The median age in the community was 

40 years, somewhat older than the U.S. national 

average of 35.3 years. The community was primarily 

an Aleut (Unangan) village; 95.5% of residents were 

Alaska Native and 4.5% were White. About 72.7% 

of residents were male (16 residents); whereas only 

27.3% were female (6 residents). All residents lived 

in households rather than group quarters. In terms of 

educational attainment, 63.6% of residents over age 

25 held a high school diploma. 

History 

This area of the Alaska Peninsula is the traditional 

territory of the Aleut (Unangan) people. Ivanof Bay 

was named by Lieutenant Dall of the U.S. Coast and 

Geodetic Survey in 1880, but the community was not 

inhabited until the 1930s, when a salmon cannery was 

established. Permanent occupation of the site began in 

1965, when several families moved from the nearby 

community of Perryville.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The Economy of Ivanof Bay is centered on fishing, 

both commercial and subsistence. Two local residents 

hold commercial fishing permits. All residents 

supplement their incomes with the harvesting and 

use of subsistence resources. In 2000, the median 

per capita income in Ivanof Bay was $21,983, and 

the median household income was $91,977. The U.S. 

Census reports no unemployment in Ivanof Bay in 

2000, with 36% not in the labor force (i.e. not seeking 

work); employment opportunities are, however, subject 

to seasonal variation. 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

����������� Ivanof Bay Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

� � � � � � � � �

���������������������

����������������������

�����������

����������������������

2000 Racial Structure 

Ivanof Bay 

Data source: US Census 

�����

������

�����

��������������������������

�����������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure

Ivanof Bay

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

��������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Ivanof Bay 
334

Governance 

Ivanof Bay is an unincorporated community under 

the jurisdiction of the Lake and Peninsula Borough. 

The borough is responsible for tax collection and the 

administration of services. Bay View Inc., the local 

village corporation, is an important body of Native 

governance in the community and is recognized under 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

In addition, there is a local village council, the Ivanof 

Bay Village Council. Ivanof Bay also belongs to the 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation, a regional Native 

for-profit corporation, as well the Bristol Bay Native 

Association, a regional Native non-profit. The nearest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office 

and Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) are both in Kodiak. The nearest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office is 

located in Port Moller. 

Facilities 

Ivanof Bay is accessible by air via a privately 

owned 1,500 foot gravel airstrip and a floatplane 

landing area. Roundtrip airfare to Anchorage, via Sand 

Point, is approximately $571, plus the cost of a charter 

flight to Sand Point (Travelocity 2003). 

Most supplies and cargo arrive either by plane 

from King Salmon or by sea from Chignik Bay. The 

village operates a piped water system, and individuals 

use septic tanks for sewage. The village council 

operates a local diesel-powered electric utility. There 

is a health clinic in the community that is owned by 

the village council and operated by the Bristol Bay 

Area Health Corporation (BBAHC).There was a local 

school located in Ivanof Bay until 2000, when it was 

closed due to under-enrollment. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Despite its small size, Ivanof Bay participates 

actively in North Pacific fisheries, including both 

Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska waters. In 2000, there 

were four vessel owners and nine registered crew 

members residing in the community.

In addition, two local residents held a total of five 

commercial fishing permits. These permits included 

the following: one halibut longline permit for vessels 

over 60 feet in statewide waters (one fished), one 

herring roe purse seine permit for Bristol Bay (none 

fished), two miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical 

jig permits for statewide waters (one fished), and one 

salmon purse seine permit for the Chignik fishery (two 

fished). 

In 2000, there were no processing plants and 

therefore no registered landings in Ivanof Bay. In 2002, 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough was granted $29,832 

in federal funds to compensate for fisheries losses 

due to the protection of Steller sea lion habitat under 

the Endangered Species Act. In 2003, the Borough 

was granted $442,002 in federal disaster funds to 

compensate for falling salmon prices. A portion of 

these sums will likely be used for programs that affect 

Ivanof Bay. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing is not an important component of 

Ivanof Bay’s involvement in North Pacific fisheries. 

There was no recorded sport fishing guide services or 

license sales in 2000.

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence activities are an important part of 

the local economy of Ivanof Bay. The ADF&G’s 

Division of Subsistence reports that, in 1989, 100% 

of Ivanof Bay households used subsistence fish, 

including salmon (all five Pacific species) and nonsalmon fish (especially cod, halibut, smelt, char, and 

trout). In addition, a majority of households (85.7%) 

used marine mammals (primarily seals and sea lions) 

for subsistence, and 100% used marine invertebrates 

(including crabs, clams, chitins, octopus, and sea 

urchin).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Ivanof Bay in 1989 was 489.9 lbs, and was 

comprised of the following resources: salmon (38.1%), 

non-salmon fish (13.3%), land mammals (28.5%), 

marine mammals (5.6%), birds and eggs (2.9%), 

marine invertebrates (9.5%), and vegetation (2.2%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Ivanof Bay 
���

����

335

King Cove (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

King Cove is situated on the southern side of the 

Alaska Peninsula. The community is located 18 miles 

southeast of Cold Bay and 625 miles southwest of 

Anchorage. The area encompasses 25.3 square miles 

of land and 4.5 square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

King Cove has a total current population of 792, 

with the gender ratio of 59.6% males and 40.4% 

females. According to census data, the population has 

grown from 135 residents in 1940 to its current total in 

only a few generations. The increase in population is 

due primarily to the continuing success of the fishing 

industry in King Cove. The racial composition of the 

population in 2000 included 46.7% Alaska Native or 

American Indian, 26.8% Asian, 15% White, 1.6% 

Black, 5.9% ‘Other’, and 3.8% of the population 

identified with two or more races. A total of 47.9% 

of the population recognized themselves as all or 

part Alaska Native or American Indian. Those who 

identified themselves as Hispanic made up 7.4% of 

the population. The median age was 34.9 years which 

is comparable to the national median of 35.3 years. 

According to census data 24.5% of the total population 

was19 years old or younger, while 11.8% was over 55 

years of age. The pattern of this age structure shows a 

fairly consolidated age structure around working-age 

people. 

There were 207 housing units in King Cove, 37 

of which were vacant, with 24 vacant due to seasonal 

use. At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 37.8% of 

the population lived in group quarters. About 74.2% 

of the population had a high school diploma or higher, 

and 4.2% had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Early settlers founded King Cove in 1911, 

attracted to the newly constructed salmon cannery 

built by Pacific American Fisheries. The first residents 

of King Cove were Scandinavian, other Europeans, 

and Unangan fishermen and their families. In fact, 

half of the founding families consisted of a European 

father and an Aleut mother. The cannery operated 

until 1979 when it was partially destroyed by fire; 

however, fishing and fish processing have remained 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

���������� King Cove Data source: US Census ����������������������

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

��� ��� �� � �� ���

���������������������

����������������������

���������� 2000 Racial Structure ���������������������� King Cove 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races 

Other 4% 

5.9% White 

15.0% Pacific Islander 

0.1% Black 

1.6% 

Asian 

26.8% 

Native 

46.7% 

������������������������

���������� 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

King Cove 

����������������������

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/King Cove 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

336

a significant part of the economy and culture of the 

town. Peter Pan Seafoods is the successor to Pacific 

American Fisheries and now claims to be the largest 

salmon cannery in North America. King Cove’s 

Scandinavian heritage permeates the town’s history 

and remains evident in cultural, economic, and social 

structures. Chinese and Japanese workers brought to 

the area to work in the cannery made up a significant 

part of the population before the war, but Asian labor 

was considered expensive and was discontinued, 

replaced by Europeans, Native Alaskans, and other 

North Americas. Most of the Asian population moved 

away, but some who had intermarried with Natives 

remained (Black and Jacka 1999: 1-2). 

Many of King Cove’s residents came from nearby 

Belkofski whose population dwindled throughout the 

early1900s as the population of King Cove increased 

steadily. This trend, and others similar to it, was due in 

part to King Cove’s enduring cannery industry which 

has outlasted several other endeavors in the region. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Economically, King Cove is largely dependant on 

year-round commercial fishing and seafood processing 

industries. Peter Pan Seafoods is the largest company 

in the industry in King Cove, and one of the largest 

processors under one roof in all of Alaska. A total of 

63 residents held 137 commercial fishing permits in 

2000 according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries 

Entry Commission (ACFEC). Income is supplemented 

by subsistence activities.

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, 68.5% of 

the potential labor force was employed and 4.7% were 

unemployed. A total of 26.8% of the population over 

16 years of age were not in the labor force and 11.9% 

of the population lived below the poverty level. The 

median household income in the same year was $45, 

893 and the per capita income was $17,791. 

Governance 

The City of King Cove is a first-class city initially 

incorporated in 1947 as second-class, but able to 

achieve first-class status in 1974. It is governed locally 

by a manager as well as a mayor and six-member 

city council. King Cove is within the Aleutians East 

Borough. Special taxes in Atka include a 2% raw fish 

tax mandated by the city, a further 2% raw fish tax 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� King Cove ���������� Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

���� ����

���� ����

���� ����

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

���������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

King Cove Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

regulated by the borough, and a 3% sales tax. The 

Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association, Inc. (APIA), 

a federally recognized non-profit tribal organization 

of the Aleut people in Alaska, contracts with federal, 

state and local governments and provides services in 

King Cove including a Village Public Safety Officer 

and health programs (emergency, elders, behavioral, 

outreach and advocacy oriented programs). King Cove 

is a member of the regional for-profit Aleut Corporation 

under the ANCSA. King Cove Corporation is the local 

village corporation. The total land entitlement under 

ANCSA is almost 130,000 acres. The village council, 

Agdaagux Tribe of King Cove, is a BIA-Recognized 

Traditional Council which means that they are eligible 

for funding and services by virtue of their status as 

a Native tribe. King Cove has organized itself under 

the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), with a 

constitution and elections as prescribed by the Act. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/King Cove 
337

The Native Village of Belkofski and the Belkofski 

Corporation also function in King Cove. The nearest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) regional 

office is in Unalaska, as is the nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) and the 

nearest ADF&G office is located in Cold Bay but only 

open between May and October (a permanent office is 

located in Unalaska). 

Facilities 

King Cove is accessible only by air and sea. The 

cost of a round trip flight from King Cove to Anchorage, 

via Cold Bay, is $643 plus the cost of a charter flight 

between Cold Bay and King Cove (based on the closest 

available date to 1 September, 2003). A local priority is 

to construct a 27-mile road to Cold Bay to access their 

airport; however, the $14 million road has drawn State 

and national controversy. The State Ferry operates 

bi-monthly between May and October. The ferry and 

marine cargo services use one of three docks owned 

by Peter Pan Seafoods, and a deep water dock is also 

operated by the City. A new harbor and breakwater 

is under construction by the Corps of Engineers and 

Aleutians East Borough which will provide additional 

moorage for 60 foot to 150 foot fishing vessels.

Water is supplied by Ram Creek and a $9 million 

project to develop a new supply is nearing completion. 

All residents are connected to the piped water system. 

A piped sewage collection system connects all homes 

and facilities to central septic tanks. A hydroelectric 

power project has recently been completed at Delta 

Creek. Peter Pan, the largest seafood processing plant 

operates its own electric system.

King Cove is within the Aleutians East School 

District and 15 teachers instruct 105 students in 

grades K-12 at King Cove School. Local healthcare 

is provided by King Cove medical clinic. Public 

security is provided by city police and Village Public 

Safety Officers associated with the Aleutian Pribilof 

Islands Association, Inc. Tourism is limited in King 

Cove, however, there are short term accommodations 

available.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

The fishing industry is the main economic endeavor 

in King Cove. According to ACFEC figures, 137 

permits were held by 63 permit holders (105 fished). 

There were 24 vessel owners in the federal fisheries, 

35 vessel owners in the salmon fishery, and 201 crew 

members claiming residence in King Cove. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. The commercial vessel fleet delivering 

landings to King Cove was involved in halibut (56 

vessels), sablefish (16 vessels), other ground fish 

(111 vessels), Bering Strait Aleutian Island crab (41 

vessels), herring (7 vessels), and salmon (631 vessels) 

fisheries in 2000. In accordance with confidentiality 

regulations, data for fish landings in the community 

are unavailable. 

Halibut: There were 15 permits issued for the 

halibut fishery in King Cove, 13 of which were fished 

in 2000. Permits for halibut pertained to 8 longline 

vessels under 60 feet (7 fished), and 7 longline vessels 

over 60 feet (6 fished). All permits designated for 

halibut allowed fishing in statewide waters. 

Sablefish and Other Groundfish: Permits for 

sablefish issued in King Cove for 2000 pertained to 

one longline vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters. 

There were a total of 42 permits issued in King Cove 

for the other groundfish industry, 31 of which were 

fished. These permits pertained to nine miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish otter trawls, 23 miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish pot gear vessels under 60 feet (17 

fished), 3 miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical 

jigs (none fished), one miscellaneous saltwater finfish 

pair trawl (not fished), and six miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish pot gear vessels 60 feet or over (five fished). 

All permits designated for other groundfish allowed 

fishing in statewide waters.

Shellfish: Permits for Bering Strait Aleutian Island 

Crab pertained to one king crab pot gear vessel under 

60 feet confined to Bristol Bay (not fished), five king 

crab pot gear vessel over 60 feet confined to Bristol 

Bay (four fished), one king crab pot gear vessel over 

60 feet confined to Bristol Bay and associated with 

the Community Development Quota, Yukon Delta 

Fisheries Development Association, and five tanner 

crab pot gear vessel over six feet confined to the Bering 

Sea. Additionally, one permit for an octopus/squid pot 

gear vessel under 60 feet with statewide jurisdiction 

was issued but not fished. 

Herring: Permits for herring roe pertained to 

four purse seine confined to the Alaska Peninsula 

(none fished), five purse seine confined to Bristol Bay 

(three fished), and two permits for herring food/bait 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/King Cove 
338

purse seine also limited to the Alaska Peninsula (one 

fished). 

Salmon: Permits relating to salmon in King Cove 

pertained to one purse seine limited to Kodiak (not 

fished), 32 purse seine limited to the Alaska Peninsula 

and Aleutian Islands (23 fished), 10 drift gillnets 

confined to the Alaska Peninsula (9 fished), 2 drift 

gillnets confined to Bristol Bay (one fished), 8 set 

gillnets in the Alaska Peninsula (11 fished), and 2 set 

gillnets in Bristol Bay.

The Peter Pan Seafoods facility in King Cove 

is one of the largest cannery operations in Alaska 

and the largest salmon processor in North America. 

Employment at the cannery brings up to 500 nonresidents to town as needed, thus the seasonal influence 

of the cannery on the community is extreme. Peter Pan 

Seafoods has the ability to process salmon, sablefish, 

other groundfish, herring, halibut, and Bering Sea and 

Aleutian Islands (BSAI) crab. Bering Pacific Seafoods 

is also a processor of salmon in King Cove.

It was announced in July 2003 that King Cove 

would receive $207,513 worth of federal salmon 

disaster funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The Aleutians East 

Borough, in which Kings Cove is located, has been 

allocated $1,101,638. The disbursement of these 

disaster funds illustrates state and federal responses 

to communities and boroughs affected by recent 

falling salmon prices due to competition with foreign 

aquaculture fish. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services for which fish 

taxes become insufficient. In 2002, the Aleutians East 

Borough received $140,062 and the City of King Cove 

received $590,781 as part of a federal fund set up in 

accordance with the Endangered Species Act to offset 

losses to fisheries and communities due to Steller sea 

lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

There was a total of 32 sport fishing licenses sold 

in King Cove in 2000, 30 of which were sold to Alaska 

residents. Three saltwater sport fishing businesses are 

currently operating in King Cove, two of which are 

also involved in freshwater sport fishing. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities, and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1992 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in King Cove. 

All 100% of King Cove households participated in 

the use of subsistence resources including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. 

Just over 97% of the total population used salmon 

and 89.3% used non-salmon fish (herring, smelt, cod, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, 

sculpin, skates, sole, char, pike, and trout). About 

25% of the total population for that year used marine 

mammals and 94.7% of households used marine 

invertebrates. 

The total per capita harvest for the year was 256.07 

lbs. The composition of the total subsistence harvest 

can be shown by the percentages of the resources 

which demonstrate the amount of each resource 

category used by the community relative to other 

resources categories. The total subsistence harvest 

breakdown was: 53.41% salmon, 16.67% non-salmon 

fish, 15.37% land mammals, 0.82% marine mammals, 

3.62% birds and eggs, 6.76% marine invertebrates, and 

3.34% vegetation. The wild food harvest in King Cove 

made up 165% of the recommended dietary allowance 

of protein in 1992 (corresponding to 49 g of protein 

per day or 0.424 lbs of wild food per day). 

In 1999, 52 permits were held by households in 

King Cove for subsistence fishing of salmon. Sockeye 

made up the largest proportion of the salmon harvest, 

followed by coho and chum. Residents of King Cove 

and members of the Agdaagux Tribe and the Native 

Village of Belkofski, the two Alaska Native Tribes 

of King Cove, who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/King Cove 
����

����

����

���

����

339

King Salmon (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

King Salmon is an unincorporated city of 442 

residents in the Bristol Bay Borough. It is located 284 

miles southwest of Anchorage, about 15 miles upriver 

from Naknek. The area encompasses 169.6 square 

miles of land and 1.4 square miles of water. King 

Salmon is the hub for the largest red salmon fishery 

in the world, at Bristol Bay, and the port of entry for 

many visitors to Katmai National Park. 

Demographic Profile 

King Salmon has 442 residents in 196 households. 

All community members live in households rather 

than group quarters. The gender composition of 

the community is significantly skewed because of 

employment opportunities in fishing-related industries, 

at 54.9% male and 45.1% female. The racial makeup 

of the community is as follows: White (66.3%), Alaska 

Native or American Indian (29.0%), Black (1.1%), 

Asian (0.2%), other (0.2%), and two or more races 

(3.2%). A total of 30.1% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. Residents of Hispanic origin comprise 0.5% 

of the population. The age structure of King Salmon 

is somewhat skewed; 57.2% of residents are between 

the ages of 25 and 54, and only 29.6% of residents are 

aged 19 and under. The median age in the community 

was 37.8 years, slightly older than the U.S. national 

median of 35.3 years. King Salmon attracts workingage people with its many and varied employment 

opportunities in the salmon fishery and in recreation. 

The growing economy in King Salmon has led to a 

doubling in the local population since 1960. 

History 

Archaeological evidence suggests that people 

have resided in or around King Salmon for at least 

6,000 years. The area was historically Sugpiaq Aleut 

territory. At the time of the Mt. Katmai eruption in 

1912, however, there was no permanent settlement 

in King Salmon. King Salmon was founded when 

residents from areas to the south were evacuated and 

relocated there. The community has been an important 

site of military operations since the 1930s, when an 

air navigation silo was built. An Air Force base was 

established in King Salmon during WWII. The base 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

King Salmon ������������

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

�� �� �� �� � �� �� ��

���������������������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

����������������������

������������

���������������������� 2000 Racial Structure

King Salmon 

Data source: US Census 

����� ������������

�����

����� ����

������

�����

����� �����

�����

������������������������

������������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

King Salmon 

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

������

����

������

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/King Salmon 
����

�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

����

340

now supports only limited military activities and is 

maintained under the stewardship of the Chugach 

Development Corporation. The community is now the 

most important transportation hub for Bristol Bay and 

is heavily involved in the salmon fishery and recreation 

industry. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of King Salmon centers around two 

industries: the commercial sockeye salmon fishery in 

Bristol Bay, and recreation in surrounding areas. Other 

industries such as transportation, accommodations, 

and other services have grown up to support these 

primary industries. King Salmon is the transportation 

hub for the Bristol Bay fishery, and distributes salmon 

throughout the world. 

The median annual per capita income is $26,755, 

and the median household income is $54,375. The 

unemployment rate is 6.9%, and 21.7% of residents are 

not in the labor force (not employed and not seeking 

work). Approximately 12.4% of residents live below 

the poverty level. 

Governance 

King Salmon is an unincorporated village 

governed by a village council, which is recognized 

by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). It is located 

in the Bristol Bay Borough. The village council is a 

member of the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, a 

for-profit organization, and the Bristol Bay Native 

Association, a regional non-profit organization. All 

taxes, including property tax, a 3% raw fish tax, and a 

10% accommodation tax (May-October) are collected 

by the Borough. King Salmon receives a community 

development quota (CDQ) through the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation. The nearest 

NMFS Enforcement Office is located in Homer. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is in Anchorage. The nearest 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

office is located right in King Salmon. 

Facilities 

Because of its former role as a military base, 

King Salmon’s transportation infrastructure is well 

developed. The former air base is now the site of an 

8,500 ft-long paved runway, a 4,000 ft-long asphalt/

gravel crosswind runway, and an FAA air traffic 

% Group Quarters 

����������������� King Salmon ������������ Data source: US Census ����������������������

����������

����

���

����

�

���� ����

��������������������������

������������������

��������������

������������

����������������������

2000 Employment Structure 

King Salmon 

Data source: US Census 

�����������

�����

����������

��������

�����

control tower. There is also a 4,000 foot stretch of the 

Naknek River that has been designated as a float plane 

landing strip. Roundtrip airfare from King Salmon 

to Anchorage is approximately $357 (Travelocity 

2003). Because of these important air links, much 

of the commercial sockeye salmon catch in Bristol 

Bay is trucked or shipped 15 miles upriver to King 

Salmon, where it is then distributed all over the world. 

A wide variety of accommodations and amenities is 

available. 

In terms of utilities, the Bristol Bay Borough 

operates a landfill, incinerator, and balefill, between 

King Salmon and Naknek and these are shared by both 

communities. Sewage services are generally provided 

by the borough; some residents use individual septic 

tanks. Electricity is provided by Naknek Electric 

Association. The King Salmon Health Clinic, owned 

by the local village council, provides health care to the 

community. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/King Salmon 
341

There are no schools in King Salmon. Students 

are bussed to Naknek, 15 miles away, to attend 

classes with students there. For the two communities 

combined, there are three schools, with a total of 22 

teachers and 236 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing for sockeye salmon and other 

species is an integral part of King Salmon’s economy. 

In 2000, 36 residents held a total of 58 commercial 

fishing permits for the following fisheries: salmon, 

halibut, herring, and other groundfish. There were two 

vessel owners for federal fisheries and 70 registered 

crew members residing in the community. The 

following is a detailed description of commercial 

permits in 2000 for King Salmon.

Halibut: There were eight total permits for the 

halibut fishery, and three permits were fished. A 

detailed breakdown of these permits is as follows: 

seven longline halibut permits for vessels under 60 

feet in length (three fished), and one longline halibut 

permit for vessels under 60 feet (none fished).

Herring: There were a total of 17 permits for 

the herring fishery, and 11 were fished. A detailed 

breakdown of these permits is as follows: 7 herring 

gillnet permits for Security Cove (2 fished), and 10 

herring gillnet permits for Security Cove (9 fished).

Salmon: There were a total of 31 permits for 

the salmon fishery, and 36 were fished. A detailed 

breakdown of these permits is as follows: 14 salmon 

drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (16 fished), and 17 

salmon set gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (20 fished).

Groundfish: There were a total of two permits for 

the groundfish fishery, including one miscellaneous 

finfish longline permit for vessels under 60 feet 

in statewide waters and one miscellaneous finfish 

mechanical jig permit, but no permits were fished.

In 2000 there were no processing plants and 

therefore no registered landings. However, in addition 

to direct involvement in commercial fish harvesting 

and processing, King Salmon is a key part of the 

transportation network of the Bristol Bay fishery. Fish 

landed throughout Bristol Bay and surrounding areas 

are transported by truck or boat up the Naknek River 

to King Salmon and distributed around the world. 

In 2002 the Bristol Bay Economic Development 

Corporation, the regional community development 

quota (CDQ) group, was granted $75,026 in federal 

funding to compensate for fisheries losses due to 

the protection of Steller sea lion habitat under the 

Endangered Species Act. In 2003 the Bristol Bay 

Borough was granted $1,739,411 in federal disaster 

funds to compensate for falling salmon prices. This 

was the largest sum granted to any governing body in 

Alaska. A portion of these sums will likely be used for 

programs that affect King Salmon. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing is an important part of the economy 

in King Salmon. King Salmon is located on the 

Naknek River (itself a major hub for sport fishing) 

and 15 miles inland from Bristol Bay, considered 

the largest sockeye fishery in the world. As of 2002, 

there were 24 registered guides for freshwater fishing 

and 2 guides that offer both saltwater and freshwater 

services. In 2000, sport fishing license sales totaled 

3,065, including 511 sold to Alaska residents and 2,554 

sold to non-residents. Local companies specializing in 

sport fishing and recreational transportation (including 

overland, boat and plane) are plentiful. In addition to 

sockeye, sport fishermen land the other four species of 

Pacific salmon, pike, trout, and other species. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence activities are an important part of 

the local economy of King Salmon. The ADF&G’s 

Division of Subsistence reports that, in 1983, 88.4% 

of King Salmon households used subsistence fish, 

including salmon and non-salmon fish species. A small 

portion of households (2.3%) used marine mammals 

for subsistence, and 27.9% used marine invertebrates.

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for King Salmon in 1983 was 220.3 lbs, and 

was comprised of the following resources: salmon 

(46.6%), non-salmon fish (7.2%), and land mammals 

(46.2%). Salmon subsistence catches are primarily 

sockeye from the Bristol Bay fishery. Other subsistence 

resources, including marine mammals, birds and bird 

eggs, marine invertebrates, and vegetation, were either 

not harvested or taken only in insignificant amounts. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/King Salmon 
����

����

����

���

����

342

Kokhanok (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Kokhanok is located on the south shore of Iliamna 

Lake, approximately 88 miles northeast of King 

Salmon and 320 miles southwest of Anchorage. The 

area encompasses 21.3 square miles of land and 0.1 

square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

The population of Kokhanok has grown steadily 

in recent years, doubling between 1970 and 2000. In 

2000, Kokhanok had a population of 174 people in 52 

households. The racial composition of the community 

was as follows: American Indian and Alaska Native 

(86.8%), White (8%), other (1.1%), and two or 

more races (4%). A total of 90.8% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. In addition, 1.1% of residents were 

of Hispanic ethnicity. The gender makeup was quite 

skewed, at 58.6% male and 41.4% female. The median 

age was 29.5 years, significantly younger than the U.S. 

national average of 35.3 years. In terms of educational 

attainment, 77.6% of residents aged 25 or older held a 

high school diploma. 

History 

The Lake Iliamna area has been inhabited through 

the years by Aleut, Yup’ik, and Athabascan peoples. 

Kokhanok began as a Native fishing village, and was 

first listed by the U.S. Census in 1890. The community 

was relocated to higher ground a few years ago when 

the rising level of Lake Iliamna threatened several 

community buildings. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing and subsistence hunting and 

fishing are the backbone of Kokhanok’s economy. 

Several residents hold commercial fishing permits, 

most of them in the Bristol Bay salmon fishery. In 

addition, the local school is the largest source of 

employment in the community. 

In 2000, the median per capita income was $7,732, 

and the median household income was $19,583. The 

unemployment rate was 4.1% in 2000, and 63.6% of 

2000 Population Structure ��������������������������

�������� Kokhanok

���������������������� Data source: US Census 

����

������

�����������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

��������

������

�� �� �� �� � �� ��

���������������������

����������������������

��������

2000 Racial Structure ���������������������� Kokhanok 

Data source: US Census 

������������

�����

����� ���������������

������

����� ������������������������

��������

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity ����������������������

Kokhanok

Data source: US Census 

��������

������������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Kokhanok 
����

343

��������������������������

��������

residents over 16 years of age were not in the labor 

force (i.e. retired or not seeking work). Approximately 

42.6% of residents lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Kokhanok is an unincorporated village under 

the jurisdiction of the Lake and Peninsula Borough. 

Kokhanok is governed by a federally recognized 

Native village council. In addition, Kokhanok belongs 

to the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, a for-profit 

corporation, and the Bristol Bay Native Association, 

a non-profit organization. The nearest U.S. Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

in Anchorage. The nearest Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) office is located in King Salmon. 

The nearest NMFS enforcement office is in Homer.

Facilities 

Kokhanok is accessible by air via a state-owned 

3,400-foot gravel airstrip, and by water via a seaplane 

base. There are no docking facilities. The village 

council operates a piped water and sewer system that 

serves some households. Some households have their 

own septic tanks. The village council also provides 

electricity by a diesel-powered generator. There is a 

local health clinic, owned by the village council and 

operated by Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation. 

Police services are provided by a state village public 

safety officer (VPSO). There is one school in the 

community, which offers instruction to students from 

grades K-12. The school has five teachers and 46 

students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, primarily in the Bristol Bay 

salmon fishery, is an important part of Kokhanok’s 

economy. In 2000, there were four vessel owners and 

32 registered crew members residing in the community. 

There were no processing plants and therefore no 

registered landings. Eight local residents held a total 

of eight commercial fishing permits, including the 

following: four salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol 

Bay (four fished), and four salmon set gillnet permits 

for Bristol Bay (three fished). 

In 2002 the Lake and Peninsula Borough, in 

which Kokhanok is located, was granted $29,832 in 

federal funds to compensate for fisheries losses due 

���������������������� 2000 Employment Structure 

Kokhanok Data source: US Census 

����������

��������

�����

�����������

�����

to the protection of Steller sea lion habitat under 

the Endangered Species Act. In 2003, the Lake and 

Peninsula Borough was granted $442,002 in federal 

disaster funds to compensate for falling salmon 

prices. A portion of these sums will likely be used for 

programs that affect Kokhanok. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing activities are limited in Kokhanok. 

There were no registered fishing guides or license 

sales in the community in 2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence activities are a major part of the local 

economy of Kokhanok. The ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence reports that, in 1992, 97.2% of Kokhanok 

households used subsistence fish. Approximately 97.2% 

of households used subsistence salmon (primarily 

sockeye, but also other species of Pacific salmon), and 

91.7% used non-salmon fish species (especially Dolly 

Varden, trout, grayling, and pike). In addition, 55.6% 

of households used marine mammals for subsistence 

(including seals and whales), and 30.6% of households 

used marine invertebrates (especially clams). 

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Kokhanok in 1992 was an astounding 1013.3 lbs, 

and was comprised of the following resources: salmon 

(55.6%), non-salmon fish (10.4%), land mammals 

(28.8%), marine mammals (0.4%), birds and eggs 

(2.2%), birds and eggs (0.6%), marine invertebrates 

(0.3%), and vegetation (2.2%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Kokhanok 
344

Levelock (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The unincorporated town of Levelock lies on 

the west bank of the Kvichak River, 10 miles inland 

from Kvichak Bay. Anchorage is 278 air miles to 

the northwest. The town is located near the Alagnak 

Wild and Scenic River Corridor. The community 

encompasses 14.5 square miles of land but has no 

jurisdiction over water. The river, which is the main 

communication channel, is ice-free from June through 

mid-November.

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Levelock had 

122 inhabitants. The town did not appear in the Census 

records until the 1950s. The numbers were stable 

until the 80s, but the last twenty years have witnessed 

significant increases in population. A detailed 

breakdown of the racial composition of Levelock is 

as follows: 89.3% Alaska Native or Indian American, 

4.9% White, and 5.7% two or more races. A total 

of 95.1% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. 

Approximately 2.5% of the population is Hispanic. 

Levelock’s gender breakdown is skewed towards males 

with 59% male versus 41% female. All residents live 

in households and there are no communal housing 

quarters. The population of the community is very 

young with a median of 27.5 years of age compared to 

the U.S. median of 35.3 years. A total of 43.4% of the 

population is under 19 years old, while only a 17.1% 

is over 55 years old. Of those age 25 years and over 

in Levelock about 65.6% had graduated from high 

school or gone on to higher schooling, and 4.9% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. About 34.5% 

had not graduated from high school. 

History 

Levelock was historically, and remains, a mixed 

Alutiiq and Yup’ik village. Although there is no 

systematic census data from Levelock until the 1950s, 

19th century Russian accounts reported the presence 

of a community known as “Kvichak.” The village is 

again mentioned by the name of Kvichak in the 1890 

census, although the population was not counted. A 

1908 survey of Russian missions identified Levelock 

as “Lovelock’s Mission.” The Bristol Bay area suffered 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Levelock Levelock Data source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Levelock

Data source: US Census Levelock 

Data source: US Census 

White 

races 4.9% 

Two or more 

Native 

89.4% 

5.7% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Levelock 

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Levelock

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 2.5% 

Non-Hispanic,

97.5% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Levelock 
345

2000 Employment Structure

Levelock 

Data source: US Census 

successive waves of epidemics, in 1837, 1900 and 1918, 

which had a devastating effect on the communities in the 

area. Although during these years many communities 

were abandoned, Levelock survived and succeeded in 

climbing onto the commercial fisheries golden train. 

Koggiung Packers operated a cannery at Levelock 

in 1925-26 until a fire destroyed the cannery. A second 

cannery operated from 1928-29. In 1930, the first 

school was built, and a post office was established 

in 1939. By this time, families had converted their 

homes to oil heat. Moose first appeared in the area in 

the 1930s. During the early 1950s, another cannery 

was in operation. Commercial fishing and subsistence 

activities are the main focus of the community. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Levelock’s economy is based around commercial 

fishing and government jobs. A total of 15 residents 

hold commercial fishing permits. Subsistence practices 

are present in the area and play a significant role on the 

local economy. The community relies upon subsistence 

activities for a large portion of its diet. Salmon, trout, 

moose, caribou, and berries are harvested.

The 2000 U.S. Census illustrated an employment 

structure which shows that 46.6% of the total workforce 

is employed and 53.4% of the adults are not actively 

seeking a job. These statistics should be understood 

in the context of a community completely dominated 

by a seasonal industry. About 34.2% percent of 

the workforce is employed by the government. The 

community shows a low per capita income of $12,199 

and a median household income of $31,667. A very 

high 24.6% of the population lives below the line of 

poverty. 

An important part of the workforce travels to 

Naknek to fish or work in the canneries during the 

summer season. The increasing appeal for tourism has 

helped to consolidate a modest but gradually growing 

accommodation sector.

Governance 

Levelock is an unincorporated town located in 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough. It belongs to the 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation. The local Native 

corporation is Levelock Natives Limited which 

manages approximately 96,800 acres of land while the 

authorized traditional entity, recognized by the BIA is 

2000 Employment Structure 

Levelock Data source: US Census 

Employed,

46.60%

Not Seeking,

53.40% 

the Levelock Village Council. 

This community is also part of the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC) and 

therefore receives community development quotas 

(CDQ) from this organization. This community further 

benefits from a regional nonprofit organization: the 

Bristol Bay Native Association. 

The closest regional offices of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) are in 

Dillingham and King Salmon. Kodiak and Homer 

have the nearest NMFS offices although Anchorage is 

also a potential accessible office for the people of this 

area. Anchorage and Kodiak have the closest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office. 

Facilities 

Levelock is mainly accessible by air and water. 

In winter, when the river freezes and the winds are 

too strong for river access, some trails to surrounding 

villages are used. There are two airstrips that receive 

scheduled and chartered flights (King Air and 

Peninsula Air). The price of a roundtrip ticket by plane 

from the community to Anchorage, with a connection 

in King Salmon, in early September of 2003 was $492. 

The harbor has a 110 foot dock and a beach with an 

unloading area. The village has a natural harbor with 

one accessible dock. 

Levelock School has 3 teachers and 17 students of 

all ages. Health care in the community is provided by 

the Pilot Point Health Clinic or, as alternatively, by the 

Levelock First Responders. The community has a public 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Levelock 
346

security service (State VPSO). Although Levelock 

has the Levelock Electric Cooperative, 95.5% of the 

household use kerosene or fuel to generate power. 

Water is provided by wells on an individual basis and 

there is no central sewage system.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Levelock is not a typical Alaskan fishing 

community due to its geographic location. The town 

lies at the shore of the Kvichak River, ten miles 

upstream from its mouth. Although Levelock is not a 

coastal community, it is still a community intimately 

involved with the fishing industry. According to official 

records from 2000 Levelock had 15 commercial 

permit holders, with a total of 16 commercial fishing 

permits. A total of 21 individuals were registered as 

crewmen and there were 6 owners of salmon vessels, 

but no federal fisheries vessel owners resident in the 

community. The Levelock fleet was involved, in one 

way or another, in the following Alaskan fisheries: 

herring, other groundfish, and salmon. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued with 

specification to species, vessels size, gear type, and 

fishing grounds. The salmon fleet was, by far, the main 

part of Levelock’s commercial fisheries. It accounted 

for 14 permits (10 fished): eight permits were issued 

for drift gillnet in the Bristol Bay area (seven fished), 

and six permits were issued for set gillnet in the Bristol 

Bay area (three fished). The other groundfish industry 

had one issued permit for a hand troll vessel with 

statewide range which was not fished. The remaining 

fishery in Levelock was herring: one permit (issued 

and fished) for herring roe with gillnet in Bristol Bay.

Although Levelock had a fishing fleet, there was 

no real landing of fish due to the absence of a large 

processing plant in that locality. This lack pushes the 

vessels of this community to deliver somewhere else 

in Bristol Bay.

The Lake and Peninsula Borough, where Levelock 

is located, received an allocation of $442,002 in federal 

salmon disaster funds to compensate for loses due to 

salmon prices plummeting and $29,832 to reduce the 

impact of Steller sea lion protective regulations. The 

BBEDC also received $75,026 for this reason. The 

funds, allocated in 2003 for the case of the salmon 

disaster fund and in 2002 for the Steller sea lion case, 

were added to the general budget of the borough or the 

CDQ, helped to compensate for the decline of income 

from fish taxes and to relieve the budgetary tensions of 

the institutions of the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, this community did not issue sport fishing 

licenses. The area, though, is visited by numerous 

outsiders who obtain their permits elsewhere. In 2002, 

the village had no registered sport fishing businesses. 

Subsistence Fishing 

In the survey conducted on behalf of ADF&G 

in 1992, Levelock demonstrated the significance of 

subsistence practices for most Alaskan communities. 

All households participated in the use of harvested 

resources. In relation to the main marine resources: 

93% of the households used subsistence salmon, 90% 

other types of fish (herring, smelt, flounder, sole, 

blackfish, burbot, char, grayling, pike, sucker, trout, and 

white fish), 46.7% marine mammals, and 3.3% marine 

invertebrates. The results reflect that the inhabitants 

of the community harvested 884 lbs per person that 

year. These statistics emphasize the importance 

of subsistence fishing, hunting, and gathering for 

these communities. The relative importance of each 

resource to the total harvest can be understood from 

this compositional breakdown: salmon 53%, other fish 

7.5%, land mammals 30.9%, marine mammals 5.7%, 

birds and eggs 1.3%, marine invertebrates 0.07%, and 

vegetation 1.6%. 

Most of these subsistence practices are focused 

on fish: in 1999 Levelock had 5 Alaska salmon 

household subsistence permits: the catch was mainly 

sockeye with 1500 units. In addition, the inhabitants 

of this community (rural residents or members of an 

Alaska Native tribe) are eligible to harvest subsistence 

halibut by holding Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificates (SHARCs). These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Levelock 
347

Naknek (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Naknek is situated on a 100-foot bluff overlooking 

the northern bank of the mouth of the Naknek River, 

at the northeastern end of Bristol Bay. It is 297 miles 

southwest of Anchorage. The area encompasses 84.2 

square miles of land and 0.7 square miles of water. 

Naknek lies about 20 miles from the western border 

of Katmai National Monument which encompasses 

Mt. Katmai, Mt. Novarupta, and the Valley of Ten 

Thousand Smokes.

Demographic Profile 

According to the U.S. Census, the population of 

Naknek was 678 with gender in the community skewed 

towards males (53.8%) versus females (46.2%). 

Total population numbers have been increasing 

steadily since the late 1800s. A major upsurge in the 

population occurred between 1960 and 1970, although 

not adequately reflected in census data because 

of the seasonal nature of the occupations of these 

new community members. The 1973, the Limited 

Entry Act passed by the Alaska State Legislature 

slowed the increase of out-of-state fishers here and 

elsewhere (Partnow 2001:11). Seasonal fluxes in the 

resident population can occur on the order of 2000 

people, attracted to the most prolific sockeye salmon 

fishery in the world. For the most part, people reside 

on their boats, in tents on the beach, or in cannery 

bunkhouses.

The racial composition of the population in 2000 

was: 51.1% White, 45.3% Alaska Native or American 

Indian, 0.1% Asian, 0.7% Pacific Islander, and 2.4% 

of the population identified with two or more races. A 

total of 47.1% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. Less 

than 1% of the population identified themselves as 

Hispanic. 

Themedianagewas34.4yearswhichiscomparable 

to the national average of 35.3 years for the same year. 

About 37% of the population was 19 years and below 

while only about 10% of the population was over 55 

years of age. 

There were 40 housing units in Naknek, 18 of 

which were vacant in 2000. Of those, 2 were vacant 

due to seasonal use. None of the population lived in 

group quarters.

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Naknek Naknek Data source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure 

Naknek Naknek 

Data source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

Pacific Islander 

0.7% 

Two or more 

Asian races 

0.1% 2.4% 

Native White

45.3% 51.5%

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Naknek 

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Naknek 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.3% 

Non-Hispanic,

99.7% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Naknek 
348

According to 2000 census data, about 65% of the 

population had a high school diploma or higher, and 

about 17% had a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The region around Naknek was settled by Yupik 

Eskimos and Athabascan Indians over 6000 years 

ago. Residents of villages in the area used rivers to 

interact with each other and for transport in pursuit of 

seasonal subsistence resources. In 1821, the original 

Eskimo village of “Naugeik” was noted by Capt. Lt. 

Vasiliev. By 1880, the village was called Kinuyak 

and later spelled Naknek by the Russian Navy. The 

Russians built a fort near the village and fur trappers 

inhabited the area for some time prior to the U.S. 

purchase of Alaska. The first salmon cannery opened 

on the Naknek River in 1890. The Homestead Act 

enabled canneries to acquire land for their plants, 

and also made land available to other institutions and 

individuals including the Russian Orthodox Church. 

Squatters built shelters on the church property and 

were eventually sold lots in what became the center 

of Naknek. Naknek has developed over the years as a 

major fishery center. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Naknek, as the political and economic seat of the 

Bristol Bay Borough, is the business center for the Bay. 

The local economy of Naknek, driven by the fishing 

industry, relies heavily on associated services including 

government employment, and is supplemented to some 

degree by subsistence practices. Naknek’s economy 

is highly sensitive to the seasonality of the fishing 

industry and to the huge sockeye salmon fishery in 

Bristol Bay in particular. Several thousand people 

typically flood the area during the fishing season. A 

total of 154 commercial fishing permits were held 

by 115 permit holders in 2000 according to ACFEC. 

Millions of pounds of salmon are trucked over NaknekKing Salmon road each summer, where jets transport 

the salmon around the world. Trident Seafoods, North 

Pacific Processors, Ocean Beauty, and six other fish 

processors operate facilities in Naknek.

In 2000, 71.1% of the potential labor force was 

employed, with a 6.7% unemployment rate in Naknek. 

A total of 28.9% of the population over 16 years of age 

were not in the labor force and 3.7% of the population 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters 

Naknek Naknek 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 0.2 

99.8 

0 

100 

1990 2000 

Year 2000 Employment Structure

Non-group quarters

Group quarters 

Naknek 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Naknek 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

28.9%

Unemployed,

6.7% 

Employed, 71.1% 

lived below the poverty level. The government is a 

significant employer in Naknek where 51.2% of the 

potential labor force worked for the government. 

The median household income in the same year was 

$53,393 and the per capita income was $21,182. 

Governance 

Naknek is an unincorporated city within the Bristol 

Bay Borough. The Bristol Bay Borough functions 

as the chief governing body for the communities of 

Naknek, South Naknek, and King Salmon. However, 

because of Naknek’s status as an unincorporated 

city there are no city or borough officials or finances 

associated with the city. Bristol Bay Native Association 

is the regional no-profit organization. The Naknek 

Village Council is federally recognized and eligible 

for funding and services from the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA). Naknek is a member of the regional forprofit Bristol Bay Native Corporation under the Alaska 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Naknek 
349

Natives Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). Paug-Vik, 

Inc., Limited is the local Native village corporation. 

The total land entitlement under ANCSA is about 

130,000 acres. Naknek is involved in a Community 

Development Quota program under the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation.

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) regional office is in Unalaska, as is the nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS), and there is an Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) office located in Naknek. 

Facilities 

Naknek is accessible both by air and by sea and 

is connected to King Salmon overland by road. The 

cost of a round trip flight from Naknek to Anchorage, 

via King Salmon, is $357 plus the cost of a charter 

flight between King Salmon and Naknek (based on 

the closest available date to 1 September, 2003). Two 

airports, one state owned and one private, are located 

just outside of Naknek. The Borough operates the 

cargo dock at Naknek, which is the Port of Bristol 

Bay; however, no commercial docking facilities are 

available at the canneries, although the development of 

a fisherman’s dock, freight dock, and Industrial Park are 

regional priorities. The majority of public and private 

buildings have individual wells and are fully plumbed 

including a collective sewage network operated by 

the Borough. Other waste facilities are shared with 

the nearby community of King Salmon. Electricity is 

provided by Naknek Electric Association.

Naknek is within the Bristol Bay Borough School 

District. There are two schools in Naknek itself. Twelve 

teachers instruct 114 students at Bristol Bay High 

School and 8 teachers instruct 109 students at Naknek 

Elementary School. Public security is provided by the 

borough. Local health care is provided at Camai Clinic 

run by the Bristol Bay Borough. There are several 

facilities to accommodate tourists in Naknek.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

The fishing industry in Naknek is dominated by 

the salmon fishery which is very significant to the 

community’s economy. According to ACFEC figures 

for 2000, 154 permits were held by 115 permit holders 

(123 fished). There was one vessel owner in the federal 

fisheries, 39 vessel owners in the salmon fishery, and 

161 crew members claiming residence in Naknek. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. The commercial vessel fleet delivering 

landings to Naknek was involved in halibut (27 

vessels) and salmon (900 vessels) fisheries. In 2000, 

there were 11,493.62 tons of salmon landed at the 

docks in Naknek. In accordance with confidentiality 

regulations, landings data for other species in the 

community are unavailable.

Salmon: A total of 110 permits were issued for 

the salmon fishery in 2000 (103 fished). Permits for 

salmon pertained to one drift gillnet confined to the 

Alaska Peninsula, 38 drift gillnets confined to Bristol 

Bay (39 fished), and 71 set gillnets confined to Bristol 

Bay (63 fished).

Halibut: There were a total of 16 permits issued 

for the halibut fishery (three fished). Permits issued 

in Naknek for halibut pertained to 14 longline vessels 

under 60 feet (three fished) and two permits were 

issued for longline vessels over 60 feet (none fished), 

both with statewide range.

Herring and groundfish: Permits issued for 

herring roe pertained to 2 purse seine limited to 

Bristol Bay, 7 gillnets in Security Cove (2 fished), 15 

gillnets in Bristol Bay (12 fished), and 3 gillnets in 

Norton Sound (one fished). There was also one permit 

issued for miscellaneous saltwater finfish mechanical 

jig with statewide range which was not actually fished 

in 2000. 

Naknek is a significant node in Alaska’s fishing 

industry with several processors and numerous 

processor-supported port facilities. The harbor and 

dock are well equipped to deal with the demand driven 

by the seasonally intense harvest in Alaska’s fisheries. 

Many landings cross the docks in Naknek which are 

subsequently transported to processors both within 

Naknek and the nearby communities of South Naknek 

and King Salmon.

Bristol Bay is home to the largest sockeye salmon 

run in North America. The majority of fish processed 

in Naknek is salmon, at least nine processors have this 

capacity, but halibut and herring are also processed. 

There at least 11 processing plants in Naknek altogether, 

including Trident Seafoods Corporation, Ocean 

Beauty Seafoods Inc., and Alaska General Seafoods. 

The Wards Cove processing facility, which included 

a community grocery store, was sold to Seattle-based 

Yardarm Knot in the spring for 2003. The outward 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Naknek 
350

movement of Wards Cove Packing Company from 

numerous Alaskan communities has not happened 

without significant economic and social stress. 

It was announced in July 2003 that the Bristol Bay 

Borough, in which Naknek is located, would receive 

$1,739,411 worth of federal salmon disaster funds 

to be distributed to several municipalities statewide 

which have been affected by low salmon prices in 

order to compensate for consequent losses of salmon 

taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement of these 

disaster funds illustrates state and federal responses 

to communities and boroughs affected by recent 

falling salmon prices due to competition with foreign 

aquaculture fish. Communities and boroughs are 

ultimately responsible for the allocation of the funds. 

Further disbursements are expected in the future to 

offset the costs of basic public services for which fish 

taxes become insufficient. In 2002 the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC), to 

which Naknek belongs, received $140,062 as part of a 

federal fund set up in accordance with the Endangered 

Species Act to offset costs to fisheries and communities 

due to Steller sea lion protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

A total of 365 sport fishing licenses were sold in 

Naknek in 2000, 170 of which were sold to Alaska 

residents. Four sport fishing businesses are currently 

operating in Naknek. Naknek river drainage system 

provides optimum opportunities for freshwater salmon 

fishing, although several regulations restrict where and 

when sport fishing can be conducted in the area.

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities, and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social, and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1983 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in Naknek. 

A high percentage of households participated in the 

use of subsistence resources, including harvesting, 

sharing, and consuming resources, illustrating the 

importance of subsistence to life in the community. 

About 92.3% of the total population in that year used 

both salmon and non-salmon fish resources (smelt, 

char, grayling, pike, and trout). Approximately 15.4% 

of the population used marine mammals and 34.6% 

used marine invertebrates. The total per capita harvest 

for the year was 188.18 lbs. 

The composition of the total subsistence harvest 

can be shown by the percentages of the resources which 

demonstrate the amount of each resource category 

used by the community relative to other resources 

categories. The total subsistence harvest was composed 

of 54.44% salmon, 9.89% non-salmon fish, 35.11% 

land mammals, and marine mammals accounted for 

only 0.55% of the total harvest. The harvest quantities 

for birds and eggs, marine invertebrates, and vegetation 

were not recorded in the Division of Subsistence 

database. The wild food harvest in Naknek made 

up 122% of the recommended dietary allowance of 

protein in 1983 (corresponding to 49 g of protein per 

day or .424 lbs of wild food per day) (Wolfe, division 

of Subsistence, ADF&G).

According to records from 1999, 111 permits were 

held by households in Naknek for subsistence fishing 

of salmon. Sockeye made up the vast majority of the 

subsistence salmon harvest. Residents of Naknek 

and members of Naknek Native Village who hold a 

valid Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Naknek 
351

Nelson Lagoon (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Nelson Lagoon is an unincorporated city in the 

Aleutians East Borough. It is located 580 miles 

southwest of Anchorage, on the northern coast of the 

Alaska Peninsula. The area encompasses 135.3 square 

miles of land and 61.4 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Nelson Lagoon has 83 permanent residents in 

31 households, with an average household size of 

2.68 people, and its population is predominantly 

comprised of Alaska Natives. The gender composition 

of the community is only somewhat skewed, at 51.8% 

male and 48.2% female. The racial makeup of the 

community is as follows: White (13.3%), Alaska 

Native or American Indian (78.3%), Asian (2.4%), 

and residents of two or more races (6.0%). A total of 

81.9% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The median 

age of residents was 33.3 years, whereas the national 

age median was 35.3 years. All of Nelson Lagoon’s 

permanent residents live in households rather than 

group quarters, but the population often increases 

four-fold during the summer months, when temporary 

residents come for the salmon fishing season. 

History 

The presence of ancient artifacts suggests that 

Aleut people hunted and fished in this area in the 

distant past. Permanent human settlement, however, is 

a relatively recent phenomenon in Nelson Lagoon. The 

lagoon itself was named in 1882 for Edward William 

Nelson of the U.S. Signal Corps, who explored the 

Yukon Delta region in the late 19thcentury. Coalmining 

in the nearby Herendeen Bay area began in the late 

1800s, but died out shortly thereafter as dependence 

on fuel oils grew. A salmon saltery was in operation 

on the site from 1906 to 1917, attracting Scandinavian 

fishermen, but the site was not occupied year-round 

until 1965, when a school was built (Rennick 1994: 

40-42). Today, Peter Pan Seafoods operates a cold 

storage facility across Herendeen Bay at Port Moller, 

and most of Nelson Lagoon’s residents are involved in 

the commercial salmon fishery. 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Nelson Lagoon Nelson Lagoon

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

10 5 0 5 10 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Nelson Lagoon 2000 Racial Structure 

Data source: US Census Nelson Lagoon 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races 

Asian 6.0% White 2.4% 13.3% 

Native 

78.3% 2000 Employment Structure

Nelson Lagoon

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Nelson Lagoon

Data source: US Census 

Employed, 33.3% Not Seeking,

38.1% 

Unemployed,

28.6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Nelson Lagoon 
352

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Nelson Lagoon is largely 

dependent on the salmon fishery. Many local residents 

hold commercial fishing permits, and most of the 

salmon catch is processed at the nearby town of Port 

Moller. The median annual per capita income in 

Nelson lagoon is $27,596, and the median household 

income is $43,750. Approximately 6.4% of community 

residents live below the poverty level. 

The 2000 U.S. Census reports that 28.6% of 

residents were unemployed and 38.1% were not in the 

labor force (i.e. not working and not seeking work) 

Given Nelson Lagoon’s high degree of dependence 

on the commercial fishery, and the seasonal nature of 

this type of employment, a more likely interpretation 

is that employment opportunities vary according 

to season. Approximately 10.8% of residents are 

employed by the government at the city, borough, 

state, and federal levels. Some subsistence hunting 

and fishing supplements the main economy. There is 

also a small commercial sector in Nelson Lagoon, 

including traveler accommodations, child care, and a 

grocery store. 

Governance 

Nelson Lagoon is an unincorporated village 

governed by a village council, which is recognized by 

the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The village council is a 

member of the Aleutian Pribilof Island Community 

Development Association, a community development 

quota (CDQ) group responsible for allocating 

community development quota proceeds and investing 

in infrastructural development. The village is also a 

member of the Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association, a 

non-profit organization, and the Aleut Corporation, a 

regional Native corporation.

There is no property tax and no sales tax in 

Nelson Lagoon. A 2% raw fish tax is administered by 

the borough. The nearest NMFS office and Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

are in Kodiak. The nearest Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) office is located in Port Moller. 

Facilities 

The local water utility is operated by the 

village council, and consists of piped water from a 

600,000 gallon storage tank. Nelson Lagoon Electric 

Cooperative provides electricity produced by a diesel 

generator. Individually owned septic tanks constitute 

the sewer system. The Nelson Lagoon Health Clinic, 

owned by the local village council, provides health 

care to the community. Police services (VPSO) are 

provided by the borough.

The Nelson Lagoon School, operated by the 

borough, has two teachers and 11 students from 

grades K-12. Access to Nelson Lagoon is by plane 

or boat. Transportation facilities include a gravel 

airstrip, a dock, and a boat ramp. Roundtrip airfare 

to Anchorage, via Sand Point, is approximately $571 

(Travelocity 2003).

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon 

fishery, is a vital part of the economy in Nelson Lagoon. 

In 2000 there were 31 commercial permits held by 24 

residents, and 18 vessel owners who resided in the 

community. There were 25 vessels home-ported and 

23 registered crew members in the community. 

Commercial permits in 2000 were issued for the 

following fisheries: 16 salmon set gillnet permits 

for the Alaska Peninsula (16 fished), 11 salmon drift 

gillnet permits for the Alaska Peninsula (11 fished), 3 

herring roe gillnet permits for the Alaska Peninsula (3 

fished), and one Korean Hair Crab pot gear permit for 

vessels under 60 feet statewide (none fished). 

In 2000 there were no processing plants in Nelson 

Lagoon and therefore no registered landings. Most 

landings are taken to nearby Port Moller, where there 

is a processing plant and cold storage facility. In 2002 

the Aleutians East Borough was granted $140,063 in 

federal funds to compensate for fisheries losses due 

to the protection of Steller sea lion habitat under the 

Endangered Species Act. In addition, the Aleutian 

Pribilof Islands Community Development Association, 

a regional community development quota group 

(CDQ), received $57,163 in Steller sea lion funds. 

In 2003 the Aleutians East Borough was granted 

$1,101,638 in federal disaster funds to compensate 

for falling salmon prices. A portion of these sums will 

likely be used for programs that directly affect Nelson 

Lagoon. 

Sport Fishing 

There is limited sport fishing in Nelson Lagoon, 

with a total of eight licenses sold locally in 2000. Of 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Nelson Lagoon 
353

this total, six were sold to Alaska residents and two to 

non-residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence fishing, particularly for sockeye 

salmon, is an important part of the economy for 

Nelson Lagoon residents. The ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence reports that, in 1987, 100% of households 

in Nelson Lagoon used subsistence resources. 

Approximately 92.3% of households used subsistence 

salmon, and 53.8% used non-salmon subsistence fish 

(including cod, flounder, and char). Approximately 

7.7% of households used marine mammals for 

subsistence, and 100% of households used marine 

invertebrates.

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Nelson Lagoon in 1987 was 253.9 lbs, and 

was comprised of the following resources: salmon 

(33.8.0%), non-salmon fish (1.8%), land mammals 

(51.2%), marine mammals (0.5%), birds and bird eggs 

(3.0%), marine invertebrates (6.3%), and vegetation 

(1.8%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Nelson Lagoon 
354

Newhalen (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Newhalen is a second-class city of 160 people 

located on the north shore of Iliamna Lake, 320 miles 

southwest of Anchorage across Cook Inlet. The area 

encompasses 6.1 square miles of land and 2.3 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Newhalen is primarily a community of Yupik 

Eskimos and Aleuts. The 2000 U.S. Census reports 

that 85.5% of the community’s 160 residents are 

Alaska Native or American Indian, 8.8% of residents 

are White, and 6.3% are two or more races. A total of 

91.3% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The gender 

distribution of the community is even, with 50% men 

and 50% women. The age structure is quite young, 

with a median age of 20.5 years, whereas the national 

age median was 35.3 years. Approximately 48.8% 

of the population is aged 19 or under. This is most 

likely because employment opportunities in Newhalen 

are limited; many residents of working age leave the 

community for jobs in nearby Iliamna or in the Bristol 

Bay area. All residents live in households (none in 

group quarters), and the average household size for the 

community is 4.1 persons. There are 39 households. 

History 

The area of Newhalen has been occupied 

by humans since prehistory. Its population, even 

today, is comprised primarily of Yupik Eskimos and 

Aleuts. The name “Newhalen” is an Anglicization 

of “Noghelingamuit,” meaning “People of the Land 

of Prosperity or Abundance” in Yupik. The natural 

resources in the area are abundant and include salmon, 

trout, moose, rabbit, seal, and caribou. Most residents 

rely primarily on subsistence hunting and fishing for 

their livelihoods. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Residents of Newhalen rely heavily upon natural 

resources for their economic livelihoods. Fishing is 

particularly important, with community members 

involved in the Bristol Bay commercial fishing industry, 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

20 

Not Seeking,

42.9% 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Newhalen Newhalen Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Male 

Female 

15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Newhalen

Data source: US Census Newhalen 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more races White 

6.3% 8.8% 

Native 

2000 Employment Structure 84.9%

Newhalen 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Newhalen

Data source: US Census 

Employed, 39.3% 

Unemployed,

17.9% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Newhalen 
355

and in subsistence fishing in the Lake Iliamna area. 

The area also attracts sport fishermen from around the 

world. In cooperation with the nearby town of Iliamna, 

some Newhalen residents are involved in tourismrelated businesses such as guide services and hotels. 

The average per capita income of Newhalen is 

$9,447, and the average household income is $36,250. 

In 2000, 17.9% of residents were unemployed, but 

employment figures vary according seasonally. 

Approximately 15% of residents live below the poverty 

level, and 42.9% of residents are not in the work force 

(not employed and not seeking work). 

Governance 

Newhalen is a second-class city, incorporated in 

1971, with a strong mayor form of government. It 

is located in the Lake and Peninsula Borough. The 

Newhalen Village Council is an important form of 

local Native governance. The city is a member of the 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation, and the Bristol Bay 

Native Association, a regional non-profit organization. 

Government revenues are obtained through a 2% sales 

tax, a 2% raw fish tax, and a 6% accommodations 

tax, all administered through the Lake and Peninsula 

Borough. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is in Anchorage. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in King Salmon. The 

nearest NMFS enforcement office is in Homer.

Facilities 

The only local road connects Newhalen to the nearby 

village of Iliamna. Two nearby airstrips (one 3,000 foot 

and one 1,500 foot) are shared by the two villages; 

roundtrip airfare to Anchorage is approximately $255 

(Travelocity 2003). The two villages also share most 

facilities, including the Newhalen School, which has 

79 students and seven teachers, and police services 

(VPSO). There is a local city-owned health clinic. The 

INN Electric Cooperative (shared between Iliamna, 

Newhalen, and Nondalton) provides electric power, 

which is generated by a hydroelectric station and a 

diesel generator. Water distribution is provided by the 

city, and sewage services are handled both by the city 

and by individually owned septic tanks. The city also 

operates a health clinic. 

Private facilities in Newhalen include charter air 

services, a grocery store, and a petroleum station. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing in Newhalen revolves around 

the Bristol Bay salmon fishery. In 2000, a total of 

eight commercial fishing permits were held by eight 

community members. There were 20 registered crew 

members, 4 vessel owners for the salmon fishery, 

and no vessel owners who participated in federally 

managed fisheries. 

Commercial permits in 2000 were as follows: 

six salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (four 

fished), and two salmon set gillnet permits for Bristol 

Bay (two fished). 

In 2000, there were no processing plants in 

Newhalen and therefore no registered landings. In 2002, 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough, in which Newhalen 

is located, was granted $29,832 in federal funds to 

compensate for fisheries losses due to the protection 

of Steller sea lion habitat under the Endangered 

Species Act. In 2003, the Lake and Peninsula Borough 

was granted $442,002 in federal disaster funds to 

compensate for falling salmon prices. A portion of 

these sums will likely be used for programs that affect 

Newhalen. 

Sport Fishing 

The sport fishing industry in the Bristol Bay 

Management Area is world-renowned for all five 

species of Pacific Salmon, as well as rainbow trout, 

Arctic grayling, Arctic char, and Dolly Varden. 

Because of Newhalen’s proximity to Lake Iliamna 

and the Newhalen River, its economy benefits from 

sport fishing during the summer months. However, 

most community residents who participate in the sport 

fishing industry do so in cooperation with the nearby 

community of Iliamna. There are no registered sport 

fishing guide services and no recorded sport fishing 

license sales for Newhalen.

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence activities are heavily focused on 

salmon and account for a major part of the local 

economy in Newhalen. The ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence, reports that, in 1991, 100% of Newhalen 

households used subsistence resources. One hundred 

percent of residents used both salmon and non-salmon 

fish species for subsistence. Non-salmon fish species 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Newhalen 
356

used included: herring, smelt, cod, flounder, greenling, 

halibut, burbot, char, grayling, pike, sheefish, sucker, 

and trout). Approximately 61.5% of households used 

marine mammals for subsistence, and 42.3% used 

marine invertebrates.

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods 

for Newhalen in 1991 was 747.2 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (56.2%), nonsalmon fish (5.0%), land mammals (30.7%), marine 

mammals (1.1%), birds and bird eggs (2.8%), marine 

invertebrates (0.4%), and vegetation (3.8%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Newhalen 
357

Pedro Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Pedro Bay is located on the east end of Iliamna 

Lake, 176 miles southwest of Anchorage. Its area 

encompasses 17.3 square miles of land and 1.6 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Pedro Bay had a population of 50 people 

in 17 households. All residents lived in households 

rather than group quarters. The population of the 

community has remained stable since the first census 

records were taken in 1950. The racial composition of 

the community was as follows: American Indian and 

Alaska Native (40%), White (36%), and two or more 

races (24%). Approximately 64% of local residents 

wereAlaskaNativeorpartNative.Somewhatunusually, 

the gender composition featured a greater proportion 

of females (56%) than males (44%). The median age 

of the community was 35 years, slightly younger than 

the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. In terms of 

educational attainment, 80.6% of Pedro Bay residents 

aged 25 or older held a high school diploma. 

History 

The Lake Iliamna area has been a crossroads of 

Aleut, Yup’ik and Dena’ina peoples since prehistory. 

Pedro Bay was named for a man known as “Old Pedro,” 

who lived in the area in the early 1900s. Today, the 

village retains many Dena’ina cultural influences and 

relies heavily on subsistence resources. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing and local tourism, along with 

employment provided by the village council, are the 

cornerstones of Pedro Bay’s economy. Many residents 

find seasonal employment in the Bristol Bay fishery, 

and a number of residents hold commercial fishing 

permits. In addition, subsistence resources provide an 

important supplement to the formal economy. 

In 2000, the median per capita income in Pedro 

Bay was $18,419 and the median household income 

was $36,750. The 2000 U.S. Census does not report 

any unemployment for Pedro Bay; however, 20.6% of 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Pedro Bay Pedro Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure 

Pedro Bay 

Data source: US Census

Pedro Bay

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races, 24.0%

White , 36.0% 

Native, 40.0% 

2000 Employment Structure

Pedro Bay

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Pedro Bay

Data source: US Census 

Not seeking,

20.6% 

Employed, 79.4% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Pedro Bay 
358

residents were not in the labor force (i.e. retired or not 

seeking work). Approximately 6% of residents lived 

below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Pedro Bay is an unincorporated village under the 

jurisdiction of the Lake and Peninsula Borough. It is 

governed by a village council. The borough administers 

a 2% raw fish tax and a 6% accommodations tax. The 

Pedro Bay Corporation, a Native village corporation, 

is a federally recognized Native governing body and 

has a land entitlement under the Alaska Native Claims 

Settlement Act (ANCSA). In addition, Pedro Bay is a 

member of the Bristol Bay Native Corporation and the 

Bristol Bay Native Association. 

The nearest U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is in Anchorage. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in King Salmon. The 

nearest NMFS enforcement office is in Homer.

Facilities 

Pedro Bay is accessible by air, via a state-owned 

3,000-foot gravel airstrip, and by water via either the 

Kvichak River and Iliamna Lake to the southwest or 

Iliamna Bay on the Cook Inlet side to the southeast. 

There is a dock on Iliamna Lake. 

Most homes in Pedro Bay use individual wells and 

septic tanks; there is no piped water or sewer service. 

The village council operates a diesel-powered electric 

utility that supplies power to the community. There is 

a local health clinic, owned by the village council and 

operated by the Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation. 

There is also a volunteer fire department. There is one 

school in Pedro Bay which offers instruction to students 

from grades K-12. The school has two teachers and 14 

students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000, there were nine commercial vessel 

owners and five registered crew members residing 

in the community. Three local residents held a total 

of three commercial fishing permits, all for Bristol 

Bay salmon, including one drift gillnet permit (none 

fished), and two set gillnet permits (two fished). 

In 2000, there were no processing plants and 

therefore no registered landings in Pedro Bay. In 2003, 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough was granted $442,002 

in federal salmon disaster funds to compensate for 

falling salmon prices. The borough was also granted 

$29,832 in Steller sea lion compensation funds for 

economic losses due to the protection of key sea lion 

habitat. A portion of these sums will likely be used for 

programs that benefit Pedro Bay.

Sport Fishing 

Despite its small size, Pedro Bay attracts a fair 

amount of visitors, who come to the area for wilderness 

tours and sport fishing. Sport fishing license sales in 

2000 totaled 127 in Pedro Bay, most of which (121, 

or 95%) were sold to non-Alaska residents. In 2002, 

there was one registered saltwater sport fishing guide 

and one freshwater fishing guide in Pedro Bay. In 

addition, there were several wilderness lodges in 

Pedro Bay that catered to outside visitors. Major sport 

fish species include salmon (primarily sockeye), trout, 

Arctic grayling, Arctic char, and Dolly Varden. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence activities are an important part of the 

local economy of Pedro Bay. The ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence reports that, in 1996, 100% of Pedro Bay 

households used subsistence resources. Approximately 

92.3% of households used salmon (primarily sockeye) 

and 76.9% used non-salmon fish species (including 

halibut, char, and trout). A small portion of households 

(15.4%) used marine invertebrates for subsistence. 

Marine mammals were not used. 

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Pedro Bay in 1996 was 396.7 lbs, and was 

comprised of the following resources: salmon (73.3%), 

non-salmon fish (6.5%), land mammals (18.3%), birds 

and eggs (0.5%), marine invertebrates (0.5%), and 

vegetation (0.8%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Pedro Bay 
359

Perryville (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Perryville is an unincorporated city in the Lake 

and Peninsula Borough. It is situated in on the south 

side of the Alaska Peninsula, southwest of Chignik and 

some 275 miles southwest of Kodiak. Its area consists 

of 9.2 square miles of land and 0.1 square miles of 

water. 

Demographic Profile 

The population of Perryville in 2000 was 

107 people in 33 households. This figure has held 

relatively stable since the village was founded in 1912. 

Approximately 54.2% of residents are male and 45.8% 

are female. The median age in Perryville is relatively 

young, at 26.5 years, and below the national average 

of 35.3 years of age. The current racial makeup of the 

community is as follows: White (1.9%), Alaska Native 

or American Indian (97.2%), and two or more races 

(0.9%). A total of 98.1% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. All residents live in households (none in group 

quarters). 

History 

Although Aleut people have sporadically lived 

in the area for centuries, the official founding of the 

village of Perryville came in 1912 when the Katmai 

eruption forced villagers from Katmai and Douglas 

to relocate. The village is named after Captain K.W. 

Perry, commander of a U.S. Revenue Cutter Service 

vessel whose crew helped rescue and resettle people 

who had been affected by the eruption. Since that 

time, Perryville has remained a small community of 

mostly Aleut residents who depend heavily upon the 

Chignik salmon fishery. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing is the most significant part of 

the Perryville economy. Because of its close proximity 

to Chignik, many residents participate in the salmon 

fishery during the peak months. Subsistence harvesting 

of both marine and land resources is also an important 

part of the economy. 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Perryville Perryville Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

15 10 5 0 5 10 15 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Perryville

Data source: US Census Perryville 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more White 

races 1.9%

0.9% 

Native 

97.2%

2000 Employment Structure

Perryville

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Perryville 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

43.6% 

Employed, 50.4% 

Unemployed, 6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Perryville 
360

Approximately 25.2% of community residents are 

employed by the government, including city, borough, 

state, and federal sectors. Unemployment in Perryville 

is 6.0%, and 43.6% of residents are not in the potential 

labor force (unemployed or not seeking work). The 

average annual per capita income is $20,935 and the 

average household income is $51,875. Approximately 

16.0% of community residents live below the poverty 

level. 

Governance 

Perryville is an unincorporated city. Services 

and facilities are operated by the Lake and Peninsula 

Borough. Government revenues come from a 2% raw 

fish tax and a 6% accommodation tax, both of which 

are administered through the Borough. The Oceanside 

Native Corporation and the Native Village of Perryville 

are both tribal forms of government recognized under 

the Indian Reorganization Act. Perryville is also a 

member of the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, and 

the Bristol Bay Native Association, a regional nonprofit organization.

Facilities 

Utilities such as water and electricity are provided 

by the Native Village of Perryville. Electricity is 

produced by a diesel-fueled generator. Sewage is 

disposed of in septic tanks which are operated by 

private individuals. Roundtrip airfare to Anchorage, 

via Sand Point, is approximately $571, plus the cost of 

a charter flight to Sand Point (Travelocity 2003). 

There is a health clinic that is owned by the village 

council. The Perryville School, which is operated by 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough, has three teachers 

and 34 students from grades K-12. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is a vital part of the economy 

in Perryville. In 2000 there were 11 community 

members who held a total of 16 commercial fishing 

permits. Three vessel owners with operations in federal 

fisheries, and nine vessel owners with operations in 

non-federal fisheries resided in the community. There 

were 29 registered crew members in the community. 

Permits in 2000 were issued for the following 

fisheries: one longline halibut permit for vessels over 

60 feet in length (one fished), two herring roe pot gear 

permits for vessels under 60 feet (none fished), one 

groundfish pot gear permit for vessels under 60 feet 

(one fished), three groundfish mechanical jig permits 

(one fished), and nine salmon purse seine permits for 

the Chignik fishery (eight fished). 

In 2000, there were no processors in Perryville 

and therefore no registered landings. In 2002, the Lake 

and Peninsula Borough was granted $29,832 in federal 

funds to compensate for fisheries losses due to the 

protection of Steller sea lions under the Endangered 

Species Act. In 2003, the Lake and Peninsula Borough 

was granted $442,002 in federal disaster funds to 

compensate for falling salmon prices. A portion of 

these sums will likely be used for programs that affect 

Perryville. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing in Perryville is relatively limited, 

with only three license sales in 2000, all to Alaska 

residents. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence use of natural resources, especially 

salmon, is very important to the local economy of 

Perryville. The ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence 

reports that, in 1989, 100% of Perryville households 

used natural resources for subsistence. One hundred 

percent of households used salmon (including all 

five Pacific species) and 96.3% used non-salmon 

fish (herring, smelt, cod, greenling, halibut, rockfish, 

sculpin, char, and trout). Approximately 63.0% of 

households used marine mammals for subsistence, 

and 96.3% used marine invertebrates. 

The per capita harvest of subsistence foods for 

Perryville in 1989 was 394.3 lbs, and was comprised 

of the following resources: salmon (51.3%), nonsalmon fish (17.6%), land mammals (15.2%), marine 

mammals (6.5%), birds and bird eggs (2.1%), marine 

invertebrates (5.2%), and vegetation (2.6%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Perryville 
361

Pilot Point (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Pilot Point is located on the northern coast of 

the Alaska Peninsula, on the east shore of Ugashik 

Bay. The community lies 84 air miles south of King 

Salmon and 368 air miles southwest of Anchorage. 

The area encompasses 25.4 square miles of land and 

115.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Pilot Point had 100 inhabitants. The 

population growth in the community has been 

historically dependent on the state of the fishing and 

processing industries. The community is primarily of 

Alutiiq ancestry, with some Yup’ik Eskimo residents. 

Approximately 86% of residents were Alaska Native 

or American Indian, and 14% were White.

All residents lived in households rather than 

group quarters. There were 40 vacant houses due to 

seasonal use. In terms of gender ratio, in contrast to 

most Alaskan communities, women comprise the 

majority of the population (56%). The median age of 

the community was 29 years, significantly younger 

than the U.S. national median of 35.3 years. 

In terms of educational attainment in Pilot Point, 

of the population age 25 and over, about 87.3% had 

graduated from high school or gone on to further 

schooling. About 12.7% had not completed the 12th 

grade. 

History 

According to most accounts, Pilot Point originated 

as a village surrounding a processing plant, which was 

founded in 1889. At that time, it was called “Pilot 

Station,” after the river pilots stationed here to guide 

boats upriver to a large cannery at Ugashik. 

The area, which has abundant natural resources, 

is believed to have been inhabited as a seasonal fish 

camp for thousands of years. In 1892 Charles Nelson 

opened a saltery which was sold to the Alaska Packer’s 

Association in 1895. The saltery continued to expand, 

and by 1918, developed into a three-line cannery that 

attracted immigrants from all over. Reindeer herding 

experiments at Ugashik helped to repopulate the area 

after the devastating 1918 flu epidemic. The herding 

experiments, however, eventually failed. Until the 

epidemic, the main settlement, with a blossoming 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Pilot Point Pilot Point

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Pilot Point 

Data source: US Census 2000 Racial Structure 

Pilot Point 

Data source: US Census 

White 

14.0% 

Native

86.0%

2000 Employment Structure 

Pilot Point 

Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure

Pilot Point 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

24.6%

Unemployed,

5.8%

Employed,

69.6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Pilot Point 
362

cannery industry, was upstream at Ugashik. A post 

office was established in the town in 1933, and the 

name was changed to Pilot Point. 

The prosperity of the community has always 

been linked to the fishing industry. In the 70s the 

deterioration of the harbor, among other factors, forced 

the last cannery effort to close. Pilot Point incorporated 

as a city in 1992 as a way to generate resources for the 

community through taxation. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The two main components of Pilot Point’s economy 

are commercial fishing and government jobs. In 2000, 

69.6% of the total workforce was employed, 5.8% 

was unemployed, and 24.6% was not seeking a job. 

Approximately 32% percent of the workforce worked 

for the government. The annual per capita income 

was $12,627 and the median household income was 

$41,250. An astonishing 20.8% of the population lived 

below the poverty line.

Subsistence practices are present in the area and 

play a significant role on the local economy. Trapping 

is a source of income during the off-season. Salmon, 

caribou, moose, goose, and porcupine are harvested. 

Governance 

Pilot Point was incorporated as a second-class 

city in 1992. It is under the jurisdiction of the Lake 

and Peninsula Borough. It has a strong mayor form 

of government with a seven-member city council. The 

city imposes a 3% tax on raw fish and the borough 

administers a 6% tax on accommodation. 

The Bristol Bay Native Corporation is the 

regional for-profit Native corporation of the area. The 

Alaska Peninsula Corporation is responsible for the 

management of approximately 99 acres of land under 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). 

This community is part of the Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation (CDQ) and receives 

community development quotas from this organization. 

The city also has the Pilot Point Village Council, 

which is recognized by BIA as a traditional council. 

Pilot Point is also a member of a regional nonprofit 

organization, the Bristol Bay Native Association. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) offices are located in Chignik and 

King Salmon. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is in Kodiak, 

Unalaska, or Anchorage. NMFS has its closest quarters 

in Kodiak, Unalaska, or Homer. 

Facilities 

As with most of the communities of the Aleutian 

Islands and the Alaskan Peninsula, Pilot Point is not 

accessible by land. It has a gravel airstrip that receives 

two air taxis, six days per week, from King Salmon. 

These flights are part of the mail service. There is 

a second airstrip managed by the bureau of land 

management 10 miles to the southeast (Ugashik). 

The price of a roundtrip ticket by plane from the 

community to Anchorage, connecting in King Salmon, 

is approximately $597. 

The sea is the other main connector with the 

outside world. A barge service provided from Seattle 

serves the community twice a year, in spring and fall. 

It is chartered from Naknek. The village has a natural 

harbor with one accessible dock. The community does 

not have ground transportation services.

There are two lodges available for accommodations. 

The Pilot Point School has two teachers and 25 students 

of all ages. Health care in the community is provided 

by the Pilot Point Health Clinic. Pilot Point has also 

its own police station (State VPSO). The water, on an 

individual basis, is provided by wells, and there is not 

a central sewage system.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

The Ugashik River produces a very important part 

of the Bristol Bay salmon fishery, and the privileged 

location of the town next to the river defines the 

structure of Pilot Point’s fishing industry.

In 2000, Pilot Point had 21 commercial permit 

holders with a total of 30 permits. In Pilot Point, 33 

individuals were registered as crewmen and there were 

two federal fisheries vessel owners plus nine owners 

of salmon vessels. Pilot Point’s fleet was involved, in 

one way or another, in the following Alaskan fisheries: 

halibut, herring, other groundfish, and salmon. The 

following is a breakdown of the commercial permits 

issued to Pilot Point residents in 2000. 

Halibut: Five permits issued for halibut, all of 

which were for longline vessels over 60 feet with 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Pilot Point 
363

statewide range (two fished).

Other Groundfish: Two permits issued for herring 

roe gillnet, one in Security cove and one in Bristol Bay 

(none fished).

Salmon: Salmon permits accounted for the bulk 

of Pilot Point’s issuance. These included 9 drift gillnet 

permits for Bristol Bay (8 fished), and 11 set gillnet 

permits for Bristol Bay (6 fished).

Herring: There were three herring permits issued, 

including one gillnet permit in Security Cove (not 

fished), and two gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (one 

fished). 

There were no processing plants and no landings 

in Pilot Point in 2000. Pilot Point received a direct 

allocation of $61,235 in federal salmon disaster 

funds, and the Lake and Peninsula Borough received 

$442,002. These allocations were to compensate for 

loses due to plummeting prices in the international 

market. This allocation was implemented in 2003. 

The Lake and Peninsula Borough and the BBECD 

(CDQ) received $29,832, and $75,026 respectively 

to reduce the impact of Steller sea lion protective 

regulations that came up after the inclusion of this 

species into the endangered species list. This allocation, 

under ESA regulations, was implemented in 2002.

The funds not directly allocated to the city were 

added to the general budget of the borough or the 

CDQ and helped to compensate the decline on fish 

taxes income and to relieve the budgetary tensions of 

the institutions of the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, this community issued three sport fishing 

licenses. The area, however, is visited by numerous 

outsiders that get their permits elsewhere. Locals rely 

mainly on subsistence fisheries. One company offers 

freshwater fishing services to outsiders.

Subsistence Fishing 

In a survey conducted in 1987 in Pilot Point by the 

ADF&G, all households reported using subsistence 

resources of some sort. 100% of households used 

subsistence salmon, 94.1% used non-salmon fish 

(including herring, smelt, cod, flounder, halibut, 

char, grayling, pike, and trout), 52.9% used marine 

mammals, and 64.7% used marine invertebrates. The 

per capita harvest of subsistence resources was 383.7 

lbs in 1987. 

In terms of the composition of the subsistence diet, 

it was comprised of salmon (24.7%), other fish (4%), 

land mammals (62.4%), marine mammals (1.2%), 

birds and eggs (4.4%), marine invertebrates (1.6%), 

and vegetation (1.5%). 

In 1999 Pilot Point had 13 salmon household 

subsistence permits; the catch was mainly sockeye. 

In addition, the inhabitants of this community 

(rural residents or members of an Alaska Native 

tribe) are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut by 

holding Subsistence halibut Registration Certificates 

(SHARCs). These allocations are based on recognized 

customary and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations 

to implement subsistence halibut fishing were 

published in the Federal Register in April 2003 and 

became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Pilot Point 
����

364

Port Alsworth (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Port Alsworth is located on the east shore of 

Lake Clark, within the Lake Clark National Park and 

Reserve. It is approximately 280 miles southwest of 

Anchorage across Cook Inlet. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Port Alsworth had 104 residents in 34 

households. All residents lived in households rather 

than group quarters. The demographic composition 

of the community was as follows: White (77.9%), 

American Indian and Alaska Native (4.8%), and two 

or more races (17.3%). Overall, 22.1% of residents 

were all of part Alaska Native. The gender makeup of 

the community was slightly skewed, at 53.8% female 

and 46.2% male. The median age was 25.5 years, 

significantly younger than the U.S. national average 

of 35.3 years. In terms of educational attainment, 

approximately 93.1% of residents aged 25 years or 

older held a high school diploma. The population 

of Port Alsworth has grown steadily in recent years; 

the 2000 U.S. census reported a four-fold increase 

in population from 22 residents in 1980 to over 100 

residents in 2000. 

History 

The area around Lake Clark and Lake Iliamna has 

been the territory of Yup’ik Eskimos and Aleuts for 

at least the last 1,000-2,000 years. Prior to that time, 

there is evidence that the area was inhabited by people 

of the Paleoarctic Tradition (National Park Service). 

The first Euro-American settlement was founded at 

Tanalian Point, the site of present-day Port Alsworth, 

by prospectors. In 1942, Leon “Babe” Alsworth and 

his wife Mary Ann moved to the area and established 

the community that is today Port Alsworth (National 

Park Service). The modern history of Port Alsworth 

is inextricably linked with the growth of the natural 

resource industries and the founding of the Lake Clark 

National Park and Preserve. The Lake Clark National 

Monument was founded in 1978 and upgraded to a 

National Park and Preserve in 1980 in accordance with 

the Alaska National Interest Land Conservation Act 

(ANILCA). Today Port Alsworth provides services, 

including hunting and fishing guides, to visitors to the 

national park and preserve. 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Port Port Alsworth Alsworth Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Port Port Alsworth Alsworth Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races, 17.3%

Native, 4.8% 

White, 77.9% 

��������������������������

2000 Employment Structure ��������������

Port Alsworth ����������������������

Data source: US Census 

����������

�����������

�����

��������

�����

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Port Alsworth 
365

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Port Alsworth centers around the 

tourism industry in the Lake Clark National Park and 

Preserve. The majority of local businesses are geared 

toward providing services such as tour guides, hunting, 

and fishing guides, and charter flights, to tourists 

visiting from outside the area. Commercial fishing is 

also an important part of the local economy, and some 

residents hold commercial fishing permits, primarily 

for the Bristol Bay salmon fishery. In addition, most 

residents supplement their incomes with subsistence 

hunting and fishing. 

In 2000, the average annual per capita income in 

Port Alsworth was $21,716, and the average household 

income was $58,750. The unemployment rate was very 

low (3.5%), and 29.1% of residents aged 16 years and 

over were not in the labor force (i.e. not seeking work). 

Approximately 6% of local residents lived below the 

poverty level. 

Governance 

Port Alsworth is an unincorporated community 

under the jurisdiction of the Lake and Peninsula 

Borough. All taxes and services are administered by 

the borough. There is a local village corporation, the 

Tanalian Corporation. In addition, the community 

belongs to a regional Native corporation, Cook Inlet 

Region, Inc. The nearest U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is in Anchorage. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in King Salmon. The 

nearest NMFS enforcement office is in Homer.

Facilities 

Port Alsworth is accessible by air, via a 4,000-

foot gravel airstrip. There is no piped water or sewer 

system; individuals and families use wells and septic 

tanks. Electricity is provided by the local Tanalian 

Electric Cooperative, which uses a diesel generator. 

The community provides volunteer fire and emergency 

services. Port Alsworth is in the Lake and Peninsula 

School District, which is operated by the borough. 

There is one school in the community with two 

teachers and 16 students from grades K-12.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is an important part of Port 

Alsworth’s economy. In 2000, four local residents held 

a total of four commercial fishing permits, all for the 

Bristol Bay salmon fishery. One permit was a drift 

gillnet permit (one fished), and the other three were 

set gillnet permits (none fished). 

There was no commercial fish processing in Port 

Alsworth in 2000, and no registered landings. In 2003, 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough was granted $442,002 

in federal salmon disaster funds to compensate for 

falling salmon prices. The borough was also granted 

$29,832 in Steller sea lion compensation funds for 

economic losses due to the protection of key sea lion 

habitat. A portion of these sums will likely be used for 

programs that benefit Port Alsworth. 

Sport fishing 

Lake Clark and other surrounding lakes and rivers 

are critical salmon habitat for the Bristol Bay salmon 

fishery. Sport fishing and hunting are allowed within 

the Lake Clark National Preserve, an area adjacent to 

the national park. Sport fishing license sales in Port 

Alsworth totaled 554 in 2000. Approximately 64 of 

these were sold to Alaska residents; the rest were sold 

to fishermen from elsewhere. 

Many local businesses in Port Alsworth are geared 

toward supporting the sport fishing industry in local 

lakes and rivers. In 2002, there were five sport fishing 

guide services for freshwater guides and one for 

saltwater guides. Major sport species include salmon 

(primarily sockeye), trout, Arctic grayling, Arctic char, 

and Dolly Varden. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Alaska residents are allowed to harvest subsistence 

resources within the Lake Clark National Park, and 

subsistence is an important part of life in Port Alsworth. 

The ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence reports that, in 

1983, most Port Alsworth households used subsistence 

fish, including salmon (primarily sockeye) and nonsalmon fish species (primarily trout and char). The 

annual per capita harvest of subsistence foods for Port 

Alsworth in 1983 was 361.1 lbs, and was comprised of 

the following resources: salmon (66.4%), non-salmon 

fish (3.2%), land mammals (26.8%), birds and eggs 

(1.2%), marine invertebrates (0.3%), and vegetation 

(2.1%). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Port Alsworth 
366

Port Heiden (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Port Heiden is located on the northern shore of 

the Alaska Peninsula, near the mouth of the Meshik 

River. It lies 424 miles southwest of Anchorage. It is 

situated close to the Aniakchak National Preserve and 

Monument, in the Kvichak Recording District. The 

area encompasses 50.7 square miles of land and 0.7 

square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Port Heiden 

had 119 inhabitants in 41 households. All residents 

lived in housing rather than group quarters. The racial 

composition of the community included: 65.5% 

Alaska Natives or American Indians, 19.3% White, 

2.5% other, and 12.6% two or more races. A total of 

78.2% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 

2.5% of residents were of Hispanic. The gender ratio 

of the community was slightly unbalanced, at 51.3% 

male and 48.7% female. Although the median age 

of the village was not as young as some surrounding 

villages, its median age of 33 years was still under the 

U.S. national median of 35.3 years. Approximately 

41.7% of the population was under 19 years of age, 

and only 15.1% was over 55 years. 

In terms of educational attainment, only 55.4% of 

residents aged 25 or older held a high school degree 

or higher level of education. Approximately 12.5% of 

residents had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher, 

and 44.7% did not complete high school. 

History 

This area is the only natural protected harbor 

between Port Moller and Ugashik Bay. The current site 

of Port Heiden is the result of the consolidation of the 

old village of Meshik and its more recent neighboring 

community, Port Heiden. Meshik was populated since 

the 1880s and benefited from the salmon boom in 

Bristol Bay, early in the 20th century.

The influenza epidemic of 1918-19 hit hard in the 

area. Meshik never fully recovered, although people 

from neighboring smaller communities that had been 

affected by the epidemic regrouped there. Port Heiden 

Packing Company operated a saltery in the community 

until the 1930s. The canneries, important employers of 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Port Heiden Port Heiden

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

15 10 5 0 5 10 

Male 

Female 

15 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Port Heiden

Data source: US Census Port Heiden 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 12.6% 19.3% 

Native 

65.6% 

Other 

2.5% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Port Heiden 

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Port Heiden

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 2.5% 

Non-Hispanic,

97.5% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Port Heiden 
367

2000 Employment Structure

Port Heiden 

Data source: US Census 

the area, were located in Ugashik. 

WWII drastically changed the social landscape 

of the area: Fort Morrow was built nearby, and 5,000 

personnel were stationed at the base. The military, 

however, vanished after the war. 

A school was established in the early 1950s, 

which attracted people from surrounding villages. Port 

Heiden incorporated as a city in 1972. The community 

recently relocated inland because storm waves had 

eroded much of the old town site and threatened to 

destroy community buildings.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The two main anchors of Port Heiden’s economy 

are commercial fishing and government jobs. There 

is also a local company, Christensen and Sons, which 

buys and flies local fish out to urban markets. The 

2000 U.S. Census reported that 57.9% of the total 

workforce was employed, 11.6% was unemployed, and 

30.4% was not seeking employment. 

The median per capita income of Port Heiden in 

2000 was $20,532 and the median household income 

was $31,875. Approximately 5.6% of the local 

population lived below the poverty line. Subsistence 

practices, including fishing and hunting, are present 

in the area and play a significant role on the local 

economy. 

Governance 

Port Heiden is a second-class city and was 

incorporated in 1972. It is located in the Lake and 

Peninsula Borough. Its form of government is “Strong 

Mayor” with a seven-member council. The borough 

administers a 6% tax on accommodations. 

The Bristol Bay Native Corporation is the 

regional corporation in this area. The Alaska Peninsula 

Corporation, responsible for the management of 70.000 

acres of land, is the local corporation. This community 

is part of the Bristol Bay Economic Development 

Corporation (CDQ) and receives community 

development quotas from this organization. The city 

also has the Port Heiden Village Council, recognized 

by the BIA as a traditional council. 

Although open only seasonally, the closest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game offices are located in 

Chignik and Port Moller. Sand Point, King Salmon, 

2000 Employment Structure 

Port Heiden 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

30.4% 

Employed,

57.9% 

Unemployed,

11.6%

Dillingham or Kodiak are the closest permanent offices. 

The closest BCIS offices are in Kodiak, Unalaska or 

Anchorage. NMFS has its closest quarters in Kodiak, 

Unalaska or Homer. 

Facilities 

The community is accessible by air and sea. It has 

a state-owned airport that acts as a transfer point for 

flights going west on the Pacific side of the Peninsula. 

This airport is a part of the legacy of a bygone military 

presence, as are some 60 miles of local roads. The price 

of a roundtrip ticket by plane from the community 

to Anchorage, connecting in Pilot Point and King 

Salmon, was $597 plus the cost of a charter flight to 

Pilot Point. 

There is a shallow natural boat harbor with 

no docks: a boat haul-out, beach off-loading area, 

and marine storage facilities. As in many other 

communities in the area, residents receive cargo from 

Seattle delivered twice a year. The barge is chartered 

by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). 

Accommodations are provided by several lodges. 

The local school, Meshik School, has 30 students and 

four teachers. Port Heiden also has a Health Clinic and 

a rescue squad. The village does not have centralized 

power; 89.2% of the houses use fuel or kerosene. There 

are no central water or sewage systems; all homes have 

individual wells and septic tanks.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Port Heiden 
368

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

According to 2000 official records, Port Heiden 

had 17 commercial permit holders with 29 allfisheries combined permits. In addition, 22 individuals 

were registered crewmen and there were 16 owners 

of salmon vessels in the community, with no vessel 

owners working in federal fisheries. The Port Heiden 

fleet was involved in three important Alaskan fisheries: 

halibut, herring, and salmon. 

The following is a breakdown of commercial 

permits issued to Port Heiden residents in 2000. 

Halibut: Four commercial permits issued to 

longline vessels over 60 feet in length, with no permits 

fished.

Salmon: The salmon fleet accounted for most 

of Port Heiden’s commercial fishing activities. It 

accounted for 18 permits, 15 of which were fished: 15 

drift gillnet permits (13 fished), and three set gillnet 

permits (one fished). All were restricted to Bristol 

Bay.

Herring: Seven permits were issued, including 

one herring roe purse seine permit for Bristol Bay 

(one fished), and one purse seine permit (none fished), 

one herring roe gillnet permit for the Alaska Peninsula 

(none fished), and four herring roe gillnet permits for 

Bristol Bay (none fished). 

Although Port Heiden had a fleet working in its 

waters, there was no real landing of fish due to the 

absence of a processing plant. Vessels from this 

community deliver somewhere else. 

Port Heiden received a direct allocation of 

$1,106.23 in federal salmon disaster funds, and the 

Lake and Peninsula Borough received $442,000. This 

allocation was implemented in 2003 to compensate 

for loses due to plummeting prices in the international 

market. 

The Lake and Peninsula Borough and the 

BBEDC (CDQ) also received $29,832, and $75,026 

respectively to reduce the impact of Steller sea lion 

protective regulations that came up after the inclusion 

of this species into the endangered species list. This 

allocation, under ESA regulations, was implemented 

in 2002.

The funds not directly allocated to the city were 

added to the general budget of the borough or the 

CDQ and helped to compensate the decline on fish tax 

income and to relieve the budgetary tensions of the 

institutions of the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 Port Heiden issued eight sport fishing 

permits, all of which were bought by Alaskan residents. 

However, the area is visited by numerous outsiders 

that get their permits elsewhere. In 2002, the village 

had only one business license related to sport fishing 

as a tourist activity.

Subsistence Fishing 

In the survey conducted in 1987 by the 

ADF&G, Port Heiden demonstrated the significance 

of subsistence practices for traditional Alaskan 

communities. All households in that year participated 

in the use of harvested resources. In terms of the 

main marine resources, 91.1% of households used 

subsistence salmon, 91.9% used other types of fish 

(herring, smelt, cod, flounder, halibut, char, trout, and 

white fish), 32.4% used marine mammals, and 86.5% 

used marine invertebrates. The average per capita 

harvest of subsistence resources was 407.6 lbs. This 

statistic emphasizes the importance of subsistence for 

these communities, including fishing, hunting, and 

gathering. 

The composition of the subsistence harvest in 

1987 was as follows: salmon (20.88%), other fish 

(2.87%), land mammals (61.56%), marine mammals 

(3.86%), birds and eggs (19.2%), marine invertebrates 

(4.34%) and vegetation (3.4%). 

In 1999 Port Heiden had three Alaska salmon 

subsistence permits: the catch was mainly sockeye. 

In addition, the inhabitants of this community (rural 

residents or members of an Alaska Native tribe) are 

eligible to harvest subsistence halibut by holding 

Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificates 

(SHARCs). These allocations are based on recognized 

customary and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations 

to implement subsistence halibut fishing were 

published in the Federal Register in April 2003 and 

became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Port Heiden 
369

Port Moller (return to communities) 

A full profile was not completed for Port Moller 

because sufficient information could not be obtained. 

Port Moller was selected for profiling because it was 

the site of a processor that had fish landings in 2000 

(see selection criteria in methods section). However, 

since it is not treated as a community by the U.S. 

Census, the Alaska Department of Community and 

Economic Development, or other data sources, it was 

not possible to gather the same sorts of information on 

Port Moller that is contained in the other profiles. 

Port Moller is a seasonal (May-September) 

community on the Bristol Bay side of Alaska 

Peninsula. Port Moller currently has a salmon cannery, 

an ADF&G office, and a municipal airport. By air, it 

is usually accessed by charter from Cold Bay. The 

cannery was built in 1911 inside of the Moller Bay 

sand spit, and was owned for many years by Pacific 

American Fisheries. It is currently owned and operated 

by Peter Pan Seafoods. In the summer there are about 

150 temporary residents associated with the processor. 

This does not include the crew of fishing vessels, 

who bunk on their boats and may number around 

300 (Robert Murphy, Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game, personal communication, 2003). CFEC records 

indicate zero permit holdings in the location. Vessel 

registration files indicate one vessel owner residing in 

Port Moller in 2000 and six vessels listing Port Moller 

as their homeport. 215 unique vessels delivered fish 

to the processor in Port Moller in 2000. 

There are no residents of Port Moller during 

the winter, although according to some reports the 

community may sometimes have an over-winter 

population of one – probably a caretaker. During the 

summer, Port Moller is the landing site of a monthly 

barge from Seattle that supplies not only Port Moller, 

but nearby communities such as Nelson Lagoon. The 

area is the site of the Hot Springs Village archaeological 

excavations, which indicate a human presence over 

5000 years old. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Port Moller 
370

Saint George (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of St. George is located on the 

northeast shore of St. George Island in the Bering Sea. 

St. George is the most southern out of the five total 

Pribilof Islands, although only two of the islands, St. 

George and St. Paul, are inhabited. St. George is 47 

miles south of St. Paul Island, 250 miles northwest of 

Unalaska, and 750 air miles west of Anchorage. St. 

George is situated in the Aleutian Islands Recording 

District and takes up an area of 34.8 square miles of 

land and 147.6 square miles of water. Early Russian 

missionaries called the islands “the place that God 

forgot” because of the sideways rain, thick fog, and 

high winds (Corbett and Swibold 2000); the islands 

have also been referred to as the ‘Mist Islands’ or the 

‘Seal Islands.’

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, the community on St. George Island had 

152 inhabitants, 48% of which were male and 52% 

were female. Since 1880 the population has fluctuated 

between 90 to 264 inhabitants, but since approximately 

1970 the population has remained relatively stable. 

About 7.9% of the population was White in 2000 

and 92.1% were Alaska Native or American Indian. 

The Alaska Native or American Indian community 

members are predominantly Aleut, although there 

are a small number of Eskimo residents. No one in 

the community was of Hispanic origin at the time of 

the 2000 Census, and about 46.7% of the population 

was between the ages of 25 and 54. The median age 

of those in St. George was 33 years, whereas the 

national age median was 35.3 years. No one in the 

community lived in group quarters. There were a total 

of 67 housing units in the community and of those 

51 were occupied and 7 were vacant due to seasonal 

use. In regards to educational attainment 95.0% of the 

population age 25 and over had graduated from high 

school or gone on to higher education, 15.0% had a 

bachelor’s degree or higher, and 11.3% had obtained a 

graduate or professional degree. 

History 

St. George Island was first “discovered” by 

Europeans, specifically by Gavrill Pribilof, in June 

1786 in search for the breeding grounds of the northern 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Saint George Saint George

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Saint George

Data source: US Census Saint George 

Data source: US Census 

White 

7.9% 

Age 

Native 

92.1% 

2000 Employment Structure

Saint George

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Saint George 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

18.6%

Unemployed,

3.1% 

Employed, 78.4% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint George 
371

fur seal. St. George was the first of the Pribilof Islands 

landed on. The island was named after Pribilof’s vessel, 

the Sveti Georgiy, or Saint George. St. Paul Island was 

“discovered” a year later by Pribilof’s hunter crew 

which had been left behind to look for possible fur 

seal hunts and was originally termed St. Peter and St. 

Paul Island. The islands were uninhabited at the time 

of discovery, but they had been known by native Aleut 

oral history “as Aamix, a rich hunting ground once 

visited by an Aleut chief lost in a storm” (Corbett and 

Swibold 2000). 

The Pribilof Islands are the breeding and hauling 

grounds for the largest concentration of northern fur 

seals and it is very easy to round up the seals and club 

them as they breed on land and can be easily driven 

to the killing grounds. Aleut hunters were captured 

from Unalaska and Atka in 1788 and brought to the 

Pribilofs to hunt the fur seals on the islands for the 

Russian American company. Originally some of the 

Native slaves were allowed to return to their homes, 

but by around the 1820’s permanent settlements of 

slaves existed and many of their descendants still live 

on the islands today. 

According to Corbett and Swibold “by the time 

of the sale of the Russian-American territories to the 

United States in 1867, the Pribilof Aleuts had attained 

an enviable status, enjoying full rights as citizens 

of Russia, literate in two languages, paid fairly for 

their labor, and retaining their traditional systems 

of governance”. From the years of 1870 to 1910 the 

Pribilof Islands were leased to private companies by the 

U. S. Government. The private companies, the Alaska 

Commercial Company and then the North American 

Commercial Company, provided food, medical care, 

and housing to the Pribilof Aleuts for their work in the 

highly profitable fur seal harvest and in the fur seal 

plant. The U.S. Bureau of Fisheries took over control 

of the islands and the industry in 1910 and the Aleut 

people were treated as wards of the U.S. Government 

and every part of their lives was interfered with by the 

government (Corbett and Swibold 2000). 

In 1942, during WWII, Aleut residents of the 

Pribilofs were forcibly evacuated by U.S. authorities 

with no advanced warning and were interned in Funter 

Bay, southeast Alaska with the St. George residents 

held in a mining camp and the St. Paul residents in 

an abandoned cannery, both in deplorable conditions. 

Thirty-two Pribilof Aleuts died in the Funter Bay 

camps. The residents were returned to the Pribilofs to 

continue the fur seals harvests in May of 1944. 

In the mid-1960’s the Pribilof Aleuts “gained full 

rights as American citizens, as well as governmentlevel wages and benefits” (Corbett and Swibold 

2000). In 1979 they received $8.5 million in partial 

compensation for the treatment they were subjected 

to by the federal government during the years of 1870 

to 1946. Fur seal harvests were outlawed in 1983 and 

at that time the U.S. government withdrew from the 

Islands and provided $20 million to help develop and 

vary the local economy ($8 million to St. George and 

$12 million to St. Paul). Control of the villages was 

turned over to local groups at that time as well. The 

city of St. George was incorporated in 1983. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of St. George is based on 

employment by the government and commercial 

fishing, although subsistence harvests, particularly of 

the fur seal are important to the community as well. 

Puffin Seafoods and Snopac Products operate in the 

community and both have facilities present which 

provide employment, although the seasonal processors 

for Snopac most likely come from other areas as dorm 

facilities are available. A total of 14 residents of the 

community were issued commercial fishing permits 

in 2000 and there were three licensed crewmen. The 

St. George Aquaculture Assoc. has begun salmon and 

shellfish programs in the community. The National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is 

completing federal hazardous waste clean-up on the 

island and provides contractual employment through 

the village corporation, St. George Tanaq Corporation. 

Bird watching is an attractant for tourists to the area as 

St. George Island is a hot spot for migrating seabirds, 

which nest on the jutting cliffs of the island. Of those 

residents of St. George age 16 and over 78.4% were 

employed, 3.1% were unemployed, and 18.6% were not 

in the labor force. According to the Census 48.7% of 

the employed population was made up of government 

workers and 47.4% were private wage and salary 

workers. The per capita income for St. George was 

$21,131 with a median household income of $57,083. 

About 7.9% lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

St. George is a second-class city incorporated 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint George 
372

in 1983. The city has a Mayor form of government 

with officials including a mayor, a seven person city 

council, school board members, planning commission 

members, and municipal employees which include a 

village public safety officer (VPSO). The City imposes 

a 3% Fish and Marine Products Tax and a $.03/gallon 

Transfer Tax, but has no Sales Tax or Property Tax. 

The City is not part of any organized borough. 

The regional Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act (ANCSA) corporation present in the area is Aleut 

Corp. The Native village corporation is the St. George 

Tanaq Corporation and “the company’s primary 

operational focus is real property development, 

management, and leasing; commercial construction 

related to environmental remediation and general 

contracting; investment management; ranching; and 

hotel and tourism management” (St. George Tanaq 

Corporation 2003). 

The Pribilof Island Aleut Communities of St. Paul 

and St. George Islands is the Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA) recognized traditional council to represent both 

communities, although the St. George Traditional 

Council also exists independently. The Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group present in the 

area is the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands Community 

Development Association (APICDA). Puffin Seafoods, 

L.L.C. in St. George is one of APICDA’s joint ventures 

which purchases halibut from local community 

fishers. 

Another important organization in the area is the 

Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association, Inc. (APIA) 

which “is a non-profit tribal organization of the Aleut 

people in Alaska” (APIA website 2003) and is federally 

recognized as a tribal organization. APIA supplies a 

variety of services including a VPSO to St. George 

and health care outreach to the community as well. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS), Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

(BCIS), and Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) offices would most likely be located in 

Dutch Harbor/Unalaska. 

Facilities 

St. George is reachable by both air and sea. There 

are scheduled flights from St. George to St. Paul and 

to the mainland, although flights can be undependable 

due to frequently difficult Pribilof weather conditions. 

According to Expedia and Travelocity the approximate 

price to fly roundtrip from St. George to Anchorage is 

$695 (price given for date as close to September 1, 

2003 as possible). There are two airstrips, one owned 

by the City and a newer State-owned 5,000 foot gravel 

runway airport. St. George has three docks; one is 

operated by the village corporation. An inner harbor 

and dock were recently finished five miles away from 

the community in Zapadni Bay. Supplies and freight 

are brought from Anchorage by ship monthly or 

bimonthly and from Seattle five or six times a year. 

Many birdwatchers stay at the St. George Tanaq Hotel. 

The community has one school, St. George School 

which teaches grades K-12 and had 22 students and 3 

teachers in 2000. Health care is available from the St. 

George Health Clinic which is operated by the Village 

Council. The VPSO is supplied by APICDA, but there 

are no police present in the community. Electricity 

is provided by St. George Municipal Electric Utility 

with the main power source being diesel, although in 

2000 96.1% of the households heated with kerosene. 

A piped water system and sewage collection services 

are operated by the City. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000, 14 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of St. George. There were eight 

residents of the community who were the owners of 

vessels involved in the commercial fishing of federal 

species and no residents who owned vessels involved 

in the commercial fishing of salmon. There were 

three residents of St. George which were licensed 

crew members in 2000. Of the total of 14 commercial 

permits issued to community members, two were 

issued for halibut hand troll (one fished), nine for 

halibut longline vessel under 60 feet (seven fished), and 

three for halibut using a mechanical jig (one fished). 

There were no vessels which delivered landings to the 

community as according to the fish tickets for 2000. 

Puffin Seafoods and Snopac Products are in 

operation in the community of St. George. Puffin 

Seafoods, L.L.C. is a fish handling facility and 

purchases halibut from local fishers, although fish 

must be tendered by ship to St. Paul where they are 

processed by Trident Seafoods. Puffin Seafoods has 

been in business since 1998 and is a joint venture 

between APICDA Joint Ventures and the St. George 

Fishermen’s Association. Snopac Products Inc. is 

a Washington state based fish processing company 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint George 
373

which leases a dock in St. George, has a 136 bunk 

dormitory facility built in the community for processor 

workers, and has an additional 108 bunks available on 

the M/V Snopac. Snopac processes crab in St. George 

which normally begins on January 15th, although in 

2001, 2002, and 2003 the processing vessel was not 

sent to St. George “for crab, due to the small quotas, 

though [they] did purchase Opilio” (Snopac Products 

Inc. 2003). 

The Aleutian Pribilof Island Community 

Development Association (APICDA) was recently 

granted $57,163 by the Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation 

program “in recognition of the negative economic 

impacts of federal measures to protect the Steller 

sea lion” with money which had been allocated by 

the United States government (Southwest Alaska 

Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing appears to attract the attention 

of tourists, along with the tourists who travel to the 

islands to go birding. One sport fishing permit was 

sold in St. George in 2000 to an Alaska resident and 

53 were sold to U.S. residents from states other than 

Alaska for a total of 54 sport fishing permits sold in 

St. George in 2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence is very important to residents of the 

island of St. George. For the ADF&G Division of 

Subsistence study year of 1994, the most representative 

year for the community, 100% of the households in 

St. George used all subsistence resources: 75% used 

salmon, 100% used non-salmon fish (herring roe, 

cod, flounder, greenling, halibut, rockfish, sablefish, 

char, pike, sheefish, and trout), 77.8% used marine 

mammals, and 66.7% used marine invertebrates. The 

per capita harvest of all subsistence resources was 

63.24 lbs in 1994. Of that per capita harvest 5.02% 

was salmon, 43.03% was non-salmon fish, 39.15% was 

marine mammals, 1.70% was marine invertebrates, 

1.78% was birds and eggs, 3.06% was land mammals, 

and 6.25% was vegetation. Pribilof Island Natives are 

now the only persons allowed to harvest the northern 

fur seal and are only allowed to do so for subsistence 

use. They have taken less than 2000 non-breeding 

males annually for the years of 1986 to the mid-1990’s, 

but have taken less than 1000 annually for the past 

few years. Rural residents and tribal members of St. 

George are eligible to apply for a halibut subsistence 

certificates (SHARC). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint George 
�

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

��

���

Saint Paul 2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure (return to communities) Saint Paul Saint Paul

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

People and Place 80 and over 

Location 70 to 79 

60 to 69 

The city of St. Paul is situated on the southern tip 50 to 59

80 60 40 20 0 20 40 

Number of individuals 

0 to 9 

10 to 19 

20 to 29 

374

of St. Paul Island. St. Paul Island is the largest of the 

five Pribilof Islands which are located in the Bering 

Sea. Only two are inhabited, St. George and St. Paul. 

St. Paul is 240 miles north of the Aleutian Islands, 

47 miles north of St. George, and 750 air miles west 

of Anchorage. It is located in the Aleutian Islands 

recording district and includes 40.3 square miles of 

land and 255.2 square miles of water. The Pribilof 

Islands experience very heavy fog in the summer 

months. Early Russian missionaries called the islands 

‘the place that God forgot’ because of the thick fog, 

sideways rain, and high winds (Corbett and Swibold 

2000); but the islands have also been referred to as the 

‘Mist Islands’ or the ‘Seal Islands’. 

Demographic Profile 

St. Paul Island had a total population of 532 

people in 2000 and of those 55.3% were male and 

44.7% were female. The population of the island grew 

from 298 to 763 residents between 1880 and 1990, but 

then dropped down to 532 in 2000. At the time of the 

2000 U.S. Census 13% of the population were White, 

85.9% were American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.6% 

were Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and 

0.6% were two or more races. St. Paul “is the largest 

community of Aleut people in the world” and a total of 

86.5% of the population reported being Alaska Native 

alone or in combination with one or more races (North 

Pacific Fishery Management Council 1994). No one 

in the community was of Hispanic origin. About 

32.3% of the community was 19 of age or under. 

The median age of those in St. Paul in 2000 was 31.9 

years, versus the national age median of 35.3 years. 

Approximately 510 lived in households, and 22 lived 

in group quarters. There were a total of 214 housing 

units: 177 were occupied, 37 were vacant, and 11 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. In regards to education, 

approximately 73.6% of the population age 25 and 

over had graduated from high school or gone on to 

further schooling and 10.5% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. ��

Age 

���������� 40 to 49 

30 to 39 

Male 

Female 

2000 Racial Structure 

Saint Paul 

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

Saint Paul 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races Pacific Islander 0.6% 

Native 

85.8% 

White 

13.0% 

0.6% 

% Group Quarters 

Saint Paul 

����������������� Data source: US Census 

�����������

����������������������

����

����

����

���

���� ����

����

History 

St. George Island was the first of the Pribilof 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint Paul 

������������������

��������������
375

2000 Employment Structure

Saint Paul 

Islands to be “discovered” by Europeans, specifically 

by Gavrill Pribilof in June 1786, searching for the 

breeding grounds of the northern fur seal. St. Paul 

Island was “discovered” a year later by Pribilof’s hunter 

crew which had been left behind to look for possible 

fur seal hunts. It was originally termed St. Peter and 

St. Paul Island because the island was discovered by 

the crew on the day of these apostles. The islands were 

uninhabited at the time of discovery, but they had been 

known by Native Aleut oral history “as Aamix, a rich 

hunting ground once visited by an Aleut chief lost in a 

storm” (Corbett and Swibold 2000). 

The Pribilof Islands are the breeding and hauling 

grounds for the largest concentration of northern fur 

seals in the world. Hunters round up the seals and club 

them as they breed on land as they can be easily driven 

to the killing grounds. Aleut hunters were captured 

from Unalaska and Atka in 1788 and brought to the 

Pribilofs to hunt the fur seals on the islands for the 

Russian American company. Originally some of the 

Native slaves were allowed to return to their homes, 

but by around the 1820’s, permanent settlements of 

slaves existed, and many of their descendants still live 

on the islands today. 

According to Corbett and Swibold “by the time of 

the sale of the Russian-American territories to the U.S. 

in 1867, the Pribilof Aleuts had attained an enviable 

status, enjoying full rights as citizens of Russia, 

literate in two languages, paid fairly for their labor, 

and retaining their traditional systems of governance”. 

From 1870 to 1910 the Pribilof Islands were leased to 

private companies by the U.S. Government. The private 

companies, the Alaska Commercial Company and the 

North American Commercial Company, provided 

food, medical care, and housing to the Pribilof Aleuts 

for their work in the highly profitable fur seal harvest 

and in the fur seal plant. The U.S. Bureau of Fisheries 

took over control of the islands and the industry in 

1910 and the Aleut people were treated as wards of the 

U.S. Government (Corbett and Swibold 2000). 

In 1942, during WWII, Aleut residents of the 

Pribilofs were forcibly evacuated by U.S. authorities 

with no advanced warning and were interned at Funter 

Bay in southeast Alaska. The St. George residents were 

held in a mining camp and the St. Paul residents in 

an abandoned cannery, both in deplorable conditions. 

Thirty-two Pribilof Aleuts died in the Funter Bay 

camps. The residents were returned to the Pribilofs to 

continue the fur seals harvests in May of 1944. 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Saint Paul 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

7% 

Not Seeking,

32.4% Employed,

51.5% 

Unemployed,

9.1%

In the mid-1960’s the Pribilof Aleuts “gained full 

rights as American citizens, as well as governmentlevel wages and benefits” (Corbett and Swibold 

2000). In 1979 they received $8.5 million in partial 

compensation for the treatment they were subjected 

to by the federal government during the years of 1870 

to 1946. Fur seal harvests were no longer controlled 

by the federal government in 1983 as according to the 

Fur Seal Act Amendments and the U.S. government 

withdrew from the Islands and provided $20 million to 

help develop and vary the local economy ($8 million 

to St. George and $12 million to St. Paul). Control 

of the villages was turned over to local groups. The 

commercial harvest of the fur seal ended in 1985. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of St. Paul is based on commercial 

fishing, government employment, and tourism. St. Paul 

is a port for the Central Bering Sea fishing fleet and is the 

site of several processors including Trident Seafoods, 

Icicle Seafoods, Unisea, and Pribilof Alaska Seafoods. 

A total of 30 St. Paul residents held commercial 

fishing permits in 2000 and 65 residents were licensed 

crew members. The fur seal rookeries and the mass 

quantities of nesting, migrating sea birds draw almost 

700 tourists per year. Subsistence is also important to 

community members and halibut, fur seals, reindeer, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint Paul 
376

marine invertebrates, and plants and berries as well as 

others resources are used. The National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is conducting 

federal hazardous waste clean-up on the island and 

provides contractual employment through the village 

corporation, The village corporation, Tanadgusix 

Corporation (TDX) is one of the largest employers 

in St. Paul. Out of the population age 16 and over, 

51.5% were employed, 9.1% were unemployed, 7.0% 

were in the armed forces, and 32.4% were not in the 

labor force. Of those employed, 56.8% were classified 

as government workers. The per capita income at the 

time of the 2000 U.S. Census was $18,408 and the 

median household income was $50,750. About 11.9% 

of residents lived below the poverty level.

Governance 

St. Paul is a second-class city incorporated in 1971. 

It has a Manager form of government which includes 

a mayor, seven-person city council, regional school 

board, planning commission, and various municipal 

employees. The city imposes a 3% Sales Tax, but has 

no property tax. The city is not part of an organized 

borough. 

Aleut Corporation is the regional Native corporation 

for the area. The Native village corporation for St. 

Paul is Tanadgusix Corporation (TDX) with the nonprofit section of the organization called Tanadgusix 

Foundation (TDX Foundation). TDX Corporation 

is a for-profit corporation providing dividends to its 

shareholders based on being “an active developer 

and investor in the fish processing, hotel, shipping, 

commercial real estate, tourism, environmental 

engineering industries and energy development and 

services” (Beringsea.com 2003). TDX Corporation 

owns several hotels and has recently “been working 

in the Government sector environmental and power 

projects at various military installations throughout 

the United States” (Beringsea.com 2003). TDX 

Foundation provides “support for educational, social, 

and cultural needs of Alaska Natives and descendants 

of Alaska Natives” (Beringsea.com 2003) including 

but not limited to grants, scholarships, and student 

aid. 

The Pribilof Island Aleut Communities of St. Paul 

and St.George Islands is the Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA) recognized traditional council to represent both 

communities, although the St. Paul village council 

called the Aleut Community of St. Paul Island also 

exists independently. The tribe was formed in 1950 

and “promotes and maintains cultural practices, 

awareness, preservation, self-governance, and selfdetermination for the Aleut Community of St. Paul 

Island” (Beringsea.com 2003).

The CDQ group for St. Paul is the Central Bering 

Sea Fishermen’s Association (CBSFA). Another 

important organization in the area is the Aleutian 

Pribilof Islands Association, Inc. (APIA) which “is a 

non-profit tribal organization of the Aleut people in 

Alaska” (APIA 2003) and is federally recognized as a 

tribal organization. APIA provides a variety of services 

including the Pribilof Counseling Center in St. Paul 

and health care outreach to the community as well. 

The nearest National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS), Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

(BCIS), and Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) offices would most likely be located in 

Dutch Harbor/Unalaska. 

Facilities 

The community of St. Paul is accessible by both air 

and the sea. Regularly scheduled flights to the island 

are available, but if weather conditions do not permit 

either landing or take off, passengers can be stranded 

for days waiting to travel. According to Travelocity 

and Expedia the approximate cost to fly to Anchorage 

roundtrip from St. Paul is $695.00 (price given for 

date as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). 

There is a State-owned gravel runway 6,500 feet in 

length which in undergoing major improvements. A 

small boat harbor is being constructed by the Corps 

of Engineers through 2005. A breakwater, barge offloading area, and 700 feet of dock space are present in 

the community. The majority of supplies and freight 

are sent by ship to St. Paul. King Eider Hotel and 

Trident Seafoods Restaurant are located in the city. The 

St. Paul School teaches 112 students by 10 teachers 

in grades K-12. Health care is provided at St. Paul 

Health Center which is operated by API/A, although 

the facility is in need of being replaced. The city 

has a police department and a volunteer fire, rescue, 

and ambulance service. Electricity is provided by St. 

Paul Municipal Electric Utility which is operated by 

the city and whose power source is a hybrid diesel 

and a wind turbine system, although 85.8% of the 

households heated with kerosene in 2000. Sewer and 

water services are provided by the city which is also 

the refuse collector and the landfill operator. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint Paul 
377

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 43 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of St. Paul in 2000 and there were 

65 residents who were licensed crew members. There 

were 25 vessel owners involved in federal fisheries 

and no one involved in commercial salmon fishing. 

Out of the 43 commercial fishing permits issued, 27 

were fished. Thirty-five residents of St. Paul were 

issued halibut permits for a hand troll statewide 

(two fished), 27 for a longline vessel under 60 feet 

statewide (22 fished), and one for a longline vessel 

over 60 feet statewide (one fished). Five permits were 

issued for other groundfish with two for miscellaneous 

salt water finfish with a longline vessel under 60 feet 

statewide (both fished) and three for miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish using pot gear on a vessel under 60 

feet statewide (two fished). One permit was issued for 

octopi/squid using pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet 

statewide, one for salmon using a set gillnet for Atka/

Amlia Islands, and one for sablefish using a longline 

on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (none fished). 

There were 12 vessels participating in the other 

groundfish fishery which delivered landings to the 

community, one which delivered sablefish, 29 which 

delivered halibut, and 20 which delivered Bering Sea 

and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) crab. In accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, the landings data for St. 

Paul for all federal species, other groundfish, sablefish, 

halibut, and BSAI crab is unavailable.

Several processors are stationed in the community 

including Trident Seafoods, Icicle Seafoods, Unisea, 

and Pribilof Alaska Seafoods. The Trident plant “is the 

largest crab production facility in the world,” but also 

processes cod, halibut, and other species as they are 

available (Trident Seafoods 2003). The plant usually 

employs 20 to 400 people and is open for four months 

each year. Unisea and Pribilof Alaska Seafoods 

both process groundfish and halibut. Pribilof Alaska 

Seafoods also processes sablefish. 

The CDQ group for St. Paul, the Central Bering 

Sea Fishermen’s Association (CBSFA) was recently 

granted $17,863 by the Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation 

program “in recognition of the negative economic 

impacts of federal measures to protect the Steller sea 

lion” with money which had been allocated by the U.S. 

government (Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference 

2003). 

Sport Fishing 

There is little evidence of sport fishing in the 

community. One sport fishing license was sold in St. 

Paul in 2000 to a U.S. resident from somewhere other 

than Alaska, but no other sport fishing information 

was available. 

Subsistence Fishing 

For the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence study 

year of 1994 (the most representative year for the 

community), 98.8% of households in St. Paul used 

all subsistence resources: 52.4% salmon, 91.7% nonsalmon fish (herring roe, cod, flounder, greenling, 

halibut, rockfish, sablefish, sculpin, char, pike, 

sheefish, and trout), 71.4% marine mammals, and 

54.8% marine invertebrates. The per capita harvest 

of all subsistence resources was 267.47 lbs in 1994. 

Of that per capita harvest 1.14% was salmon, 43.81% 

was non-salmon fish, 48.18% was marine mammals, 

0.68% was marine invertebrates, 1.10% was birds 

and eggs, 3.30% was land mammals, and 1.78% was 

vegetation. Pribilof Island Natives are now the only 

ones allowed to harvest the northern fur seal and are 

only allowed to do so for subsistence use. They have 

taken less than 2000 non-breeding males annually for 

the years of 1986 to the mid-1990’s, but have taken 

less than 1000 annually for the past few years. Rural 

residents and tribal members of St. Paul are eligible to 

apply for a halibut subsistence certificate (SHARC). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Saint Paul 
378

Sand Point (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Sand Point is located on Humboldt Harbor on 

the northwestern edge of Popof Island, on the Popof 

Strait. It is part of the Shumagin Islands, off the Alaska 

Peninsula. Sand Point is administratively located in 

the Aleutians East Borough. It is five miles south of 

the Alaska Peninsula and about 570 miles southwest 

of Anchorage. The area encompasses 7.8 square miles 

of land and 21.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Sand 

Point had 952 residents. The town had a very high 

percentage of Alaskan Natives (42.3%), in addition 

to Whites (27.7%), Asians (23.2%), Blacks (1.5%), 

Hawaiian Natives (0.3%), “Other” (2.2%), and two or 

more races (2.7%). A total of 44.2% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. Approximately 13.5% of residents 

were Hispanic. 

The population of Sand Point has been constantly 

growing since the 1900s. This steady rate of increase 

was secured in the 1930s with the establishment of the 

fishing industry, which replaced gold mining. 

A more rapid demographic increase in the 1950s 

seemstobecorrelatedwiththeconsolidationofthetown 

as a micro-regional economic pole attracting Aleuts 

from other communities of the area. The importance 

of the fishing industry in the village explains the 

relatively high presence of a transient population. In 

2000, for example, 64.2% of the population lived in 

170 households, while 35.7% lived in group quarters 

provided by the fishing industry. 

The gender ratio (62.2% male: 37.7% female) was 

typical of a community deeply involved in the fisheries 

industry. Sand Point’s median age of 36.5 years was 

very similar to the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. 

From an educational perspective, 80.6% of Sand 

Point’s population age 25 and over had graduated from 

high school or gone on to further schooling, 6.4% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher, and 19.5% had 

not completed high school.

History 

Officially, Sand Point was founded sometime 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Sand Point Sand Point

Data Source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

150 100 50 0 50 100 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Sand Point Sand Point 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Two or more 

Other races 

Pacific Islander 2.2% 2.7%

0.3%

White 

Black 

1.5% 

Asian 27.7% 

23.2% 

Native 

42.3% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Sand Point 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity Data source: US Census

Sand Point 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 13.5% 

Non-Hispanic,

86.5% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Sand Point 
379

between 1887 and 1889 by a San Francisco fishing 

company as a trading post and a cod fishing station. 

Aleuts from surrounding villages and Scandinavian 

fishermen were the first residents of the community. 

The Shumagin Islands, however, have a long history 

of previous settlement. When Russian explorers, 

over the first half of the 18th century, first described 

these islands, they encountered a population of Unga 

people. 

Sand Point inherited its leading role as a microregional fishing center from the now-abandoned town 

of Unga. The original station of Sand Point was a 

supply post for the cod fishing industry. The first settlers 

combined fishing and trading with fox-farming. Early 

on, however, hardrock mines were opened in the area, 

and in 1904 gold was found on its beaches. 

Fish processing began in the 1930s and quickly 

became the dominant sector of the community’s 

economy. The escalation of fishing finally attracted 

the Aleuts from the surrounding smaller communities. 

Since then, as shown by the demographic profile, the 

community has not stopped growing. This trend is 

mainly due to its consolidation as a regional services 

center, its salmon fisheries (especially during the 

70s and 80s), and the vitality of its Native local 

corporations. 

Although fishing and processing have decreased 

in relation to other productive activities (from 87% in 

1967 to 59% in 2000), they are still the nucleus of 

Sand Point’s economy, and a significant part of the 

services that are offered by the community depend on 

the healthy continuity of the fishing industry.

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Sand Point harbors the largest fishing fleet of the 

Aleutian chain. In 2000, 117 residents held commercial 

fishing permits. Trident Seafoods operated a major 

year-round bottomfish, pollock, salmon and fishmeal 

processing plant, and provided fuel and other services. 

It employed from 50 to 400 employees, depending on 

the season. Peter Pan Seafoods owned a storage and 

transfer station in the community to support its fleet. 

Approximately 51.3% of the total potential labor 

force was employed at the time of the 2000 census. 

About 22.8% of the total potential labor force was 

unemployed and 25.8% of the adult workforce was 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters Sand Point Sand Point Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

21.5 

78.5 

35.7 

64.3 

1990 2000 

Year 

Non-group quarters 

Group quarters 

2000 Employment Structure

Sand Point 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Sand Point 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

25.8%

Employed,

51.3% 

Unemployed,

22.8%

not searching for employment. These figures must be 

understood in the context of a community completely 

dominated by a seasonal industry. 

A variety of small businesses and public services 

take care of the daily needs of the local population. 

The currently expanding tourism sector completes the 

economic picture of the town.

In 2000 the median per capita income in Sand Point 

was $21,954 and the median household income was 

$55,417. Approximately 16% of the population was 

below the poverty level. Local residents participate in 

subsistence hunting and fishing. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Sand Point 
380

Governance 

Sand Point, part of the Aleutians East Borough, 

was incorporated as a first-class city in 1966. Its form 

of government is a strong mayor supported by a sixmember council. The town of Sand Point has a 3% 

sales tax and a 2% raw fish tax (another 2% raw fish 

tax is administered by the borough). Fish taxes are the 

primary means of sustaining public services in Sand 

Point.

Sand Point also has representatives of the Pauloff 

Harbor Village Council, Qagan Tayagungin Tribe, 

and the Unga Tribe. The Sanak, Shumagin and Unga 

corporations are also present in town. Under the 

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), the 

Shumagin Corporation manages around 150,000 acres. 

The regional corporation is the Aleut Corporation. 

The community development quota group (CDQ) of 

the area is the Aleutian Pribilof Islands Community 

Development Association (APICDA). 

Sand Point is almost equidistant from the National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) offices 

of Dutch Harbor and Kodiak Island. The ADF&G has 

a permanent office in Sand Point. 

Facilities 

Sand Point has a new airport owned by the State 

of Alaska that directly connects this community with 

Anchorage and other local destinations. The airport 

is served by Peninsula Airways, Hageland Aviation, 

Arctic Circle Air, and Alaska Central Express. The price 

of a roundtrip ticket by airplane from the community 

to Anchorage was, in September 2003, $571. 

Marine facilities include a 25-acre boat harbor 

with four docks, 134 boat slips, a harbormaster office, 

a barge off-loading area, and a 150-ton lift. A new 

boat harbor is scheduled to be constructed at Black 

Point by the Corps of Engineers. Sand Point also has a 

processing plant for groundfish, Pollock, and salmon. 

The community is served by barge services and the 

state ferry. If the weather is good it operates bi-monthly 

between May and October. The town is linked to the 

network established by the southwest Alaska marine 

highway.

Sand Point School has 111 students and 15 

teachers. Five students from the community attend 

the Aleutians East Correspondence School. The city 

owns the Sand Point Health Center, although there is a 

second alternative center, the Sand Point EMS. A new 

health clinic is scheduled to be built during spring of 

2005. The city has its own police department.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Sand Point is home to one of the largest commercial 

fleets of Southwest Alaska. According to 2000 official 

records, Sand Point had 116 commercial permit 

holders and a total of 327 all-fisheries combined 

permits. In Sand Point, 225 individuals were registered 

as crewmen and there were 61 federal fisheries vessel 

owners plus 98 owners of salmon vessels residing in 

the community. Sand Point’s fleet was involved in most 

of the Alaskan fisheries, including crab, sablefish, 

halibut, herring, other groundfish, other shellfish, 

and salmon. The following is a breakdown of permits 

issued to Sand Point residents in 2000.

Halibut: There were 52 issued permits for halibut 

fisheries (38 fished): 24 permits for longline vessels 

over 60 feet (21 fished), 3 permits for longliners under 

60 feet (one fished), and 3 permits for vessels with a 

mechanical jig (one fished). All halibut permits had 

statewide range.

Groundfish: Groundfish was the fishery that 

accumulated the highest number of permits, with 

150 permits and 84 permit holders (70 fished). The 

community had two statewide non-fished permits to 

catch lingcod (one with dinglebar troll and another 

with mechanical jig). It also had 16 groundfish generic 

permits for a hand troll vessel (one fished), 3 nonfished longline permits for vessels under 60 feet, and 

31 permits for otter trawl (23 fished). All groundfish 

permits had statewide range.

Salmon: The salmon fleet accounted for 100 

permits, 85 of which were fished: 45 permits were for 

purse seine restricted to the Alaska Peninsula and the 

Aleutian Islands (35 fished), 8 were for drift gillnet, 

and 43 for set gillnet, also on the Alaska Peninsula (40 

fished). There was also one fished permit for a drift 

gillnet in Prince William Sound, two set gillnet permits 

to fish in the Lower Yukon River (none fished), and one 

permit for a statewide power gurdy troll (not fished). 

Crab: There were three king crab permits, one 

for a vessel under 60 feet with pot gear and two for 

vessels over 60 feet fishing with pot gear in Bristol 

Bay. There were also two permits for vessels over 60 

feet for Tanner crab with pot gear in the Bering Sea. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Sand Point 
381

Other: Other fisheries in Sand Point included 

herring and other shellfish. Herring permits included 

eight herring roe purse seine permits, three in Bristol 

Bay, one in Cook Inlet, one in Chignik, and three 

along the Alaska Peninsula. None of these permits 

was fished. In addition, there were two herring roe 

gillnet permits (none fished), and nine herring food/

bait purse seine permits on the Alaska Peninsula (none 

fished). Other shellfish, including octopus and squid 

had one permit for vessels over 60 feet with pot gear 

(none fished), and one sablefish mechanical jig permit 

(none fished). 

In terms of fish processing, Trident Seafoods 

operated a major year-round bottomfish, pollock, 

salmon and fishmeal processing plant, and provided 

fuel and other services. It employed from 50 to 400 

people depending on the season. Peter Pan Seafoods 

owned a storage and transfer station that supported its 

fleet. In accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

data for fish landings in the community is unavailable. 

The fleet delivering landings to Sand Point was larger 

than the number of ships home-ported or anchored in 

that particular harbor. 

Sand Point received a direct allocation of $72,145 

in federal salmon disaster funds, and the Aleutians East 

Borough received $1,101,638. These allocations were 

to compensate for losses due to plummeting prices in 

the international salmon market. This allocation was 

implemented in 2003. 

The community, the borough, and the APICDA 

(CDQ) received $1,208,457, $140,063, and $57,163 

respectively to reduce the impact of Steller sea lion 

protective regulations that came up after the inclusion 

of this species into the endangered species list. This 

allocation, under ESA regulations, was implemented 

in 2002.

The funds not directly allocated to the city were 

added to the general budget of the borough or the 

CDQ and helped to compensate for the decline in fish 

taxes income and to relieve the budgetary tensions of 

institutions in the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000, this community issued 42 sport fishing 

permits, 25 of which were bought by Alaskan residents. 

This small number of permits does not preclude the 

possibility that the area could be visited by outsiders 

who purchased their permits elsewhere. In 2000, Sand 

Point also had five sport fishing guide businesses: four 

focused on freshwater activities and one in saltwater 

fisheries.

Subsistence Fishing 

A survey conducted by ADF&G in 1992 in Sand 

Point demonstrated the significance of subsistence 

practices to most Alaskan communities. All Sand 

Point households participated in the use of subsistence 

resources. In relation to the main marine resources, 

99% of the households used subsistence salmon, 

97.1% used other types of fish (herring, smelt, cod, eel, 

flounder, greenling, halibut, perch, rockfish, sablefish, 

sculpin, skates, sole, tuna, burbot, char, pike, sheefish, 

trout, and whitefish), 25% of households used marine 

mammals and 90.4% used marine invertebrates. The 

total per capita harvest of subsistence resources was 

255.7 lbs. 

The breakdown of the subsistence harvest was 

as follows: salmon (53.8%), other fish (21.1%), land 

mammals (11.31%), marine mammals (1.84%), birds 

and eggs (2.3%), marine invertebrates (7%) and 

vegetation (2.7%). 

In 1999, Sand Point had 54 Alaska salmon 

household subsistence permits. The catch was mainly 

made up of sockeye and chum. In addition, residents 

of Sand Point (rural residents or members of an 

Alaska Native tribe) are eligible to harvest subsistence 

halibut by holding Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificates (SHARC). These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Sand Point 
382

South Naknek (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

South Naknek is situated on the south bank 

of the Naknek River on the Alaska Peninsula. It is 

located 297 miles southwest of Anchorage and just 

west of Katmai National Park and Preserve. The area 

encompasses 95.0 square miles of land and 2.5 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population 

of South Naknek was 137, with gender skewed 

towards males who made up 56.2% of the population 

versus 43.8% females. The population swells well 

into the thousands during the summer with seasonal 

fisheries workers, a trend which may not be adequately 

reflected by census data. The eruption of Novarupta 

volcano near Katmai in 1912 destroyed villages along 

the northeastern coast of the Alaska Peninsula and 

inland along the Savonoski River. People were forced 

to find new homes and new occupations further south. 

South Naknek was reestablished, and by the 1970s 

most people in the region had moved to either South 

Naknek or Naknek. 

The racial composition of the population in 2000 

included the following: 83.9% Alaska Native or 

American Indian, 13.1% White, 1.5% Black, 0.7% 

Asian, and 0.7% Hawaiian Native or Other Pacific 

Islander. Only 2.2% of the population identified 

themselves as Hispanic. The median age was 35.8 

years which is comparable to the national average 

of 35.3 years for the same year. About 32.7% of the 

population was 19 years and below while only about 

14% of the population was over 55 years of age.

There are 137 housing units in South Naknek, 91 

of which were vacant in 2000. Of the total, 87 were 

vacant due to seasonal use. According to 2000 census 

data, none of the population lived in group quarters. 

About 59.8% of the population had a high school 

diploma or higher, while only a small percentage had 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The region along the Naknek River was originally 

settled over 6,000 years ago, and was historically 

SugpiaqAleut territory.The Sugpiaqs traveled between 

Katmai and the Naknek River, pursuing seasonal food 

Age 

15 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

South Naknek South Naknek

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

10 5 0 5 10 15 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

South Naknek 

2000 Racial Structure

South Naknek

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Pacific Islander 

0.7% 

Asian White

0.7% 13.1% 

Black 

1.5% 

Native

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 84.0%

South Naknek 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

South Naknek

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 2.2% 

Non-Hispanic,

97.8% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/South Naknek 
383

sources. This is one of the many villages along the coast 

where Laplanders were brought in to herd reindeer. 

The herds were purchased in the 1930s by the BIA for 

the local Native economy. South Naknek was settled 

permanently after the turn of the century as a result of 

salmon cannery development. Some villagers relocated 

from New and Old Savonoski, near the “Valley of Ten 

Thousand Smokes” to South Naknek, attracted by the 

economic opportunities and associated benefits of the 

town. The eruption of Novarupta volcano near Katmai 

in 1912 destroyed villages along the northeastern coast 

of the Alaska Peninsula and inland along the Savonoski 

River so people were forced to find new homes and 

new occupations further south. New Savonoski was 

established, but by the 1970s most people had moved 

to either South Naknek or Naknek 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The local economy of South Naknek is driven 

by the fishing industry, relying heavily on associated 

services including government employment, and is 

supplemented to a relatively large degree by subsistence 

practices. South Naknek’s economy is highly sensitive 

to the seasonality of the fishing industry and especially 

to the red salmon fishery in Bristol Bay in particular. 

Several thousand people typically flood the area 

during the fishing season. A total of 48 commercial 

fishing permits were held by 43 permit holders in 

2000 according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries 

Entry Commission. Trident Seafoods operates in 

South Naknek. A second processing facility, owned 

by Wards Cove Packing, closed in 2002. Most other 

employment is in public services. A few people trap, 

and most residents depend on subsistence hunting and 

fishing. Salmon, trout, caribou, rabbit, porcupine, and 

seal are utilized. 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census for South 

Naknek, 51.8% of the potential labor force was 

employed and there was a 12.5% unemployment rate. 

A total of 48.2% of the population over 16 years of age 

were not in the labor force and 27.1% of the population 

was below the poverty level. The government is a 

significant employer in South Naknek, 63.6% of the 

potential labor force were government employees in 

2000. The median household income in the same year 

was $22,344 and the per capita income was $13,019.

2000 Employment Structure

South Naknek 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

South Naknek

Data source: US Census 

Employed,

39.3% 

Not Seeking,

48.2% 

Unemployed,

12.5% 

Governance 

South Naknek is an unincorporated city within the 

Bristol Bay Borough. The Bristol Bay Borough functions 

as the chief governing body for the communities of 

Naknek, South Naknek, and King Salmon. Because 

of South Naknek’s status as an unincorporated city 

there are no city or borough officials in the city nor 

are there municipal or borough finances dispersed to 

the community. Bristol Bay Native Association is the 

regional non-profit organization. The South Naknek 

Village Council, also known as Oinuyang Native 

Village of South Naknek, is federally recognized and 

eligible for funding and services from the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA). South Naknek is a member of 

the regional non-profit Bristol Bay Native Corporation 

under the Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). At the local level, the village corporation 

of South Naknek has merged with those of Kokhanok, 

Newhalen, Port Heiden, South Naknek, and Ugashik to 

form the Alaska Peninsula Corporation. The total land 

entitlement granted to South Naknek under ANCSA 

is just over 92,000 acres. South Naknek is involved in 

a Community Development Quota program under the 

Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation. The 

nearest National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

regional office is in Unalaska, as is the nearest Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

and Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

office.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/South Naknek 
384

Facilities 

South Naknek is accessible both by air and by 

sea and is connected to Naknek by a bridge and King 

Salmon in the winter by the frozen Naknek River. 

The cost of a round trip flight from South Naknek to 

Anchorage, via King Salmon, is $357 plus the cost 

of a charter flight between King Salmon and South 

Naknek (based on the closest available date to 1 

September, 2003). There is a State-owned 2,200 foot 

lighted gravel airstrip one mile south of the community 

and a second airport run by the PAF Cannery three 

miles to the southeast. Scheduled and charter flight 

services are available. A 3,000 foot designated stretch 

of the Naknek River is used by float planes. There is 

a dirt road to New Savonoski which is not routinely 

maintained. The Borough operates a mid- and hightide cargo dock at South Naknek with 200 feet of berth 

space to accommodate barges. Trucks, cars, ATVs, 

snowmachines, and boats are used extensively for 

local travel. 

Public security is provided by the Borough 

Police Department and Village Public Safety Officers 

(VPSO) associated with the Aleutian Pribilof Islands 

Association, Inc. Local health care is provided by 

the South Naknek Health Clinic. There are several 

facilities to accommodate tourists in Naknek. The 

tourism industry is very limited in South Naknek. 

Individual water wells and septic systems serve the 

majority of the community; others use the piped 

water and sewer system. Power lines cross the Naknek 

River five miles east of Naknek and connect to South 

Naknek. South Naknek is within the Bristol Bay 

Borough School District where 2 teachers taught 13 

pupils at the South Naknek Elementary School in 

2000. Students attending high school are flown to 

Naknek daily to attend school. 

There are several facilities to accommodate 

tourists in Naknek; however, the tourism industry is 

very limited in South Naknek.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

South Naknek’s fishing industry is based 

almost exclusively on salmon which generates the 

most significant proportion of revenue in the local 

commercial fishing industry. According to ACFEC 

figures for 2000, 48 permits were held by 43 permit 

holders (41 fished). There were no vessel owners in 

the federal fisheries, 12 vessel owners in the salmon 

fishery, and 39 crew members claiming residence in 

South Naknek. 

Commercial fishing permits are issued according 

to specifications of species, vessel size, gear type, and 

fishing area. The commercial vessel fleet delivering 

landings to South Naknek in 2000 was involved solely 

in the salmon (509 vessels) fishery. In accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, data for fish landings in the 

community are unavailable. 

Permits for salmon issued in South Naknek for 

2000 totaled 42 (39 fished). The permits pertained to 12 

drift gillnets (11 fished) and 30 set gillnets (28 fished), 

all restricted to Bristol Bay. Permits issued for halibut 

pertained to three longline vessels under 60 feet with 

statewide jurisdiction (none fished). Permits issued 

for herring roe pertained to three gillnets restricted to 

Bristol Bay (two fished). 

Bristol Bay is home to the largest sockeye salmon 

run in North America. Both Wards Cove Packing 

Company and Trident Seafoods Corporation have 

processing plants in South Naknek. As the Naknek 

River freezes during the coldest months of the year 

these facilities operate exclusively as salmon canneries 

between May and October. 

It was announced in July 2003 that the Bristol Bay 

Borough, in which South Naknek is located, would 

receive $1,739,411 worth of federal salmon disaster 

funds to be distributed to several municipalities 

statewide which have been affected by low salmon 

prices in order to compensate for consequent losses 

of salmon taxes or raw fish taxes. The disbursement 

of these disaster funds illustrates state and federal 

responses to communities and boroughs affected 

by recent falling salmon prices. Communities and 

boroughs are ultimately responsible for the allocation 

of the funds. Further disbursements are expected in 

the future to offset the costs of basic public services 

for which fish taxes become insufficient. In 2002 the 

Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

(BBEDC), to which South Naknek belongs, received 

$140,063 as part of a federal fund set up in accordance 

with the Endangered Species Act to offset costs to 

fisheries and communities due to Steller sea lion 

protection regulations. 

Sport Fishing 

Recreational sport fishing activity is very limited 

in South Naknek. No sport fishing licenses were sold 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/South Naknek 
385

in South Naknek in 2000. However, the community’s 

proximity to Naknek may mean that many recreational 

fishers participate in South Naknek’s fishing economy 

without necessarily being based there. Naknek river 

drainage systems provides optimum opportunities for 

freshwater salmon fishing, although several regulations 

restrict where and when sport fishing can be conducted 

in the area. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Numerous social, economic, and technological 

changes have influenced life in Alaskan fishing 

communities and subsistence harvests and practices 

continue to provide fishing communities with 

important nutritional, economic, social and cultural 

requirements. Data from 1992 compiled on behalf of 

the ADF&G’s Division for Subsistence provides useful 

information about subsistence practices in South 

Naknek. All 100% of households participated in the use 

of subsistence resources including harvesting, sharing, 

and consuming resources, illustrating the importance 

of subsistence to life in the community. Approximately 

97.1% of the total population used salmon, 85.7% used 

non-salmon fish (herring, smelt, cod, flounder, halibut, 

sculpin, sole, burbot, char, grayling, pike, trout, and 

white fish), 28.6% used marine mammals, and 51.4% 

used marine invertebrates. 

The total per capita harvest for the year was 296.82 

lbs. The composition of the total subsistence harvest 

can be shown by the percentages of the resources 

which demonstrate the amount of each resource 

category used by the community relative to other 

resource categories. The total subsistence harvest 

was composed of 48.76% salmon, 6.78% non-salmon 

fish, 37.3% land mammals, 0.67% marine mammals, 

0.69% birds and eggs, 0.68% marine invertebrates, 

and 5.12% vegetation .The wild food harvest in South 

Naknek made up 192% of the recommended dietary 

allowance of protein in 1992 (corresponding to 49 g 

of protein per day or .424 lbs of wild food per day) 

(Wolfe, division of Subsistence, ADF&G).

According to records from 1999, 44 permits were 

held by households in South Naknek for subsistence 

fishing of salmon. Sockeye made up the vast majority 

of the subsistence salmon harvest. Residents of South 

Naknek and members of South Naknek Native Village 

who hold a valid Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC) issued by NMFS, are eligible 

to harvest subsistence halibut. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

No trapping, hunting, or subsistence fishing is 

allowed in Katmai National Park.

Four communities - South Naknek, Levelock, 

Kokhanok and Igiugig - located near the boundary 

and with a history of subsistence activities in Katmain 

National Park and Preserve were surveyed and their 

subsistence use and harvest areas were mapped to 

better understand subsistence patterns within the park 

and preserve. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/South Naknek 
386

Ugashik (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Ugashik is situated 16 miles up the Ugashik River 

on the northwest coast of the Alaska Peninsula. The 

community is part of the Lake and Peninsula Borough. 

The area of Ugashik is made up of 233.9 square miles 

of land and 14.7 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Ugashik had 11 inhabitants at the time of the 2000 

U.S. Census of which 54.5% were male and 45.5% 

were female. Since 1880, Ugashik’s population has 

shrunk from 177 residents to 11 in 2000, although 

from 1990 the population rose slightly from 7 to 12 

in 2002, as established by a State Demographer. In 

2000, 18.2% of the population was White, 72.7% was 

American Indian and Alaska Native, and 9.1% was 

two or more races. A total of 81.8% of the inhabitants 

of the community reported being Alaska Native either 

alone or in combination with one or more races. No 

one in the community was Hispanic. In 2000 there 

were 35 total housing units in Ugashik and of those 

only 7 were occupied. Twenty eight were vacant and 

26 of those were vacant due to seasonal use. No one 

at that time lived in group quarters in the community. 

The median age in Ugashik was 50.5 years, whereas 

the national age median was 35.3 years. Ten of the 

11 residents of Ugashik were 25 years old and over. 

In 2000, 60% of the population had either graduated 

from high school or attended some college. 

History 

Historically the area of Ugashik was occupied 

by Aleut and Alutiiq peoples. The village of Ugashik 

was “the southernmost mentioned in the early Russian 

sources” and during the early 1800’s the people of the 

community “traveled regularly across the peninsula to 

the Pacific side to hunt the abundant sea mammals” 

(Parnow 2001, p. 37). Around 1876 the Alaska 

Commercial Company established a post in Ugashik, 

which around 1880 was referred to and recorded as 

‘Oogashik’ by the Census takers (Parnow 2001, p. 

113 &153). The Red Salmon Company established a 

cannery in Ugashik in the 1890’s and the community 

became one of the largest villages in the region.Around 

the same time a new village by the name of Kanatak, 

which was situated on the Pacific end of the Ugashik 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

2 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Ugashik Ugashik Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Male 

Female 

1 0 1 2 3 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Ugashik

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Ugashik 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races 

White 9.1% 

18.2% 

Native 

72.7% 

2000 Employment Structure

Ugashik Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure 

Ugashik 

Data source: US Census 

Employed, 40% 

Not Seeking, 60% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Ugashik 
387

River, was settled most likely by previous Ugashik 

inhabitants. The flu epidemic of 1919 decimated the 

population of Ugashik and it was recorded as having 

no inhabitants by both the 1910 and 1920 Censuses. 

In the early 1900’s reindeer herds were brought to 

the area as part of a government project and Inupiat 

reindeer herders followed the herds to the locale to 

tend to them (Parnow 2001, p. 159 & 233). Inupiats 

and other seasonal workers came as well to work in the 

canneries of the area and some Inupiat families settled 

permanently there (Parnow 2001, p. 234). The cannery 

in the community continued to operate under a range 

of owners during this time and Briggs Way Cannery 

opened in 1963. Currently the village has a small year 

round population with some of the village inhabitants 

living in Pilot Point, although tribal members live 

throughout Alaska, Washington, and California. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Ugashik is based on subsistence 

and commercial fishing, although fish processing is 

also important to residents of the area. Four residents 

of the community had commercial fishing permits and 

three residents had crew member licenses in 2000. A 

total of 10 of the 11 residents of Ugashik in 2000 were 

age 16 and over, and of those four were employed and 

part of the labor force (40%) and six were not part of 

the labor force (60%). All four residents in the labor 

force were government employees, and three of them 

were female. No one in the community was considered 

unemployed. The per capita income in the community 

in 2000 was $12,530 with the median household 

income being $28,750. At the time of the census, 10% 

of the local population was living below the poverty 

level.

Governance 

The village of Ugashik is unincorporated and 

thus has no city or borough officials present in the 

community and no finances, although it is located in 

the Lake and Peninsula Borough. The Native village 

corporation for Ugashik is the Alaska Peninsula 

Corporation. The Bristol Bay Native Corporation 

(BBNC) is the regional Native corporation for the 

area. The Ugashik Traditional Council is the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) federally recognized traditional 

council and tribe present in the village. The Bristol 

Bay Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC) 

is the local Community Development Quota (CDQ) 

group for the area and whose home office is in 

Dillingham. The regional Native non-profit for the 

area is the Bristol Bay Native Association. The nearest 

ADF&G office to the community is located in King 

Salmon whereas the closest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office and NMFS office 

are both located in Kodiak. 

Facilities 

The community of Ugashik is reachable by both 

air and water. A 5,280 foot gravel airstrip is located 

at Ugashik Bay, about 12 miles from the village and 

is owned by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 

Division of Lands. A 3,200 foot gravel airstrip is also 

located in the village. According to Travelocity and 

Expedia the approximate price to fly from Ugashik 

to Anchorage is $603 plus the fare for a charter from 

Ugashik to Pilot Point and back (price given for date 

as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). Freight is 

barged into the community from Naknek with a barge 

landing recently built in Ugashik. Currently funds are 

being searched for by the village council to rebuild the 

community dock. Locals travel primarily by skiffs and 

all terrain vehicles (ATVs). The community has no 

public water, sewer, or electric services. All households 

in the community use heating oil to heat their homes. 

Most residents of Ugashik use septic systems and all 

homes have individual wells. Refuse collection is not 

available. The community plans to build a landfill in 

the near future. Electricity is available from individual 

generators run off of diesel. There are no police in 

the community and the fire and rescue is provided 

by volunteers. The Ugashik Traditional Village and 

Ugashik, Inc. own and operate a small health care 

facility in the local community building. There is no 

school in the community.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Ten commercial fishing permits were issued to 

residents of Ugashik in 2000 and there were three 

licensed crew members. Four owners of vessels 

participated in the commercial salmon fishery, all 

residents of the community, and no one participated 

in the federal fisheries. Of the 10 commercial fishing 

permits issued to Ugashik residents, 4 were fished. One 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Ugashik 
388

permit was issued for halibut using a longline vessel 

under 60 feet statewide (not fished). Of five herring 

permits issued, not one was fished in 2000; two of 

those permits were issued for herring roe using gillnets 

in Bristol Bay, two for herring roe using gillnets in 

Security Cove, and one was issued for herring roe using 

a purse seine in Bristol Bay. There were two salmon 

permits issued for use with a drift gillnet in Bristol 

Bay and two issued using a set gillnet in Bristol Bay, 

and all fished in 2000. No vessels delivered landings 

to the community as there is currently no processor in 

operation. 

Recently, $442,002 was allocated in salmon 

disaster funds to the Lake and Peninsula Borough of 

which Ugashik is a part. The CDQ group in which 

the community is included, the Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation was also recently granted 

$75,026 by the Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation 

program “in recognition of the negative economic 

impacts of federal measures to protect the Steller 

sea lion” with money which had been allocated by 

the U.S. government (Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference 2003). The Lake and Peninsula Borough 

was also granted $29,832 as part of the Steller Sea 

Lion Mitigation Program. 

Sport Fishing 

No sport fishing licenses were sold in 2000 in 

Ugashik. However, sport fishermen often fly into the 

Ugashik area to fish for arctic char, Dolly Varden, 

arctic grayling, sockeye salmon, coho salmon, king 

salmon, and northern pike. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence is very important to residents of the 

village. For the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence 

study year of 1987 (the most representative year for 

the community): 100% used salmon, 100% used nonsalmon fish (herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, flounder, 

halibut, char, grayling, pike, trout, and whitefish), 0% 

used marine mammals, and 0% of the households in 

Ugashik used marine invertebrates. The per capita 

harvest of all subsistence resources was 814.40 lbs in 

1987. Of that per capita harvest, 39.31% was salmon, 

4.43% was non-salmon fish, 0% was marine mammals, 

0% was marine invertebrates, 3.13% was birds and 

eggs, 50.81% was land mammals, and 2.32% was 

vegetation. In 1999, also according to the ADF&G, 

there were 25 salmon permits issued to residents of the 

Ugashik District. Rural residents and tribal members 

of Ugashik are eligible to apply for halibut subsistence 

certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Alaska Peninsula Aleutian Islands/Ugashik 
389

4.3.2 Western Alaska 

Communities 

Akiachak Kipnuk

Aleknagik Koliganek

Bethel Kongiganak

Chefornak Kotlik

Clark’s Point Kwigillingok

Dillingham Manokotak

Eek Marshall

Ekuk Mekoryuk

Ekwok Napakiak

Emmonak New Stuyahok

Goodnews Bay Newtok

Hooper Bay Nightmute

Geographic Location 

Western Alaska includes three census areas: 

Wade Hampton, Bethel, and Dillingham. Most of 

the communities in the region lie within the YukonKuskokwim Delta, a vast area of low-lying land along 

the Bering Sea coast, some 300-500 miles west of 

Anchorage. From north to south, the area stretches 

from Kotlik, at 63.034 ̊ N Lat, to Clark’s Point, at 

58.844 ̊ N Lat. 

Weather 

Weather throughout the region is diverse. 

Communities in the southern part of the region 

and those located along the Bering Sea Coast are 

influenced by maritime currents and tend to have more 

moderate weather, with winter temperatures averaging 

5-30 ̊F and summer temperatures averaging 35-65 ̊F. 

Precipitation is also greater here, averaging around 

30 inches per year. By contrast, communities in the 

northern portion of the region, as well as those located 

away from the moderating influence of the ocean, have 

more extreme weather. Winter temperatures average 

between -2 ̊F and 20 ̊F, and summer temperatures 

average between 42  ̊F and 62  ̊F. Precipitation is much 

lower in the northern and inland areas, averaging 

around 16 inches annually. Because of the topography 

of the region, which is characterized by vast expanses 

of low-lying land crisscrossed by rivers, periodic 

flooding is commonplace. 

Pilot Station

Platinum

Portage Creek

Quinhagak

Saint Mary’s

Scammon Bay

Togiak

Toksook Bay

Tuntutuliak

Tununak

Twin Hills

General Characterization 

Western Alaska is home to a predominantly Yup’ik 

Eskimo population. In contrast to many other parts of 

Alaska, native cultural traditions are a vital part of 

everyday life here. In 2000, approximately 90% of 

residents of Western Alaska were Alaska Native or 

part Native, and many residents still speak their Native 

Alaskan language. Despite its vast geographical size, 

Western Alaska’s population is sparse, amounting 

to just under 28,000 people. The larger towns in the 

region—Bethel, Dillingham, and Hooper Bay—

account for nearly one-third of the population of the 

entire region. The remaining residents are scattered 

throughout dozens of small villages in the region, 

accessible only by air or water. 

The economies of communities throughout the 

region depend heavily on the commercial fishing 

industry. The salmon and herring fisheries of Bristol 

Bay and Kuskokwim Bay account for a majority of 

fishing activity. In addition, major fish processing 

plants are located in Bethel and Dillingham. Many 

smaller communities also have village processing 

plants. Regional and local Native governments also 

constitute a major source of employment. Economic 

development, however, has been slow in Western 

Alaska. The poverty rate, at more than 20%, is higher 

than most areas of Alaska. An unemployment rate of 

9% and a relatively low annual per capita income pose 

additional challenges. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Sub-Regional Introduction 
390

Institutional Framework 

There are no organized boroughs in Western Alaska. 

The region is made up of three census areas: Wade 

Hampton, Bethel, and Dillingham. Most communities 

have either incorporated city governments or federally 

recognized Native village councils, or both. 

There are three community development quota 

(CDQ) groups that operate in the region, including 

the Yukon Delta Fisheries Development Association, 

the Coastal Villages Region Fund, and the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation. These groups 

allocate a portion of commercial fisheries revenues 

toward promoting community development and 

employment. In addition, the Calista Corporation, the 

second largest of 13 regional corporations formed under 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), is 

an important body of Native governance. The Calista 

Corporation holds a federal land entitlement and 

seeks to promote natural resource development and 

employment for Alaska Natives in the region. 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

The economy of Western Alaska revolves around 

fishing. Large commercial fleets are based in larger 

hubs, such as Dillingham, with more extensive port 

facilities; however, every community profiled in 

this section, no matter how small, participates in 

commercial fishing as a home port for vessels, a base 

for crew members, or as a site of fishing processing.

Commercial fishing in the region is centered in 

both Kuskokwim Bay and Bristol Bay, considered 

the largest sockeye salmon fishery in the world. 

Commercial catches of salmon and herring make up 

the bulk of fishing activity, but other species such as 

halibut and groundfish are also important. In addition, 

many communities have commercial fish processing 

and storage facilities. Although the larger commercial 

processors are located primarily in larger hubs such 

as Bethel and Dillingham, many smaller communities 

have their own village-based fish processing 

facilities. 

Sport fishing in Western Alaska, in comparison to 

other regions, is a relatively small enterprise. While 

several thousand sport fishing licenses are sold each 

year throughout the region, mostly in the larger hubs 

of Dillingham and Bethel, the region does not draw 

nearly as many visitors as Southeastern or Southcentral Alaska. Major sport fish species include 

salmon, rainbow trout, Dolly Varden, arctic grayling, 

and northern pike. 

Partly as a result of the strong Native cultural 

traditions throughout the region, Western Alaskan 

residents depend heavily on subsistence fish and other 

resources. Communities large and small supplement 

their formal economies with subsistence resources. 

According to the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game, on average, more than 95% of all households in 

the region harvest subsistence fish, including salmon 

and non-salmon species. In addition, land mammals 

such as caribou and moose, marine mammals such as 

harbor seals, and a wide variety of birds and eggs are 

used for subsistence by local residents. Subsistence 

harvests can be enormous; the village of Akiachak, 

for example, reported an average per capita harvest in 

1998 of 1,328 lbs—one of the highest figures anywhere 

in Alaska. 

Regional Challenges 

Western Alaska faces some dramatic economic 

and developmental challenges. Poverty rates are high 

and educational levels are low, a combination that 

has caused the region to lag somewhat behind other 

regions in terms of economic development. In addition, 

Western Alaska’s communities, most of which are 

predominantly Yup’ik Eskimo, struggle to keep their 

cultural legacies alive. Facilities such as the Yup’iit 

Piciryarait Museum, located in Bethel, play a vital 

role in the preservation of the local cultural heritage.

The region’s high dependence on commercial 

fishing—and on salmon in particular—leads to some 

particular challenges. First, many small, remote 

communities must solve the logistical problem of 

harvesting fish in far-flung locations and shipping it 

to markets elsewhere. Most communities are forced 

to ship freshly caught fish by plane to a central 

processor in Bethel or elsewhere, where it is then 

forwarded along to markets. This process results in an 

additional economic burden that must be shouldered 

to communities. In addition, the region’s high 

dependence on salmon during a time of price decline 

proves difficult. In recent years, foreign competition 

has driven down the market price of salmon in the 

U.S., causing financial trouble for many communities. 

Federal salmon disaster funds, distributed to large 

and small communities alike, represent only a partial 

solution to this problem. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Sub-Regional Introduction 
391

Akiachak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Akiachak is located on the west bank of the 

Kuskokwim River, 18 miles northeast of the city of 

Bethel. The area encompasses 10 square miles of land 

and 2 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Akiachak was a community of 585 

residents in 133 households. The community was 

primarily comprised of Alaska Natives, mostly Yup’ik 

Eskimos (92.3%), with a small percentage of White 

(3.4%) and mixed race (4.3%) residents. A total 

of 96.4% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. 

Approximately 1.2% of community residents were 

of Hispanic ethnicity. There are more men in the 

community (54.9%) than women, and the average age 

is 22.2 years, much younger than the U.S. national 

average of 35.3 years. Approximately 44.4% of the 

local population is under age 18. All residents live 

in households rather than group quarters. In terms of 

educational attainment, 64.8% of residents hold a high 

school diploma or higher. 

History 

The region is traditional Yup’ik Eskimo territory, 

and Akiachak was originally used by Yup’ik groups 

as a seasonal subsistence site. The community was 

first listed in the U.S. Census in 1890, when it had 

a recorded population of 43 residents. Akiachak has 

grown steadily since that time, in part because of its 

close proximity to Bethel, the regional economic hub. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Akiachak is highly dependent on 

fishery resources and is involved in both commercial 

and subsistence fishing. The median per capita income 

in 2000 was $8,321 and the median household income 

was $35,833. Unemployment in the community was 

14.3%, and 43.8% of residents aged 16 years and 

older were not in the labor force (i.e. not working and 

not seeking work). Approximately 21.2% of residents 

lived below the poverty level. 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Akiachak Akiachak

Source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Akiachak Akiachak 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

White 

races 3.4% 

4.3% 

Two or more 

Alaska Native 

92.3% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Akiachak 

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Akiachak 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1.2% 

Non-Hispanic,

98.8% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Akiackak 
2000 Employment Structure

Akiachak 

Data source: US Census 

392

Governance 

Akiachak was incorporated as a second-class city 

in 1974, but the city government was dissolved in 1987 

in favor of traditional village council governance—the 

first community in Alaska to do so. The official name 

of the village council is Akiachak Native Community. 

There is also a Native village corporation called 

Akiachak, Ltd. The community is “unorganized” (i.e. 

not located within a borough). The majority of local 

government operating revenues come from federal 

grants and contracts. The Coastal Villages Region 

Fund, a Community Development Quota (CDQ) group, 

is active in the community and promotes employment 

opportunities for residents as well as participation in 

the Bering Sea crab and groundfish fisheries. 

There is an Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) office nearby in Bethel. The nearest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office and 

U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) office are located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Akiachak is accessible by road via Bethel and 

by air via a 1,625 foot airstrip operated by the State 

Department of Transportation. Roundtrip airfare from 

the nearby city of Bethel to Anchorage is approximately 

$206. Most residents get their own water from 

wells; there is no piped water or sewer service. The 

village council operates a landfill in the community. 

Electricity is provided by the village corporation and 

is generated by a diesel generator. There is a local 

health clinic operated jointly by the village council 

and the Yukon Kuskokwim Health Corporation. Police 

services are provided by a volunteer public security 

officer (VPSO). 

There is one school located in Akiachak, offering 

instruction to students in grades K-12. There are 12 

teachers and 183 students. The school is under the 

jurisdiction of the Yup’iit School District. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Involvement in commercial fishing, particularly 

within the herring and salmon fisheries, is an important 

part of the local economy in Akiachak. In 2000, 70 

local residents held a total of 87 commercial fishing 

permits, and 75 permits were fished. There were 98 

registered crew members. In addition, there were 

2000 Employment Structure 

Akiachak 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking, Employed, 41.9% 

43.8% 

Unemployed,

14.3% 

19 vessel owners with operations in state-managed 

fisheries who resided in the community. This section 

contains a detailed description of the permits issued to 

Akiachak residents in 2000. 

Herring: Fourteen residents held a total of 14 

permits in the herring fishery. A detailed breakdown 

of these permits is as follows: one herring roe gillnet 

permit for Cape Avinof (none fished), 12 herring roe 

gillnet permits for Goodnews Bay (10 fished), and one 

herring roe kelp harvesting permit for diving/handpicking in the Bristol Bay fishery (none fished).

Other Finfish: Three local residents held a total of 

four permits for miscellaneous other finfish, but none 

was fished. These permits consisted of three freshwater 

fish set gillnet permits for statewide waters and one 

freshwater fish pot gear permits for vessels under 60 

feet in statewide waters.

Salmon: Sixty-nine local residents held a total of 

69 commercial permits in the salmon fishery, and 65 

permits were fished. A detailed breakdown of these 

permits is as follows: one salmon drift gillnet permit 

for Bristol Bay (one fished), one salmon set gillnet 

permit for Bristol Bay (one fished), and 67 salmon set 

gillnet permits for Kuskokwim Bay (63 fished).

In 2000, there were no commercial processing 

plants and therefore no recorded landings for 

Akiachak.

Sport Fishing 

Because of its relatively remote location, sport 

fishing in Akiachak is limited. As of 2002, there were 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Akiackak 
393

no registered sport fishing guide services in Akiachak. 

In 2000, a total of 30 sport fishing licenses were sold 

in Akiachak, all of them to Alaska residents. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence activities are an important part of the 

local economy of Akiachak. The ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence reports that, in 1998, 98.8% of Akiachak 

households used subsistence fish. Approximately 

97.5% of households used subsistence salmon (all 

five Pacific species) and 98.8% used non-salmon 

fish (including blackfish, halibut, pike, whitefish, and 

others). A significant portion of households (58%) 

used marine mammals (especially seal, walrus, and 

whale) for subsistence, and a small portion (3.7%) 

used marine invertebrates (especially clams).

The annual per capita harvest of subsistence 

foods for Akiachak in 1998 totaled 1,328 lbs, and 

was comprised of the following resources: salmon, 

especially Chinook (48.8%), non-salmon fish, 

especially whitefish and blackfish (18.7%), land 

mammals, including caribou and moose (20.4%), 

marine mammals, especially seals (2.3%), birds and 

eggs (5.2%), and vegetation (4.6%). 

Akiachak residents have not been historically 

involved in halibut fishing and the community does 

not hold a Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC). Salmon subsistence harvesting, however, is 

very important in the community; approximately 119 

households (90% of all households) held subsistence 

salmon harvesting permits in 1999. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Akiackak 
394

Aleknagik (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Aleknagik is situated at the southeast end of 

Lake Aleknagik at the head of the Wood River. The 

community is 16 miles northwest of Dillingham and 

is located in the Dillingham Census Area. Aleknagik 

is made up of 43.8 square miles of land and 7.2 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

At the time of the 2000 U.S. Census the community 

of Aleknagik had a total of 221 inhabitants, and of 

those 54.8% were male and 45.2% were female. Prior 

to the 1940 census no population was recorded for the 

community other than in the year 1890 when it was 

reported that there were 68 inhabitants. Since 1950 

the population of the community has fluctuated for the 

most part between about between 128 and 231 persons 

living in the community. In 2000 about 81.9% of the 

residents of Aleknagik were American Indian and 

Alaska Native, 13.6% wereWhite, 1.4% were classified 

as “Other”, and 3.2% were of two or more races. When 

more than one race is taken into account, about 84.6% 

of the population was at least part American Indian and 

Alaska Native. Approximately 1.4% of the residents 

were Hispanic. The median age of the community was 

28.3 years, significantly lower than the national average 

of 35.3 years. There were a total of 107 housing units, 

37 of which were vacant and 21 vacant due to seasonal 

use. No one in the population lived in group quarters. 

Out of the population of the community age 25 and 

over about 70.9% had graduated from high school or 

gone on to further schooling, and 12.7% had obtained 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

Historically the areas of Wood River and 

Aleknagik Lake were used as summer fish camps. The 

name Aleknagik means “wrong way home” because 

on occasion the Native peoples who were returning to 

their homes on the Nushagak River would get lost in 

the fog and end up at Aleknagik Lake after being swept 

along the Wood River by the tide. According to the 

1890 Census there were 68 inhabitants in the village 

at that time. In 1929 there were 55 people living in the 

“Wood River village” area, which is located south of 

Aleknagik according to census data. There were five 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

30 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Aleknagik Aleknagik Data Source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Male 

Female 

20 10 0 10 20 30 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Aleknagik Aleknagik 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Two or more 

races 

Other 3.2% White 

1.4% 13.6% 

Aleknagik

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Aleknagik

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1.4% 

Native 

81.8% 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Non-Hispanic,

98.6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Aleknagik 
395

families living on the shore of Aleknagik Lake year 

round in 1930; the Waskeys, Polleys, Hansons, Yakos, 

and Smiths. In 1933 a log cabin school was built on 

the shore of the lake and the first teacher was Josie 

Waskey. Many families relocated from Goodnews, 

Togiak, and Kulukak to Aleknagik because they were 

attracted by the school, the other facilities present in the 

community, and the bountiful timber, fish, and game. 

In 1937 a post office was built and in 1938 a two-story 

school was constructed with a teacher apartment. 

By the time of the 1940 U.S. Census, the 

community of Aleknagik had a total of 78 inhabitants, 

a small sawmill, and over 30 buildings. A Seventhday Adventist Mission and School were built in 

the 1940s on the north shore of the lake. A Russian 

Orthodox Church and a Moravian Church were built 

in the community in the 1950s and at that time over 35 

families lived in the area. A 25-mile road connecting 

the south shore of the lake to Dillingham was built in 

1959. In 1973 the City became incorporated. And in 

2000, over 24 additional square miles were annexed to 

the City. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Many inhabitants of Aleknagik are involved in 

commercial and subsistence activities during the 

summer months on the Bristol Bay coast. In 2000, 50 

commercial fishing permits were issued to residents of 

the community and 48 residents were licensed as crew 

members. Since 1997 poor fish returns and falling 

fish prices have had a major effect on the community. 

Income is also derived from the sport fishing industry. 

Another important source of income for community 

members is trapping. In 2000 of those age 16 years and 

over in Aleknagik about 48.3% were employed, 13.3% 

were unemployed, and 38.5% were not in the labor 

force. Of those which were employed, approximately 

47.8% were classified as government workers. The per 

capita income for residents was $10,973 in 2000 with 

the median household income at $22,750. 

Governance 

Aleknagik is a second-class city incorporated 

in 1973 and has a strong mayor form of government 

which includes a mayor and a seven person city 

council. The city is not part of any organized borough. 

The regional Native corporation for the area is the 

2000 Employment Structure

Aleknagik

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Aleknagik 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

38.5% 

Unemployed,

13.3% 

Employed,

48.3% 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation and the Native village 

corporation is Aleknagik Natives Ltd. The Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional Council 

is the Aleknagik Traditional Council. The Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group which the city is 

included in is the Bristol Bay Economic Development 

Corporation. The regional non-profit organization 

for the area is the Bristol Bay Native Association. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) to the community is located 

in Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Aleknagik is accessible by air, water, and by 

road from Dillingham. Regular flights are scheduled 

to Aleknagik through Dillingham and there is a 

state-owned 2,070 foot gravel airstrip present in 

the community. The approximate cost according to 

Travelocity and Expedia to travel by air roundtrip to 

Anchorage from Aleknagik is $424 (price given for 

date as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). On 

the north shore is Moody’s Aleknagik Seaplane Base 

which accommodates float planes. Two additional 

airstrips are located around the community. The north 

shore of Aleknagik Lake is not accessible by road 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Aleknagik 
396

and residents must travel by skiffs to the south shore 

where the town is located. A state-owned and operated 

100 foot dock is located on the north shore of the 

lake. Also on the north shore are a breakwater, barge 

landing, boat launch ramp, and boat lift. Locals travel 

by vehicles, skiffs, ATVs, and snowmachines. 

Accommodations are available at the Aleknagik 

Bed and Breakfast. There is one school in the 

community, Aleknagik School, instructing grades K-8 

with 33 students and 5 teachers in 2000. Health care 

is available at the North Shore Health Clinic and at 

the South Shore Health Clinic which are owned by the 

City and operated by the City and by the Bristol Bay 

Area Health Corporation (BBAHC). Police services 

are available from the Village Public Safety Officer 

(VPSO). The electric utility is the Nushugak Electric 

Cooperative which is operated by REA Co-op with 

the main power source of diesel, although in 2000 

about 95.8% of households heated using heating oil 

and 4.2% heated using wood. There is no piped water 

system and individuals and the school are the operators 

of their own wells. Sewage and refuse are disposed of 

in private septic tanks, and the city operates a septic 

pumping service. The City operates two landfills, one 

on the north shore and one on the south shore. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 50 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Aleknagik in 2000 and 48 

residents were licensed crew members. No vessel 

owners in the community participated in federal 

fisheries, although 15 vessel owners participated in 

the salmon fishery. 

Out of the 50 permits issued to community 

members, a total of 33 were actually fished. One permit 

was issued for halibut using longline on a vessel over 

60 feet statewide, although it was not fished in 2000. 

A total of 21 permits were issued for the commercial 

fishing of herring: 4 were issued for herring roe using 

gillnets in Security Cove (four fished), 7 for herring 

roe using gillnets in Bristol Bay (5 fished), and 

10 for herring spawn on kelp which is dived for or 

handpicked in Bristol Bay (none fished). Twenty-eight 

permits were issued for salmon: 19 using drift gillnets 

in Bristol Bay (15 fished), and 9 using set gillnets in 

Bristol Bay (9 fished). 

No landings were delivered to Aleknagik in 2000 

because no processors were present in the community. 

The CDQ group in which the community is included, 

the Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

(BBEDC), was recently granted $75,026 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

Aleknagik Lake is a popular spot for sport fishing 

and boasts that it carries “all five species of Pacific 

salmon, rainbow trout, arctic char, Dolly Varden, arctic 

grayling, lake trout, and northern pike” (Countrysport 

Limited 2003). According to the ADF&G there were 

six businesses which were listed as freshwater guide 

businesses in 2002 in Aleknagik, six full service 

guiding services businesses, one drop-off service 

business, and two lodge/resort services businesses. In 

2000, 10 sport fishing licenses were sold in Aleknagik 

to residents of the State of Alaska and a total of 393 

sport fishing licenses were sold in the community to 

non-residents.

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G, for the most 

representative year of 1989, 100.0% of Aleknagik 

households used all subsistence resources: 94.7% used 

salmon, 94.7% used non-salmon fish (herring, herring 

roe, cod, flounder, halibut, sculpin, blackfish, burbot, 

char, grayling, pike, sucker, trout, and whitefish), 

81.6% used marine mammals, and 52.6% used marine 

invertebrates. The per capita harvest for community 

members was 379.29 lbs for all subsistence resources: 

25.07% salmon, 16.18% non-salmon fish, 4.01% 

marine mammals, 0.83% marine invertebrates, 3.71% 

birds and eggs, 43.06% land mammals, and 7.14% 

vegetation. Also according to ADF&G there were 

11subsistence salmon household permits issued in 

1999 to residents of Aleknagik for an estimated total 

of 997 fish harvested. Residents are eligible to apply 

for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Aleknagik 
397

Bethel (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Bethel is located within the Yukon Delta National 

Wildlife Refuge, 40 miles inland from the Bering Sea 

on the Kuskokwim River. It is approximately 400 air 

miles west of Anchorage. The area encompasses 43.8 

square miles of land and 5.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000, Bethel had a population of 5,471 people 

in 1,741 households. Most of the population (95.6%) 

lived in households rather than group quarters. The 

racial breakdown of the community was as follows: 

White (26.8%), Alaska Native or American Indian 

(61.8%), Black (0.9%),Asian (2.9%), Hawaiian Native 

(0.2%), and other (0.5%). Residents of two or more 

races comprised 6.9% of the population. A total of 

68% of the population recognized themselves as all or 

part Alaska Native or American Indian. Residents of 

Hispanic ethnicity comprised 1.7% of the population. 

There were more men (52.5%) than women in 

Bethel in 2000. The median age was 29.1 years, 

significantly younger than the U.S. national average 

of 35.3 years, owing to Bethel’s position as a regional 

employment hub that attracts working-age people. 

For the same reason, Bethel’s population has grown 

steadily in recent years, more than doubling since 

1970. 

Approximately 84.2% of residents over 25 years 

of age have attained a high school degree or higher 

level of education. 

History 

Yup’ik Eskimos have inhabited the YukonKuskokwim Delta area for at least 2,000 years. Bethel 

was settled by Yup’ik people who called the village 

“Mumtrekhlogamute,” meaning “people who smoke 

fish.” By the late nineteenth century, the village was 

an Alaska Commercial Company Trading Post. The 

Moravian church established a mission in the area 

in 1884. Bethel was incorporated as a second-class 

city in 1957, and has since become a regional hub 

for the many small towns and villages in the YukonKuskokwim Delta region. Yup’ik culture is still a 

strong influence in Bethel; the Yup’iit Piciryarait 

Museum plays an active role in the preservation of the 

local cultural heritage. 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Bethel Bethel Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

600 400 200 0 200 400 

Male 

Female 

600 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Bethel 

2000 Racial Structure 

Bethel 

Data source: US Census

Other

0.5%

Pacific Islander Two or more 

0.2% races

6.9%

Asian

2.9% White

26.8% 

Black 

0.9% 

Native

61.8%

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Bethel 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Bethel 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1.7% 

Non-Hispanic,

98.3% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Bethel 
398

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Both subsistence and commercial fishing, 

particularly in the salmon and herring fisheries, are 

important parts of the Bethel economy. Because Bethel 

is the only town of substantial size in the region, it has 

become the regional hub for the many smaller villages 

in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Many residents of 

small villages come to Bethel for employment and 

for major services such as medical care. The current 

economy of Bethel reflects this fact: about 50% 

of local jobs are in the government sector, and the 

service sector also accounts for a growing percentage 

of employment. 

The median per capita income in Bethel is 

$20,267, and the median household income is $57,321. 

Approximately 6.5% of the population is unemployed, 

and 27% of residents aged 16 years and older were not 

in the labor force (i.e. not working and not seeking 

work). Approximately 11.2% of residents live below 

the poverty level. 

Governance 

Bethel was incorporated as a second-class city in 

1957. It has a strong mayor form of government. A 

5% sales tax is collected in Bethel as well as a 5% 

alcohol tax, 3% hotel/B&B tax, 6% gaming tax, a fuel 

tax, and a vehicle registration tax. The city is in the 

Bethel recording district and is not within an organized 

borough. A Native governing body, Orutsararmuit 

Native Council, is a federally recognized tribal group 

representing the two-thirds of Bethel residents who 

are of Native descent. The Bethel Native Corporation 

is the local for-profit Native governing body. 

The Coastal Villages Region Fund, a Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group, is active in the 

community and promotes employment opportunities 

for residents as well as participation in the Bering 

Sea crab and groundfish fisheries. There is a National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office and 

an Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

office located in Bethel. The nearest office of the 

U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Facilities and infrastructure in Bethel are well 

developed in comparison to other cities and towns 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters 

Bethel Bethel 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 2.1 

97.9 

4.4 

95.6 

1990 2000 

Year 

2000 Employment Structure 

Non-group quarters

Group quarters 

Bethel 

Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure 

Bethel 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

0.4% 

Not Seeking,

27%

Unemployed,

6.5% Employed,

66.1% 

in the region. There is a 6,400 foot paved runway 

with propeller and jet plane service to the city from 

Anchorage and other cities. Roundtrip airfare from 

Bethel to Anchorage is approximately $206. There is 

also a 1,850 foot gravel runway, and two floatplane 

bases. The Port of Bethel, on the Kuskokwim River, 

is a busy shipping port that receives supplies for 

residents throughout the area. There are only 16 miles 

of local roads, and transportation in winter is generally 

by snow machines.

There is a central piped water and sewer system, 

operated by the city, but only some residences are 

connected to it. Many houses have their own wells and 

septic tanks. There is a city-operated landfill. Electricity 

comes from the Bethel Utilities Corporation and is 

produced by a diesel generator. Other public services 

include the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta Regional 

Hospital, operated by the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Bethel 
399

Corporation, and police, fire and rescue services, 

operated by the city. There are six schools in Bethel, 

with a total of 87 teachers and 1,328 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the salmon 

fisheries of Kuskokwim Bay and Bristol Bay, is an 

important part of the local economy of Bethel. In 

2000 there were 201 registered crew members. There 

were two vessel owners with operations in federal 

fisheries and 22 vessel owners with operations in state 

fisheries who resided in the community. In 2000, 199 

local residents held a total of 213 commercial fishing 

permits and 133 permits were actually fished. This 

section contains a detailed description of permits 

issued to Bethel residents.

Halibut: Three halibut longline permits were 

issued for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters, 

and one permit was fished.

Herring: Twenty-one residents held a total of 21 

permits for the herring fishery, and 6 permits were 

fished. A detailed breakdown of these permits is as 

follows: six herring roe gillnet permits for Nelson 

Island (one fished), two herring roe gillnet permits 

for Bristol Bay (none fished), two herring roe gillnet 

permits for Nunivak Island (one fished), four herring 

roe gillnet permits for Cape Avinof (one fished), five 

herring roe gillnet permits for Goodnews Bay (one 

fished), and two herring roe gillnet permits for Cape 

Romanzof (two fished).

Other Finfish: A total of two permits were issued 

for miscellaneous finfish, including one for set gillnet 

vessels in statewide waters and one for longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters. No permits 

were fished.

Salmon: One hundred eighty-six local residents 

held a total of 187 permits for the salmon fishery, 

and 126 permits were fished. A detailed breakdown 

of these permits is as follows: 11 salmon drift gillnet 

permits for Bristol Bay (11 fished), one salmon set 

gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (none fished), 161 

salmon set gillnet permits for Kuskokwim Bay (105 

fished), and 14 salmon set gillnet permits for the lower 

Yukon River (10 fished). 

In 2000, there were five commercial fish processors 

in Bethel taking landings from federally managed 

fisheries, with a total of 123.4 tons in landings. These 

landings were comprised entirely of halibut, delivered 

by 167 vessels. In addition, 95 vessels delivered salmon 

landings to processors in Bethel; the specific tonnage 

of landings for salmon is confidential, however, in 

accordance with confidentiality requirements. In 2003, 

Bethel received $20,338 in federal salmon disaster 

funds to compensate the community for falling salmon 

prices. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing, while less significant than 

commercial and subsistence fishing, is nevertheless 

an important part of Bethel’s involvement in North 

Pacific fisheries. In 2000, a total of 570 sport fishing 

licenses were sold in Bethel, most of them (410) to 

Alaska residents. In 2002, there were two registered 

sport fishing guides for freshwater and no registered 

guides for saltwater sport fishing. Major sport fish 

species include salmon, rainbow trout, Dolly Varden, 

arctic grayling, and northern pike. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence hunting and fishing are practiced in 

Bethel. However, detailed data on subsistence resource 

uses from the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence is 

lacking. In 1999, 1,508 households in Bethel held 

subsistence salmon harvesting permits, and harvested 

Chinook, sockeye, Coho and chum salmon, mostly from 

the Kuskokwim Bay and Kuskokwim River. Bethel 

has a Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC) issued by NMFS, which allows residents to 

harvest halibut for subsistence uses. These allocations 

are based on recognized customary and traditional 

uses of halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence 

halibut fishing were published in the Federal Register 

in April 2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Additional Information 

The Camai festival, a three-day event celebrating 

Yup’ik dance and traditional culture, is held annually 

in Bethel. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Bethel 
400

Chefornak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Chefornak is located on the south bank of the 

Kinia River, near its mouth at Etolin Strait. It is 98 air 

miles southwest of Bethel and 490 miles southwest of 

Anchorage. The area encompasses 5.7 square miles of 

land and 0.8 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000 there were 394 residents of Chefornak 

in 75 households. All residents lived in households 

rather than group quarters. The racial composition 

of the community was as follows: Alaska Native or 

American Indian (93.4%), White (2.0%), and two or 

more races (4.6%). A total of 98% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. The gender makeup was not hugely 

disparate, at 51.5% male and 48.5% female. The 

median age in the community, 20.8 years, was quite 

a bit younger than the U.S. national average of 35.3 

years. Approximately 60.2% of residents 25 years of 

age and older had a high school degree or higher level 

of education. 

History 

The area of Chefornak has historically been 

occupied by Yup’ik Eskimos. The original village 

was located on Etolin Strait, in the Bering Sea, until 

residents moved in the 1950s to its current site, one 

mile inland, in order to avoid flooding. The Native 

village corporation of Chefornak, Chefarnrmute Inc., 

was granted a land entitlement under the Alaska Native 

Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1971. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing is a mainstay of the local 

economy. In addition, subsistence fishing and hunting 

are important to nearly all residents of Chefornak. 

The median per capita income in 2000 was $8,474 

and the median household income was $35,553. 

Unemployment in Chefornak was 7.9%, and 33.7% of 

residents aged 16 years and older were not in the labor 

force (i.e. not working and not in the labor force). 

Approximately 25.1% of individuals in the community 

lived below the poverty level. 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Chefornak Chefornak

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

60 40 20 0 20 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Chefornak 

Data Source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Chefornak 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more White 

races 2.0% 

Native 

93.4% 

4.6% 

2000 Employment Structure

Chefornak 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Chefornak 

Data source: US Census 

60 

Not Seeking,

33.7% 

Employed,

58.4% 

Unemployed,

7.9%

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Chefornak 
401

Governance 

Chefornak was incorporated as a second-class city 

in 1974 and has a strong-mayor form of government. 

In Chefornak a 2% sales tax is collected. In addition 

to the city government there is also a village council, 

an important body of local Native governance. In 

addition, the village corporation, Chefarnmute Inc., is 

a federally recognized Native organization. The village 

is a member of the Calista Corporation, a regional 

Native corporation. 

The Coastal Villages Region Fund, a Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group, is active in the 

community and promotes employment opportunities 

for residents as well as participation in the Bering Sea 

crab and groundfish fisheries. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Access to Chefornak is primarily by air. There is a 

2,500 foot gravel airstrip owned by the state, as well as 

a seaplane base. Roundtrip airfare from Chefornak to 

Anchorage, via Bethel, is approximately $380. Small 

boats can also navigate the Kinia River to its mouth on 

Etolin Strait. 

There is no piped water or sewer system; most 

residents rely on wells and septic tanks. There is a cityoperated landfill. Electricity is provided by Naterkaq 

Light Plant, a city-operated facility that produces 

power with a diesel generator. There is a health clinic, 

owned by the city and operated with cooperation from 

the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation. There is 

one school in the community, which offers instruction 

to students grades K-12. The school has a total of 8 

teachers and 147 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000, there were eight vessel owners residing 

in the community who operated in federally managed 

fisheries. There were 21 registered crew members in 

the community. In 2000, 27 local residents held a total 

of 56 commercial fishing permits, and 24 permits were 

fished. This section contains a detailed description of 

Chefornak’s commercial fishing permits.

Halibut: Eighteen residents held a total of 27 

permits for the halibut fishery, and 10 permits were 

fished. These permits included the following: 13 halibut 

hand troll permits for statewide waters (3 fished), and 

14 halibut longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (10 fished).

Herring: Twenty residents held a total of 22 permits 

for the herring fishery, and 9 permits were fished. These 

permits included the following: 7 herring roe gillnet 

permits for Nelson Island (2 fished), one herring roe 

gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (none fished), and 14 

herring roe gillnet permits for Cape Avinof (7 fished).

Salmon: Seven local residents held a total of 

seven permits for the salmon fishery, and five permits 

were fished. These permits included the following: 

five salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay 

(five fished), and two salmon set gillnet permits for 

Kuskokwim Bay (none fished).

In 2000 there was one commercial fishing 

processing plant in Chefornak. Detailed information 

on landings is unavailable, in accordance with 

confidentiality requirements. 

Sport Fishing 

Given its remote location, sport fishing is not 

significant in Chefornak. Detailed data on sport fishing 

activities and permits for Chefornak are unavailable. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have detailed information 

on subsistence resource use in Chefornak. The 

community holds a Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC), which means its residents 

are eligible to harvest subsistence halibut. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. In 1999, 94 households held permits to 

harvest subsistence salmon.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Chefornak 
402

Clark’s Point (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Clark’s Point is situated on the northeastern shore 

of Nushagak Bay in the Dillingham Census Area. 

It is about 15 miles from Dillingham and 337 miles 

southwest of Anchorage. It makes up 3.1 square miles 

of land and 0.9 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 75 inhabitants in Clark’s Point 

according to the 2000 U.S. Census, and of those, 53.3% 

were male and 46.7% were female. According to the 

North Pacific Fishery Management Council, Clark’s 

Point “is the summer working grounds of about 300 

additional people who work the sockeye salmon runs” 

(p. 152). Since about 1980 the population has remained 

relatively stable, fluctuating from 60 to 79 residents. 

Prior to that, the population topped 100 people in 

the 1950s and 1960s. During 1930s and 1940s the 

population was only around 12. In 2000, about 90.7% 

of the residents were American Indian and Alaska 

Native, 6.7% were White, 1.3% was Native Hawaiian 

and Other Pacific Islander, and 1.3% was of two or 

more races. About 92.0% of the population of Clark’s 

Point identified themselves as all or part American 

Indian and Alaska Native. No one in the community 

was Hispanic. The median age of the community was 

30.5 years, significantly lower than the national median 

of 35.3 years. There were a total of 51 housing units, 

27 of which were vacant and 22 were vacant due to 

seasonal use. No one in the population lived in group 

quarters. Of the population age 25 and over, 76.5% 

had graduated from high school or a higher level of 

education and 3.9% had obtained a bachelor’s degree 

or higher. 

History 

Originally Clark’s Point was called by the Eskimo 

name “Saguyak.” There is no evidence that the area 

of Clark’s Point had been settled before the Nushagak 

Packing Company cannery was established there in 

1888. The village of Clark’s Point was named after the 

manager of the Alaska Commercial Company store 

at Nushagak, John Clark. Prior to the opening of the 

cannery it is reported that Clark had opened a saltery 

in the area. The Nushagak Packing Company cannery 

became a member of the Alaska Packers Association in 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Clarks Point Clark's Point

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

Male 

Female 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

15 10 5 0 5 10 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Clark's Point 2000 Racial Structure 

Clarks Point 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races

1.3%

White Pacific Islander 

1.3% 6.7% 

Native 

2000 Employment Structure 90.7%

Clark's Point

 Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Clarks Point Data source: US Census 

Employed,

42.4% 

Not Seeking,

52.5% 

Unemployed,

5.1% 

Age 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Clark’s Point 
403

1893. A two-line cannery was built in the community in 

1901, but during WWII the canning operation ceased 

and only salting was done. A major flood took place 

in Clark’s Point in 1929. By 1952 the processing plant 

was shut down permanently and at that time was used 

as headquarters for the Alaska Packers Association’s 

fishing fleet. In 1971 the City was incorporated. In 1982 

a housing project was constructed on the bluff which 

is both higher and safer ground, as the community has 

had major problems with erosion and past floods. The 

processing plant was purchased by Trident in 1987, 

but there hasn’t been any processing at the plant since 

the 1950s. Since then the plant has “been used mainly 

as a fish camp, storing boats and providing services, 

bunkhouse rooms, ice, groceries and meal services” 

and was put up for sale by Trident at the beginning of 

2002 at which time the company said that would be the 

last summer they would operate the facility (Juneau 

Daily News Online 2002). 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Clark’s Point is based, for the most 

part, on commercial fishing. In 2000, 28 commercial 

fishing permits were issued to residents of the 

community and there were 30 licensed crew members. 

All community members are dependent on subsistence 

to a certain extent and many will travel large distances 

to acquire resources if necessary. Of the population 

of Clark’s Point age 16 years and over in 2000, about 

42.4% were employed, 5.1% were unemployed, and 

52.5% were not in the labor force. Of those employed, 

about 56.0% were listed as government employees. 

The per capita income in 2000 was $10,989 and the 

median household income was $28,125. About 45.7% 

of the population lived below the poverty level at the 

time of the Census. 

Governance 

Clark’s Point is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1971. Clark’s Point is not part of an 

organized borough. The city has a strong mayor form 

of government including the mayor, a six person city 

council, a four-person advisory school board, and 

various municipal employees. There is a 5% sales 

tax in Clark’s Point, but no property tax. The regional 

Native corporation for the area and is the Bristol Bay 

Native Corporation. The Native village corporation is 

Saguyak Inc., and the traditional council, recognized 

by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), is the Clark’s 

Point Village Council. The Community Development 

Quota (CDQ) group in which the city is included is 

the Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation. 

The regional non-profit organization for the area is the 

Bristol Bay Native Association. The closest office of 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) 

is located in Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and 

a main office is located in Anchorage. The nearest 

Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Clark’s Point is accessible by both the air and 

water, although air travel is the more common method 

of traveling to the community. There is a 2,600 foot 

gravel runway owned by the State and floatplanes are 

able to land on the Nushagak River. The approximate 

cost according to Travelocity and Expedia to travel by 

air roundtrip to Anchorage from Clark’s Point is $399 

(price given for date as close to September 1, 2003 

as possible). Freight is barged to Dillingham and then 

transported to Clark’s Point. An underdeveloped spit 

dock owned by the City is the only boat moorage so 

boats, therefore, land on the beach. Trident Seafoods 

owns a private dock at their facility. The main 

means of transportation for locals is either ATVs or 

snowmachines. There are no visitor accommodations 

in the community. There is one school, Clark’s Point 

School, which teaches grades K-7 with 17 students 

and 2 teachers in 2000. Health care is available from 

Clark’s Point Health Clinic which is operated by the 

Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation (BBAHC) and 

is owned by the City. The clinic is located in a flood 

plain and is in need of replacement. There are no 

police services in the community. The electric utility 

is the City of Clark’s Point with a main power source 

of diesel. The water system is operated by the City and 

about 80% of residents are connected to this system. 

The remaining residents use individual wells. The 

City also operates the sewer system with the buildings 

located on the bluff connected to 40% of homes and 

the school. Those who live below the bluff use septic 

tanks or pit privies and both the city offices and the 

clinic use honeybuckets. The City also operates the 

landfill but refuse collection is not available. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Clark’s Point 
404

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 28 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Clarks Point in 2000 and 30 

residents were licensed crew members. No vessel 

owners resident in Clarks Point participated in the 

federal fisheries, although 10 resident vessel owners 

participated in the salmon fishery. 

Of the 28 permits issued to community members, 

22 were fished in 2000. Six permits were issued 

for halibut using longline on a vessel under 60 feet 

statewide (none fished). Nine permits were issued for 

herring roe: four using gillnets in Security Cove (two 

fished) and five using gillnets in Bristol Bay (four 

fished). A total of 13 permits were issued for salmon: 

8 using drift gillnets in Bristol Bay (11 fished) and 5 

using set gillnets in Bristol Bay (5 fished). 

There were a total of 87 vessels which delivered 

salmon landings to the community of Clarks Point in 

2000. In accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

landings data for the community are unavailable. It 

is not clear why salmon landings are delivered to the 

community if no processor is in operation in Clark’s 

Point. 

The community was recently granted $174,475 

in federal salmon disaster funds. The CDQ group 

in which Clark’s Point is included, the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC) was 

recently granted $75,026 by the Southwest Alaska 

Municipal Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion 

Mitigation Program “in recognition of the negative 

economic impacts of federal measures to protect the 

Steller sea lion” with money which had been allocated 

by the U.S. government (Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing does not seem to be much of an 

attraction for tourists to the community of Clark’s 

Point and the support systems necessary for this 

industry are currently not available. According to the 

ADF&G there were no sport fishing licenses sold in 

the community in 2000 and no sport fishing guide 

businesses in Clark’s Point which were listed for 2002. 

It is mentioned by ADF&G that king salmon can be 

caught by sport fishers on the Nushagak River and the 

Togiak National Wildlife Refuge, which is west of the 

community “is well-suited for salmon and trout sport 

fishing” (inAlaska.com 2003). 

Subsistence Fishing 

All residents of the community are dependent on 

subsistence to an extent, and exchange relationships 

are in place with near communities such as the trading 

of smelt for whitefish with Ekwok, New Stuyahok 

and Bethel, and the trading of moose for lingcod from 

Manakotak. According to the ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence, in the survey year of 1989 the per capita 

wild food harvest by residents of Clark’s Point was 

363.0lbs. About 94.1% of households in the community 

used Chinook salmon, 100% used sockeye salmon, 

94.1% used smelt, 76.5% used caribou, 41% used 

Dolly Varden and pike, and 29.4% used herring roe on 

kelp. The ADF&G reported in 1999 that 15 household 

subsistence salmon permits were issued to those from 

the community for an estimated total of 1,218 harvested 

salmon. Residents of Clark’s Point are eligible to apply 

for halibut subsistence certificates. These allocations 

are based on recognized customary and traditional 

uses of halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence 

halibut fishing were published in the Federal Register 

in April 2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Clark’s Point 
405

Dillingham (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Dillingham is situated on the very northern end 

of Nushagak Bay at the junction of the Nushagak 

and Wood Rivers. It is in northern Bristol Bay in the 

Dillingham Census Area and is 327 miles southwest 

of Anchorage. The community includes 33.6 square 

miles of land and 2.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 2,466 inhabitants in the 

community of Dillingham at the time of the 2000 

U.S. Census. The gender breakdown was 51.6% male 

and 48.4% female. The population of Dillingham 

shrunk between 1920 and 1930, but since then has 

continued to rise to the 2,475 inhabitants counted by 

a state demographer in 2002. The population of the 

community doubles during spring and summer due to 

the seasonality of commercial fishing and the operation 

of fish processing plants. In 2000 about 52.6% of the 

population of Dillingham was American Indian and 

Alaska Native, 35.6% was White, 1.2% was Asian, 

0.6% was Black or African American, 0.6% was 

some other race, and 9.4% was of two or more races. 

When race alone or in combination with one or more 

other races is taken into account, about 60.9% of the 

population was American Indian and Alaska Native, 

and 43.1% was White. About 3.5% of the population 

was Hispanic. The median age of Dillingham was 32.8 

years, significantly lower than the national median of 

35.3 years. There were a total of 1,000 housing units 

in the community of which 116 were vacant, and of 

those, 39 were vacant due to seasonal use. About 1.3% 

of the population lived in group quarters at the time of 

the 2000 Census. About 83.5% of the population of the 

community age 25 and over had graduated from high 

school or higher, and 21.9% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

According to inAlaska.com “Yup’ik and 

Athabascan people settled the region, known as 

Naugeik, more than 6,000 years ago.” Historically, 

an Eskimo and Athabascan village was situated at 

the north end of Nushagak Bay and was known as 

“Aleknuguk” or “Chogium” (North Pacific Fishery 

Management Council, p. 143). In 1818 the Russians 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Dillingham Dillingham

Data Source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

300 200 100 0 100 200 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure 

Dillingham Dillingham 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Two or more 

Other races

0.6% 9.4%

Asian 

1.2% 

Native

52.6%

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Dillingham

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Dillingham 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 3.5% 

Non-Hispanic,

96.5% 

Male 

Female 

300 

White 

35.6% 

Black 

0.6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Dillingham 
406

established the fur trading post Alexandrovski Redoubt, 

and the area became a trade center. Native peoples 

from the Kuskokwim Region, Alaska Peninsula, and 

Cook Inlet came to the post to visit or live. In 1837 a 

Russian Orthodox mission was erected and at that time 

the village was known as Nushagak. The U.S. Signal 

Corps established a meteorological station in the 

community in 1881. The first salmon cannery in the 

Bristol Bay region was built east of the site of modern 

day Dillingham by Arctic Packing Co. in 1884. This 

“turned the community into a primarily fishing village 

that attracted Aleut, Eskimo and Athabascan Indian 

fishermen from all over the area” (North Pacific 

Fishery Management Council, p. 143). In the next 17 

years, 10 more canneries were established. After U.S. 

Senator Paul Dillingham’s 1903 tour of Alaska with 

his Senate subcommittee, the town and post office 

at Snag Point were named after him. The region was 

struck by the 1918-19 influenza epidemic and there 

were no more than 500 survivors, including no one 

under the age of two. After the epidemic, a hospital 

and orphanage were built in Kanakanak six miles from 

the center of present-day of Dillingham. The town site 

of Dillingham was first surveyed in 1947 and the City 

became incorporated in 1963. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Dillingham is based primarily on 

the fishing industry. The main activities are commercial 

fishing, fish processing, cold storage, and support of 

the fishing industry. Revenue is also generated by the 

sport fishing industry. The community is the economic, 

transportation, and public service center for western 

Bristol Bay. The processors of Peter Pan Seafoods, 

Triton Fisheries, Icicle, and Unisea are present in 

Dillingham. In 2000, 457 commercial fishing permits 

were issued to residents of Dillingham and there were 

a total of 481 licensed crew members which were 

residents. Each year the population doubles during 

spring and summer because of seasonal workers in 

the commercial fishing sector. Seasonal employment 

is aided in stabilizing by the city’s role as the regional 

center for government and services. Many residents are 

dependent on subsistence activities. Of the population 

age 16 years and over in 2000, about 67.6% were 

employed, 5.2% were unemployed, 0.2% were in the 

armed forces, and 27.0% were not in the labor force. 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters

Dillingham Dillingham 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

99.9 

0.1 

98.7 

1.3 

1990 2000 

Year 

Non-group quarters 

Group quarters 

2000 Employment Structure

Dillingham

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Dillingham 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

0.2% 

Not Seeking, 27% 

Unemployed,

5.2% 

Employed,

67.6% 

Of those employed, about 37.9% were classified as 

having been government workers. In 2000, the per 

capita income of Dillingham was $21,537 with the 

median household income was $51,458. 

Governance 

Dillingham is a first-class city which was 

incorporated in 1963. It has a manager form of 

government which includes a mayor, seven-person city 

council, five person school board, five person planning 

commission, and various municipal employees, 

including a police chief. The city is not part of any 

organized borough. A 6% sales tax is imposed as 

well as an 11.0 mills property tax, 10% liquor tax, 

6% gaming tax, and a 10% accommodations tax. The 

regional Native corporation in which Dillingham is 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Dillingham 
407

included is the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, and 

the regional non-profit for the area is the Bristol Bay 

Native Association. The Native village corporations are 

Choggiung Ltd. (a merged corporation of Dillingham, 

Ekuk, and Portage Creek) and Olsonville, Inc. which 

is a Native village corporation and an ANCSA Native 

Group. The Community Development Quota (CDQ) 

group in which the city is included is the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC). The 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional 

Council is the Curyung Native Village Council, also 

known as the Native Village of Dillingham. The closest 

office of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) is located within Dillingham. A National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located 

in Bethel, an office is located in Homer, and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

The city of Dillingham is accessible by both air 

and sea. A 6,404 foot paved runway and flight service 

station is owned by the state and regular jet flights 

are available from Anchorage. The approximate cost 

of a roundtrip flight to Anchorage from Dillingham, 

according to Travelocity and Expedia, is $319 (price 

given for date as close to September 1, 2003 as 

possible). There is a seaplane base owned by the U.S. 

Bureau of Land Management’s Division of Lands and a 

heliport is available at Kanakanak Hospital. The small 

boat harbor is a tidal harbor for seasonal use with 320 

slips, a dock, barge landing, boat launch, and haul-out 

facilities and it is City-operated. There are two barge 

lines which make trips from Seattle to the community. 

There is a gravel road connecting the community 

of Aleknagik to Dillingham. Accommodations are 

available at five different inns, lodges, and B&Bs. 

There are two schools in the community; Dillingham 

Elementary School which teaches preschool through 

5th grade, and Dillingham Middle/High School which 

teaches grades 6 through 12. In 2000 there were a 

total of 526 students at both schools and a total of 

40 teachers. Health care is available at Kanakanak 

Hospital, Dillingham Medical Clinic, and Dillingham 

Health Clinic which are owned and operated by the 

U.S. Public Health Service. The Kanakanak Hospital 

is an Acute Care facility. Police services are available 

from the City Department of Public Safety and from 

the State Troopers Post. The electric utility is the 

Nushugak Electric Cooperative which is operated 

by REA Co-op with the main power source being 

diesel. This plant also supplies power to Aleknagik. 

The City operates a piped water system, but there are 

also individual wells as well for the 60% of the homes 

which are not served by the piped system. The sewer 

system is also operated by the City, although about 

75% of the residents have septic systems. The refuse 

collector is Dillingham Refuse Inc. and the landfill is 

operated by the City. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

The community of Dillingham is very involved 

in commercial fishing which forms the economic 

base of the community. In fact, the population of the 

community doubles during the fishing season. There 

were a total of 457 commercial fishing permits issued 

to residents of Dillingham in 2000 and 481 licensed 

crew members which were residents. Ten resident 

vessel owners participated in the federal fisheries in 

2000 and 147 vessel owner residents participated in 

the salmon fishery. Out of the total of 457 commercial 

fishing permits issued to residents of the community, a 

total of 294 were fished in 2000. 

Halibut: Forty-four permits were issued for the 

commercial fishing of halibut: 40 were issued using 

longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (13 fished) 

and 4 were issued using longline on a vessel over 60 

feet statewide (one fished). 

Herring: In regards to herring, 164 permits were 

issued to residents of Dillingham and of those 50 were 

fished. One permit was issued for herring roe using 

a purse seine in Prince William Sound (none fished), 

one for herring roe using a purse seine on the Alaska 

Peninsula (none fished), 15 for herring roe using a 

purse seine in Bristol Bay (3 fished), one for herring 

roe using a beach seine in Norton Sound (none fished), 

38 for herring roe using a gillnet in Security Cove (4 

fished), 74 for herring roe using a gillnet in Bristol 

Bay (43 fished), 2 for herring roe using a gillnet in 

Goodnews Bay (none fished), one for herring roe 

using a gillnet in Norton Sound (none fished), and 31 

* Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Dillingham and Portage

Creek combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Dillingham 
408

for herring spawn on kelp gathered by diving or hand 

picked in Bristol Bay (none fished). 

Groundfish: A total of four permits were issued 

for other groundfish and of those none were fished in 

2000. One permit was issued for miscellaneous salt 

water finfish using longline on a vessel under 60 feet 

statewide and three were issued for miscellaneous 

saltwater finfish using a mechanical jig statewide.

Salmon: Two hundred forty five permits were 

issued for salmon and of those 230 were fished. A 

total of 140 were issued for salmon using a drift gillnet 

in Bristol Bay (137 fished), 102 using a set gillnet in 

Bristol Bay (93 fished), one using a set gillnet in the 

Kuskokwim (not fished), and 2 using a set gillnet in 

the Lower Yukon (none fished). 

Salmon landings were delivered to the community 

of Dillingham by 441 vessels in 2000. In accordance 

with confidentiality regulations, landings data for 

the community are unavailable. No landings were 

delivered to the community for any other fisheries. The 

processors of Icicle, Peter Pan, Trident, and Unisea all 

are present in the community. 

The city of Dillingham was allocated $119,145 in 

federal salmon disaster funds in July of 2003 because 

of the recent drop in salmon prices and loss in taxes 

generated. The CDQ group in which Clark’s Point 

is included, the Bristol Bay Economic Development 

Corporation (BBEDC), was recently granted $75,026 

by the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as 

part of the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation program “in 

recognition of the negative economic impacts of federal 

measures to protect the Steller sea lion” with money 

which had been allocated by the U.S. government 

(Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing seems to play an important role in 

Dillingham. Many businesses in the community cater 

to this industry and a large number of licenses are sold 

each year. Many species of fish are fished for sport 

in and around Dillingham including but not limited 

to king salmon, chum, Coho, pink salmon, rainbow 

trout, arctic grayling, arctic char, northern pike, Dolly 

Varden, and the area “is home to the world’s largest 

sockeye (red) salmon fishery” (Alaskaoutdoors.com 

2003). According to the ADF&G, in 2000 there were 

674 sport fishing licenses sold in Dillingham to Alaska 

State residents and a grand total of 2210 licenses sold 

to residents of non- residents. The ADF&G reported 

listings for sport fishing guide businesses in the year 

2002: 2 listings for saltwater guide businesses, 20 

for freshwater guide businesses, 14 for full service 

guiding services, 12 for lodge/resort services, and 5 

for aircraft/fly-in services. These numbers attest to the 

fact that sport fishing is a major tourist attraction for 

the area. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Many community members are dependent on 

subsistence resources, apparently used by almost all 

households in Dillingham. The ADF&G report for 

the most representative year for Dillingham,1984, 

showed that 98.0% of households used all subsistence 

resources: 88.2% salmon, 75.0% non-salmon fish 

(herring, herring roe, smelt, cod, halibut, blackfish, 

burbot, char, grayling, pike, trout, and whitefish), 26.8% 

marine mammals, and 13.1% marine invertebrates. 

The per capita harvest for all subsistence resources by 

community members was 242.23 lbs: 58.37% salmon, 

7.21% non-salmon fish, 1.23% marine mammals, 

0.50% marine invertebrates, 2.19% birds and eggs, 

27.20% land mammals, and 3.30% vegetation. 

The ADF&G reported that in 1999 there were 343 

household subsistence salmon permits which were 

issued to residents of Dillingham. Residents are also 

eligible to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

These allocations are based on recognized customary 

and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to 

implement subsistence halibut fishing were published 

in the Federal Register in April 2003 and became 

effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Dillingham 
409

Eek (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Eek is located on the south bank of the Eek River, 

12 miles east of the mouth of the Kuskokwim River. It 

is 35 air miles south of Bethel and 420 miles west of 

Anchorage. The area encompasses 0.9 square miles of 

land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000 there were 280 residents and 76 households 

in Eek. The community was primarily a Yup’ik 

Eskimo village. All residents lived in households 

rather than in group quarters. The racial composition 

of the community was as follows: Alaska Native or 

American Indian (95.7%), White (3.2%), and two or 

more races (1.1%). A total of 96.8% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. About 0.4% of the population (one 

resident) was of Hispanic origin. The gender ratio was 

significantly skewed, at 54.6% male and 45.4% female. 

The median age was 24 years, quite young compared to 

the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. Approximately 

64.2% of residents 25 years of age or older had a high 

school degree or higher level of education. 

History 

The village of Eek was originally located on 

the Apokok River, several miles south of its present 

location. It was moved in the 1930s to avoid the 

constant problem of flooding. A Bureau of Indian 

Affairs school and a Moravian Church were constructed 

shortly after the move. The village’s post office was 

established in 1949, and the village was incorporated 

as a second-class city in 1970. Today most residents 

have a subsistence lifestyle, depending on local fish 

and game. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Eek is a mixture of commercial 

fishing and subsistence hunting and fishing. Many 

local residents have commercial fishing permits for 

Bristol Bay and Kuskokwim Bay fisheries. The median 

per capita income in Eek is $8,957 and the median 

household income is $17,500. Approximately 7.5% 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Eek Eek Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Male 

Female 

30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Eek

Data source: US Census Eek 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more White 

Native 

95.7% 

races 3.2%

1.1% 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

40 

Age 

Not Seeking,

57.9% 

2000 Employment Structure

Eek

 Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure

Eek

Data source: US Census 

Employment,

34.6% 

Unemployment,

7.5% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Eek 
410

of the local work force is unemployed and 28.8% of 

individuals live below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Eek incorporated as a second-class city in 1970. 

It is classified as “unorganized” (i.e. not under the 

jurisdiction of a Borough). It has a strong mayor form 

of government. The city administers a 2% sales tax; 

it has no property tax or other special taxes. Eek is 

federally recognized Native community with a village 

council. Its village corporation, the Iqfijouaq Company, 

is another important body of local Native governance. 

Eek is a member of the Coastal Villages Region Fund, 

a Community Development Quota (CDQ) group that 

promotes employment opportunities for residents 

as well as participation in the Bering Sea crab and 

groundfish fisheries. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Eek is accessible by air via a 1,400 foot sand and 

gravel airstrip. There is also a seaplane base on the Eek 

River. Roundtrip airfare from Eek to Anchorage, via 

Bethel, is approximately $465. Local transportation is 

by fishing boat, skiff, and snowmachine. Water is from 

the Eek River and is treated and stored locally. Most 

houses do not have plumbing. There is a city-operated 

landfill. Electricity is provided by AVEC and is 

produced by a diesel generator. The Eek Health Clinic 

is owned by the city and operates in cooperation with 

the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation. There is 

one school in the community, which offers instruction 

to students in grades K-12 and has a total of 7 teachers 

and 76 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing, particularly in the Bristol 

Bay and Kuskokwim Bay salmon fisheries, is a vital 

part of the economy of Eek. In 2000, 45 local residents 

held a total of 55 commercial fishing permits, and 43 

permits were fished. There were 11 vessel owners 

with operations in non-federal fisheries residing in 

the community, and 51 crew members residing in the 

community. This section contains a detailed description 

of commercial permits issued to Eek residents.

Halibut: Four total permits were issued, including 

one halibut hand troll permit for statewide waters and 

three halibut longline permits for vessels under 60 feet 

in statewide waters. No permits were fished.

Herring: Seven local residents held a total of seven 

commercial permits for the herring fishery, and three 

permits were fished. These included the following: one 

herring roe gillnet permit for Cape Avinof (not fished), 

and six herring roe gillnet permits for Goodnews Bay 

(three fished).

Salmon: Forty-five local residents held a total of 

55 commercial permits for the salmon fishery, and 

43 permits were fished. These permits included the 

following: four salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol 

Bay (three fished), 39 salmon set gillnet permits for 

Kuwkokwim Bay (36 fished), and one salmon set 

gillnet permit for the lower Yukon River (one fished).

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

in Eek and therefore no registered landings. 

Sport Fishing 

Because of Eek’s relatively isolated location, sport 

fishing is negligible. There were no reported sport 

license sales in Eek for 2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have any specific data on 

subsistence activities in Eek. However, the community 

has a Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC), which means that residents are entitled 

to harvest subsistence halibut. In 1999 a total of 

67 households held permits to harvest subsistence 

salmon. These allocations are based on recognized 

customary and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations 

to implement subsistence halibut fishing were 

published in the Federal Register in April 2003 and 

became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Eek 
411

Ekuk (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Ekuk is situated on the east coast of Nushagak Bay 

and spreads out for approximately two miles along a 

slender gravel spit which extends from Ekuk Bluffs 

in a hook shape. The community is about 17 miles 

south of Dillingham and makes up 4.7 square miles of 

land but has no water area under its jurisdiction. It is 

located in the Dillingham Census Area. 

Demographic Profile* 

In 2000 there were two inhabitants of Ekuk, one 

male and one female. They both were White with a 

median age of 75 years. The two residents present at 

the time of the 2000 Census were the only year round 

residents and most likely the cannery watchman and the 

watchman’s spouse. The population of the community 

has undergone changes over recent decades. The 1960 

U.S. Census reported 40 inhabitants, 51 inhabitants in 

1970, and 7 residents by the 1980. In 1990 the population 

was three, which reduced to the two reported by the 

2000 Census. According to the most recent figures by 

a State Demographer, in 2002 there were five residents 

of Ekuk. In 2000 there were 73 total housing units in 

Ekuk and of those only one was occupied. The other 

72 were vacant due to seasonal use. Both residents of 

Ekuk lived in households in 2000. The Wards Cove 

Packing Co. had been in operation in Ekuk, but closed 

in 2002. During the operation of Wards Cove Packing, 

a work force resided in Ekuk seasonally, including 200 

workers at its peak. The current population of Ekuk 

is made up of seasonal subsistence users, seasonal 

commercial set netters, and possibly those operating 

the buying station for Yardarm Knot Fisheries during 

the salmon season. 

History 

The name Ekuk means “the last village down,” 

which reflects that the village is the community 

farthest south on the Nushagak Bay. Russian accounts 

first document the village in 1824 and 1828 as Village 

Ekouk and Seleniye Ikuk. Ekuk is believed to have been 

a major Eskimo village at one time in history. After 

1818 the Russians employed the Natives of the area 

as guides as they navigated their boats up Nushagak 

Bay to the Aleksandrovsk trading post. Many residents 

of the community moved to the Moravian Mission 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Ekuk Data source: US Census Ekuk 

Data source: US Census 

White 100% 

2000 Employment Structure

Ekuk 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Ekuk

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking, Employment,

50% 50% 

* Ekuk was not considered to be a “Place” level geography by

the 2000 U.S. Census; however it was considered an Alaska 

Native village statistical area (ANVSA). The 2000 Census data 

used in this section was located for Ekuk in the Census geographic category of “Reservation or Statistical Entity.” 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Ekuk 
412

at Carmel prior to the opening of the North Alaska 

Salmon Company cannery in Ekuk in 1903. Many 

residents were also drawn away from the village by the 

opening of additional canneries on both sides of the 

bay between 1888 and 1889. The Wards Cove Packing 

cannery was built in the 1940’s in Ekuk. A school was 

present in the community during 1958 to 1974. In 

2002 Wards Cove Packing closed down the operation 

of their salmon processing facilities including the 

Ekuk plant because of the drop in salmon prices and 

the decreased participation by fishers in the fishery. 

Yardarm Knot Fisheries recently purchased the Ekuk 

cannery and made it into a buying station for the Ekuk 

salmon set netters. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy* 

In 2000 it appears that all employment for the 

permanent residents was supplied by the cannery. 

All employed residents were classified as having held 

service occupations. In 2000 the per capita income 

was $25,000 and the median household income was 

$51,250. None of the residents lived below the poverty 

level. Ekuk is currently a subsistence-use site, with 

many families having set net sites. Yardarm Knot 

operates a salmon buying station at the old Wards 

Cove cannery for the commercial set netters who most 

likely come from the nearby communities of Clark’s 

Point, South Naknek, and Manokotak which all have 

members who hold set net permits for the Bristol Bay 

area. 

Governance 

Ekuk is unincorporated and is not part of any 

organized borough; therefore there are no city or 

borough employees in the village. The Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional Council 

for the community is the Ekuk Village Council whose 

President is also a Board Representative for the Bristol 

Bay Economic Development Corporation, which is 

the Community Development Quota (CDQ) group 

in which the village is included. The Native village 

corporation is Choggiung, Ltd. which owns most of the 

land and the airstrip in Ekuk. Choggiung, Ltd. is the 

merged Native corporation of Dillingham, Ekuk, and 

Portage Creek. The Native regional corporation is the 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation and the regional nonprofit for the area is the Bristol Bay Native Association. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) to the community is located 

in Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Ekuk can be reached by air and by sea; however, 

air travel is the most common means of transportation 

to the village. The airstrip is a 1,200 foot sand and 

gravel owned by Choggiung, Ltd. The approximate 

cost according to Anchorage from Ekuk is $319 

according to Travelocity and Expedia (price given 

for date as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). 

Flights are available from Dillingham in the summer 

months including both scheduled and charter flights. 

A small dock is located on the south side of the village 

and other private docks are present. The site of the old 

cannery and current buying station has a boat haulout and two docks. The community of Clark’s Point 

which is located two miles north can be reached 

during the winter months by snow-machine. There 

are no accommodations for tourists in the village 

and no school is present in Ekuk. There is no health 

care facility in Ekuk, but a clinic is located in Clark’s 

Point. There are also no police services in the village. 

Individuals run their own generators, collect their own 

refuse, and take care of their sewer and water needs. 

No central facilities are available as the area is, for the 

most part, only seasonally used. Funds were requested 

to drill a community well. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

No one in the village of Ekuk held commercial 

fishing permits in 2000 and there were no resident 

crew members. The only two permanent residents at 

that time were employed as caretakers of the cannery 

which was still in operation during that year. During 

* Ekuk was not considered to be a “Place” level geography

by the year 2000 U.S. Census; however it was considered an

Alaska Native village statistical area (ANVSA). The 2000 Census data used in this section was located for Ekuk in the Census 

geographic category of “Reservation or Statistical Entity.” 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Ekuk 
413

2000, the Wards Cove Packing plant was still in 

operation and had 200 seasonal employees at its peak. 

The plant processed salmon and had a total of 122 

vessels which delivered landings in 2000. In accordance 

with confidentiality regulations, landings data for the 

community are unavailable, most likely because only 

one processor was present in the community. 

In 2002 the Wards Cove plant closed and recently 

the plant was purchased by Yardarm Knot Fisheries, 

which is a Seattle-based company. Yardarm Knot 

Fisheries is currently not processing at the plant, but 

has turned the facility into a buying station for the 

Ekuk salmon set netters. The fish are tendered to the 

company’s Red Salmon Plant in Naknek. The set netters 

most likely come from neighboring communities such 

as Clark’s Point and reside in their own temporary 

camps during the salmon season. 

The CDQ group in which Ekuk is included, the 

Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

(BBEDC), was recently granted $75,026 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

There is no evidence of sport fishing in Ekuk and 

facilities do not currently exist to attract tourists to 

this industry as there is no hotel in the community or 

businesses related to sport fishing. No sport fishing 

licenses were sold in the community in 2000 and no 

sport fishing businesses were listed for the community 

by the ADF&G for 2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

No data were available regarding subsistence 

harvesting in Ekuk, although the village is the site 

of subsistence set net salmon harvesting. Permanent 

residents are also eligible to apply for a permit to 

harvest Nushagak Peninsula caribou. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Ekuk 
414

Ekwok (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Ekwok is situated inland on the Nushagak River 

and is in the Dillingham Census Area. It is located 43 

miles northeast of Dillingham and 285 miles southwest 

of Anchorage. It is comprised of 16 square miles of 

land and 1.4 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000 there were a total of 130 residents in 

Ekwok. The population leaned heavily towards 

males, who made up 53.1% versus 46.9% females. 

The population of Ekwok has fluctuated substantially 

since 1930, the first year a population was officially 

recorded by the U.S. Census; at the time the community 

included 40 people. In recent years, the community has 

fluctuated between about 77 and 130 people. In 2000 

about 91.5% of the residents were American Indian 

and Alaska Native, 6.2% White, and 2.3% were of 

two or more races. When race alone or in combination 

with one or more other races is taken into account, 

about 93.8% of the population was American Indian 

and Alaska Native. No one in the community was 

Hispanic. The median age was 31.5 years, significantly 

younger than the U.S. national median of 35.3 years. 

In 2000 there were 56 total housing units in Ekwok, 

although 14 were vacant, five due to seasonal use. No 

one in the community lived in group quarters. Of the 

population age 25 years and over, about 64.7% had 

graduated from high school or higher, and 5.9% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. About 27.5% 

of the population age 25 and over had completed less 

than 9th grade.

History 

Yup’ik and Athabascan people settled in the region 

more than 6,000 years ago (inAlaska.com). Ekwok 

is the oldest continuously occupied Yup’ik Eskimo 

village on the Nushagak River; its name means “end 

of the bluff.” During the 1800s the village was used as 

a fish camp in the spring and summer and as a berry 

picking base in the fall. By 1923 the settlement of 

Ekwok was the largest along the river. A Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) school was constructed in the 

village in 1930. Until the post office opened in 1941, 

mail was delivered to Ekwok by dog sled. There was 

a severe flood in the early 1960s and at that time the 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Ekwok Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Ekwok 

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

Ekwok 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

2.3% 6.2% 

Age 

Native 

91.5% 

2000 Employment Structure

Ekwok 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Ekwok 

Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

11.1% 

Not seeking,

44.4% 

Employed,

44.4% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Ekwok 
415

village was relocated to its current location, which is on 

higher ground. In 1974 the city became incorporated. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The residents of Ekwok are all very dependent 

upon subsistence harvesting. Many members of 

the community also tend summer gardens, which 

are popular because families stay in the village to 

subsistence fish. A few members of the community 

trap. A large number of residents are not involved 

in the labor force. Of those age 16 and over in 2000, 

44.4% were employed, 11.1% were unemployed, 

and 44.4% were not in the labor force. Of those who 

were employed, 74% were classified as government 

workers. About 39.3% were involved in occupations 

which were educational, or related to health and social 

services. In 2000, 7 commercial fishing permits 

were issued to residents of Ekwok and 13 community 

residents were licensed crew members. The Native 

village corporation, Ekwok Natives Ltd., owns a 

fishing lodge which is located two miles downriver. 

Near the community is the site of a gravel mine. The 

median per capita income was $11,079 in 2000 and the 

median household income was $16,250. About 32.1% 

of the population lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Ekwok is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1974. The City has a mayor form of 

government which includes the mayor, a seven-person 

city council, a three-person advisory school board, and 

a few municipal employees, including a public safety 

officer. Ekwok is not part of any organized borough 

and there are no taxes administered by the city. The 

Native village corporation is the Ekwok Natives Ltd. 

Ekwok Natives Limited owns a fishing lodge which 

is located about two miles away from the community. 

Ekwok belongs to the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, 

a Native regional corporation, and the Bristol Bay 

Native Association, a non-profit organization. The 

Community Development Quota (CDQ) group to 

which Ekwok belongs is the Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation (BBEDC). The closest 

office of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) is located in Dillingham. A National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located in 

Bethel, an office is located in Homer, and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Ekwok is most accessible by air travel. A Stateowned 2,720 foot gravel runway is present in Ekwok and 

floatplanes land on the Nushagak River. Both regular 

and charter flights are available to the community 

from Dillingham. The approximate cost to travel by air 

roundtrip to Anchorage from Ekwok is $444. During 

the months which are ice-free, the Coastal Marine 

Transport barge service brings cargo to the community 

from Dillingham. The community does not have any 

docking facilities; however, there is a barge off-loading 

area. Locals use skiffs, ATVs, and snowmachines 

to travel to other villages. Accommodations are 

available in the community at either the Ekwok Lodge 

or Maalug’s Lodge. There is one school, William 

“Sonny” Nelson School, which teaches K-8th grade. 

In 2000 the school had a total of 26 students and 3 

teachers. The Ekwok Health Clinic There is newly 

constructed, owned by the City, and operated by the 

Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation (BBAHC). There 

are no police services in the community; however, one 

of the municipal employees for the city is a Village 

Public Safety Officer (VPSO). The electric utility is 

Ekwok Electric, which is operated by the city. Refuse 

collection is not available and is up to the individuals. 

The city operates the landfill. The majority of residents 

rely on individual wells for water. There are 20 HUD 

homes which each have individual wells and a piped 

septic system. Sixteen additional homes are linked by 

a piped sewage system which the city operates, but 

the remaining residences all are dependent upon either 

septic systems or a flush/haul system. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of seven commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Ekwok in 2000, but only four 

were fished. A total of 13 members of the community 

were licensed crew members in 2000. Two residents 

vessel owners participated in the salmon fishery; no 

residents vessel owners participated in the federal 

fisheries. 

Two permits were issued to residents for herring 

roe, including one gillnet in Security Cove (not fished) 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Ekwok 
416

and one gillnet in Bristol Bay (not fished). Five permits 

were issued for the commercial fishing of salmon all 

using drift gillnets in Bristol Bay (four fished). 

No vessels delivered landings of any kind to 

the community of Ekwok because no processor was 

present in the community. 

The CDQ group in which Ekwok is included, 

the Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

(BBEDC), was recently granted $75,026 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing is a visitor attraction for Ekwok. In 

2000 there were a total of 45 sport fishing licenses sold 

in the community, and of those only eight were sold 

to Alaska state residents. There were two businesses 

in the community in 2002 according to the ADF&G 

which were listed as freshwater guide businesses 

and full service guide businesses. Accommodations 

for visiting sport fishers were available at Maalug’s 

Lodge. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence, in 1987 100% of all households in Ekwok 

used some type of subsistence resources: 89.7% 

salmon, 75.9% non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, 

smelt, flounder, blackfish, burbot, char, grayling, pike, 

sucker, trout, and whitefish), 41.4% marine mammals, 

and 0% marine invertebrates. The per capita harvest 

of all subsistence resources was 796.57 lbs in 1987. 

Of that per capita harvest, 52.27% was salmon, 8.61% 

was non-salmon fish, 0% was marine mammals, 0% 

was marine invertebrates, 0.46% was birds and eggs, 

31.29% was land mammals, and 2.38% was vegetation. 

Also according to ADF&G, 12 household permits were 

issued for subsistence salmon to residents of Ekwok in 

the year 1999 for an estimated harvest of 1,870 total 

salmon. Residents of Ekwok are not eligible to apply 

for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Ekwok 
417

Emmonak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Emmonak is situated at the 

mouth of the Yukon River on the coast of Western 

Alaska. It is located about ten miles from the Bering 

Sea and is on the north bank of Kwiguk Pass. The 

community is located in the Wade Hampton Census 

area and makes up an area of 7.5 square miles of land 

and 1.1 square miles of water.

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 767 inhabitants of 

Emmonak city in 2000, and of those 53.8% were 

male and 46.2% were female. A population was first 

recorded by the Census in 1940 when there were 42 

inhabitants. The population reached 358 by 1960 

and has continued to rise since. The population can 

swell to as many as 2000 persons seasonally during 

the fishing season. According to the 2000 U.S. Census 

the racial composition of Emmonak is as follows: 

91.3% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.6% 

White, 0.3% Black, 0.1% Asian (Korean), and 2.7% 

two or more races. When considering race alone or 

in combination with one or more races, 93.9% of the 

population were American Indian and Alaska Native. 

About 1.0% of the population of the community was 

Hispanic. Approximately 55.9% of the population was 

age 18 and over in 2000 and the median age was 23.0 

years versus the national median age of 35.3 years. 

There were a total of 218 housing units in 2000, of 

which 29 were vacant, 9 due to seasonal use. No one 

lived in group quarters in 2000. About 71.3% of the 

residents age 25 and over had graduated from high 

school or higher and 4.5% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP”, the Arctic 

Small Tool tradition, which is significant because 

“some investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool 

tradition marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo 

cultures” to the Arctic area (National Park Service 

2003). Historically the native Eskimo people present 

in the area of Emmonak have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Emmonak Emmonak Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

150 100 50 0 50 100 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Emmonak 

Emmonak Data source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 2.7% 

Native 

91.3% 

Black 

0.3% 

Asian 

0.1% 

5.6% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Emmonak 

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Emmonak

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1% 

Non-Hispanic,

99% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Emmonak 
py

Emmonak 

Data source: US Census 

418

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state”, 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in the 

mid-1800’s: Russian Orthodox, Moravians, and Jesuits 

(Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115). 

The village of Emmonak was originally called 

“Kwiguk” which is a Yup’ik word meaning “big 

stream.” Those from the village refer to themselves 

as “Kuigpagmuit” meaning “people from the Yukon 

River.” The community has also been recorded 

historically as “Emanguk” by the Census Bureau and 

was at first a summer fish camp before becoming a 

permanent village. The village was first reported by 

the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1899 at which 

time it was situated 1.4 miles south of its current 

location. In 1920 a post office was established. The 

community members “built their own log cabin school 

in 1950” and Emmonak “has the distinction of being 

the only village to build its own school without outside 

assistance” (Lower Yukon School District 2003). 

When commercial fishing became a key industry 

in the community, the northern Commercial Company 

established a cannery, although it was washed away in 

1964 by flooding. Also in 1964 the City government 

was incorporated. During 1964 to 1965 the village 

was relocated to its current location because of 

growing flooding and erosion at the previous site. 

The new village site was named Emmonak, meaning 

“blackfish.” The sale, importation, and possession of 

alcohol is banned in the city. Residents of a nearby 

fish camp, Chuloonawick live in the city of Emmonak 

as well. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Emmonak is very seasonal. 

It is the center for commercial fishing, processing, 

and purchasing on the lower Yukon River during 

the commercial fishing season. Residents travel to 

subsistence fish camps during the summer months 

to dry salmon for use in the winter. In 2000, 107 

commercial fishing permits were issued to residents 

of Emmonak and there were 134 residents which 

were licensed crew members. The Yukon Delta Fish 

Marketing Co-op is present in the community as is a 

processor (Bering Sea Fisheries Inc.) which processes 

2000 Employment Structure 

Emmonak Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

37.1%

Employment,

48.4% 

Unemployment,

14.5%

salmon. Of the population of Emmonak age 16 years 

and over, 48.4% were employed in 2000, 14.5% were 

unemployed, and 37.1% were not in the labor force. Of 

those which were employed, over half were classified 

as government workers. The per capita income in 

the community in 2000 was $9,069 and the median 

household income was $32,917. About 16.2% of the 

people in Emmonak lived below the poverty level at 

the time of the Census. Subsistence is very important 

to residents of the community. 

Governance 

Emmonak is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1964 and has a manager form of 

government that includes a mayor, seven person 

city council, five person advisory school board, and 

various municipal employees including a gaming 

supervisor. There is a 3% Sales Tax in the city as 

well as a Raw Fish Tax. There is no Property Tax. 

The city is not located in any organized borough. The 

regional Native corporation in which the community 

is included is the Calista Corporation, the second 

largest of the 13 Alaska Native Claims Settlement 

Act (ANSCA) regional corporations. The Native 

village corporation is the Emmonak Corporation 

and the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized 

traditional village council is called Emmonak Village. 

The Community Development Quota (CDQ) group 

for the area is the Yukon Delta Fisheries Development 

Association. The nearest Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) office is located within the city of 

Emmonak, but is a seasonal office which is open from 

June 1st to August 31st, and an office is available year 

round in the community of Nome. The closest Bureau 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Emmonak 
419

of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

is also located in Nome. A National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and 

the main office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Emmonak is reachable by air, water, and by 

land trails to Kotlik, Alakanuk, and Sheldon Point 

using snow machines during the winter. A 4,400 

foot gravel airstrip, owned by the State, is available 

to the community. The approximate cost according 

to Travelocity and Expedia to travel by air roundtrip 

to Anchorage from Emmonak is $710 (price given 

for date as close to September 1, 2003 as possible) 

and requires travel via a rural airline. There are seven 

airline services that travel to the city. During the 

summer all terrain vehicles (ATVs) and skiffs are 

used for local transportation by community members. 

Accommodations are available at the City Hotel and 

a B&B. There is one school, the Emmonak School, 

K-12, which had 229 students and 17 teachers in 

2000. Health care is available at the newly constructed 

Emmonak Health Clinic which is operated by the 

Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC) and 

by the City. Police services are provided by the City 

Police Department. The electric utility’s name is AVEC 

which is operated by REA Co-op and the City, and the 

main power source is diesel. In 2000 about 94.4% of 

the households heated using kerosene. Water, sewage, 

and garbage are all operated by the City. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

There were a total of 107 commercial fishing 

permits issued to residents of Emmonak in 2000 

according to the Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry 

Commission (ACFEC). There were no vessel owners 

from the community of Emmonak participating 

in federal fisheries or in the commercial fishing of 

salmon. There were a total of 134 licensed crew 

member residents in 2000. 

Of the 107 permits issued to Emmonak community 

members, 87 were fished. Two permits were issued for 

king crab using pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet in 

Norton Sound (none fished). A total of five herring 

permits were issued with one for a herring roe gillnet 

around Nelson Island (none fished), one for a herring 

gillnet around Nunivak Island (one fished), and three 

for herring roe using a gillnet in Norton Sound (none 

fished). One hundred permits were issued to residents 

of Emmonak for salmon using a set gillnet in the 

Lower Yukon (86 fished).

The only landings in the community were salmon, 

delivered by one vessel in 2000. In accordance with 

confidentiality regulations, landings data for the 

community are unavailable. Bering Sea Fisheries, 

Inc., a land based salmon processor, was present 2000. 

According to the Yukon Delta Fisheries Development 

Association “for more than thirty years, Bering Sea 

Fisheries, Inc. has successfully been buying and 

marketing Yukon kings and chums” and “even in the 

disaster declaration years, Bering Sea Fisheries, Inc. 

managed to make ends meet.” Also present in the 

community was the Yukon Delta Fish Market Co-op. 

The City of Emmonak was recently allotted 

$27,711 in federal salmon disaster funds. The CDQ 

group, the Yukon Delta Fisheries Development 

Association, was recently granted $50,017 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing does not seem to be much of a tourist 

attraction. A total of 81 sport fishing licenses were 

sold in Emmonak to Alaska State residents in 2000 

and a grand total of 82 sport fishing licenses were 

sold to non-residents. According to the ADF&G, there 

were no sport fishing guide businesses registered in 

Emmonak in 2002 and no business licenses currently 

on file with the Department of Community and 

Economic Development. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G, for the most 

representative year of 1980, a total of 100.0% of all 

households in Emmonak used all subsistence resources: 

72.2% salmon, and 50.0% marine mammals. The data 

for non-salmon fish was not available, although it 

* Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Chuloonawik and Emmonak combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Emmonak 
420

was mentioned that cod, eel, blackfish, burbot, pike, 

sheefish, and whitefish were used. The per capita 

subsistence harvest of all resources by residents of 

Emmonak in 1980 was 612.20 lbs. The composition 

of the harvest was made-up of 36.92% salmon, 

33.18% non-salmon fish, 15.44% marine mammals, 

5.21% birds and eggs, and 9.28% land mammals. A 

total of 157 household salmon subsistence permits 

were issued to residents of Emmonak in 1999 for a 

total of about 11,039 harvested fish. Residents of 

the community are eligible to apply for subsistence 

halibut registration certificates. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Emmonak 
421

Goodnews Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community is located in Goodnews Bay, a 

small inlet off Kuskokwim Bay in the Bering Sea. It is 

approximately 116 air miles south of Bethel and 400 

miles west of Anchorage. The area encompasses 3.2 

square miles of land. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000 Goodnews Bay had 230 residents and 

71 households. It was primarily a Native village of 

Yup’ik Eskimos. All residents lived in households 

rather than group quarters. The racial composition 

of the community was as follows: Alaska Native or 

American Indian (92.6%), White (5.7%), and two or 

more races (1.7%). A total of 93.9% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. The gender ratio is somewhat 

skewed, at 51.3% male and 48.7% female. The age 

structure of the community is relatively young, with a 

median age of 30.7 years compared to the U.S. national 

average of 35.3 years. These factors, in combination 

with the fact that most residents (75.6%) speak Yup’ik 

at home, suggest that Goodnews Bay is an intact 

Native community with minimal out-migration for 

employment. Approximately 55.6% of residents aged 

25 years or older have a high school degree or higher 

level of educational attainment. 

History 

The area of Goodnews Bay has traditionally been 

the home of Yup’ik Eskimos, who called the village 

“Mumtraq.” A Moravian mission was founded at the 

head of Goodnews Bay in the late 19th century. In 

the spring of 1911, a scientific team from the U.S. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey, aboard the steamer ship 

“Explorer,” landed in Goodnews Bay to conduct 

survey work (Mahler, 1911). The original village was 

moved to its present location in the 1930s to avoid 

the constant flooding and storms experienced at the 

old site. A government school and post office were 

established in the 1930s. 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Goodnews Bay Goodnews Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Goodnews Bay 2000 Racial Structure 

Data source: US Census

Goodnews Bay 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

White races 

1.7% 5.7% 

Native 

92.6% 

2000 Employment Structure

Goodnews Bay

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Goodnews Bay

Data source: US Census 

Employed,

39.3% 

Not Seeking,

54.7% 

Unemployed,

6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Goodnews Bay 
422

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Most residents of Goodnews Bay rely heavily upon 

subsistence fishing and hunting. A significant number 

of residents hold commercial fishing permits. There 

is also some mining nearby for platinum and gold. 

In 2000 the median household income was $16,250 

and the median per capita income was $6,851. The 

unemployment rate was 6%, and 54.7% of residents 

aged 16 years and older were not in the labor force (i.e. 

not employed and not seeking work). Approximately 

39% of residents lived below the poverty level. It 

should be noted, however, that cash income is only part 

of the economic picture in Goodnews Bay; subsistence 

resources provide an important alternative source of 

livelihood for most local residents. 

Governance 

Goodnews Bay was incorporated as a secondclass city in 1970. It is classified as “unorganized” 

(i.e. not in a borough). It is within the Bethel census 

recording district. The Native Village of Goodnews 

Bay is a federally recognized tribal group. There is also 

a local village corporation, Kuitsarak, Inc. The city 

is a member of the Coastal Villages Region Fund, a 

Community Development Quota (CDQ) group, which 

promotes employment opportunities for residents 

as well as participation in the Bering Sea crab and 

groundfish fisheries.

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Access to Goodnews Bay is primarily by plane or 

boat. The state owns a 2,850 foot gravel airstrip in the 

community for chartered or private planes. Roundtrip 

airfare from Goodnews Bay to Anchorage, via Bethel, 

is approximately $555. There is no dock in Goodnews 

Bay, although barges deliver fuel and other supplies. 

Most homes currently have no plumbing; a piped water 

and sewer system is under construction. Electricity is 

provided by AVEC, in cooperation with the city, and 

is produced by a diesel generator. The Goodnews Bay 

Health Clinic is operated by the city. There is a village 

public safety officer. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing is an important part of the 

economy of Goodnews Bay. The salmon and herring 

fisheries in Kuskokwim Bay and Goodnews Bay are 

particularly important. In 2000 there were nine vessels 

with operations in non-federal fisheries who resided 

in the community. There were 37 registered crew 

members. A total of 52 commercial permits were issued 

to 41 local residents, and 34 permits were fished. This 

section contains a detailed description of commercial 

permits issued to Goodnews Bay residents in 2000.

Halibut: One permit was issued for longline 

vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters. This permit 

was not fished.

Herring: Twenty-three residents held a total 

of 23 permits for the herring fishery, including the 

following: one herring roe gillnet permit for Nelson 

Island (one fished), and 22 herring roe gillnet permits 

for Goodnews Bay (6 fished).

Salmon: Twenty-eight residents held a total of 28 

permits for the salmon fishery, including the following: 

2 salmon drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (2 fished), 

and 26 salmon set gillnet permits for Kuskokwim Bay 

(25 fished).

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

located in Goodnews Bay and therefore no registered 

landings. In 2003 Goodnews Bay received $7,905 in 

federal disaster funds to compensate for falling salmon 

prices. 

Sport Fishing 

Because of its remote location and subsistence 

lifestyle, sport fishing in Goodnews Bay is limited. 

There were no recorded sport license sales in Goodnews 

Bay for 2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game does not 

have detailed information about subsistence harvesting 

and use in Goodnews Bay. The city holds a Subsistence 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Goodnews Bay 
423

Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC), issued by 

the National Marine Fisheries Service, which allows 

households to harvest subsistence halibut. In 1999, 

53 households held permits to harvest subsistence 

salmon. These allocations are based on recognized 

customary and traditional uses of halibut. Regulations 

to implement subsistence halibut fishing were 

published in the Federal Register in April 2003 and 

became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Goodnews Bay 
424

Hooper Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Hooper Bay is situated 20 miles south of Cape 

Romanzof and 25 miles south of Scammon Bay 

about two miles from the Bering Sea in the YukonKuskokwim Delta. The community is located in the 

Wade Hampton Census Area and makes up 8.7 square 

miles of land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Hooper Bay had a total of 1,014 inhabitants 

according to the 2000 U.S. Census, with 49.7% male 

and 50.3% female residents. Hooper Bay’s population 

has risen steadily since 1930 when it was 209 people. 

The racial composition in 2000 was: 93.7% American 

Indian and Alaska Native, 4.2% White, and 2.1% two 

or more races. When taking into account race alone 

or in combination with one or more other races, about 

95.8% of the population identified as American Indian 

and Alaska Native. About 0.1% of the population was 

Hispanic. The median age in Hooper Bay in 2000 was 

18.4 years of age, much younger than the national 

average of 35.3 years. There were 239 housing units 

and of those 12 were vacant, one vacant due to seasonal 

use. No one in the community lived in group quarters 

in 2000. Of the residents of the community age 25 

years and over, 72.0% had graduated from high school 

or gone on to higher schooling and 8.2% had obtained 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP,” the Arctic Small 

Tool tradition, which is significant because “some 

investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool tradition 

marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo cultures” 

to the Arctic area (National Park Service 2003). 

Historically, the Native Eskimo people present in the 

area of Hooper Bay have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state”, 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Hooper Bay Hooper Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

150 100 50 0 50 100 150 200 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Hooper Bay

Data source: US Census Hooper Bay 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

White races 

2% 4.2% 

Native 

93.7% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Hooper Bay

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Hooper Bay

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.1% 

Non-Hispanic,

99.9% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Hooper Bay 
425

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115).

The traditional Yup’ik name for the community of 

Hooper Bay was “Askinuk.” In 1878 the village was 

first reported as Hooper Bay by E.W. Nelson of the 

U.S. Signal Service who named the village after the 

explorer Capt. Calvin Leighton Hooper (North Pacific 

Fishery Management Council 1994). At the time of 

the 1880 U.S. Census it was reported that the village 

had 175 inhabitants. A post office was established in 

1934. A Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school was 

established in Hooper Bay in 1948 (Alaskool 1998-

2002). The City government was incorporated in 

1966. The present-day Yup’ik name referring to those 

from the community is “Naparyarmiut” which means 

“stake village people.” The sale, importation, and 

possession of alcohol is banned in the city. Residents 

of the village of Paimiut also live in Hooper Bay. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The employment of Hooper Bay is for the most 

part seasonal and there is little income-producing 

activity during the winter months. The community 

members’ income is supplemented by subsistence 

activities. In 2000 there were 49 commercial fishing 

permits issued to residents of Hooper Bay, and 84 

residents which were licensed crew members. Some 

employment is provided by BLM fire fighting. 

Handicrafts including grass baskets and ivory objects 

are produced by community members. Residents are 

interested in developing the Naparyarmiut Arts & 

Crafts Cooperative. According to the 2000 Census, 

of the population age 16 years and over 34.1% were 

employed, 20.2% were unemployed, and 45.7% were 

not in the labor force. Of those employed, 53.0% were 

recorded as being government workers. The per capita 

income in Hooper Bay in 2000 was $7,841 and the 

median household income was $26,667. About 27.9% 

of the residents lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Hooper Bay is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1966 with a mayor form of government 

which includes a mayor, a seven person city council, 

a five person advisory school board, and a variety of 

municipal employees including a fire chief and police 

2000 Employment Structure

Hooper Bay

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Hooper Bay 

Data source: US Census 

Employed,

34.1% 

Not Seeking,

45.7%

Unemployed,

20.2% 

chief. There is a 4% Sales Tax in the city. The city is 

not part of any organized borough. The regional Native 

corporation for the area is the Calista Corporation. 

The Native village corporation is the Sea Lion 

Corporation which owns the Sea Lion Hotel, helping 

to promote tourism and the sale of Native-made 

baskets on their website (Sea Lion Corporation 2003). 

The Native Village of Hooper Bay is the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional Council 

in the community. The Community Development 

Quota (CDQ) which the community of Hooper Bay 

is a part of is the Coastal Villages Region Fund 

whose offices are located in Bethel and Anchorage. 

The nearest Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

(ADF&G) office is located in the city of Emmonak, 

but is a seasonal office which is open from June 1st to 

August 31st, although an office is available year round 

in the community of Nome. The closest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

is also located in Nome. A National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a 

more main office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Hooper Bay is accessible by both the air and 

water, although winter land trails are available to 

Scammon Bay, Chevak, and Paimiut. A State-owned 

3,300 foot paved runway is present in the community. 

The approximate cost according to Travelocity and 

Expedia to travel by air roundtrip to Anchorage from 

Hooper Bay is $476 (price given for date as close to 

September 1, 2003 as possible). Bulk supplies and 

fuel are delivered by barge during the summer. Under 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Hooper Bay 
426

construction is a commercial fishing dock. Locals 

use skiffs during the summer for transportation. 

Accommodations are available at Qavartarvik 

Lodging and the Sea Lion Hotel. There is one K-12 

school, Hooper Bay School, which had 391 students 

and 26 teachers in 2000. Health care is available at 

the Hooper Bay Health Clinic which is operated by 

the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC) 

and owned by the City. Police services are provided by 

State VPSO and City Police. The electric utility in the 

community is AVEC which is operated by REA Coop and the City with a main power source of diesel. 

In 2000 97.4% of households heated using kerosene. 

The water system is run by the City and school, but 

there is no piped water system. The City also operates 

the sewer system and the landfill, and individuals are 

responsible for their own refuse collection. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 49 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Hooper Bay in 2000, and a total 

of 84 licensed crew members lived in the community. 

There were no resident vessel owners participating in 

federal fisheries, but there was one vessel owner who 

was a resident and participated in the salmon fishery. 

Of the 49 permits issued to community members, 

a total of 27 were fished. One permit was issued for 

halibut using a mechanical jig statewide which was 

fished in 2000. Forty three permits were issued for 

herring roe using gillnets off of Cape Romanzof (24 

fished). Five permits were issued for salmon, two using 

a drift gillnet in Bristol Bay (one fished), one using a 

set gillnet in Bristol Bay (not fished), and two using 

set gillnets in the Lower Yukon (one fished). 

No vessels delivered landings to the community 

because a processor was not present in Hooper Bay. 

The city was allocated $2,859 in federal salmon 

disaster funds in July 2003 because of the recent drop 

in salmon prices and loss in taxes generated.

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing does not seem to attract tourists to 

the area as the infrastructure for sport fishing does not 

really seem to exist in the community. There was a 

total of 59 sport fishing licenses sold in the city of 

Hooper Bay in 2000, all to residents of the State of 

Alaska. According to the ADF&G there were no sport 

fishing guide businesses registered in Hooper Bay in 

2002, and no business licenses were currently on file 

with the Department of Community and Economic 

Development for sport fishing businesses. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Full subsistence data was not readily available 

for the community of Hooper Bay, although the 

Alaska Department of Community and Economic 

Development declares that subsistence, along with 

commercial fishing, is a major means of support for 

community residents. According to estimation by the 

ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence, the annual per 

capita harvest of wild food by residents is about 709.2 

lbs. Also according to ADF&G, in 1999, 194 household 

subsistence salmon permits were issued in Hooper 

Bay and an estimated 10,387 salmon were harvested. 

Residents of the community have the right to apply 

for subsistence halibut registration certificates. These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Hooper Bay 
427

Kipnuk 2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure (return to communities) Kipnuk Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

People and Place 80 and over 

Location 70 to 79 

60 to 69 

Kipnuk is located on the west bank of the 50 to 59 

Age

Kugkaktlik River in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, 85 40 to 49 

30 to 39 

Male 

Female air miles southwest of Bethel, and a few miles inland 20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

from the Bering Sea. It is in the Bethel Recording 

District. The area encompasses 19.4 square miles of 

land and 0.2 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

In 2000 Kipnuk was a predominantly Yup’ik 

Eskimo community of 644 residents in 137 households. 

All residents lived in households rather than group 

quarters. The demographic characteristics are typical 

of a stable, fast-growing Native community; the 

local population has doubled since 1970. The racial 

makeup of the community in 2000 was as follows: 

American Indian or Alaska Native (96.6%), White 

(2.0%), and two or more races (1.4%). A total of 

98% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The gender 

composition was quite imbalanced, at 56.5% male and 

43.5% female. The median age was 20.6 years, much 

younger than the U.S. national median of 35.3 years. 

Approximately 60.7% of residents 25 years of age 

or older held a high school degree or higher level of 

educational attainment. 

History 

Yup’ik Eskimos have inhabited Western Alaska 

since prehistory. The earliest record of an established 

village at Kipnuk was by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, 

which reported that the village was established around 

1922. The community was not included in U.S. Census 

records until 1940, when its population consisted of 

144 residents. Kipnuk today maintains its strong sense 

of traditional culture; more than 90% of local residents 

speak their Native Yup’ik language at home. 

100 

100 

80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Kipnuk

Data source: US Census 2000 Racial Structure 

Kipnuk Data source: US Census 

Two or more White 

races 2.0%

1.4% 

Native 

96.6% 

% Group Quarters 

Kipnuk % Group Quarters

Kipnuk Data source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

0.4 0 

99.6 100 

1990 2000 

Year 

90 

80 

70 

Percentage

60 

50 

40 

Infrastructure

Current Economy 30 

The economy of Kipnuk is a combination of 20 

commercial fishing and subsistence fishing and 10 

hunting. Most employment opportunities are seasonal. 0 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kipnuk 

Non-group quarters 

Group quarters 
428

2000 Employment Structure

2000 Employment Structure Kipnuk

Data source: US Census Kipnuk Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

0.2% 

Unemployed,

20.2% 

Employed, Not Seeking, 39.2% 40.4% 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000, 7 vessel owners with operations in federal 

fisheries and 65 vessel owners with operations in state 

fisheries resided in the community. There were 82 

registered crew members. In 2000, 97 local residents 

held 135 commercial fishing permits; 85 permits were 

fished. This section contains a detailed description of 

commercial fishing permits issued to Kipnuk residents 

in 2000. 

Halibut: Twenty-one residents held a total of 21 

permits in the halibut fishery, and 7 permits were 

fished. The permits included the following: 3 halibut 

hand troll permits for statewide waters (one fished), 

17 halibut longline permits for vessels under 60 feet in 

statewide waters (6 fished), and one halibut mechanical 

jig permit for statewide waters (none fished). 

Herring: Eighty-nine local residents held a total 

of 89 commercial permits in the herring fishery. All 

89 permits were herring roe gillnet permits for Cape 

Avinof (63 fished).

Salmon: Twenty-five local residents held a total 

of 25 commercial permits for the salmon fishery, 

including the following: 10 salmon drift gillnet permits 

for Bristol Bay (10 fished), and 15 salmon set gillnet 

permits for Kuskokwim Bay (5 fished). 

In 2000, the median per capita income was $8,589 

and the median household income was $34,375. 

Approximately 20.2% of the total workforce was 

unemployed, and 40.4% of residents aged 16 and 

older were not in the labor force (i.e. not working and 

not seeking work). Approximately 20.9% of residents 

lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Kipnuk is an unincorporated city located in 

the Bethel Recording District. It is classified as 

“unorganized” (i.e. not located within an official 

borough). The community is governed by the Kipnuk 

Traditional Council, a federally recognized village 

council. There is also a local village corporation, 

Kugkaktlik Ltd. The Coastal Villages Region Fund, 

a Community Development Quota (CDQ) group, is 

active in the community and promotes employment 

opportunities for residents as well as participation in 

the Bering Sea crab and groundfish fisheries. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) is located in Bethel. 

A National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field 

office is located in Bethel and a main office is located 

in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Access to Kipnuk is by air; the state owns a 2,120 

foot gravel airstrip in the community. Roundtrip 

airfare from Kipnuk to Anchorage, via Bethel, is 

approximately $380. There is also a seaplane base. 

Boats and skiffs provide local access to the community 

via the Kugkaktlik River. 

A new 210,000 gallon water storage tank, filled 

by a reservoir, provides water for the community. 

There is no piped water or sewage, and homes have no 

plumbing. The village council operates a landfill and 

electricity, which is produced by a diesel generator. 

The Kipnuk Health Clinic is owned by the village 

council and operated in conjunction with the YukonKuskokwim Health Corporation. Police services are 

provided by a village public safety officer. 

Kipnuk is within the Lower Kuskokwim School 

District. There is one school in the community offering 

instruction to students in grades K-21 There are 15 

teachers and 213 students. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kipnuk 
429

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

located in the community and no registered landings. 

Sport Fishing 

Because of its isolated location, Kipnuk’s sport 

fishing activities are minimal. There were no sport 

license sales and no registered sport fishing guides in 

Kipnuk in 2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game does not 

have detailed information on subsistence harvesting 

and use in Kipnuk. Kipnuk has a Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC), issued by NMFS, 

which allows residents to harvest halibut for subsistence 

purposes. In 1999, 177 households held permits to 

harvest subsistence salmon. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kipnuk 
Koliganek 2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure (return to communities) Koliganek Koliganek Data source: US Census 

430

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Koliganek is situated on the west 

bank of the Nushagak River. It is 65 miles northeast 

of Dillingham and is the most inland community in 

the Dillingham Census Area. The area makes up 12.5 

square miles of land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 182 inhabitants of Koliganek 

in 2000, 54.9% male and 45.1% female. Since the 

1950 U. S. Census, the population of the community 

has continued to grow from the 90 in 1950 to 186 in 

2002 as established by a State Demographer. The racial 

composition of Koliganek in 2000 follows: 87.4% 

American Indian and Alaska Native, 10.4% White, and 

2.2% “Other.” Approximately 2.2% of the population 

was Hispanic. The median age of Koliganek was 26.0 

years versus the national age median of 35.3 years. 

There were 77 housing units with 24 vacant and two 

vacant due to seasonal use. No one in the community 

lived in group housing at the time of the 2000 Census. 

Of the population age 25 years and over, about 76.8% 

had graduated from high school or gone on to higher 

schooling and 11.6% had obtained a bachelor’s degree 

to higher. 

History 

The community of Koliganek is a Yup’ik Eskimo 

village that was first recorded as “Kalignak” in the 

1880 U.S. Census. The name was also recorded in 

1930 by the U.S. Geological Survey. Since the time 

of the survey the community has relocated four miles 

downstream of the original village site. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Most year round employment in Koliganek is 

provided by the school and village. The economy 

is also based on commercial fishing, trapping, and 

subsistence practices. In 2000, 20 commercial fishing 

permits were issued to residents and 38 residents 

were licensed crew members. Of the population of 

Koliganek age 16 years and over, about 60.6% were 

employed, 9.2% were unemployed, and 30.3% were 

not in the labor force. Of those which were employed, 

Age 

Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

30 20 10 0 10 20 30 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

2000 Racial Structure Koliganek

Data source: US Census Koliganek 

Data source: US Census 

Other White

2.2% 10.4% 

Native 

87.4% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Koliganek

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Koliganek

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 2.2% 

Non-Hispanic,

97.8% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Koliganek 
431

about 83.3% were classified as government workers. 

The per capita income in the community was $13,242 

and the median household income was $44,583. About 

19.3% of residents lived below the poverty level at the 

time of the 2000 Census. 

Governance 

Koliganek is unincorporated and is not part of 

any organized borough; there are no city or borough 

officials in the community. The regional Native 

corporation for Koliganek is the Bristol Bay Native 

Corporation, and the regional non-profit for the area is 

the Bristol Bay Native Association. The Native village 

corporation is Koliganek Natives Ltd. The Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional Council 

for the village is the New Koliganek Village Council, 

also known as New Koliganek Village. Since the 

community is not incorporated, the Council appears to 

be responsible for many services usually provided by 

the city. The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) field office is located in Bethel, an 

office is located in Homer, and a main office is located 

in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Koliganek is accessible by air, water, and snow 

machine in the winter. A 3,000 foot State-owned 

runway is available and is new to the community. 

The approximate cost to travel by air roundtrip to 

Anchorage from Koliganek is $464 according to 

Travelocity and Expedia (price given for date as 

close to September 1, 2003 as possible). During 

the summer, travel is usually by boat and all-terrain 

vehicle (ATV). Residents travel south down the river 

to New Stuyahok frequently. No docking facilities are 

available in the community and goods are lightered 

from Dillingham. Accommodations are available at 

the Ketok Lodge, Marantha Lodge, and High Cache 

Lodge. There is one school in the village, Koliganek 

School which teaches grades K-12. In 2000 the school 

had 79 students and 7 teachers. Health care is available 

at the Koliganek Health Clinic which is owned by the 

Village Council and operated by the Bristol Bay Area 

Health Corporation (BBAHC). At present, a new clinic 

is under construction. Police services are offered by 

the State Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO). The 

2000 Employment Structure

2000 Employment Structure Koliganek

Data source: US Census Koliganek 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

30.3%

Employed,

60.6% 

Unemployed,

9.2%

electric utility is the Koliganek Village Council which 

is operated by the Village Council and School and the 

main power source is diesel. According to a sample by 

the 2000 Census, about 70.4% of households heated 

using kerosene and 25.9% heated using wood. A little 

more than half of the homes in the community are 

connected to a community septic tank and piped water 

system and the remaining homes use individual septic 

systems and wells or haul water and have honeybuckets. 

The sewer system is operated by the Village Council 

as is the water system and the operation of the landfill. 

Individuals are responsible for the collection of their 

own refuse. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Koliganek is located relatively far 

inland, the community is still involved in commercial 

fishing not only of salmon, but also of herring and 

halibut. A total of 20 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of the community of Koliganek in 

2000 and 38 residents were licensed crew members. 

Nine resident vessel owners in Koliganek participated 

in the salmon fishery, and no resident vessel owners 

participated in the federal fisheries. 

Out of the total of 20 permits which were issued 

to residents, 13 were fished in 2000. Three permits 

were issued for the commercial fishing of halibut to 

Koliganek residents (none fished). Two were issued for 

herring roe using gillnets in Bristol Bay and one for 

herring roe using a gillnet in Norton Sound. Seventeen 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Koliganek 
432

permits were issued for salmon (13 fished): 14 were 

issued using a drift gillnet in Bristol Bay (10 fished) 

and 3 using set gillnet in Bristol Bay (3 fished). 

No landings were delivered in Koliganek in 2000 

as no processors were in operation in the community

Sport Fishing 

Salmon can be caught on the Nushagak River 

in addition to other species, and on this Koliganek 

appears to have built the beginnings of a sport 

industry. In 2000, according to the ADF&G, 10 sport 

fishing licenses were sold in Koliganek to residents of 

the State of Alaska and 13 were sold to non-residents. 

One business in Koliganek was listed with ADF&G 

for 2002 as a freshwater guide business as well as a 

lodge/resort service. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence is very important to residents of the 

community. According to the ADF&G, for the most 

representative year of 1987 in Koliganek, 100.0% 

of households used all subsistence resources: 83.3% 

salmon, 92.9% non-salmon fish (herring, herring 

roe, smelt, flounder, blackfish, burbot, char, grayling, 

pike, sucker, trout, and whitefish), 71.4% marine 

mammals, and 14.3% marine invertebrates. The per 

capita harvest for community members was 830.47 

lbs: 43.64% salmon, 11.47% non-salmon fish, 0% 

marine mammals, 0.16% marine invertebrates, 1.39% 

birds and eggs, 40.88% land mammals, and 2.51% 

vegetation. In 1999 a total of 18 household subsistence 

permits were issued to residents of Koliganek by 

ADF&G for a total estimated harvest of 2,772 fish. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Koliganek 
40 

433

Kongiganak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Kongiganak is located on the west shore of 

Kuskokwim Bay on the Bering Sea. It is 70 miles 

southwest of Bethel and 451 miles west of Anchorage. 

The area of Kongiganak encompasses 1.7 square miles 

of land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Kongiganak is a primarily Yup’ik Eskimo village 

with 359 residents in 79 households. In 2000 all 

residents lived in households rather than group 

quarters. The racial composition of the community was 

as follows: American Indian or Alaska Native (95.8%), 

White (2.8%), and two or more races (1.4%). A total of 

97.2% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. In addition, 

1.7% of residents were of Hispanic ethnicity. The 

gender ratio was significantly skewed, at 54.6% male 

and 45.4% female. The median age was 21.8 years, 

considerably younger than the U.S. national median 

of 35.3 years. Approximately 62.9% of residents 25 

years of age and older held a high school diploma or 

higher level of educational attainment. A majority of 

residents (89.6%) speak a language other than English 

at home, particularly Yup’ik. These demographic 

characteristics are representative of a stable Native 

community marked by little out- or in-migration. 

History 

Western Alaska has been the traditional home of 

Yup’ik Eskimos since prehistory. Former residents of 

the village of Kwigillingok, seeking higher ground 

and a respite from flooding, permanently settled in 

Kongiganak during the 1960s. Today, Kongiganak 

is still marked by a sense of traditional culture, as 

evidenced by the fact that nearly 90% of residents 

speak their Native Yup’ik tongue at home. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Most residents in Kongiganak practice a 

subsistence lifestyle of hunting and fishing. The other 

main source of employment is the commercial fishing 

sector, so full-time employment is subject to seasonal 

variation. The local school is also a major source of 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Kongiganak Kongiganak

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

60 40 20 0 20 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Kongiganak Kongiganak 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

1.4% 2.8% 

Native 

95.8% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Kongiganak

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Kongiganak 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1.7% 

Non-Hispanic,

98.3% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kongiganak 
employment in the community.

In 2000, the U.S. Census reported that only 1.9% 

of Kongiganak’s workforce was unemployed, and 

46.4% of residents aged 16 years and older were not 

in the labor force (i.e. not working and not seeking 

work). Employment opportunities, however, are highly 

seasonal, so this rate is likely much higher during 

certain times of the year. About 13.8% of residents 

lived below the poverty level in 2000. The median per 

capita income was $9,881 and the median household 

income was $33,250. 

Governance 

Kongiganak is an unincorporated village under 

the administration of a village council, which is a 

federally recognized Native governing body. There 

is also a village corporation, the Qemirtalek Coast 

Corporation. Kongiganak lies within the Bethel census 

recording district. 

Kongiganak belongs to the Coastal Villages Region 

Fund, a Community Development Quota (CDQ) 

group, which promotes employment opportunities for 

residents as well as participation in the Bering Sea 

crab and groundfish fisheries. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Access to Kongiganak is by bush plane; the state 

owns a 1,885 foot gravel airstrip in the community. 

Roundtrip airfare from Kongiganak to Anchorage, 

via Bethel, is approximately $509. There are no dock 

facilities in Kongiganak, but barges deliver cargo each 

summer, which is off-loaded by boat and skiff. Winter 

trails provide access to the neighboring villages of 

Kwigillingok and Tuntutuliak. 

Homes in Kongiganak do not have plumbing. 

Treated surface water is the major source of household 

water. The village council operates a landfill and 

the Puvurnaq Power Company provides electricity, 

which is produced by a diesel generator. The local 

health clinic is owned by the village council and 

operated in conjunction with the Yukon-Kuskokwim 

Health Corporation. Police services are provided by 

2000 Employment Structure

Kongiganak

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Kongiganak Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

46.4% 

Unemployed,

1.9% 

Employed,

51.7% 

a village public safety officer. There is one school in 

the community, offering instruction to students from 

grades K-12. The school has seven teachers and 110 

students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 there were eight vessel owners with 

operations in state-managed fisheries and one vessel 

owner with operations in federal fisheries who resided 

in the community. There were 38 registered crew 

members. Twenty-eight residents held a total of 34 

commercial fishing permits in Kongiganak. This 

section contains a detailed description of the permits 

issued to Kongiganak residents.

Halibut: Five residents held a total of five 

commercial permits in the halibut fishery. These 

included the following: one halibut hand troll permit 

for statewide waters (one fished), three halibut longline 

permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(none fished), and one halibut mechanical jig permit 

for statewide waters (none fished). 

Herring: Seven local residents held a total of 

seven commercial permits for the herring fishery. 

These included the following: five herring roe gillnet 

permits for Cape Avinof (one fished) and two herring 

roe gillnet permits for Goodnews Bay (two fished).

Salmon: Twenty-two local residents held a total of 

22 commercial permits for the salmon fishery. These 

434

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kongiganak 
435

included the following: 4 salmon drift gillnet permits 

for Bristol Bay (5 fished), and 18 salmon set gillnet 

permits for Kuskokwim Bay (12 fished).

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

in Kongiganak and therefore no registered landings. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing activities in Kongiganak are limited, 

given its remote location and heavy reliance upon 

subsistence fishing. In 2000, there was only one 

sport license sold in the community. There were no 

registered sport fishing guides. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have detailed information 

about subsistence activities in Kongiganak for 2000. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kongiganak 
436

Kotlik (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Kotlik is situated 35 miles northeast of Emmonak 

in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. The community is on 

the east bank of the Kotlik Slough and is in the Wade 

Hampton Census Area. It is 165 air miles northwest of 

Bethel and 460 miles from Anchorage. Kotlik makes 

up 3.8 square miles of land and 0.8 square miles of 

water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 591 inhabitants in the 

community of Kotlik according to the 2000 U.S. 

Census, and of those, 53.3% were male and 46.7% were 

female. In 1920 the population of the community was 

83, dropping to 14 by 1930. Since 1930 the population 

of Kotlik has continued to rise. The racial composition 

of the community in 2000 was as follows: 93.6% 

American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.6% White, 

and 2.9% of two or more races. A total of 96.1% of 

the population recognized themselves as all or part 

Alaska Native or American Indian. Approximately 

0.3% of the population was Hispanic. The median age 

of the community in 2000 was 18.5 years, whereas 

the national age median was 35.3 years. There were a 

total of 139 housing units and of those 22 were vacant 

due to seasonal use. No one in the population lived 

in group quarters. Of the population age 25 years 

and over, 66.4% had graduated from high school or 

gone on to higher schooling and 6.9% had obtained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP,” the Arctic 

Small Tool tradition, which is significant because 

“some investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool 

tradition marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo 

cultures” to the Arctic area (National Park Service 

2003). Historically, the Native Eskimo people in the 

area of Kotlik have been the Yup’ik peoples. Because 

“southwestern Alaska lacked significant amounts 

of any of the commercially valuable resources that 

first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state,” 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

Age 80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

150 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Kotlik Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

100 50 0 50 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Kotlik 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Kotlik 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

2.9% 3.6% 

Native 

93.5%

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Kotlik 

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Kotlik

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.3% 

Male 

Female 

100 

Non-Hispanic,

99.7% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kotlik 
437

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in the 

mid-1800’s: initially the Russian Orthodox, then the 

Moravians, and finally the Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 

2000, p. 115).

The North Pacific Fishery Management Council 

reports that “the Eskimo word kotlik refers to breeches, 

according to 19th century explorer R.L. Faris, who 

documented the name of the Kotlik River” (1994, p. 

59 – Western Alaska). Russian traders settled in the 

area surrounding Saint Michael after 1867 and many 

current residents of Kotlik are descendants of those 

traders. The Saint Joseph parish was established in 

the community in the early 1930s by a priest who was 

stationed at Saint Michael, Fr. Martin Lonneux, S.J. 

(Diocese of Fairbanks 2003). The community of Kotlik 

grew when a Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school was 

constructed in the mid-1960s and the inhabitants of 

many nearby villages including Channiliut, Hamilton, 

Bill Moore’s Slough, and Pastolaik relocated to Kotlik. 

It became one of the bigger ports and commercial 

centers of the lower Yukon River because of its 

location, providing easy access for barges and large 

river boats. The city was incorporated in 1970. The 

sale, importation, and possession of alcohol are not 

allowed in the city. Residents of the summer fish camp 

of Hamilton also live in Kotlik. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Kotlik is based for the most part 

on fishing and fish processing. It is very seasonal with 

the residents relying heavily on subsistence harvesting. 

In 2000, 91 commercial fishing permits were issued 

to residents of the community and there were a total 

of 92 resident licensed crew members. Residents are 

interested in developing a seafood processing facility 

and an arts and crafts project. Income is also earned 

from trapping. Of those in the community that were 

age 16 and over in 2000, 42.1% were employed, 13.6% 

were unemployed, and 44.4% were not in the labor 

force. Of those which were employed about 51.0% 

were classified as government workers. The per capita 

income was $7,707 and the median household income 

was $37,750. About 21.1% of residents lived below 

the poverty level. 

Governance 

Kotlik is a second-class city incorporated in 1970 

2000 Employment Structure

Kotlik 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Kotlik Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

13.6% 

Employed, Not Seeking, 42.1%

44.4% 

and has a Manager form of government including a 

mayor, six person city council, five person advisory 

school board, and various municipal employees. 

There is a 3% sales tax. The city is not part of any 

organized borough. The Native regional corporation 

for the area is the Calista Corporation and the Native 

village corporation is the Kotlik Yupik Corporation. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized 

village council is the Kotlik Traditional Council. The 

Community Development Quota (CDQ) group for 

the area is the Yukon Delta Fisheries Development 

Association. The nearest Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) office is located in the city of 

Emmonak, but is a seasonal office which is open 

from June 1st to August 31st. The closest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

is also located in Nome. A National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) field office is located in Bethel.

Facilities 

Kotlik is reachable by both air and water. A Stateowned 4,400 foot gravel airstrip is present in the 

community which provides cargo and mail service 

as well as passenger transportation. The approximate 

cost, according to Travelocity and Expedia, to travel 

by air roundtrip to Anchorage from Kotlik is $710 on a 

rural airline (price given for date as close to September 

1, 2003 as possible). The community is accessible by 

barge and there are no roads which lead to the city. 

There are about 50 commercial and private boats which 

are owned by residents. Accommodations in the city 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kotlik 
438

are available at the City Lodge. There is one school, 

the Kotlik School, which teaches grades K-12 and had 

204 students and 14 teachers in 2000. The school gym 

is accessible for community members. Health care is 

available at the Kotlik Health Clinic, which is owned 

by the Kotlik Traditional Council and operated by 

the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC), 

although the clinic currently needs to be expanded 

and is in need of new equipment. Police services are 

provided by City VPSO and fire service is provided 

by volunteers. The electric utility is Kotlik Electric 

Services which is operated by the City with diesel 

as the main power source. In 2000, about 90.2% of 

households heated using kerosene and 9.8% heated 

using wood. A piped vacuum sewer and circulating 

water utilidor is being constructed in Kotlik, although 

19 facilities and households are not yet served and 

those residents must take care of their own hauling of 

water and sewage. The washeteria operator is the City 

and the sewer system is operated by both the City and 

individuals. Individuals must collect their own refuse. 

The City operates the landfill, although it is difficult 

to bury and trench in the area so an incinerator and 

recycling program are being considered. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

There were a total of 91 commercial fishing 

permits issued to residents of Kotlik in 2000 and 92 

resident licensed crew members. No vessel-owner 

residents of Kotlik participated in either the federal 

fisheries or the salmon fishery. 

Of the 91 commercial fishing permits issued to 

residents of the community, a total of 69 were fished 

in 2000. Three permits were issued for king crab using 

pot gear on a vessel under 60 feet in Norton Sound 

(none fished). A total of 13 permits were issued for 

harvesting herring: one was issued for herring roe 

gillnet in Cape Romanzof (not fished) and 12 were 

issued for herring roe gillnets in Norton Sound (6 

fished). A total of 75 permits were issued for salmon 

using set gillnets in the Lower Yukon and of those 63 

were fished. 

No vessels delivered landings to the community of 

Kotlik in 2000 because no processors were in operation 

in the community. The CDQ group for the community, 

the Yukon Delta Fisheries Development Association 

(YDFDA), was recently granted $50,017 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing does not seem to be much of a 

source of income for the community with no obvious 

businesses which draw in tourists for this purpose. 

In 2000 there were 89 sport fishing licenses sold in 

Kotlik to residents of the State of Alaska and a total of 

91 which were sold to non-residents. According to the 

ADF&G, there was no sport fishing guide businesses 

in Kotlik which were registered in 2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Inhabitants of the community of Kotlik rely heavily 

on subsistence harvesting and many have fish camps 

which are located on the Yukon River. According to the 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) for 

the most representative year of 1980 in the community 

of Kotlik a total of 100.0% of the households used all 

subsistence resources, 85.7% used salmon, 100.0% 

used marine mammals, and the total percent was not 

available for non-salmon fish, although the species used 

included smelt, cod, blackfish, burbot, pike, sheefish, 

and whitefish. The per capita subsistence harvest for 

residents of Kotlik was 502.60 lbs and of this harvest 

28.67% was salmon, 30.08% was non-salmon fish, 

20.07% was marine mammals, and 7.88% was madeup by birds and eggs. Also according to ADF&G in 

1999 there were 90 household subsistence salmon 

permits which were issued to those from Kotlik for 

an estimated 7,053 harvested salmon. Residents of 

the community are eligible to apply for subsistence 

halibut certificates. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kotlik 
439

Kwigillingok (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Kwigillingok is on the western shore of 

Kuskokwim Bay on the Bering Sea, near the mouth 

of the Kuskokwim River. It is 77 miles southwest of 

Bethel and 388 miles west of Anchorage. The area 

encompasses 20.2 square miles of land and 0.1 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Kwigillingok is a predominantly Yup’ik Eskimo 

community. In 2000 there were 338 residents in 73 

households; all residents lived in households rather 

than group quarters. The racial composition of the 

community was as follows: American Indian or Alaska 

Native (97.6%), White (2.1%), and two or more races 

(0.3%). A total of 97.9% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. The gender makeup was significantly skewed, 

at 56.8% male and 43.2% female. The median age was 

26 years, much younger than the national age median 

of 35.3 years. Approximately 66% of residents aged 

25 or older had a high school degree or higher level of 

educational attainment. 

History 

Yup’ik Eskimos have inhabited this region of 

Western Alaska since prehistory. The U.S. Census did 

not record the population of Kwigillingok until 1920, 

when there were 104 residents. At about the same time, 

a Moravian Church was established in the community. 

Today, Kwigillingok maintains a strong sense of 

traditional culture, as evidenced by the fact that more 

than 90% of local residents speak their Native Yup’ik 

language at home. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Kwigillingok is dominated 

by commercial fishing, particularly in the herring 

and salmon fisheries. The other major source of 

formal employment is the local school district. Most 

residents rely at least in part on subsistence hunting 

and fishing. 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Kwigillingok Kwigillingok

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Male 

Female 

40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Kwigillingok

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Kwigillingok 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more White

races 2.1% 0.3% 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

50 

Age 

Not Seeking,

43.2% 

Native 

2000 Employment Structure 97.6%

Kwigillingok

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Kwigillingok

Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

16.1% 

Employed,

40.6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kwigillingok 
440

In 2000, the median per capita income in 

Kwigillingok was $7,577 and the median household 

income was $36,250. The unemployment rate was 

16.1%, and 43.2% of residents aged 16 years and 

older were not in the labor force (i.e. not working and 

not seeking work). The poverty rate was quite high, at 

34.7%. 

Governance 

Kwigillingok is an unincorporated Native village 

governed by a federally recognized village council. 

There is also a Native corporation, Kwik Inc., in 

the village. The village does not belong to a formal 

borough, but is under the jurisdiction of the Bethel 

Census Recording District. Kwigillingok is a member 

of the Coastal Villages Region Fund, a Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group, which promotes 

employment opportunities for residents as well as 

participation in the Bering Sea crab and groundfish 

fisheries. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) is in Bethel. A National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located in 

Bethel and a main office is located in Anchorage. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Access to Kwigillingok is by air, via a 2,500 foot 

state-owned airstrip and a seaplane base. Roundtrip 

airfare from Kwigillingok to Anchorage, via Bethel, 

is approximately $509. There are no dock facilities. 

There is no piped water in the community. The village 

council operates a landfill and a diesel-powered electric 

utility company. There is a local health clinic, owned 

by the village council and operated in conjunction with 

the Yukon Kuskokwim Health Corporation. Police 

services are provided by a village public safety officer 

(VPSO). 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 there were 14 vessel owners with 

operations in state-managed fisheries and one vessel 

owner with operations in federal fisheries who resided 

in the community. There were 26 registered crew 

members. There were 37 local residents who held a 

total of 53 commercial fishing permits. This section 

contains a detailed breakdown of permits issued to 

Kwigillingok residents in 2000.

Halibut: Six local residents held a total of seven 

commercial permits in the halibut fishery. These 

included: six halibut longline permits for vessels 

under 60 feet in statewide waters (none fished, and 

one halibut mechanical jig permit for statewide waters 

(one fished).

Herring: Nineteen local residents held a total of 

20 commercial permits in the herring fishery. These 

permits included the following: one herring roe gillnet 

permit for Bristol Bay (none fished), and 19 herring 

roe gillnet permits for Cape Avinof (7 fished).

Salmon: Twenty-six local residents held a total 

of 26 commercial permits in the salmon fishery. The 

permits consisted of: 7 salmon drift gillnet permits 

for Bristol Bay (8 fished), and 19 salmon set gillnet 

permits for Kuskokwim Bay (5 fished).

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

in Kwigillingok and no registered landings. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing in Kwigillingok is limited. The 

ADF&G reported that there were no sport license sales 

and no registered fishing guides in the community in 

2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not provide detailed information 

on subsistence activities in Kwigillingok. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Kwigillingok 
441

Manokotak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Manokotak is situated on the Igushik River. The 

community is 25 miles southwest of Dillingham 

and 347 miles southwest of Anchorage. It is in the 

Dillingham Census Area and makes up 36.4 square 

miles of land and 0.9 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

The community of Manokotak had a population 

of 399 at the time of the 2000 U.S. Census, with 

53.9% of the population male and 46.1% female. 

The community became a permanent settlement in 

1946-47, and since the 1950 census the population 

has continued to rise from the 120 persons reported in 

1950 to the 404 reported by the State Demographer in 

2002. The racial composition in 2000 was as follows: 

94.7% American Indian and Alaska Native, 4.8% 

White, 0.3% Black, and 0.3% two or more races. 

No one identified as Hispanic. The median age in 

Manokotak was 21.9 years of age versus the national 

median age of 35.3 years. There were a total of 106 

housing units of which 13 were vacant at the time of 

the census, and two vacant due to seasonal use. No 

one lived in group quarters in the community. Out of 

the population 25 years of age and over, about 62.5% 

had graduated from high school or higher and about 

10.8% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

The community of Manokotak is one of the newer 

villages in the region of Bristol Bay as it became a 

permanent settlement between 1946 and 1947. It 

was formed by the merging of Igushik and Tuklung, 

although people also joined the village from Kulukak, 

Togiak, and Aleknagik. In 1949 the school was in 

a church, but by 1958-59 a proper school had been 

built. The post office was built in 1960. Trapping has 

declined in the area since the 1960s, but had been a 

lure to Manokotak prior. In 1970 the City became 

incorporated. Residents of the community use Iguashik 

as a summer fish camp. The village of Manokotak is 

a Yup’ik community with a lifestyle based on fishing, 

trapping, and subsistence. The sale, importation, and 

possession of alcohol is not allowed in the city. 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Manokotak Manokotak

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Manokotak 2000 Racial Structure 

Manokotak

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

White 

5% 

Age 

Native 

95% 

Black 

0.3% 

Two or more 

races 

0.3% 

2000 Employment Structure

Manokotak 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Manokotak 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forced, 

0.8% 

Employed,

34.4% 

Not Seeking,

59.4% 

Unemployed,

5.5% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Manokotak 
442

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Manokotak depends for the most 

part on commercial fishing, trapping, and subsistence 

activities. In 2000, 152 commercial fishing permits 

were issued to residents of the community and 97 

community members were licensed crew members. 

Many residents trap fox, beaver, mink, and otter. 

Residents rely heavily on subsistence and usually 

move to Igushik or Ekuk each summer. Reciprocal 

relationships exist between residents of Manokotak 

and several nearby villages, especially Togiak and 

Twin Hills. Of the population age 16 years and over, 

about 34.4% was employed, 5.5% was unemployed, 

0.8% was in the armed forces, and 59.4% was not 

in the labor force. Of those employed, about 83.0% 

were classified as government workers. The per capita 

income was $9,294 and the median household income 

was $26,875. About 35.3% of residents lived below 

the poverty level in 2000. 

Governance 

Manokotak is a second-class city incorporated in 

1970 and has a Mayor form of government, including 

the mayor, a seven person city council, a five person 

advisory school board, and a few municipal employees. 

There is a 2% sales tax in the city, but no property 

tax. The city is not part of any organized borough. 

The regional Native corporation in which the city is 

included is the Bristol Bay Native Corporation and 

the regional non-profit for the area is the Bristol Bay 

Native Association. The Native village corporation 

is Manokotak Natives Ltd. and the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional Council is 

the Manokotak Village Council. The Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group in which the village 

is included is the Bristol Bay Economic Development 

Corporation (BBEDC). The closest office of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) is located 

in Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel, and there are 

offices in Homer and Anchorage. The nearest Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

The city of Manokotak is accessible by both air 

and water. A 2,740 foot lighted gravel airstrip which 

is owned by the State is located one mile north of the 

community, and a 5,000 foot seaplane base is present. 

Flights are available from Dillingham; both regularly 

scheduled flights as well as charter. The approximate 

cost according to Travelocity and Expedia to travel by 

air roundtrip to Anchorage from Manokotak is $404 

(price given for date as close to September 1, 2003 as 

possible). There are no docking facilities on the Igushik 

River and supplies are lightered each summer, and must 

be pulled up to the mud beach. Traveling by boat on the 

Igushik River can be difficult as the river is made up of 

many miles of meandering loops. In 1998 construction 

began on a 6.5 mile road to a barge landing area on the 

Snake River. Residents use ATVs, snowmachines, and 

some vehicles for transportation. During the winter 

months, snowmachines use the Manokotak Trail to 

travel to Dillingham to haul fuel. There are no visitor 

accommodations in the community. Manokotak 

School instructs grades K-12 and had 142 students 

and 17 teachers in 2000. Health care is available at 

the Manokotak Health Clinic which is owned by the 

Village Council and operated by the Bristol Bay Area 

Health Corporation (BBAHC). The clinic has problems 

with water freezing and the community would like to 

construct a new facility. Police services are available 

from the State Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO). 

The electric utility is the Manokotak Power Company 

which is operated by the Village Corporation with a 

main power source of diesel. The City operates the 

water system which consists of a piped water system 

that serves 68 households along with the piped sewer 

system. A duplex and two homes have individual 

wells. The City operates the sewer system and the 

landfill as well, although individuals are responsible 

for collecting their own refuse. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Manokotak is not located directly on 

the coast it still has a large tie to the commercial 

fishing industry and many members of the community 

hold commercial fishing permits. A total of 152 

commercial fishing permits were issued to residents of 

the community in 2000 and 97 residents were licensed 

crew members. There were 25 residents which owned 

vessels and participated in the commercial salmon 

fishery in 2000, although no resident vessel owners 

participated in federal fisheries. 

Out of the 152 permits issued to Manokotak 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Manokotak 
443

residents, 75 were fished in 2000. Three permits were 

issued for halibut using longline on a vessel under 60 

feet statewide (one fished). Seventy-five commercial 

permits were issued for herring (8 fished): 3 were 

issued for herring roe using a gillnet in Security Cove 

(none fished), 24 for herring roe using a gillnet in 

Bristol Bay (7 fished), 2 for herring roe using a gillnet 

in Goodnews Bay (one fished), and 46 for herring 

spawn on kelp harvested by diving or handpicked in 

Bristol Bay (none fished). One permit was issued for 

miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a longline on a 

vessel under 60 feet statewide (not fished). A total of 

73 permits were issued for salmon (66 fished): 28 were 

issued using a drift gillnet in Bristol Bay (25 fished), 

44 using a set gillnet in Bristol Bay (41 fished), and 

one using a set gillnet in the Kuskokwim (not fished). 

No landings were delivered to Manokotak in 

2000 because no processors were in operation in the 

community. 

The CDQ group in which Manokotak is included, 

the Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

(BBEDC), was recently granted $75,026 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

The community does not seem to draw many 

tourists to the area for sport fishing as there are no 

businesses present to support sport fishing or any 

hotels where tourists could lodge. In 2000 the ADF&G 

reported one sport fishing license sold in Manokotak 

to a resident of the State of Alaska. Also according 

to ADF&G, in 2002 there were no sport fishing 

businesses listed in Manokotak. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Residents of Manokotak are heavily dependent 

on subsistence harvests. Relationships exist with 

neighboring communities for sharing resources, 

especially Togiak and Twin Hills. According to the 

ADF&G for the most representative year, 1985, 

100.0% of households used all subsistence resources: 

100.0% salmon, 100.0% non-salmon fish (herring, 

herring roe, smelt, flounder, blackfish, burbot, char, 

grayling, pike, trout, and whitefish), 83.3% marine 

mammals, and 88.9% marine invertebrates. The per 

capita harvest for Manokotak’s residents was 384.07 

lbs of all subsistence resources of which 35.36% was 

salmon, 22.16% was non-salmon fish, 8.49% was 

marine mammals, 1.18% was marine invertebrates, 

4.39% was birds and eggs, 24.73% was land mammals, 

and 3.68% was vegetation. In 1999 as reported by 

ADF&G, there were 18 household subsistence salmon 

permits issued for a total estimated harvest of 3,413 

fish. Residents of Manokotak are eligible to apply for 

subsistence halibut certificates. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Manokotak 
444

Marshall (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Marshall is situated on the north bank of Polte 

Slough and on the east bank of the Yukon River in 

the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. It is north of Arbor 

Island and is located on the northeastern boundary 

of the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge. The 

community is in the Wade Hampton Census Area. 

Demographic Profile 

Marshall had a total of 349 inhabitants in 2000: 

50.1% male and 49.9% female. Since 1940 the 

population of Marshall has grown steadily from 

a reported 91 inhabitants in that year. The racial 

composition of Marshall in 2000 was as follows: 96% 

American Indian andAlaska Native, 2% White, and 2% 

two or more races. A total of 97.7% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. About 0.3% of the population 

(one resident) was Hispanic. The median age in the 

community was a very low 22.3 years of age versus 

the national average of 35.3 years. There were a total 

of 104 housing units in Marshall. Thirteen were vacant 

and of those two were vacant due to seasonal use. No 

one in the community lived in group quarters. Of the 

population 25 years of age and older, about 74.8% 

had graduated from high school or gone on to further 

schooling and about 7.4% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. About 1.2% had a graduate or 

professional degree. 

History 

According to the National Park Service, the Arctic 

Small Tool Tradition, “one of the most distinctive 

and widespread Arctic cultural traditions appeared 

around 4000 BP.” Some investigators feel that the 

Arctic Small Tool tradition “marks the arrival of the 

ancestral Eskimo cultures” to the Arctic area (National 

Park Service 2003). Historically, the Native Eskimo 

people present in the area of Marshall have been 

the Yup’ik peoples. Because “southwestern Alaska 

lacked significant amounts of any of the commercially 

valuable resources that first drew non-Natives to other 

parts of the state”, the Native people of the southwest 

region did not experience continual contact with the 

outside world until missionaries settled in the area 

beginning in the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Marshall Marshall Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Marshall 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Marshall 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

2.0% 2.0% 

Native 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 96.0% Marshall 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Marshall

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.3% 

Non-Hispanic,

99.7% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Marshall 
445

2000 Employment Structure

Marshall

Orthodox, then the Moravians, and finally the Jesuits 

(Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115).

In 1880 an expedition came upon an Eskimo 

village at this site which was called “Uglovaia.” In 

1913 gold was discovered at Wilson Creek, which 

is located nearby to the site of the village. The site 

became a placer mining camp and was named 

“Fortuna Ledge” after the first child which was born 

at the camp, Fortuna Hunter. The site of the camp 

was convenient for riverboat landings, as it was 

located on a channel of the Yukon River. In 1915 a 

post office was established in the community. At that 

time the population soared to over 1,000 occupants. 

The village was named “Marshall’s Landing” later for 

Thomas Riley Marshall, Vice President of the U.S. 

under Woodrow Wilson from 1913-1921. The village 

became incorporated as a second-class city in 1970 

and at that time was named Fortuna Ledge; however, 

it was commonly called Marshall. In 1984 the name 

was officially changed to Marshall; in some places, 

however, it is still referred to as Fortuna Ledge. Those 

from the village of Ohogamiut live in Marshall as 

well. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Marshall is very seasonally based 

and includes fishing, fish processing, and Bureau of 

Land Management (BLM) fire fighting positions, 

all of which are for the most part performed in the 

summer months. In 2000 there were 41 commercial 

fishing permits issued to residents of Marshall/Fortuna 

Ledge, and 60 residents which were licensed crew 

members. Some income is also provided by trapping. 

Income is supplemented for community members by 

subsistence activities. Of the population age 16 years 

and over in 2000, 52.4% were employed, 11.9% were 

unemployed, and 35.7% were not in the labor force 

(i.e. not employed and not seeking work). Of those 

residents who were employed, about 59.1% were 

classified as government workers. In 2000 the median 

per capita income in Marshall was $9,597 and the 

median household income was $32,917. About 28.6% 

of the population lived below the poverty level at the 

time of the Census. 

Governance 

Marshall was incorporated as a second-class city 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Marshall Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

11.9% 

Not seeking,

35.7%

Employed,

52.4% 

in 1970. The city has a Mayor form of government 

which includes the mayor and a six-person city 

council, a five-person advisory school board, and 

a few municipal employees including a police and 

fire chief as well as a police officer. The city has a 

4% sales tax, but no other taxes. Marshall is not 

part of any organized borough. The regional Native 

corporation for the area is the Calista Corporation 

and the Native village corporation is Maserculiq Inc. 

There are two tribal offices located in the community: 

the Native Village of Marshall and the Native Village 

of Ohoghamiut. The nearest Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game (ADF&G) office is located in the city 

of Emmonak, but is a seasonal office which is open 

from June 1st to August 31st. The closest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

is also located in Nome. A National Marine Fisheries 

Service (NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a 

larger office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Marshall is accessible for the most part by both air 

and water; there are no roads which connect it to other 

communities. Recently a 4,000 foot gravel airstrip 

owned by the state was completed. The approximate 

cost to travel by air roundtrip to Anchorage from 

Marshall via Bethel is $483. The city receives barge 

services. Local residents have boats, but in the winter 

months they are reliant upon dog teams and snow 

machines. There are no hotels or accommodations 

in the city for visitors. There is one school in the 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Marshall 
446

community, which teaches grades K-12. The Marshall 

School had a total of 118 students and eight teachers in 

2000. There is also a school building with a Head Start 

Program that serves children aged three to five. Health 

care is available at Theresa Elia Memorial Health 

Clinic, which is owned by the City and operated by 

the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC). 

Police services are available from the State Village 

Public Safety Officer (VPSO) and the City Village 

Police Officer (VPO). The electric utility for the area 

is AVEC, which is operated by REA Co-op and the 

city with a main power source of diesel. The water 

system, sewer system, and landfill are all operated by 

the city. The city is also the refuse collector. About 

70% of the homes in the city have full plumbing which 

includes piped, circulating water and a sewer system, 

whereas the remaining houses use honeybuckets and 

haul water.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

A total of 41 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Marshall/Fortuna Ledge in 2000 

(38 fished). There were 60 residents of the community 

who were licensed crew members in 2000 as well. 

No one in the community owned a vessel which was 

involved in either the federal fisheries or the salmon 

fishery. 

The following is a brief description of permits 

issued to Marshall residents in 2000. Two permits 

were issued for herring roe using gillnets in Norton 

Sound (none fished). A total of 39 permits were issued 

for salmon, all using set gillnets in the Lower Yukon 

(38 fished). 

There were no landings of any sort in Marshall 

in 2000 because no processor was present in the 

community. 

The community of Marshall was recently 

granted $500 in salmon disaster funds by the federal 

government. These funds were granted because of the 

recent falling salmon prices largely due to competition 

with foreign aquaculture fish. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing does appear to be an important 

industry in Marshall; 17 sport fishing licenses were 

sold in the community in 2000, all of which were sold 

to Alaska State residents. There also was one business 

in Marshall which was listed as both a saltwater and 

freshwater fishing guide business in 2002, according 

to the ADF&G.

Subsistence Fishing 

Little data was available about the exact subsistence 

harvests for Marshall in regards to which species were 

harvested and exact amounts. The Alaska Department 

of Community and Economic Development mentions 

that residents use subsistence to supplement their 

incomes and harvest salmon, moose, bear, and 

waterfowl. According to the ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence, the established annual wild food harvest 

for those in Marshall is 691.6 lbs per person. The daily 

wild food harvest is 1.9 lbs per person. Also according 

to the ADF&G, 68 household permits were issued 

for subsistence salmon to residents of Marshall in 

1999 for an estimated harvest of 4,775 total salmon. 

Residents of Marshall are not eligible to apply for 

halibut subsistence certificates. 

* Commercial fishing permit data from the CFEC is given for 

the communities of Fortuna Ledge and Marshall 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Marshall 
30 

447

Mekoryuk (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Mekoryuk is situated on the mouth of Shoal 

Bay. It is on the north shore of Nunivak Island in the 

Bering Sea and is about 30 miles off the coast. The 

community is in the Bethel Census Area and is located 

about 149 air miles west of Bethel and 553 miles west 

of Anchorage. Mekoryuk is included in the Yukon 

Delta Wildlife Refuge and makes up 7.4 square miles 

of land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 210 inhabitants of Mekoryuk 

at the time of 2000 U.S. Census and of those a 

significantly large amount, 53.8% were male. About 

46.2% of the population was female. The population 

of the community has fluctuated quite a bit since 

1910 when there were 127 occupants to the largest 

point which was at the time of the 1970 Census when 

there were 249 occupants. In 2000 about 3.3% of the 

population was White, 90.5% were American Indian 

and Alaska Native, and 6.2% were of two or more 

races. A total of 96.7% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. About 0.5% of the population was Hispanic. 

The median age in the community was 35.6 years 

of age which is very close to the American median 

age of 35.3. There were a total of 96 housing units in 

the community in 2000, 23 were vacant, and of those 

six were vacant due to seasonal use. No one in the 

population lived in group quarters. Of the population 

age 25 and over about 68.9% had graduated from 

high school or gone on to further schooling, 5.0% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher, and a very large 

percent (31.1%) never graduated from high school. 

History 

Historically the Native Eskimo people present in 

the area of Mekoryuk have been the Yup’ik peoples, 

specifically the Nuniwarmiut people who are Cup’it 

Eskimos. Nunivak Island itself has been peopled for 

approximately 2,000 years. In 1821 the first outside 

contact occurred with the RussianAmerican Company. 

The Company documented 400 people living in 16 

villages on the Island. In 1874 a summer village camp 

by the name of “Koot” was noted at the modern day 

site of Mekoryuk. There was an epidemic in 1900 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Mekoryuk Mekoryuk Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

30 20 10 0 10 20 

Number of individuals

2000 Racial Structure 

Mekoryuk

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Mekoryuk 

Data source: US Census 

White 

races 3.3% 

6.2% 

Two or more 

Native 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 90.5%

Mekoryuk

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Mekoryuk 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic

0.5% 

Non-Hispanic

99.5% 

Male 

Female 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Mekoryuk 
448

which decimated the population. Only four families 

in the village survived. An Eskimo missionary built 

the Evangelical Covenant Church in the 1930s in 

the village and a BIA school was built in 1939. The 

school brought people who moved from other parts 

of the island to the village. An Eskimo-Russian trader 

introduced reindeer for commercial purposes in 1920. 

In the 1940s the operation was purchased by the BIA 

and in 1945 a slaughterhouse was constructed. The 

reindeer were bred with caribou from Denali Park and 

the offspring are larger and more difficult to handle 

than other reindeer in the state of Alaska. In 1934, 34 

musk-oxen from Greenland were brought to the Island 

in an endeavor to save the animal from extinction. 

Presently the herd numbers at around 500 musk-oxen 

with calves from the herd having been relocated and 

introduced to other areas of Alaska. In 1940 a post 

office opened in the village. During this time women 

lived in semi-subterranean sod houses with the men 

living in one or more men’s community houses called 

“qasgir” and at which time traditional ceremonies 

and beliefs were still practiced by the Native people. 

Extensive change was brought about to the Island in 

the 50s and 60s. In 1957 an airstrip was built and the 

Territorial Guard was formed which caused the men to 

go to Fort Richardson which is located by Anchorage 

for training. By 1957 the only permanent community 

on the Island was Mekoryuk and around this time 

many of the families moved to the community of 

Bethel to be closer to the high school. Families 

returned to Mekoryuk for fishing and sea mammal 

hunting in the late spring. In 1969 the City became 

incorporated. In 1978 a high school was constructed 

in the community. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

In Mekoryuk employment is provided for the 

most part by the school, City, Village Corporation, 

commercial fishing, construction, and service 

industries. A major employer in the community is 

Nuniwarmiut Reindeer and Seafood Products Co. 

Many families earn income from the production of 

Native crafts or from trapping. The processor, Coastal 

Villages Seafood, processes halibut in the community. 

In 2000 a total of 113 commercial fishing permits 

were issued to residents of the community and 50 

community members were licensed crew men. Nearly 

2000 Employment Structure 

2000 Employment Structure 

Mekoryuk 

Mekoryuk Data source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

Unemployed

13.3% 

Not seeking

32.9%

Employed

53.8% 

all families are involved in subsistence and most 

families have fish camps. In 2000 of those residents 

age 16 years and over about 53.8% were employed, 

13.3% were unemployed, and 32.9% were not in the 

labor force at the time of the Census. Nearly 64.9% of 

those which were employed were classified as having 

been government workers. The per capita income for 

those in Mekoryuk was $11,957 in 2000 with the 

median household income of $30,833. About 21.9% 

of residents were below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Mekoryuk is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1969 and has a Mayor form of 

government which includes the mayor, seven person 

city council, five person advisory school board, and 

various municipal employees including a Village Police 

Officer (VPO). The city is not part of any organized 

borough. The city enforces a 2% sales tax, but has no 

other taxes. The regional Native corporation for the 

area is the Calista Corporation with the village Native 

corporation being the Nima Corporation. The village 

council and Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized 

IRA Council for the village is the Native Village of 

Mekoryuk. The village is a member of the Coastal 

Villages Region Fund, a Community Development 

Quota (CDQ) group that promotes employment 

opportunities for residents as well as participation in 

the Bering Sea crab and groundfish fisheries. Coastal 

Villages Region Fund is active in the community, 

operating a fish processing plant in Mekoryuk. The 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Mekoryuk 
449

closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) to the community is located in Bethel. 

A National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field 

office is located in Bethel and a main office is located 

in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Anchorage. 

Facilities 

The community is very dependent upon air 

transport for cargo, mail, and passenger services. 

A 3,070 foot gravel runway which is owned by the 

State supplies year-round access to Mekoryuk. The 

approximate cost according to Travelocity and Expedia 

to fly from Anchorage to the community is $459 with 

a connection flight through Bethel (price given for 

date as close to September 1, 2003 as possible). There 

are two companies which provide airline services in 

Mekoryuk. Goods are delivered to the community 

either once or twice a year from Bethel by barges. The 

shoreline is protected from the extreme waves of the 

Bering Sea by a breakwater. Locals use ATVs, boats, 

and snowmachines for travel within the community. 

There are several places for tourists to stay if visiting 

the community including the Mekoryuk B&B, the 

IRA B&B, and Rosie’s B&B. There is one school in 

the city, Nuniwarmiut School which teaches grades 

K-12. The school had a total of 40 students in 2000 

and five teachers. Health care is available at the 

Mekoryuk Health Clinic which is owned by the City 

and is operated by the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health 

Corporation (YKHC). For sanitation services, the City 

of Mekoryuk operates a flush and haul system, and the 

water is delivered from a city-operated reservoir. Police 

services are provided by both the City Village Police 

Officer (VPO) and the City Public Safety Office. The 

electric utility is AVEC which is operated by REA Coop and the City with a main power source of diesel. 

The water system is operated by the City. The water 

is taken from a well and then is treated and stored in a 

tank available at a central hauling point for residents. 

Approximately 90% of the homes in the community are 

served by a new flush/haul system which is operated 

by the City and funds have been supplied to connect 

to the remaining homes which still use honeybuckets. 

The school has its own well and currently is in need 

of a new water treatment system. The landfill in the 

community is operated by the City. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

There were a total of 113 commercial fishing 

permits which were issued to residents of Mekoryuk 

in 2000 and a total of 50 licensed crew members which 

were residents of the community in 2000. There were 

37 community members which were the owners of 

vessels which were involved in the federal fisheries 

and 2 which were involved in the salmon fishery. 

Of the total of 113 commercial fishing permits 

which were issued to residents in 2000, 86 were fished. 

A total of 51 permits were issued for the commercial 

fishing of halibut and of those 48 were fished in 2000; 

19 were issued using hand trolls statewide (17 fished), 

31 using longline vessels under 60 feet statewide (30 

fished), and one using a mechanical jig statewide 

which was fished. In regards to herring roe a total of 

60 permits were issued of which 37 were fished: 11 

using gillnets by Nelson Island (10 fished), four using 

gillnets in Security Cove (none fished), one using a 

gillnet in Bristol Bay (not fished), 35 using gillnets 

around Nunivak Island (27 fished), 8 using gillnets in 

Goodnews Bay (none fished), and one using a gillnet 

in Norton Sound (not fished). In regards to other 

groundfish a total of one permit was issued to a resident 

of Mekoryuk for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using 

longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide, although 

it was not fished in 2000. One permit was issued for 

the commercial fishing of salmon using a drift gillnet 

in Bristol Bay and it was fished in 2000. 

No vessels delivered landings to the community of 

Mekoryuk in 2000, however a processor is present in 

the community now, a halibut plant, Coastal Villages 

Seafood, Inc. Coastal Villages Seafood is operated by 

the CDQ for the area, Coastal Villages Region Fund 

which operates a total of five halibut and salmon plants 

in communities included in the CDQ. 

Mekoryuk was recently allocated a sum of $3,645 

in federal salmon disaster funds because of the recent 

falling salmon prices attributed to foreign farmed 

fish. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing seems to be present in the area of 

Mekoryuk with one business in operation in the 

community in 2002 according to the ADF&G; which 

was listed as having been a saltwater guide business 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Mekoryuk 
450

and providing saltwater fishing charter services, tent/

cabin camp services, and drop off services. In 2000 

there were a total of six sport fishing licenses which 

were sold in the community with five of the total sold 

to Alaska state residents. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Little information about subsistence uses of 

specific resources is given by the ADF&G for Mekoryuk. 

The information that is available reports that in the 

most representative year of 1990, 100% of households 

used herring in the form of herring sac roe. According 

to the Department of Community and Economic 

Development (DCED) important subsistence staples 

of the community are salmon, reindeer, seal meat, and 

seal oil. The DCED also mentions that most families 

in Mekoryuk have fish camps. As reported by ADF&G 

it has been established that residents of Mekoryuk 

harvest annually approximately 704.2 lbs of wild food 

per person per year, which equates to a daily wild 

food harvest of approximately 1.929 lbs per person. 

Also according to ADF&G in regards to salmon, a 

total of 92 household permits were issued to those 

from Mekoryuk in the year 1999 for the harvesting 

of subsistence salmon. A total of 1,664 salmon were 

harvested by residents in that particular year of which 

the majority was chum salmon. Residents of Mekoryuk 

and the Native Village of Mekoryuk tribal group are 

eligible to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Mekoryuk 
451

Napakiak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Napakiak is located at the mouth of the Kuskokwim 

River, 15 miles southwest of Bethel. It is on an island 

between the Kuskokwim River and Johnson’s Slough. 

The area encompasses 4.7 square miles of land and 

0.3 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Napakiak is a predominantly Yup’ik Eskimo 

village. In 2000 there were 353 residents in 90 

households. All residents lived in households rather 

than group quarters. The racial composition of the 

community was as follows: American Indian or 

Alaska Native (96%), White (1.4%), Black or African 

American (1.7%), and two or more races (0.8%). A 

total of 96.6% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. In 

addition, 0.3% of residents were of Hispanic ethnicity. 

The gender composition of Napakiak was significantly 

skewed, at 56.7% male and 43.3% female. The median 

age was 26.2 years, significantly younger than the U.S. 

national average of 35.3 years. In terms of educational 

attainment, approximately 62.2% of residents over 

25 years of age held a high school diploma or higher 

degree. The presence of traditional Yup’ik culture is 

still quite strong, as evidence by the fact that 84.4% of 

residents speak their Native language in the home. 

History 

Yup’ik Eskimos have inhabited the YukonKuskokwim area since prehistory. The first European 

reports of the village of Napakiak were in 1878 by E.W. 

Nelson, although the village at that time was located 

downriver at the mouth of the Johnson River. The 

Moravian Church constructed a chapel in Napakiak in 

the 1920s.

Napakiak was incorporated as a second-class city 

in 1970. In 1973, the first airstrip was constructed, 

enabling year-round access to the community. 

Napakiak today is predominantly a Yup’ik village with 

a strong sense of Native identity. 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Napakiak Napakiak Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Napakiak

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

Napakiak 

Data source: US Census 

White 

1.4% Two or more Black 

races 1.7%

0.8% 

Native

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 96.1%

Napakiak

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Napakiak 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.3% 

Non-Hispanic,

99.7% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Napakiak 
Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing, though highly seasonal, is 

a major source of employment in Napakiak. Other 

employers include the school and local government. 

In addition, the majority of residents rely heavily on 

subsistence hunting and fishing. 

The median per capita income was $7,319 and the 

median household income was $28,750. Approximately 

13.1% of the potential labor force was unemployed, 

and 41.2% of residents aged 16 years and older were 

not in the labor force (i.e. not working and not seeking 

work). Approximately 20.2% of residents lived below 

the poverty level. 

Governance 

Napakiak was incorporated as a second-class 

city in 1970. A 3% sales tax is collected in the city. 

Napakiak is not located within an organized borough, 

but is within the Bethel Census Area. A federally 

recognized Native village council is active in the 

community. There is also a village corporation, the 

Napakiak Corporation. 

The village is a member of the Coastal Villages 

Region Fund, a Community Development Quota 

(CDQ) group that promotes employment opportunities 

for residents as well as participation in the Bering Sea 

crab and groundfish fisheries. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Access to Napakiak is primarily by air; the state 

owns a 2,150 foot gravel runway in the community. 

Roundtrip airfare to Anchorage, via the nearby Bethel 

airport, is approximately $206. There are no docking 

facilities, although barges often deliver cargo from 

Bethel during the summer months, and the Kuskokwim 

River serves as a transportation thoroughfare. 

Water for domestic use is collected from a 

community well. Electricity is transmitted from 

Bethel Utilities and purchased and distributed locally 

by a private company, Ircinraq Power Company. There 

2000 Employment Structure

Napakiak

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Napakiak

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

41.2% 

Unemployed,

13.1% 

Employed,

45.7% 

is a local health clinic that is owned by the city and 

operated in conjunction with the Yukon-Kuskokwim 

Health Corporation. Police services are provided by 

a village public safety officer. There is one school 

in Napakiak, offering instruction to students from 

kindergarten through twelfth grade. There are six 

teachers and 102 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 there were 12 vessel owners residing in the 

community with operations in state-managed fisheries. 

Forty-two local residents held a total of 48 commercial 

fishing licenses, and 35 licenses were fished. There 

were 47 registered crew members. Napakiak’s most 

significant involvement in commercial fishing is in the 

Bristol Bay and Kuskokwim Bay salmon fisheries. This 

section contains a detailed description of commercial 

permits issued to Napakiak residents in 2000. 

Herring: Nine residents held a total of nine 

herring roe gillnet permits for Goodnews Bay. Only 

three permits were fished.

Salmon: One resident held a salmon drift gillnet 

permit in Bristol Bay (two fished). Thirty-eight 

residents held a total of 38 salmon set gillnet permits 

for Kuskokwim Bay (30 fished).

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

in Napakiak and no registered landings. 

452

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Napakiak 
453

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing is not a significant part of Napakiak’s 

involvement in North Pacific fisheries. There were no 

sport license sales in Napakiak in 2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Most residents in Napakiak use subsistence 

resources. However, the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game does not have detailed information about 

subsistence harvesting and use in Napakiak.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Napakiak 
454

New Stuyahok (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of New Stuyahok is situated on 

the Nushagak River. It is located about 12 miles upriver 

from Ekwok and 52 miles northeast of Dillingham. It 

has been constructed at two elevations: one is at 25 

feet above the river level and one is about 40 feet above 

the level of the river. The community is located in the 

Dillingham Census Area and makes up 32.6 square 

miles of land and 2.0 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were 471 inhabitants of the community of 

New Stuyahok in 2000 and of those 55.0% were male 

and 45.0% were female. Since a population was first 

recorded for the community at its present location 

by the 1950 Census, the population has continued to 

grow from the 88 residents reported in 1950 to the 

479 in 2002 as established by a State Demographer. In 

2000 about 92.8% of the population of New Stuyahok 

was American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.8% were 

White, and 3.4% were of two or more races. A total of 

96% of the population recognized themselves as all or 

part Alaska Native or American Indian. About 1.3% 

of the population was Hispanic in 2000. The median 

age for the community was 24.4 years of age, whereas 

the national age median was 35.3 years. There were 

a total of 107 housing units with two having been 

vacant and one of those vacant due to seasonal use 

at the time of the Census. No one in the city lived in 

group quarters. Out of the population age 25 and over, 

about 67.5% had graduated from high school or higher 

and 10.3% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

Approximately 25.9% of the inhabitants age 25 and 

over had completed less than 9th grade at the time of 

the 2000 Census. 

History 

The current site of New Stuyahok is the third 

location of the village that community members 

can remember. In 1918 the village moved downriver 

from the “Old Village” to the Mulchatna area. The 

community was involved in herding reindeer for the 

U.S. government in the 1920s and 30s, but by 1942 the 

herd had dwindled down to nothing. In addition to the 

diminishing herd, the village site was too far inland at 

that time to receive barge service and the village had 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

New Stuyahok New Stuyahok

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

80 60 40 20 0 20 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

New Stuyahok

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

New Stuyahok 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

3.4% 3.8% 

Native 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 92.8%

New Stuyahok

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

New Stuyahok 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1.3% 

Non-Hispanic,

98.7% 

60 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/New Stuyahok 
455

been exposed to flooding, therefore the village moved 

downriver in 1942 to its present location. The name 

Stuyahok fittingly means “going downriver place.” In 

1961 the first school was built in New Stuyahok, in 

addition a post office was built in the same year, and 

soon after an airstrip was built. In the decade of the 

1960s the community experienced a 40% increase in 

its population. In 1972 the City became incorporated. 

The city of New Stuyahok is a southern Yup’ik 

community with a lifestyle of fishing and subsistence. 

Russian Orthodox influences are visible. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of New Stuyahok is based for 

the most part on the salmon fishery, including both 

commercial and subsistence fishing. In 2000 there 

were 61 commercial fishing permits which were 

issued to residents of the community and a total of 96 

licensed crew members who claimed residency. Many 

community members are involved in trapping and 

the whole community is dependent upon subsistence 

harvesting. Oftentimes, subsistence resources are 

traded between neighboring communities. Of the 

population age 16 years and over in New Stuyahok 

about 44.1% were employed, 9.2% were unemployed, 

0.7% were in the armed forces, and 46.1% were not in 

the labor force. Of those which were employed about 

67.7% were classified as having been government 

workers. The per capita income was $7,931 with the 

median household income having been $26,042. About 

31.7% of residents were below the poverty level at the 

time of the 2000 Census. 

Governance 

New Stuyahok is a second-class city which 

was incorporated in 1972 and has a Mayor form of 

government which includes the mayor, an eight person 

city council, five person advisory school board, and 

various municipal employees including a police officer 

and a public safety officer. There are no taxes imposed 

by the City and New Stuyahok is not part of any 

organized borough. The regional Native corporation 

in which the community is included is the Bristol Bay 

Native Corporation with the regional non-profit for 

the area being the Bristol Bay Native Association. The 

Native village corporation is Stuyahok Limited. The 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional 

2000 Employment Structure

New Stuyahok

Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure 

New Stuyahok 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

0.7% 

Unemployed,

9.2% 

Employed,

Not Seeking, 44.1% 

46.1% 

Council is the New Stuyahok Village Council. The 

closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) to the community is located in 

Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel, an office 

is located in Homer, and a main office is located in 

Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Anchorage. 

Facilities 

New Stuyahok is accessible for the most part 

by air. From Dillingham both charter and regularly 

scheduled flights are available. The approximate cost 

according to Travelocity and Expedia to travel by air 

roundtrip to Anchorage from New Stuyahok is $449 

(price given for date as close to September 1, 2003 

as possible). A 1,800 foot lighted, State-owned gravel 

airstrip is available, although it is located on a hill and 

conditions are often windy enough to prevent landing. 

Funds have been requested by the community to build 

a crosswind landing strip. No docking facilities are 

available at the City. During the summer months, goods 

are lightered frequently. Locals normally use skiffs, 

ATVs, and snow machines as modes of transportation. 

Accommodations are reportedly available at the clinic, 

City office, and at the school. One school is located 

in New Stuyahok, Chief Ivan Blunka School, which 

teaches grades K-12. In 2000 the school had a total of 

166 students and 8 teachers. Health care is available 

at the New Stuyahok Health Clinic which is owned 

by the Village Council and operated by the Bristol 

Bay Area Health Corporation (BBAHC). The clinic 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/New Stuyahok 
456

needs to be expanded and experiences problems with 

the water freezing. Police services are provided by 

the State Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO), City 

Village Police Officer (VPO), and by the City Public 

Safety Building. The electric utility is AVEC which is 

operated by the REA Co-op and the City with a main 

power source of diesel. The water system is operated 

by the City and those which are not hooked up to the 

piped water system are responsible for their own water 

and use individual wells. The washteria is operated by 

the Village Council and the Splish Splash Washout 

Center. A greater part of the homes are connected to 

the piped water and sewer system. The sewer system, 

landfill operation, and refuse collection are all the 

responsibility of the City. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although the city of New Stuyahok is located 

inland on the Nushagak River, the community is still 

active in the commercial fishing industry, mostly in 

salmon, but also taking part in the fishing of halibut and 

herring roe. A total of 61 commercial fishing permits 

were issued to residents of New Stuyahok in 2000 and 

96 residents were licensed crew members. Twenty-six 

vessel owners which were residents of the community 

participated in the harvesting of salmon, although no 

residents which were vessel owners participated in the 

federal fisheries. 

Out of the total of 61 permits which were issued 

to residents, 40 were fished in 2000. One permit was 

issued for halibut using longline on a vessel over 60 feet 

statewide, although it was not fished. Nineteen permits 

were issued for herring, and 5 were fished: 4 were 

issued for herring roe using gillnets in Security Cove 

(2 fished), 13 for herring roe using gillnets in Bristol 

Bay (3 fished), and 2 were issued for herring spawn 

on kelp gathered by diving or handpicked in Bristol 

Bay (none fished). Forty-one permits were issued for 

salmon of which 35 were fished: one was issued for 

salmon using a purse seine in Kodiak (not fished), 33 

using drift gillnets in Bristol Bay (26 fished), and 7 

using set gillnets in Bristol Bay (9 fished). 

No vessels delivered landings to New Stuyahok 

because no processors were in operation in 2000. 

The CDQ group in which New Stuyahok is 

included, the Bristol Bay Economic Development 

Corporation (BBEDC) was recently granted $75,026 

by the Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as 

part of the Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in 

recognition of the negative economic impacts of federal 

measures to protect the Steller sea lion” with money 

which had been allocated by the U.S. government 

(Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

There is little evidence of sport fishing around 

the New Stuyahok area and the facilities, such as a 

hotel or related businesses do not presently exist in 

the community for this industry. According to the 

ADF&G, in 2000 no sport fishing licenses were sold 

in New Stuyahok and in the year 2002 no businesses 

were listed as being sport fishing services in the 

community. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Community members are very dependent on 

subsistence harvests and often trade items with other 

villages. According to the ADF&G, for the most 

representative year of (1987), 100.0% of households 

used all subsistence resources, 90.0% used salmon, 

100.0% used non-salmon fish (herring, herring roe, 

smelt, flounder, blackfish, burbot, char, grayling, 

pike, sucker, trout, and whitefish), 77.5% used marine 

mammals, and 15.0% used marine invertebrates. 

The per capita harvest of community members was 

700.42 lbs of which 58.34% was salmon, 5.14% 

was non-salmon fish, 0.08% was marine mammals, 

0.06% was marine invertebrates, 0.56% was birds 

and eggs, 33.86% was land mammals, and 1.96% 

was vegetation. Also reported by ADF&G is that 47 

household subsistence salmon permits were issued to 

those from the community in the year 1999. Residents 

of New Stuyahok do not appear to be eligible to apply 

for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/New Stuyahok 
457

Newtok (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Newtok is located on the Ninglick River, north 

of Nelson Island, in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta 

region. It is 94 miles northwest of Bethel. The area 

encompasses 1.0 square mile of land and 0.1 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Newtok is a predominantlyYup’ik Eskimo village. 

In 2000 there were 321 residents in 63 households. 

The racial composition of the community was as 

follows: American Indian and Alaska Native (95.3%), 

White (3.1%), and two or more races (1.6%). A total 

of 96.9% of the population recognized themselves 

as all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The 

gender makeup of the community was significantly 

skewed, at 54.2% male and 45.8% female. The median 

age of Newtok was 20.7 years, significantly younger 

than the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. In terms 

of educational attainment, 71.1% of residents aged 25 

and over held a high school degree or higher level of 

education. 

History 

The people of Newtok, together with Native 

communities on Nelson Island, are known as 

Qaluyaarmiut, or “dip net people.” Their ancestors 

have lived on the Bering Sea coast for at least 2,000 

years. Newtok’s contact with the outside world has 

traditionally been limited; until as recently as the 

1980s, high school students had to travel outside 

the community for an education. Village leaders are 

currently suggesting a land trade with the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, which would allow them to 

relocate their village to a new site called Taqikcaq in 

order to avoid erosion. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Newtok depends largely on 

commercial fishing. Many residents hold commercial 

permits. Other employment sources include the school, 

the health clinic, and village organizations. In addition, 

almost all Newtok residents rely on subsistence hunting 

and fishing to supplement their incomes. 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Newtok Newtok Data souce: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 

Male 

Female 

Number of inhabitants 

2000 Racial Structure 

Newtok 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Newtok 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more White 

Native 

95.3% 

races 3.1%

1.6% 

2000 Employment Structure

Newtok 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Newtok Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

36.5% 

Unemployed,

15.6% 

Employed,

47.9% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Newtok 
458

In 2000, the per capita income was $9,514 and 

the median household income was $32,188. The 

unemployment rate was 15.6%, and 36.5% of residents 

aged 16 and older were not in the labor force (i.e. not 

working and not seeking work). Approximately 31% 

of residents lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

The city of Newtok was incorporated in 1976, 

but disbanded in 1997 in favor of a traditional 

village council form of government. Newtok is not 

located within an organized borough, but is under the 

jurisdiction of the Bethel Recording District. There is 

also a village corporation, the Newtok Corporation. 

The village is a member of the Coastal Villages Region 

Fund, a Community Development Quota (CDQ) group 

that promotes employment opportunities for residents 

as well as participation in the Bering Sea crab and 

groundfish fisheries. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Access to Newtok is by airplane, seaplane, or boat. 

The state owns a 2,180 foot airstrip in the community. 

Roundtrip airfare from Newtok to Anchorage, via 

Bethel, is approximately $421. Household water 

comes from a lake via a water treatment plant. Houses 

are not plumbed. The Ungusraq Power Company, 

operated by the village council, provides electricity to 

the community. Power comes from a diesel generator. 

There is a local health clinic that is owned by the 

village council and operated in conjunction with the 

Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation. There is one 

school in the community that offers instruction to 

students from kindergarten through twelfth grade. The 

school has eight teachers and 107 students. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 eight vessel owners with operations in 

federal fisheries resided in the community, along with 

five vessel owners with operations in state-managed 

fisheries. There are 28 registered crew members. 

Twenty-six local residents held a total of 39 commercial 

fishing permits, primarily in the herring and halibut 

fisheries. This section contains a detailed description 

of commercial permits issued to Newtok residents in 

2000. 

Halibut: Seventeen local residents held a total of 

19 commercial permits in the halibut fishery. These 

permits consisted of: nine halibut hand troll permits for 

statewide waters (three fished), nine halibut longline 

permits for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters 

(four fished), and one halibut mechanical jig permit 

for statewide waters (not fished).

Herring: Fourteen local residents held a total of 

15 commercial permits in the herring fishery. These 

permits consisted of: 13 herring roe gillnet permits for 

Nelson Island (8 fished), one herring roe gillnet permit 

for Security Cove (none fished), and one herring roe 

gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (none fished).

Salmon: Five local residents held a total of five 

commercial permits in the salmon fishery. These 

permits consisted of: three salmon drift gillnet permits 

for Bristol Bay (three fished), one salmon set gillnet 

permit for Bristol Bay (one fished), and one salmon 

set gillnet permit for the Lower Yukon (not fished). 

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

and no registered landings for Newtok. 

Sport Fishing 

Because of its geographic isolation and its reliance 

upon subsistence hunting and fishing, sport fishing 

activities in Newtok are limited. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Most residents in Newtok depend on subsistence 

resources for a major part of their livelihoods. However, 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game gives only 

limited information about subsistence harvesting and 

use in Newtok. They report that, in 1990, all residents 

used herring for subsistence, and the average per 

capita harvest of herring for that year was 77.4 pounds. 

Although most residents of Newtok also use other 

fishery resources—particularly salmon—detailed 

information on these resources is not available. In 

addition, in 2003 Newtok held a Subsistence Halibut 

Registration Certificate (SHARC), which allows 

residents to harvest halibut for subsistence purposes. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Newtok 
30 

459

Nightmute (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Nightmute is located on Nelson Island in the 

Bering Sea, about 100 miles west of Bethel. The area 

encompasses 97.0 square miles of land and 4.6 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Nightmute is a predominantly Yup’ik Eskimo 

village. In 2000 there were 208 residents in 47 

households. The racial composition of the community 

was as follows: American Indian and Alaska Native 

(91.8%), White (5.3%), and two or more races 

(2.9%). A total of 94.7% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. In addition, 1% of residents were of Hispanic 

ethnicity. The gender makeup of the community 

was only slightly skewed, at 51.9% male and 48.1% 

female. The median age was 21.8 years, significantly 

younger than the U.S. national average of 35.3 years. 

In terms of educational attainment, 63.2% of residents 

aged 25 and over held at least a high school diploma. 

Traditional Yup’ik identity is strong in Nightmute; 

88.4% of residents speak Yup’ik at home. 

History 

Nelson Island and the surrounding YukonKuskokwim Delta region have been inhabited by 

Yup’ik Eskimos since prehistory. Local people call 

themselves Qaluyaarmiut, or “dip net people.” In 1964 

many of Nightmute’s residents moved to Toksook 

Bay village, about 28 miles away. A Jesuit order of 

Catholic missionaries has operated in the village 

since the early twentieth century. In the 1930s, a small 

church was constructed. The village of Nightmute was 

incorporated as a second-class city in 1974. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing is a major part of the economy 

of Nightmute. The local school system is another 

major source of employment. In addition, most 

residents supplement their incomes with subsistence 

hunting and fishing. In 2000 the median per capita 

income was $9,396 and the median household income 

was $35,938. The unemployment rate in Nightmute 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Nightmute Nightmute

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

30 20 10 0 10 20 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Nighmute

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Nightmute 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

2.9% 5.3% 

Native 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 91.8%

Nightmute

Data source: US Census 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Nightmute

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1% 

Non-Hispanic,

99% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Nightmute 
2000 Employment Structure

Nightmute

Data source: US Census 

460

was 10.8%, and 32.9% of residents aged 16 years and 

older were not in the labor force (i.e. not working and 

not seeking work). Approximately 10.7% of residents 

lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Nightmute is a second-class city with a strongmayor form of government. It is under the jurisdiction 

of the Bethel Recording District. There is also 

a federally recognized tribal government in the 

community, the Native Village of Nightmute, as well 

as a village corporation, Chinuruk Incorporated. The 

city is a member of the Coastal Villages Region Fund, a 

Community Development Quota (CDQ) group, which 

promotes employment opportunities for residents 

as well as participation in the Bering Sea crab and 

groundfish fisheries. Government revenues come from 

a 2% sales tax administered by the city. 

The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Nightmute is accessible by air; the state owns a 

1,600 foot airstrip, and there is also a seaplane base 

in the community. Roundtrip airfare from Nightmute 

to Anchorage, via Bethel, is approximately $425. 

Fishing boats and skiffs are also used for local travel. 

There are no piped water or sewer systems; water for 

household use is hauled from a central watering point. 

The city operates a landfill. Electricity is provided 

by AVEC Corporation, which produces power with a 

diesel generator. The local health clinic is owned by 

the village council and operated in conjunction with 

the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation. Police 

services are provided by a city volunteer public safety 

officer. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000, 15 vessel owners with operations in 

federal fisheries resided in Nightmute, along with 

three vessel owners with operations in state-managed 

fisheries. In addition, there were 22 registered crew 

2000 Employment Structure 

Nightmute 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

32.9%

Employed,

56.3% 

Unemployed,

10.8%

members in the community. Thirty-one residents held 

a total of 44 commercial fishing permits, primarily in 

the halibut and herring fisheries. This section contains 

a detailed description of commercial permits issued to 

Nightmute residents in 2000.

Halibut: Twenty residents held a total of 20 permits 

in the halibut fishery, and 15 permits were fished. The 

permits consisted of: 14 halibut hand troll permits for 

statewide waters (12 fished), 5 halibut longline permits 

for vessels under 60 feet in statewide waters (3 fished), 

and one halibut mechanical jig permit for statewide 

waters (none fished).

Herring: Eighteen local residents held a total of 

18 permits in the herring fishery. All permits were 

herring roe gillnet permits for Nelson Island. Thirteen 

of these permits were fished.

Salmon: Six local residents held a total of six 

permits in the salmon fishery, and three permits were 

fished. The salmon permits consisted of: three salmon 

drift gillnet permits for Bristol Bay (two fished), one 

salmon set gillnet permit for Bristol Bay (one fished) 

and two salmon set gillnet permits for the lower Yukon 

(none fished).

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

and no registered landings in Nightmute. 

Sport Fishing 

Because of its relatively isolated location and 

reliance on subsistence fishing, sport fishing activities 

in Nightmute are limited. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Nightmute 
461

Subsistence Fishing 

The majority of Nightmute residents rely on 

subsistence resources to supplement their incomes. 

In 1990, for example, 100% of households reported 

using subsistence herring; the per capita harvest of 

herring was 215.1 lbs. However, the ADF&G does 

not provide detailed information on other subsistence 

activities in Nightmute. As of 2003, the community 

held a Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC), which allows its residents to harvest 

subsistence halibut. These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Nightmute 
462

Pilot Station (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Pilot Station is situated on the northwest bank 

of the Yukon River, on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. 

It is 11 miles east of Saint Mary’s and 26 miles west 

of Marshall. It is in the Wade Hampton Census area 

and makes up 1.7 square miles of land and 0.6 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Pilot Station had a total of 550 inhabitants in 

2000. The population was definitely skewed toward 

males, which made up 55.8% of the population. The 

population of Pilot Station has changed quite a bit 

since 1880; however, since about 1960 it continued 

to rise steadily up to 2000. According to the 2000 

Census, the racial composition of Pilot Station was as 

follows: 96.9% American Indian and Alaska Native, 

2.4% White, and 0.7% two or more races. A total of 

97.6% of the population recognized themselves as 

all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. There 

were no residents of Hispanic ethnicity. The median 

age in the community was 19.5 years, considerably 

younger than the U.S. national median of 35.3 years. 

Pilot Station had a total of 126 housing units in 2000; 

however, 17 were vacant, three due to seasonal use. 

No one in the community lived in group quarters at 

the time of the Census. Of the population age 25 years 

and over about 51.3% had graduated from high school 

or gone on to higher schooling and about 9.6% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. Approximately 

28.1% had completed less than 9th grade. 

History 

According to the National Park Service, the Arctic 

Small Tool Tradition, “one of the most distinctive and 

widespread Arctic cultural traditions appeared around 

4000 BP.” Some investigators feel that the Arctic 

Small Tool tradition “marks the arrival of the ancestral 

Eskimo cultures” to the Arctic area (National Park 

Service 2003).

Historically, the Native Eskimo people present in 

the area of Pilot Station have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state,” 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Pilot Station Pilot Station

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Pilot Station 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Pilot Station 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

Age 

Native 

96.9% 

0.7% 2.4%

2000 Employment Structure

Pilot Station 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Pilot Station 

Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

16.9% 

Not seeking,

47.5% 

Employed,

35.7% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Pilot Station 
463

experience continual contact with the outside world 

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000: 115).

The village of Pilot Station was originally called 

“Ankachak,” when it was located one-third of a 

mile down the river from the village’s present site. 

The village later moved to a site termed “Potiliuk.” 

Nearby the new village site is the location of an old 

village called Kurgpallermuit, which is a designated 

historic place, as it was occupied during the bow and 

arrow wars between the Yukon and Coastal Eskimos. 

Intermittently, the Chevak and Pilot Station people 

fought when the coastal people traveled up the 

Kashunak River according to local legend. In the early 

1900s a Russian Orthodox Church was built and today 

is one of the oldest structures in the area. The village 

was first noted with the name “Pilot Station” by R.H. 

Sargent of the U.S. Geological Survey in 1916. The 

village’s name was changed to Pilot Station by local 

riverboat pilots who used the village as a checkpoint. 

In 1969 Pilot Station became incorporated as a secondclass city. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

In Pilot Station the majority of year-round 

employment is either with the school or the city 

government. In 2000 a total of 59 commercial fishing 

permits were issued to residents of Pilot Station and 

69 residents were licensed crew members. Income 

is supplied as well by trapping and Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) fire fighting, but it is also 

supplemented by subsistence activities. Of those age 

16 years and over in the community in 2000 about 

35.7% were employed, 16.9% were unemployed, and 

47.5% were not in the labor force. Of those who were 

employed, about 67.9% were classified as government 

workers. The median annual per capita income was 

$7,311 and the median household income was $31,071 

in 2000. About 28.7% of the population was below the 

poverty level. 

Governance 

Pilot Station is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in the year 1969. The city has a Manager 

form of government which includes a mayor, sevenperson city council, five-person advisory school board, 

and many municipal employees including three Village 

Police Officers (VPOs) and one Village Public Safety 

Officer (VPSO). The city implements a 4% sales tax 

and has no other taxes. The city is not part of any 

organized borough. The regional Native corporation 

for the area is the Calista Corporation and the Native 

village corporation is Pilot Station, Incorporated. 

The Village Council and Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA) recognized Traditional Council is called the 

Pilot Station Traditional Council. The nearest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office is 

located in the city of Emmonak, but is a seasonal office 

which is open from June 1st to August 31st, although 

an office is available year round in the community 

of Nome. The closest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is also located in 

Nome. A National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

field office is located in Bethel and a larger office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Pilot Station is accessible for the most part by 

air and water transport. There is a 2,250 foot gravel 

airstrip which is owned by the state. The approximate 

cost to travel by air roundtrip to Anchorage from Pilot 

Station, via Bethel, is $503. Bulk supplies and fuel are 

delivered by barge during the summer. The community 

is easily reachable by river-going vessels. Inter-village 

transportation is provided by snowmobiles and skiffs 

as there are no roads which link Pilot Station to its 

neighboring communities. There are no hotels in the 

community or accommodations for visitors. There is 

one school, Pilot Station School, which teaches grades 

K-12. In 2000 there were a total of 211 students at 

the school and 17 teachers. Health care is available at 

the Pilot Station Health Clinic which is owned by the 

city and operated by the Yukon-Kuskokwim Health 

Corporation (YKHC). The clinic however is currently 

situated in a flood hazard area and is need of being 

relocated. Police services are supplied by the State 

VPSO, City VPO, and City Public Safety Facility. The 

electric utility for the area is AVEC which is operated 

by REA Co-op and the city with a main power 

source of diesel. The piped water and sewer system 

is operated by the city and includes more than half of 

the community. Currently 27 homes in the community 

haul well water and use honeybuckets for sewage; 

however, major improvements are in the works to 

expand the piped system to include the 27 unserviced 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Pilot Station 
464

homes, the school, city and tribal offices, Head Start, 

and other community buildings. The school operates 

its own water treatment system. Refuse collection is 

the responsibility of the City who also operates the 

landfill along with C&D. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 59 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Pilot Station in 2000, and of 

those 56 were fished. There were 69 licensed crew 

members in the same year. There were no residents 

who were vessel owners and were involved in either 

the salmon fishery or the federal fisheries. Of the 59 

total commercial permits issued to those from Pilot 

Station, two were issued for herring roe using gillnets 

in Norton Sound (none fished). Thirty-nine permits 

were issued for salmon using set gillnets in the Lower 

Yukon (38 fished).

No landings of any kind were delivered to Pilot 

Station in 2000 because no processor was present in 

the community. 

Sport Fishing 

There is little evidence of tourists from outside 

the state or country traveling to Pilot Station for 

sport fishing. However, in 2000, there were 59 sport 

fishing licenses sold in the community to Alaska 

State residents. According to the ADF&G there were 

no sport fishing businesses listed in Pilot Station in 

2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

There is little data available regarding subsistence 

in Pilot Station with regard to specific species harvested 

and amounts. However, the incomes of residents are 

supplemented by subsistence activities including the 

harvesting of salmon, moose, bear, porcupine, and 

waterfowl. According to the ADF&G’s Division of 

Subsistence it is established that the annual wild food 

harvest for those in Pilot Station is 713.9 lbs per person. 

The daily wild food harvest is 1.956 lbs per person. 

Also according to ADF&G, 95 household permits 

were issued for subsistence salmon to residents of Pilot 

Station in the year 1999 for an estimated harvest of 

6,241 total salmon. Residents of Pilot Station are not 

eligible to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Pilot Station 
465

Platinum (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Platinum is located on the south spit of Goodnews 

Bay, on the Bering Sea coast. It is 123 miles southwest 

of Bethel. The area encompasses 44.6 square miles of 

land and 0.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

PlatinumisapredominantlyYup’ikEskimovillage. 

In 2000 there were 41 residents in 17 households. The 

racial composition of the community was as follows: 

American Indian and Alaska Native (90.2%), White 

(7.3%), and two or more races (2.4%). A total of 

92.7% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. The gender 

makeup was only slightly skewed, at 51.2% male 

and 48.8% female. The median age was 32.5 years, 

somewhat younger than the U.S. national average of 

35.3 years. In terms of educational attainment, only 

39% of residents aged 25 and older hold a high school 

degree; this figure is significantly lower than other 

Native communities in the area. 

History 

The community of Platinum was established after 

traces of platinum were discovered in the area in 1926. 

Until 1936, when two companies bought out all the 

local claims, a multitude of prospectors covered the 

area looking for the precious metal. Platinum developed 

as a company town; the local store, as well as water 

and electric utilities, were all supplied by the mine. 

The mine, which was later sold to Hanson Properties, 

stopped operations in 1990. Today, Platinum is a 

predominantly Yup’ik Eskimo village, although its 

legacy as a hub for White settlers remains. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Commercial fishing is the base of economic 

activities in Platinum. In addition, many residents use 

subsistence resources to supplement their incomes. 

In 2000 the median per capita income was $7,632 

and the median household income was $21,250. The 

unemployment rate was 20%, and 26.7% of residents 

aged 16 years and older were not in the labor force (i.e. 

not working and not seeking work). Approximately 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Platinum Platinum Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

6 4 2 0 2 4 

Male 

Female 

6 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Platinum 2000 Racial Structure 

Platinum

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

2.4% 7.3% 

Age 

Native 

90.3% 

2000 Employment Structure

Platinum 

Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure 

Platinum 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

26.7% 

Employed,

53.3% 

Unemployed, 20% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Platinum 
466

22% of residents were living below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Platinum was incorporated as a second-class city 

in 1975 and has a strong-mayor form of government. 

It is not located within an organized borough, but is 

in the Bethel Recording District. There is a federally 

recognized native governing body in Platinum, the 

Platinum Traditional Village. There is also a village 

corporation, Arviq, Incorporated. The city is a member 

of the Coastal Villages Region Fund, a Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group, which promotes 

employment opportunities for residents as well as 

participation in the Bering Sea crab and groundfish 

fisheries. 

There is a National Marine Fisheries 

Service(NMFS) field office and an office of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) located 

in Bethel. The nearest U.S. Bureau of Immigration 

and Citizenship Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Platinum is accessible by air via a 3,640 foot 

state-owned runway. There is also a 2,000 foot airstrip 

owned by the Platinum Mine, and a seaplane landing 

site. Roundtrip airfare from Platinum to Anchorage, via 

Bethel, is approximately $544. As of 2000 there were 

no docking facilities. There is no piped water system; 

residents have individual wells and septic tanks. 

Electricity is provided by the city and is produced by 

a diesel generator. There is a local health clinic that is 

owned by the city and operated by the Bristol Bay Area 

Health Corporation. There is one school in Platinum 

that offers instruction to students from kindergarten 

through twelfth grade. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 there were eight vessel owners with 

operations in federal fisheries residing in Platinum. In 

addition, there were seven registered crew members. 

Nine local residents held a total of 16 commercial 

fishing permits, and 7 permits were fished. A detailed 

breakdown of these permits is presented in this 

section.

Herring: Nine residents held a total of 10 

commercial permits in the herring fishery, but only 2 

permits were fished. Herring permits consisted of the 

following: one herring roe gillnet permit for Security 

Cove (not fished), and nine herring roe gillnet permits 

for Goodnews Bay (two fished).

Salmon: Six local residents held a total of six 

commercial permits in the salmon fishery, and five 

permits were fished. Salmon permits consisted of the 

following: one salmon drift gillnet permit for Bristol 

Bay (one fished), and five salmon set gillnet permits 

for Kuskokwim Bay (four fished).

In 2000 there were no commercial fish processors 

and no registered landings for Platinum. 

Sport Fishing 

Because of its relatively isolated location, sport 

fishing in Platinum is limited. In 2000, three sport 

fishing licenses were sold in Platinum, all of them to 

non-Alaska residents. There were no registered sports 

fishing guides. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have detailed information 

on subsistence activities in Platinum. The community 

holds a Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

(SHARC), which allows its residents to harvest 

halibut for subsistence purposes. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Platinum 
467

Portage Creek (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The town of Portage Creek is situated at the mouth 

of Portage Creek, a tributary of the Nushagak River. 

It is located in the Dillingham Census Area and is 29 

miles southeast of Dillingham. It is comprised of 13.1 

square miles of land and 0 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Portage Creek had a total of 36 inhabitants in 2000. 

The gender composition was skewed more toward 

males, who made up 52.8% of the population, versus 

47.2% females. A population was first recorded by the 

Census in 1970, at which time there were 60 residents. 

Since then the population has fluctuated, but has never 

been as high as when originally recorded. According 

to the 2000 U.S. Census, the racial composition of 

Portage Creek was as follows: 86.1% American Indian 

and Alaska Native, and 13.9% White. No one in the 

community was Hispanic. The median age in 2000 

was an extremely young 14 years of age, whereas the 

national age median was 35.3 years. There were a total 

of 22 housing units in Portage Creek in 2000; 15 were 

vacant, and of those, 8 were vacant due to seasonal 

use. No one lived in group quarters at the time of the 

Census. Of the population age 25 years and over 50% 

had graduated from high school or gone on to higher 

schooling and 50% had completed some high school 

but had not received a diploma. 

History 

The area has a long history of human occupation. 

“Yup’ik and Athabascan people settled the region, 

known as Naugeik, more than 6,000 years ago” 

(inAlaska.com). The area of Portage Creek was used 

as an overnight summer camp by the Yup’ik Eskimos. 

It was named Portage Creek because it was used to 

portage boats from the Nushagak River to the Kvichak 

River. Travelers could portage their boats and then 

bypass the long journey around Etolin Point and the 

open waters of Bristol Bay. In 1961 the village was 

permanently settled by some families from Koliganek 

and other villages located up the Nushagak River. In 

1963 a Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school was 

established in the community. During the winter of 

1964-1965, 11 families lived in the community. The 

community was serviced by a local scheduled air 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Portage Creek Portage Creek

Data souce: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

Age 

8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Portage Creek 2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census Portage Creek 

Data source: US Census 

White 

13.9% 

Native

86.1%

2000 Employment Structure

Portage Creek

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Portage Creek 

Data source: US Census 

Not seeking, Employed,

50% 50% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Portage Creek 
468

carrier in 1965. During the mid-1980s, the community 

was active; since then the population has declined. 

Portage Creek is also known as Ohgsenakale. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The residents of Portage Creek all depend on 

subsistence activities to a certain degree. Community 

members harvest salmon, moose, caribou, duck, 

geese, and berries. Exchange relationships exist with 

other coastal communities in order to acquire walrus, 

seal, and herring roe. Most families have fish camps 

which are located at Ekuk or Lewis Point. During the 

summer, the Portage Creek General Store and Lodge 

are in operation. There were three commercial fishing 

permits issued to residents of Portage Creek in 2000 

and three community members were licensed crew 

members. According to the Census, of residents age 

16 and over in 2000, 50% were employed and 50% 

were not in the labor force. The two people who 

were employed in the community were classified as 

government workers. The median annual per capita 

income in Portage Creek was $8,010 and the median 

household income was $41,250. No one in the 

community was below the poverty level at the time of 

the Census. 

Governance 

Portage Creek is unincorporated and is not part 

of any organized borough; therefore there are no 

city or borough officials present in the community. 

The Village Council and Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA) recognized Traditional Council is the Portage 

Creek Village Council, which is also known as the 

Ohgsenakale Tribe. The Native village corporation is 

Choggiung, Ltd., which is the merged corporation of 

the communities of Dillingham, Ekuk, and Portage 

Creek The Native regional corporation is Bristol 

Bay Native Corporation, and the regional non-profit 

for the area is the Bristol Bay Native Association. 

The Community Development Quota (CDQ) group 

in which the village is included is the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC). The 

closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) is located in Dillingham. A National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located 

in Bethel, an office is located in Homer, and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Portage Creek is accessible by both air and water. 

The most frequent mode of reaching the community 

is by chartered air. A 1,900 foot state-owned sandsurfaced airstrip is located in the community and is 

only maintained during the summer months. Seaplanes 

land on the Nushagak River. The approximate cost 

to travel by air roundtrip to Anchorage from Portage 

Creek is $464. There are no docking facilities in the 

community, and cargo goods are lightered to the 

beach. Locals use skiffs as the primary means of 

transportation and snowmachines are used for winter 

travel. There are no hotels or accommodations for 

visitors in Portage Creek. There is one school, Portage 

Creek School, which teaches grades K-7. The Portage 

Creek School had a total of 14 students and two 

teachers in 2000. There are no health care facilities in 

Portage Creek. A clinic was constructed by the village 

in 1979, but is not in operation. The nearest health care 

facility is in Dillingham. There are no police services 

in the community. There are no central electric, water, 

sewer, or refuse facilities currently in operation in 

Portage Creek. Most community members haul their 

water from down the river, as the central well is rusty. 

Residents use honeybuckets for their sewage needs. 

There is no functioning electrical system and the 

landfill has been deemed inactive. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

The commercial fishing permit data for Portage 

Creek and Dillingham is combined by the CFEC 

and is explained in the Dillingham profile (see 

Dillingham profile). Three residents of Portage Creek 

were licensed crew members in 2000. No one in the 

community owned a vessel which participated in the 

federal fisheries; however, one resident owned a vessel 

which participated in the salmon fishery. 

*Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Dillingham and Portage

Creek combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Portage Creek 
469

According to data separately supplied by CFEC 

and analyzed by AKFIN, a total of three commercial 

fishing permits were issued to residents only of Portage 

Creek in 2000, and of those one was fished. Two of 

the permits were issued for salmon (one fished). One 

permit was issued for herring (not fished). 

There were no landings of any kind in Portage 

Creek in 2000 because no processor was located in the 

community.

The CDQ group in which Portage Creek is included, 

the Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

(BBEDC), was recently granted $75,026 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

There is little available evidence of sport fishing in 

Portage Creek in terms of licenses sold and businesses. 

The Department of Community and Economic 

Development’s Alaska Community database does 

mention that Portage Creek “is a popular recreational 

fishing and camping site from May through July, and a 

hunting location for Yup’ik residents.” There were no 

sport fishing licenses sold in Portage Creek in 2000 

and no sport fishing guide or related businesses were 

present in the community in 2002, according to the 

ADF&G.

Subsistence Fishing 

Little data is available for the community of Portage 

Creek in terms of exact numbers of subsistence harvests 

and species harvested; however, subsistence plays an 

important role and all residents are dependent upon it 

to some extent. Residents harvest berries, geese, duck, 

caribou, moose, and salmon. Trade relationships exist 

with neighboring communities, and walrus, seal, and 

herring roe are sought after. It has been established 

by the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence that the 

annual wild food harvest for Portage Creek is 387.4 

lbs per person. The daily wild food harvest is 1.0 lbs 

per person. Also according to ADF&G, two household 

permits were issued for subsistence salmon to residents 

of Portage Creek in 1999 for an estimated harvest of 

59 total salmon. Residents of Portage Creek are not 

eligible to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Portage Creek 
470

Quinhagak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Quinhagak is located on the 

Kanektok River and is on the east shore of Kuskokwim 

Bay. It is situated less than a mile away from the 

coast of the Bering Sea and is 71 miles southwest of 

Bethel. The community is in the Bethel Census Area 

and makes up 4.7 square miles of land and 0.6 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 555 inhabitants of the 

community of Quinhagak in 2000 and of those 52.3% 

were male and 47.7% were female. Since 1950 the 

population has continued to rise in numbers from 

the 194 persons reported in 1950 to 572 in 2002 as 

established by a State Demographer, although prior to 

that the population fluctuated somewhat. In 2000 the 

racial composition was as follows: 96.0% American 

Indian and Alaska Native, 2.7% White, and 1.3% two 

or more races. A total of 97.3% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. About 0.7% of the residents were 

Hispanic. The median age in the community was 26.6 

years versus the national age median was 35.3 years. 

About 62.9% of the population was 18 years and over 

in age in 2000. There were a total of 153 housing units 

of which 16 were vacant and 7 of those were vacant 

due to seasonal use. No one lived in group quarters 

in Quinhagak in 2000. Out of the residents of the 

community which were 25 years and over in age, 

49.7% had graduated from high school or gone on to 

further schooling and 4.1% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. About 30.8% of the population had 

completed less than 9th grade. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP”, the Arctic Small 

Tool tradition which is significant because “some 

investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool tradition 

marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo cultures” 

to the Arctic area (National Park Service 2003). 

Historically the Native Eskimo people present in the 

area of Quinhagak have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Quinhagak Quinhagak

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

60 40 20 0 20 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Quinhagak

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

Quinhagak 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

1.3% 2.7% 

60 

Native

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 96.0%

Quinhagak

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Quinhagak

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.7% 

Non-Hispanic,

99.3% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Quinhagak 
471

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state,” 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115). 

The village of Quinhagak’s name in Yup’ik is 

Kuinerraq which means “new river channel.” This 

village’s origin has been dated to about 1,000 B.P 

which makes the village one of the oldest in the area. 

Quinhagak was the first community to have continuous 

contact with whites on the lower Kuskokwim. The 

village was reported on a map in the year 1826 by 

Gavril Sarichev. Goods were sent to Quinhagak for 

Kuskokwim trading posts by the Alaska Commercial 

Company in the year 1867 following the Alaska 

purchase and these goods were stored in a building 

on Warehouse Creek. In 1893 a Moravian Mission 

was built in the community at which time there were 

many non-Natives in the village of which the majority 

were waiting to travel up river by boat. A mission 

store opened in the year 1904 and a post office was 

established in 1905. A school opened in the community 

in 1909. 

Over 2,000 reindeer were brought to the area 

during the years of 1906 and 1909, which were 

managed by the Native-owned Kuskokwim Reindeer 

Company until the herd had scattered by the 1950s. The 

Kuskokwim River was chartered in 1915 and it was no 

longer necessary to ship the goods through Quinhagak, 

as they were sent by barge directly to Bethel. The first 

electric plant opened in the community in 1928 and in 

1934 the first mail plane arrived. In 1975 the City was 

incorporated. The sale, importation, and possession of 

alcohol is banned in the city. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Quinhagak is based on 

employment in commercial fishing, the school, and 

government services, although income can also be 

provided by trapping, basket weaving, skin sewing, and 

ivory carving. Coastal Villages Seafood, LLC., which 

processes salmon, is present in the city and “during 

the 2000 season the plant employed about 40 people” 

and is planning to expand (Knapp et. al 2001). In 

2000 Employment Structure

Quinhagak 2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Quinhagak 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

0.3% 

Employed,

34.6% 

Not Seeking,

58.8%

Unemployed,

6.3% 

2000, 138 commercial fishing permits were issued to 

residents of the community and there were 55 licensed 

crew members. Subsistence is important to residents, 

with salmon and seal remaining staples of the diet. 

In 2000, of the population age 16 years and over, 

about 34.6% were employed, 6.3% were unemployed, 

0.3% was in the armed forces, and 58.8% were not 

in the labor force. Of those which were employed, 

74.6% were considered government workers by the 

Census. The per capita income in Quinhagak in 2000 

was $8,127 and the median household income was 

$25,156. About 26.1% of the population was below 

the poverty level. 

Governance 

Quinhagak is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1975 and has a Mayor form of 

government including the mayor, a seven person city 

council, a five person advisory school board, and about 

five municipal employees. A 3% sales tax is enforced 

in the city. The city is not part of any organized 

borough. The Native regional corporation for the 

area is the Calista Corporation and the Native village 

corporation is Qanirtuuq, Inc. The Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) recognized IRA council for the village 

is the Native Village of Kwinhagak. The community 

is part of the Community Development Quota (CDQ) 

group called the Coastal Villages Region Fund 

(CVRF). The closest office of the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the community is 

located in Bethel, although an office is also located 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Quinhagak 
472

in Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Transportation to Quinhagak is possible by both 

air and water, and in the winter land trails are available 

to Eek and Goodnews. The community is heavily 

dependent on air travel for both cargo and passenger 

mail. Present is a 2,600 foot State-owned gravel 

airstrip and space is available as well for the landing 

of floatplanes the Kanektok River. The approximate 

cost according to Travelocity and Expedia to travel by 

air roundtrip to Anchorage from Quinhagak is $592 

(price given for date as close to September 1, 2003 

as possible) with eleven airline services traveling to 

the community. Recently a dock and harbor were 

finished. Cargo comes to Quinhagak twice a year by 

barge. Local transportation includes boats, ATVs, 

snow machines, and some vehicles. 

Two rooms are available as accommodations 

through the City and IRA Office and are located on 

the 2nd floor of the water treatment plant. There is one 

school, Kuinerrarmiut Elitnaurviat which teaches the 

grade K-12. There were 153 students and 12 teachers 

in 2000. The high school has a portable pool. Health 

care is available at the Quinhagak Health Clinic 

which is operated by the Village Council MOA with 

the Yukon- Kuskokwim Health Corporation and is 

owned by the Village Council. Alternate health care 

is available by the Quinhagak EMS Quick Response 

Team. Police services are available by the City Village 

Police Officers (VPOs) and by the Tribal Police. 

The electric utility in Quinhagak is AVEC which 

is operated by REA Co-op and the Village Council 

with the main power source being diesel. In 2000 

about 89.8% of the households used kerosene to 

heat and 8.8% heated using wood. The water system 

operator is the Village Council and the School and the 

washteria is operated by the Village Council. There 

is no piped water system and water is derived from a 

well. The Village Council also is the operator of the 

sewer system, but there is no piped sewer and because 

of this lack of piped systems 89 households haul water 

and use honeybuckets. Individuals are responsible for 

collecting their own refuse and the landfill is operated 

by the City and Village Council. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 138 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Quinhagak in 2000 and there 

were 55 licensed crew members which were residents 

of the community. Eighteen vessel owners which were 

residents participated in the federal fisheries and 8 

vessel owners participated in the salmon fishery. 

Of the 138 permits issued in 2000 to community 

members, a total of 91 were fished. Forty-three permits 

were issued for the commercial fishing of halibut: 25 

using a hand troll statewide (12 fished) and 18 using 

longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (six fished). 

Nine permits were issued for herring roe using gillnets 

in Goodnews Bay and of those four were fished. With 

regard to salmon, 86 permits were issued: two using a 

drift gillnet in Bristol Bay (one fished) and 84 using a 

set gillnet in the Kuskokwim area (68 fished). 

No vessels delivered landings to Quinhagak 

in 2000. Perhaps salmon landings were delivered 

to a nearby community and shipped to Quinhagak 

for processing because according to the Institute 

of Social and Economic Research, University of 

Alaska Anchorage regarding the Quinhagak salmon 

plant “in 2000 the plant did much better, increasing 

production to more than 400,000 pounds, producing 

high-quality headed and gutted and filleted fish, and 

paying relatively high prices to local fishermen”. The 

plant is a subsidiary of Coastal Villages Region Fund 

CDQ group and is titled Coastal Villages Seafoods, 

LLC. The processor had “plans to expand production 

substantially in 2001 and [was] making major new 

investments to add new equipment and a bunkhouse 

and mess hall complex” and this expansion would 

decrease shipping costs and provide the opportunity 

for income for locals (Knapp et. al 2001). One of the 

largest challenges for the plant is the transporting of 

fresh fish by plane from the community to Anchorage 

for sale. 

Sport Fishing 

The Kanektok River on which the community of 

Quinhagak is situated is well known for its sport fishing 

and “is almost a surefire place to catch kings in the 

range of 20 to 30 lbs” and can be fished by purchasing 

a permit from the Quinhagak Village Corp., Qanirtuuq 

Inc., to fish on lands owned by the corporation including 

the banks of the Kanektok (Unruh 2003). According 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Quinhagak 
473

to the ADF&G there were four listings for freshwater 

sport fishing guides businesses in Quinhagak and 

three listings for full service guiding services in 2002. 

In 2000 there were seven sport fishing licenses sold 

in Quinhagak to residents of the State of Alaska and a 

total of 45 sport fishing licenses sold to non-residents. 

According to the Fish and Wildlife Service fly-fishing 

clinics have been sponsored by the Quinhagak Village 

Corporation and offered to residents of the community 

and visitors in order to encourage understanding 

between community members and the sport fishing 

industry. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G, for the most 

representative year (1982), 100.0% of households used 

all subsistence resources: 83.3% salmon, 100.0% nonsalmon fish (smelt, cod, blackfish, char, whitefish, and 

Cisco), and 58.3% marine mammals. The per capita 

harvest of all subsistence resources by members of 

the community was 767.92 lbs of which 44.57% was 

salmon, 19.47% was non-salmon fish, 16.21% was 

marine mammals, 3.81% was birds and eggs, 15.35% 

was land mammals, and 0.58% was vegetation. 

Also according to ADF&G in 1999 there were 133 

subsistence household fishing permits, which were 

issued to those from Quinhagak. Residents are eligible 

to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Quinhagak 
474

Saint Mary’s (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Saint Mary’s is situated on the 

north bank of the Andreafsky River. It is located five 

miles from theAndreafsky’s confluence with theYukon 

River. Saint Mary’s is 450 air miles west-northwest of 

Anchorage and encompasses the Yup’ik villages of 

both Saint Mary’s and Andreafsky. It is in the Wade 

Hampton Census Area and is comprised of 44 square 

miles of land and 6.3 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

St. Mary’s had a total population of 500 in 2000. 

Males made up 55.0% of the population, and females 

made up 45.0%. The population of the community has 

continued to rise since 1960, when it was first reported 

by the Census. The racial composition of Saint Mary’s 

in 2000 was as follows: 11.2% White, 86.0% American 

Indian and Alaska Native, 1% Asian (0.2% Chinese, 

0.8% other Asian), and 1.8% two or more races. A total 

of 87.6% of the population recognized themselves as 

all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. About 

0.4% was Hispanic. The median age of the community 

was 25.8 years, versus the national age median of 35.3 

years. At the time of the 2000 Census there were a total 

of 186 housing units in Saint Mary’s; 49 were vacant 

and, of those, 25 were vacant due to seasonal use. Ten 

individuals lived in group quarters. Of those age 25 

years and over about 74.1% had graduated from high 

school or gone on to higher schooling. About 15.2% 

had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

History 

According to the National Park Service, the Arctic 

Small Tool Tradition, “one of the most distinctive and 

widespread Arctic cultural traditions appeared around 

4000 BP.” Some investigators feel that the Arctic 

Small Tool tradition “marks the arrival of the ancestral 

Eskimo cultures” to the Arctic area (National Park 

Service 2003).

Historically, the Native Eskimo people present in 

the area of Saint Mary’s have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state,” 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Saint Mary’ Saint Mary's s Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

80 60 40 20 0 20 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Saint Mary's

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

Saint Mary’s 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

Asian races 

White

1.0% 1.8% 

11.2% 

Native

86.0%

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Saint Mary's

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Saint Mary’s

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.4% 

Non-Hispanic,

99.6% 

60 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Saint Mary’s 
475

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000:115).

The village of Andreafsky was originally 

established in 1899 as a supply depot and the winter 

headquarters for the Northern Commercial Company’s 

riverboat fleet. The name Andreafsky comes from a 

family which settled on the river and built a Russian 

Orthodox Church, the Andrea family. A mission was 

set-up by Jesuit missionaries in 1903 down the river 

90 miles called “Akulurak,” which means “in between 

place,” as it was located on an island in a slough which 

connects the two arms of the Yukon River. The mission 

was established after the 1900-01 flu epidemics in 

order to educate and care for the children who had 

been orphaned. By 1915 the mission had 70 full-time 

students. The slough which surrounded Akulurak 

silted in severely and it was decided by the villagers 

to move the settlement to higher ground in 1948. A 

new mission and several homes were built at the new 

site using materials from an abandoned hotel which 

was built during the gold rush. Father Spills, a Jesuit 

priest, barged an unused 15x30 foot building as well 

as other building materials from Galena Air Force 

Station to Saint Mary’s in 1949, and these materials, 

along with a borrowed tractor from Holy Cross, were 

used to build a school. Quite a few Yup’ik families 

moved to the Andreafsky area during the 1950s. In the 

1960s dormitories and a large house were built for the 

Jesuits. The area which was adjacent to the mission 

was incorporated as the City of St. Mary’s in 1967, 

whereas Andreafsky chose to remain independent. 

Andreafsky residents voted for annexation into the 

City in 1980. The Catholic Church closed the mission 

school in 1987. The community is also known as 

Algaaciq. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Saint Mary’s is very seasonal. In 

2000 a total of 68 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents and 93 residents were licensed crew 

members. There is a cold storage facility located in the 

community. Subsistence activities as well as trapping 

help to supplement income for residents. Two general 

stores are located in the community, Alaska Commercial 

Company, and Yukon Traders. The construction of a 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters

Saint Mary's Saint Mary’s 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

100 

0 

98 

2 

1990 2000 2000 Employment StructureNon-group quarters

Year Group quarters

Saint Mary's

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Saint Mary’s 

Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

8.3% 

Not seeking,

27.1% 

Employed,

64.6% 

new regional Post Office was recently completed. Of 

those residents age 16 years and over, about 64.6% 

were employed, 8.3% were unemployed, and 27.1% 

were not in the labor force (i.e. not employed and not 

seeking work). Of those who were employed, about 

45.7% were classified as government workers. The 

median annual per capita income was $15,837 and the 

median household income was $39,375 in 2000. About 

20.4% of the population lived below the poverty level 

at the time of the Census. 

Governance 

Saint Mary’s is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1967. It has a Manager form of 

government which includes a mayor, six-person city 

council, five-person school board, six-person planning 

commission, and various municipal employees 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Saint Mary’s 
476

including three health aides and two police officers. 

The city implements a 3% sales tax; it has no other 

taxes. The city is not part of any organized borough. 

The city has its own school district, Saint Mary’s 

School District. The regional Native corporation for the 

area is the Calista Corporation and the Native village 

corporation is Saint Mary’s Native Corporation. The 

Village Council and Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) 

recognized Traditional Council is called the Algaaciq 

Tribal Government. The nearest Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office is located in the 

city of Emmonak, but is a seasonal office, which is 

open from June 1st to August 31st, although an office 

is available year round in the community of Nome. 

The closest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) is also located in Nome. A National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located 

in Bethel and a larger office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Saint Mary’s is accessible by both air and 

water transport and by road to some neighboring 

communities. A 6,000 foot state-owned gravel runway, 

as well as a 1,900 foot crosswind strip, are located in 

the community and provide year-round access. The 

large airfield is able to accommodate large jet aircraft; 

however, that service was discontinued in 1990. 

The approximate cost for individuals to travel by air 

roundtrip to Anchorage from Saint Mary’s is $555. 

A twenty-two mile road connects Saint Mary’s with 

Andreafsky, Pitka’s Point, and Mountain Village. The 

road is not maintained during the winter months, but 

is used by snowmachines during that time. The only 

deep-water dock in the Delta is provided at Andreafsky 

River. Accommodations available for visitors include 

the bed and breakfast, St. Mary’s Roadhouse, during 

the summer months. There is one school in Saint Mary, 

St. Mary’s School, which teaches preschool through 

12th grade. The school had a total of 170 students and 

14 teachers in 2000. The school district is operated by 

the City. Health care is available at St. Mary’s SubRegional Clinic which is operated and owned by the 

Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC). 

There is a new sub-regional clinic which is currently 

under construction. Police services are available from 

the City Police Department and the State Troopers 

Post. The electric utility for the area is AVEC, which is 

operated by REA Co-op and the City with a main power 

source of diesel. The water system, sewer system, and 

landfill are all operated by the City, which also collects 

refuse. The City has a piped water and sewer system 

to which the majority of the city is connected. About 

15 residences haul water and use honeybuckets. At 

Pitka’s Point a washteria is available. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing* 

In 2000 a total of 68 commercial fishing permits 

were issued to residents of Saint Mary’s and 93 

residents were licensed crew members. There was one 

resident who owned a vessel and was involved in the 

salmon fishery; however, no one in the community 

owned vessels which were involved in the federal 

fisheries in 2000. Out of the total of 68 permits issued 

to residents from Saint Mary’s, 59 were fished. 

The following is a brief description of these 

permits. A total of two permits were issued to residents 

for herring roe using gillnets in Norton Sound (none 

fished). One permit was issued for other finfish, 

specifically for freshwater fish using a set gillnet 

statewide (not fished). A total of 65 permits were 

issued to residents for salmon using set gillnets in the 

Lower Yukon (59 fished).

There were no landings of any kind in the 

community in 2000 because no processor was present 

in the community. There is, however, a cold water 

storage facility. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 there were a total of 84 sport fishing 

licenses sold in Saint Mary’s; 81 of these were sold 

to Alaska State residents. There were no registered 

businesses related to sport fishing in Saint Mary’s in 

2000. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Little data is available about subsistence hunting or 

fishing in Saint Mary’s regarding species harvested or 

exact amounts. However, the Department of Economic 

and Community Development does mention that 

residents supplement their income with subsistence 

activities and that salmon, moose, bear, and waterfowl 

are harvested by community members. According to 

*Commercial fishing permit data presented here is from the 

CFEC and is for the communities of Andreafsky and Saint 

Mary’s combined. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Saint Mary’s 
477

the ADF&G it has been established that Saint Mary’s 

community members harvest 667.2 lbs per person 

annually of wild food. The daily wild food harvest is 

1.8 lbs per person. Also according to ADF&G, 118 

household permits were issued for subsistence salmon 

to residents of Saint Mary’s in 1999 for an estimated 

harvest of 10,160 total salmon, the majority of which 

were chum. Residents of Saint Mary’s are not eligible 

to apply for halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Saint Mary’s 
478

Scammon Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Scammon Bay is located on the south bank of the 

Kun River and is about one mile away from the Bering 

Sea. It is in the Wade Hampton Census Area and is 

to the north of the Askinuk Mountains on the YukonKuskokwim Delta. It makes up a total of 0.6 square 

miles of land and 0.0 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 465 inhabitants in the 

community of Scammon Bay reported by the 2000 U.S. 

Census and of those 48.6% were male and 51.4% were 

female. Since a population was first documented by the 

Census in 1940, the population has continued to rise. 

The racial composition of Scammon Bay in 2000 was 

as follows: 96.1% American Indian and Alaska Native, 

1.9% White, 0.2% Black, 0.2% Native Hawaiian and 

Other Pacific Islander, 0.2% “Other,” and 1.3% two 

or more races. A total of 97.4% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. About 0.2% of the residents were 

Hispanic. The median age of the community was 18.3 

years in 2000 versus the national median of 35.3 years 

of age. There were a total of 114 housing units with 18 

having been vacant and none vacant due to seasonal 

use. No one lived in group housing at the time of the 

Census. Out of the population age 25 years and over 

69.9% had graduated from high school or gone on to 

higher schooling and 12.2% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP”, the Arctic Small 

Tool tradition which is significant because “some 

investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool tradition 

marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo cultures” 

to the Arctic area (National Park Service 2003). 

Historically the Native Eskimo people present in the 

area of Scammon Bay have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state”, 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Scammon Bay Scammon Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

Age 

80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Scammon Bay 2000 Racial Structure 

Scammon Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

Other races White 

0.2% 1.3% 1.9% 

Black Pacific Islander 0.2% 0.2% 

Native 

96.2% 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Scammon Bay

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Scammon Bay

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 0.2% 

Non-Hispanic,

99.8% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Scammon Bay 
479

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115).

The village of Scammon Bay was known in 

Eskimo as “Mariak” and its residents were called 

“Mariagamiut.” This village was established in about 

1920 after there were recurring floods at the previous 

site of Keqqatmuit Village and it was moved to where 

Scammon Bay now stands. The name Scammon Bay 

was used to refer to the village in 1951 when a post 

office was established and given that name after Capt. 

Charles Scammon, who had served as marine chief 

of the Western Union Telegraph Expedition in 1856-

1867 and who the nearby bay had already been named 

after. The city became incorporated in 1967. The sale, 

importation, and possession of alcohol is not allowed 

in the city. Most inhabitants of Scammon Bay travel 

50 miles to the north each summer to the Black River 

for fish camp. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

As is true of the other communities in the Wade 

Hampton Census Area, employment is very seasonal 

in Scammon Bay with most employment based on 

commercial fishing, but work also being available 

seasonally firefighting for the Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM), working in construction, and 

making handicrafts. Subsistence is also very important 

to residents of the community. In 2000 there were 61 

commercial fishing permits which were issued to those 

from Scammon Bay and 25 licensed crew members. 

In 2000 about 44.0% of the population of Scammon 

Bay age 16 years and over were employed, 6.5% were 

unemployed, and 49.6% were not in the labor force. Of 

those which were employed 60.6% were considered 

government workers by the Census. The per capita 

income was $7,719 and the median household income 

was $25,625. About 37.4% of the population lived 

below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Scammon Bay is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1967. The city has a Manager form 

of government which includes a mayor, seven person 

city council, five person advisory school board, and 

five municipal employees including a public safety 

2000 Employment Structure

Scammon Bay

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Scammon Bay

Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

6.5% 

Employed,

44% Not Seeking,

49.6% 

officer and a police officer. There is a 2% sales tax. 

The city is not part of any organized borough. The 

regional Native corporation for the area is the Calista 

Corporation and the Native village corporation is 

the Askinuk Corporation. The Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) recognized traditional council is the 

Scammon Bay Traditional Council. The Community 

Development Quota (CDQ) group for the area is the 

Coastal Villages Region Fund. The nearest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office is 

located in the city of Emmonak, but is a seasonal office 

which is open from June 1st to August 31st, although 

an office is available year round in the community 

of Nome. The closest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) is also located in Nome. 

A National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field 

office is located in Bethel and a more main office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Scammon Bay is reachable by both the air and by 

water; in the winter there are land trails to Hooper Bay 

(32 mi.) and Chevak (25 mi.) as well. There is a 3,000 

foot gravel airstrip which is owned by the State present 

in the community and a seaplane base on Kun River 

which is owned by the City. The approximate cost 

according to Travelocity and Expedia to travel by air 

roundtrip to Anchorage from Scammon Bay is $633 

(price given for date as close to September 1, 2003 

as possible). Each summer supplies are brought in 

bulk by barge. The chief means of local transportation 

are snowmachines and skiffs. Accommodations are 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Scammon Bay 
480

available at the High School or the Clinic. There is 

one school, the Scammon Bay School, teaching grades 

K-12. In 2000 there were a total of 175 students and 

12 teachers. Health care is available at the Scammon 

Bay Health Clinic which is operated by the YukonKuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC) and is 

owned by the City; the clinic needs to be expanded. 

Police services are available by the State Village Public 

Safety Officer (VPSO) and by the City Village Police 

Office (VPO). The electric utility is AVEC which is 

operated by REA Co-op and the City with the main 

power source of diesel, although 100% of households 

in the community heated using kerosene in 2000. The 

City operates the water system and piped water is 

available. The City also operates the sewer system as 

well as the landfill, although individuals are required 

to collect their own refuse. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 61 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Scammon Bay in 2000 and there 

were a total of 25 licensed crew members which were 

residents. No vessel owners which were residents of 

the community participated in the federal fisheries, 

although one vessel owner who was a resident of 

Scammon Bay in 2000 did participate in the salmon 

fishery. 

Of the 61 permits issued to community members, 

a total of 40 were actually fished. Twenty permits 

were issued for the commercial fishing of herring: 

one for herring roe using a gillnet in Cape Avinof 

(one fished) and 19 for herring roe using gillnets in 

Cape Ramonzof (12 fished). A total of 41 permits 

were issued to residents of Scammon Bay for salmon 

using a set gillnet in the Lower Yukon of which 27 

were fished. 

No vessels delivered landings to the community 

in 2000 because there was no processor in operation 

in Scammon Bay. 

Sport Fishing 

The infrastructure does not seem to exist in the 

community in order to support the sport fishing industry 

as there is no sport fishing related business or hotel 

present. There were a total of 34 sport fishing licenses 

which were sold in Scammon Bay to residents of the 

State of Alaska in 2000. No sport fishing licenses were 

sold in Scammon Bay to those from outside the State 

of Alaska. There was no sport fishing guide business 

registered in 2002 in Scammon Bay according to the 

ADF&G. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Unfortunately, in depth subsistence harvest 

information for the community of Scammon Bay was 

not available from ADF&G, although it is reported by 

the Alaska Department of Community and Economic 

Development the community relies on subsistence 

activities which can also be seen by the per capita 

lbs harvested by residents. According to ADF&G 

in 1999 a total of 76 salmon subsistence household 

permits were issued to those from Scammon Bay and 

an estimated 4,457 fish were harvested using those 

permits. In 1983 approximately 787 lbs were harvested 

per capita in the community with about 74% of that 

having been made up of fish, 5% was land mammals, 

12% was marine mammals, and about 9% was termed 

other which contains birds, marine invertebrates, and 

plant products (Wolfe and Walker 1987, p. 57 & 64). 

Residents of Scammon Bay are eligible to apply for 

halibut subsistence certificates. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Scammon Bay 
481

Togiak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The community of Togiak is situated at the head 

of Togiak Bay. It is in the Togiak National Wildlife 

Refuge and is the gateway to Walrus Island Game 

Sanctuary. It is 67 miles west of Dillingham. Togiak 

is located in the Dillingham Census Area and makes 

up 45.2 square miles of land and 183.3 square miles 

of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 809 inhabitants of the city 

of Togiak in 2000 and of those 50.3% were male and 

49.7% were female. The population of the community 

has continued to grow since about 1950 at which time 

there were a reported 108 inhabitants. Prior to that there 

was an influenza epidemic (1918 -1919) after which 

much of the population migrated south to the Togiak 

area; hence the increase in population in the village 

documented by the 1920 Census. The population 

of the community remains fairly stable year-round 

when compared to other fishing communities, except 

for during the herring fishery (North Pacific Fishery 

Management Council 1994, p. 136). The racial 

composition of Togiak in 2000 was as follows: 86.3% 

American Indian and Alaska Native, 6.9% White, 

0.1% Black, 0.2% “Other,” and 6.4% two or more 

races. A total of 92.7% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. About 1.1% of the inhabitants were Hispanic. 

The median age for the community in 2000 was 23.4 

years of age, whereas the national age median was 

35.3 years. There were a total of 221 housing units in 

the city of which 19 were vacant with seven of those 

having been vacant due to seasonal use at the time of 

the Census. No one in the community lived in group 

quarters. Out of the population of Togiak age 25 and 

over, about 67.1% had graduated from high school or 

gone on to further schooling and 7.0% had obtained a 

bachelor’s degree or higher. About 19.6% of those age 

25 and over had completed less than 9th grade. 

History 

For the most part, the Russian spread along 

Alaska’s west coast missed the area of Togiak in the 

early 1800s and the Yup’ik inhabitants of the area 

were largely left alone, except for some contact with 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

TTogiak ogiak Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

100 50 0 50 100 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure 

Togiak Togiak Data source: US Census 

Data source: US Census 

White 

Two or more 6.9% 

races Black Other 6.4% 0.1%

0.2% 

Native 

86.4% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Togiak

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Togiak Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1.1% 

Non-Hispanic,

98.9% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Togiak 
Russian immigrant trappers or traders (North Pacific 

Fishery Management Council 1994, p. 136). “Old 

Togiak” or “Togiagamute” was located across the Bay 

from the site of modern day Togiak in 1880, and had 

a population of 276 at that time. Wood-gathering was 

difficult at Old Togiak because of heavy snowfall and 

residents gradually settled on the opposite shore of the 

Bay at a new site where the chore was easier. After 

the influenza epidemic of 1918-19 many residents 

of the Yukon-Kuskokwim region migrated south 

to the Togiak area. Many residents still have ties to 

communities in the Yukon-Kuskokwim. During WWII, 

residents of Togiak began to work in the commercial 

salmon canneries because imported labor had became 

scarce (North Pacific Fishery Management Council 

1994, p. 136). In 1950 a school was established in 

an old church in Togiak. A salmon cannery was built 

across the bay from the community in the 1950s, 

which created a demand for fish and the community 

blossomed into a salmon fishing village (North Pacific 

Fishery Management Council 1994, p. 136). In 1959 

a National Guard Armory and a school building were 

built in the community. In 1964 Togiak was flooded 

and stores of gas, fuel oil, and stove oil, as well as 

racks of fish were destroyed. A few households left 

the community after the flood and settled the village 

of Twin Hills which is located upriver. The City of 

Togiak became incorporated in 1969. In the 1970s 

the commercial herring fishery was developed in 

the community (North Pacific Fishery Management 

Council 1994, p. 136). Today the village is a Yup’ik 

community with a lifestyle including fishing and 

subsistence. Alcohol is not allowed in the city with 

the sale, importation, and possession of it having been 

banned. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Togiak is based for the most part on 

commercial salmon, herring, and herring roe fisheries. 

In 2000 there were 392 commercial fishing permits 

which were issued to residents of the community and 

136 licensed crew members which were residents. One 

on-shore processor is located in Togiak, North Pacific 

Processors Inc. which operates Togiak Fisheries 

and there are several floating processors near the 

community as well. A few community members trap 

and overall the community is very dependent upon 

subsistence harvests. Of the population age 16 years 

2000 Employment Structure

Togiak

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Togiak Data source: US Census

Armed Forces, 

0.8% 

Employed,

32.6% 

Not Seeking,

54.7%

Unemployed,

11.9% 

and over in 2000 about 32.6% were employed, 11.9% 

were unemployed, 0.8% were in the armed forces, and 

54.7% were not in the labor force. Of those which were 

employed, about 58.6% were classified as government 

workers. The per capita income in Togiak was $9,676 

in 2000 with the median household income having 

been $23,977. About 29.9% of residents lived below 

the poverty level at the time of the 2000 Census. 

Governance 

Togiak is a second-class city which was incorporated 

in 1969 and has a Mayor form of government which 

includes the mayor, a seven person city council, five 

person advisory school board, and various municipal 

employees. The City imposes a 2% sales tax and a 

2% raw fish tax. The city is not part of any organized 

borough. The regional Native corporation which 

the community is a part of is the Bristol Bay Native 

Corporation with the regional non-profit for the area 

being the Bristol Bay Native Association. The Native 

village corporation is the Togiak Natives Corporation 

and the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized 

Traditional Council is the Togiak Traditional Council. 

The Community Development Quota (CDQ) group 

which the village is included in is the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC). 

The closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) to the community is located 

in Dillingham. A National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) field office is located in Bethel and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

482

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Togiak 
483

Facilities 

Togiak is accessible for the most part by air, but also 

by water. A 4,200 foot lighted gravel airstrip is present 

with a 1,090 foot crosswind airstrip and navigation 

aids and is owned by the State. Flights are available 

to the community from Dillingham as either regularly 

scheduled flights or by charter. The approximate 

cost according to Travelocity and Expedia to travel 

by air roundtrip to Anchorage from Togiak is $512 

(price given for date as close to September 1, 2003 

as possible). Cargo is either flown in or barged and 

lightered to shore. No docking facilities are available 

in the community. Local residents use skiffs, autos, 

ATVs, and snowmachines as modes of transportation. 

Accommodations are available at the Haul-out Inn 

and the Togiak River Lodge. There is one school, the 

Togiak School which teaches grades K-12. In 2000 the 

school had 229 students and 17 teachers. Health care is 

available at the Togiak Sub-Regional Clinic which was 

newly constructed. The clinic is owned by the City and 

operated by the Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation 

(BBAHC). Police services are available from the State 

Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO) and from the 

City Police Department. The electric utility for the 

area is AVEC which is operated by the REA Co-op and 

the City, with a main power source of diesel. A piped 

water system is present which is operated by the City 

and those which are not connected use private wells. 

The sewer system is operated by the City, as is the 

collection of the refuse and the operation of the landfill 

which is also operated by North Pacific Processors. A 

total of 210 homes are fully plumbed with piped water 

and sewer and a total of 14 are not fully plumbed. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

The commercial fishing in Togiak focuses for 

the most part on herring, herring roe, and salmon. A 

total of 392 commercial fishing permits were issued 

to residents of Togiak in 2000 and 136 residents were 

licensed crew members. Sixteen residents which were 

owners of vessels participated in the federal fisheries 

and 62 residents which were owners of vessels 

participated in the commercial fishing of salmon. 

Out of the total of 392 permits issued to residents 

in 2000, 151 were fished. Thirty-one permits were 

issued for halibut (14 were fished): 30 using longline 

on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (13 fished) and one 

using longline on a vessel over 60 feet statewide (one 

fished). The most permits were issued to residents of 

Togiak for fishing herring of which there were 228 

permits issued in 2000 (22 fished): one permit was 

issued for herring roe using a purse seine in Bristol 

Bay (one fished), 10 for herring roe using gillnets in 

Security Cove (one fished), 30 for herring roe using 

gillnets in Bristol Bay (8 fished), one for herring 

roe using a gillnet in Cape Avinof (not fished), 17 

for herring roe using gillnets in Goodnews Bay (12 

fished), and 169 for herring spawn on kelp gathered 

by diving or handpicked in Bristol Bay (none fished). 

For salmon, 133 permits were issued and of those 115 

were fished: 72 permits were issued for salmon using 

drift gillnets in Bristol Bay (62 fished), 60 using set 

gillnets in Bristol Bay (53 fished), and one using a set 

gillnet in the Lower Yukon (not fished). 

Thirty-eight vessels delivered salmon landings to 

Togiak. In accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

landings data for the community are unavailable, most 

likely because there was only one shore-based processor 

which processed salmon in 2000 in the community, 

Togiak Fisheries, which is operated by North Pacific 

Processors, Inc. Several floating processors also 

are in operation. No landings were delivered to the 

community for any other fisheries. 

The City of Togiak was recently granted $256,787 

in federal salmon disaster funds because of the loss 

of salmon taxes and resulting loss of services. The 

CDQ group in which Togiak is included, the Bristol 

Bay Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC) 

was recently granted $75,026 by the Southwest Alaska 

Municipal Conference as part of the Steller Sea Lion 

Mitigation Program “in recognition of the negative 

economic impacts of federal measures to protect the 

Steller sea lion” with money which had been allocated 

by the U.S. government (Southwest Alaska Municipal 

Conference 2003). In addition, because of its high 

dependency on the local herring fishery, Togiak has 

been hit hard in recent years by the decline in herring 

roe prices on the international market. 

Sport Fishing 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reports that 

“some of the finest salmon and trout sport fishing 

waters in Alaska are on Togiak National Wildlife 

Refuge” which gives an idea of the capabilities of 

the area and draw for tourists. In 2000, as reported 

by the ADF&G, there were 29 sport fishing licenses 

which were sold in Togiak to residents of the State of 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Togiak 
484

Alaska. A total of 129 sport fishing licenses were sold 

in Togiak to residents of the State of Alaska, foreign 

residents, and U.S. residents from other states. In 2002 

according to ADF&G as well there was one listing for 

a freshwater guide business in Togiak. 

Subsistence Fishing 

As reported by the Alaska Department of 

Community and Economic Development, “the 

entire community...” of Togiak “depends heavily on 

subsistence activities.” According to the ADF&G for 

the most representative year of 1994 in the community 

of Togiak 96.0% of households used smelt, 30.0% used 

blackfish, 18.0% used burbot, 92.0% used char, 10.0% 

used grayling, 54.0% used pike, 48.0% used trout, and 

48.0% used whitefish. Information on all subsistence 

resources and other animals was not available for the 

community. The total per capita harvest in Togiak for 

all the animals listed above in 1994 was 38.26 lbs. As 

reported by ADF&G for the year 1999, 73 household 

subsistence salmon permits were issued to those from 

the community. Residents of Togiak are eligible to apply 

for subsistence halibut certificates. These allocations 

are based on recognized customary and traditional 

uses of halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence 

halibut fishing were published in the Federal Register 

in April 2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Togiak 
485

Toksook Bay (return to communities) 

People and Place 80 and over 

Location 70 to 79 

60 to 69 

Toksook Bay is situated on Nelson Island and is 50 to 59

one of three villages present on the island. It is across 40 to 49 Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

TToksook Bay oksook Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

2000 Racial Structure Number of individuals

Toksook Bay

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure

Toksook Bay Data source: US Census 

Male 

Female the water from Nunivak Island on Kangirlvar Bay and 

is 115 miles northwest of Bethel. The community of 

Tununak is approximately eight miles northwest of 

Toksook Bay. It is located in the Bethel Census Area 

and makes up 33.1 square miles of land and 40.9 

square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 532 inhabitants of Toksook 

Bay at the time of the 2000 U.S. Census and of 

those 54.1% were male and 45.9% were female. No 

population was recorded for the community until 

1970 at which time it was recorded as having 257 

inhabitants. This number has continued to grow by 

about 100 every 10 years since 1970. In 2000 about 

94.4% of the residents of Toksook Bay were American 

Indian and Alaska Native, 2.4% were White, and 3.2% 

were of two or more races. A total of 97.6% of the 

population recognized themselves as all or part Alaska 

Native or American Indian. No one in the community 

was Hispanic. The median age in Toksook Bay was 

22.5 years of age, whereas the national age median 

was 35.3 years. There were a total of 110 housing units 

in the community of which four were vacant at the 

time of the Census. No one lived in group quarters in 

the community. Of the population of the community 

age 25 years and over, 59.0% had graduated from high 

school or gone on to higher schooling and about 9.2% 

had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. About 

25.1% had completed less than 9th grade. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP,” the Arctic Small 

Tool tradition which is significant because “some 

investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool tradition 

marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo cultures” 

to the Arctic area (National Park Service 2003). 

Historically the Native Eskimo people present in the 

area of Toksook Bay have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

100 80 

Two or more White

races 2.4%

3.2% 

Native 

94.4% 

2000 Employment Structure

Toksook Bay 2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Toksook Bay Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

2.2% 

Not Seeking,

33.1% 

Employed,

54.8% 

Unemployed,

9.9%

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Toksook Bay 
486

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state,” 

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115). 

The community of Toksook Bay was established 

in 1964 by half the residents of Nightmute who 

“hitched up their plywood houses to 100-dog teams 

and mushed them across the ice” (North Pacific 

Fishery Management Council 1994). The earliest 

inhabitants of the community were Cyril Chanar, Tom 

Sunny, and Nasquaq Tangkaq. The village was settled 

in order to be more accessible to the yearly freighter 

that traveled to the area, the North Star. In 1972 the 

City was incorporated. In 1996 the Yup’ik mask 

exhibit, Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer) 

which had taken three years of collaboration between 

Yup’ik peoples and the shipping of masks from many 

museums, traveled to Toksook Bay where elders 

described the meanings of the masks to those visiting 

them (Fienup-Riordan 2000). Alcohol is not allowed 

in the city with the sale, importation, and possession 

of it having been banned. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The income producers in Toksook Bay are for the 

most part commercial fishing, the school, the City, 

and Tribal Council. A processor, Coastal Villages 

Seafood, Inc. is present in the community. In 2000, 153 

commercial fishing permits were issued to community 

members and there were a total of 82 residents which 

were licensed crewmen. Subsistence is also very 

important as it supplements income and provides 

essential food sources. In 2000, of the population 

of Toksook Bay age 16 years and over, about 54.8% 

were employed, 9.9% were unemployed, 2.2% were 

in the armed forces, and 33.1% were not in the labor 

force. Of those which were employed, 64.4% were 

considered government workers by the Census. The per 

capita income was $8,761 in the city with the median 

household income having been $30,208. About 27.3% 

of the population was below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Toksook Bay is a second-class city which was 

incorporated in 1972. The city has a mayor form of 

government which includes a mayor, six person city 

council, five person school advisory board, and many 

municipal employees including a police officer. The 

city has a 2% sales tax and is not part of any organized 

borough. The Native regional corporation for the 

area is the Calista Corporation and the Native village 

corporation is the Nunakauiak Yupik Corporation 

(NYC). The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized 

Traditional Council is the Nunakauyarmiut Tribe. 

The Community Development Quota (CDQ) group 

in which Toksook Bay is included is the Coastal 

Villages Region Fund. The closest office of the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to the 

community is located in Bethel. A National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located in 

Bethel and a main office is located in Anchorage. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

The community of Toksook Bay is accessible 

by both air and water and is also reachable in winter 

on trails by snow machine to Nightmute, Tununak, 

Newtok, and Chefornak. A 1,788 foot gravel airstrip 

which is owned by the state is present and provides 

both scheduled and chartered flights to the city year 

round. The airport is currently undergoing major 

improvements. The approximate cost according to 

Travelocity and Expedia to travel by air roundtrip to 

Anchorage from Toksook Bay is $600 (price given 

for date as close to September 1, 2003 as possible) 

with five airline services providing passage to the 

community. No docking facilities are available, but 

boat haul-out services are available in Toksook Bay. 

Goods are delivered in the summer by barge. Local 

travel is accomplished by fishing boat, skiffs, snow 

machines, and ATVs. Limited guest quarters are 

available from the Village Corporation, Nunakauiak 

Yupik Corporation. There is one school, Nelson Island 

Area School, which teaches grades K-12. In 2000 it had 

191 students and 14 teachers. Health care is available 

at the Toksook Bay Health Clinic which is owned 

by the Tribal Council and is operated by the YukonKuskokwim Health Corporation under a building lease 

agreement. A new clinic is currently being built and 

is very near completion. Police services are available 

from the State Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO), 

Tribal Police Officers, and by the City Public Safety 

facility. The electric utility is AVEC which is operated 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Toksook Bay 
487

by REA Co-op and the City with the main power 

source of diesel, although kerosene was still used to 

heat by 100.0% of households in the community in 

2000. The City is the water system operator with the 

Tribal Council being the Washeteria operator. A piped 

water system is present in the community. The City 

is also the operator of the sewer system, the refuse 

collector, and the landfill operator. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

There were a total of 153 commercial fishing 

permits which were issued to residents of Toksook Bay 

in 2000 and a total of 82 licensed crew members which 

were residents. There were 41 vessel owners which 

were residents of the community and were involved 

in the federal fisheries in 2000 and 14 involved in the 

salmon fishery. 

Of the 153 permits issued in 2000, a total of 101 

were fished. Sixty-nine permits were issued for the 

commercial fishing of halibut: 23 using a hand troll 

statewide (16 fished), 36 using longline on a vessel 

under 60 feet statewide (27 fished), and 10 using 

mechanical jig statewide (10 fished). A total of 67 

permits were issued for herring: 58 for herring roe using 

gillnets around Nelson Island (33 fished), 2 for herring 

roe using gillnets in Security Cove (none fished), 3 for 

herring roe using gillnets in Bristol Bay (one fished), 

3 for herring roe using gillnets around Nunivak Island 

(2 fished), and one permit was issued for herring roe 

using a gillnet in Goodnews Bay (not fished). One 

permit was issued for freshwater fish using a set gillnet 

statewide which was not fished in 2000. Two permits 

were issued for other groundfish (none fished): one 

was issued for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using 

longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide and one 

for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using other gear 

statewide. Fourteen permits were issued for salmon 

using a drift gillnet in Bristol Bay of which 11 were 

fished. No permits were issued to residents of Toksook 

Bay for salmon using a set gillnet in Bristol Bay at 

the beginning of the year, although at the end of the 

year one permit had been fished by a resident on that 

specific permit type. 

No reported landings were delivered to the 

community in 2000, although a processor is present. 

Coastal Villages Seafood, Inc. processes halibut and 

salmon in Toksook Bay. The plant is a subsidiary of the 

CDQ group Coastal Villages Region Fund. The City 

of Toksook Bay was recently allotted $663 in federal 

salmon disaster funds because of the recent loss due to 

the falling salmon prices. 

Sport Fishing 

Sport fishing does not seem to be a main activity 

in the community and the infrastructure to support 

tourist sport fishers is not really present in the city. 

According to the ADF&G there was no sport fishing 

guide businesses in Toksook Bay which were listed in 

2002. In 2000 there were 19 sport fishing licenses sold 

in Toksook Bay to residents of the State of Alaska and 

none which were sold to anyone from other states or 

countries. 

Subsistence Fishing 

AccordingtotheADF&Gforthemostrepresentative 

year of 1990 in the community of Toksook Bay, 

100.0% of all households used subsistence herring sac 

roe. The per capita harvest by residents was 210.44 lbs 

of herring sac roe, although also according to ADF&G 

is it estimated that the per capita harvest of wild foods 

in Toksook Bay is 716.4 lbs therefore other species 

must be being utilized. In 1999, 133 subsistence 

salmon household permits were issued to those from 

the community for an estimated harvest of 1,009 

salmon. Residents of Toksook are eligible to apply for 

halibut subsistence certificates. These allocations are 

based on recognized customary and traditional uses of 

halibut. Regulations to implement subsistence halibut 

fishing were published in the Federal Register in April 

2003 and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Toksook Bay 
488

Tuntutuliak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Tuntutuliak is located on the Qinaq River. It is 

about 3 miles from the confluence of the Qinaq and 

Kuskokwim Rivers and is about 40 miles from the 

Bering Sea coast. The community is about 40 miles 

southwest of Bethel and 440 miles west of Anchorage. 

It is in the Bethel Census Area and makes up 119.2 

square miles of land and 0.2 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were 370 inhabitants in Tuntutuliak in 

2000. About 52.4% were male and 47.6% were 

female. Since about the time of the 1950 Census 

the population of Tuntutuliak has continued to rise 

from the 68 residents reported in 1950 to the 377 as 

established by a State Demographer in 2002. In 2000 

about 98.9% of the population was American Indian 

and Alaska Native, 0.8% was White, and 0.3% was of 

two or more races. A total of 98.9% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian. No one identified as Hispanic. The 

median age in the community was 22.9 years versus 

the national age median was 35.3 years. At the time of 

the 2000 U.S. Census there were a total of 97 housing 

units in the community and of those 13 were vacant. 

All of the population lived in households and no one 

in the community lived in group quarters. Of the 

population of Tuntutuliak age 25 years and over about 

62.9% had graduated from high school or higher 

and about 5.7% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or 

higher. Approximately 25.7% had completed less than 

9th grade. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP,” the Arctic 

Small Tool tradition which is significant because 

“some investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool 

tradition marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo 

cultures” to the Arctic area (National Park Service 

2003). Historically the Native Eskimo people present 

in the area of Tununak have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state,” 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

TTuntutuliak untutuliak Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

60 

Age 

Male 

Female 

60 

Employed,

55.9% 

40 20 0 20 40 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Tuntutuliak 

2000 Racial Structure Data source: US Census

Tuntutuliak Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

0.3% 0.8% 

Native 

98.9% 

2000 Employment Structure

Tuntutuliak 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Tuntutuliak Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

34.5% 

Unemployed,

9.6%

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Tuntutuliak 
489

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115). 

The Yup’ik name of the village, Tuntutuliaq means 

“place of many reindeer.” The village was historically 

called Qinaq and was situated four miles to the east 

of the current site. Edward Nelson noted the location 

of Qinaq in 1879 at which time he documented 175 

inhabitants. The village was visited by a Moravian 

missionary in 1908 who found that there were 130 

villagers. A Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school 

was established in 1909. The first teacher at the school 

was respected, but succeeding teachers did not have 

the confidence of the community and thus the school 

was closed and the building moved to Eek in 1917. It is 

believed that some of the villagers may have moved to 

Eek with the school in order that their children could 

attend. The first Moravian Chapel was established in 

1923 with the lumber and support having come from 

the community of Eek. John Johnson opened a trading 

post and store in Qinaq in the late 1920s. In 1945 

the village moved to its present site which is located 

on higher ground and at that time it was renamed 

Tuntutuliak. A school was built by the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) in 1957 and a post office was opened in 

1960. Today the village is a Yup’ik community with 

a lifestyle which includes fishing and subsistence. 

Alcohol is not allowed in the city with the sale, 

importation, and possession of it having been banned. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Tuntutuliak is dependent on 

commercial fishing and fish processing as well as 

employment by the school and services. In 2000 

there were 75 commercial fishing permits which were 

issued to those from the community and 47 residents 

which were licensed crew members. In addition cash 

is provided by trapping, basket weaving, making 

skin-sewn products, and by the production of other 

Native handicrafts. The village is very dependent on 

subsistence with the foods making up a large part of the 

diet. Of the population age 16 years and over in 2000 

about 55.9% were employed, 9.6% were unemployed, 

and 34.5% were not in the labor force. The per capita 

income was $7,918 with the median household 

income having been $25,500 in 2000. About 23.0% of 

residents lived below the poverty level. 

Governance 

Tuntutuliak is unincorporated and is not part of 

any organized borough, therefore no city or borough 

officials are present in the community. The Bureau of 

Indian Affairs (BIA) recognized Traditional Council for 

the community is the Tuntutuliak Traditional Council. 

The Native regional corporation in which the village 

is included is the Calista Corporation. The Native 

village corporation is Tuntutuliak Land Limited which 

was formerly the Qinarmiut Corporation. Tuntutuliak 

is part of the Community Development Quota (CDQ) 

group called the Coastal Villages Region Fund. The 

closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) to the community is located in Bethel. 

A National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field 

office is located in Bethel and a main office is located 

in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) office is located in 

Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Tuntutuliak relies for the most part on air 

transportation, but is also reachable by water and by 

land on trails in the winter which connect the village 

to Kipnuk, Toundra, and Kongiganak. A 1,800 foot 

gravel runway which is State-owned is present as 

well as a public seaplane base on the Qinaq River. 

Relocation plans are in the works for the airport at this 

time. The approximate cost according to Travelocity 

and Expedia to travel by air roundtrip to Anchorage 

from Tuntutuliak is $320 (price given for date as 

close to September 1, 2003 as possible). About six 

times a year supplies are delivered by barge. Locals 

use boats and snowmachines as modes of travel. 

Accommodations in the community are available at 

either the school or the community hall. There is one 

school in Tuntutuliak, the Lewis Angapak Memorial 

School, which teaches grades K-12. The school had 

103 students and eight teachers in 2000. Health care 

is available at the Kathleen Daniel Memorial Hospital 

which is owned by the Village Council and operated by 

the Yukon- Kuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC). 

The clinic currently uses a pail toilet and hauls water for 

the facility. Police services are available from the State 

Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO). The electric 

utility for the area is the Tuntutuliak Community 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Tuntutuliak 
490

Service Association which is privately operated by 

the non-profit arm of the Village Council and whose 

main power source of diesel. None of the homes 

in the community have functioning plumbing and 

community members use honeybuckets. The Village 

Council and individuals are in charge of the operation 

of the sewer system. Currently a flush/haul system 

is under construction which will include household 

plumbing. Refuse collection is not available. The 

landfill is operated by the Village Council. Recently 

a new landfill, sewage lagoon, and 4-mile sanitation 

boardwalk were constructed. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Commercial fishing in Tuntutuliak is based for the 

most part on the fishing for salmon and herring roe. 

In 2000 there were a total of 75 commercial fishing 

permits which were issued to residents of Tuntutuliak 

and 47 licensed crew members which were residents 

of the community. There were no vessel owners 

which participated in federal fisheries and lived in the 

community, however there were five vessel owners 

which were residents of Tuntutuliak and participated 

in the salmon fishery. 

Of the 75 commercial fishing permits issued to 

those from Tuntutuliak, 52 were fished. A total of 11 

permits were issued for halibut (none fished): 6 were 

issued for halibut using a hand troll statewide and 5 

were issued for halibut on a longline vessel under 60 

feet statewide. With regard to herring roe, 21 permits 

were issued to community members: 6 using gillnets 

in Cape Avinof (3 fished) and 15 using gillnets in 

Goodnews Bay (6fished). The largest group of permits 

issued was for salmon for which there were 43 issued 

and all 43 were fished: one was issued using a drift 

gillnet in Bristol Bay and 42 were issued using set 

gillnets on the Kuskokwim. 

No landings were delivered to Tuntutuliak in 2000 

as there was no processor in operation.

Sport Fishing 

There is little evidence of sport fishing in 

Tuntutuliak and the services necessary for such 

an industry, such as a lodge or sport fishing related 

businesses, do not exist. According to the ADF&G, 

in 2000 no sport fishing licenses were sold in the 

community of Tuntutuliak and there were no sport 

fishing businesses which were listed in the village in 

2002. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Limited survey subsistence data was available 

for Tuntutuliak, although as reported by the Alaska 

Department of Community and Economic Development 

“subsistence foods comprise a majority of the diet, 

and about one-half of families go to fish camp each 

summer.” In addition, seal is an important resource. 

In the words of the Tuntutuliak Tribal Council Vice 

President Adolph Lupie in September of 2002, “this 

village is traditionally a subsistence community, and 

we’ve been hunting any game throughout any kind of 

season” (The Associated Press 2002). According to the 

ADF&G, in 1999 there were 74 household subsistence 

salmon permits issued to those from Tuntutuliak for 

an estimated harvest of 7,886 fish. Also reported by 

ADF&G is that the estimated per capita wild food 

harvest for community members is 713.8 lbs, for 

a daily wild food harvest of 1.956 lbs per person. 

Residents are eligible to apply for halibut subsistence 

certificates. Traditional subsistence issues appear to 

be a very sensitive topic in this area with incongruity 

amongst federal, state, and traditional laws. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Tuntutuliak 
491

Tununak (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Tununak is located on the northeast coast of 

Nelson Island on a small bay. The community is 115 

miles northwest of Bethel and 519 miles northwest 

of Anchorage. It is in the Bethel Census Area and is 

made up of 60.5 square miles of land and 0.2 square 

miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

There were a total of 325 inhabitants in the 

community of Tununak in 2000, of which 58.2% were 

male and 41.8% were female. Since the 1950s, when 

the population changed to a somewhat more sedentary 

lifestyle, the population has continued to rise from 

112 inhabitants in 1950, to 298 in 1980, to the 325 

reported by in 2000. The residents of the community 

in 2000 were about 94.8% American Indian and 

Alaska Native, 3.1% White, and 2.2% of two or more 

races. A total of 96.9% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. No one in the community was Hispanic. The 

median age of those in Tununak was 22.8 years versus 

the national age median was 35.3 years. There were 

a total of 93 housing units in the community with 11 

vacant and 5 of those vacant due to seasonal use. No 

one in the population lived in group quarters. Out of 

the population of Tununak 25 years of age and over, 

65.8% had graduated from high school or gone on 

to further schooling by the year 2000 and 3.4% had 

obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher. About 28.1% 

of the population 25 and over had completed less than 

9th grade. 

History 

According to the National Park Service “one of 

the most distinctive and widespread Arctic cultural 

traditions appeared around 4000 BP,” the Arctic 

Small Tool tradition which is significant because 

“some investigators feel that the Arctic Small Tool 

tradition marks the arrival of the ancestral Eskimo 

cultures” to the Arctic area (National Park Service 

2003). Historically the Native Eskimo people present 

in the area of Tununak have been the Yup’ik peoples. 

Because “southwestern Alaska lacked significant 

amounts of any of the commercially valuable resources 

that first drew non-Natives to other parts of the state,” 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

TTununak ununak Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 2000 Racial Structure 

Tununak 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Racial Structure 

Tununak Data source: US Census 

Two or more White 

Native 

94.7% 

races 3.1%

2.2% 

2000 Employment Structure

Tununak 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure

Tununak Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

39.8% 

Employed,

48.3% 

Unemployed,

11.9% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Tununak 
492

the Native people of the southwest region did not 

experience continual contact with the outside world 

until missionaries settled in the area beginning in 

the mid-1800’s; initially with the Russian Orthodox, 

subsequently by the Moravians, and finally by the 

Jesuits (Fienup-Riordan 2000, p. 115). 

In 1878 Nelson Island was named after Edward 

Nelson, a Smithsonian naturalist. Nelson noted that 

there were six people living in Tununak at that time 

including one non-Native trader. The Jesuits established 

a school and small chapel in Tununak in 1889. The 

mission closed in 1892 most likely because the Native 

people of the area were difficult to convert as they were 

migratory, and because shaman still held much power. 

A government school was built in the community in 

1925 and in 1929 a Northern Commercial Co. store 

opened. A missionary by the name of Father Deshout 

lived on the island between the years of 1934 to 

1962 and had much influence over the people. Many 

islanders experienced their first contact outside their 

communities in the 1950’s with their involvement 

with the Territorial Guard, work in fish canneries, high 

schools, and health care treatment for tuberculosis 

which all brought vast changes to their ways of life. 

Evidence of these vast changes can be seen by the 

events leading up to the 1970s including the replacing 

of dog teams with snowmobiles and the abandoning of 

the last qasgiq (men’s community houses). In 1975 the 

City became incorporated, although the incorporation 

was dissolved in 1997 and the community is governed 

by a traditional council. Alcohol is not allowed in the 

city with the sale, importation, and possession of it 

having been banned. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The economy of Tununak is based on commercial 

fishing, employment with the school district and 

village council, and income generated from trapping 

and crafts. Subsistence is very important to residents 

of the community with staples of their diet including 

herring, seal oil, and seal meat, but other animals are 

harvested for subsistence purposes as well. A lottery 

is held to hunt musk-ox on Nelson Island or Nunivak 

Island. In 2000, 78 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of the community and a total of 23 

residents were licensed crew members. A processor, 

Coastal Villages Seafood, Inc. processes halibut and 

salmon in the community and most likely provides 

some employment to residents. Of the population age 

16 years and over in 2000, about 48.3% were employed, 

11.9% were unemployed, and 39.8% were not part of 

the labor force. Of those which were employed about 

69.4% were classified as government workers. The per 

capita income in Tununak was $7,653 in 2000 with 

the median household income having been $25,000. 

About 30.8% of the residents lived below the poverty 

level. 

Governance 

The community of Tununak is unincorporated and 

therefore there are no city or borough officials present 

in the community. The village has been governed by a 

traditional council since the city’s incorporation was 

dissolved in 1997. The Tununak Traditional Council is 

the traditional council which was elected to represent 

the village, although it is not recognized by the Bureau 

of Indian Affairs (BIA). The BIA-recognized IRA 

Village Council is the Native Village of Tununak, 

although it, in turn, does not represent the village. The 

Native regional corporation for the area is the Calista 

Corporation and the Native village corporation is the 

Tununrmiut Rinit Corporation. Tununak is part of the 

Community Development Quota (CDQ) group of the 

Coastal Villages Region Fund. The closest office of 

the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) to 

the community is located in Bethel. A National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located in 

Bethel and a main office is located in Anchorage. 

The nearest Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration 

Services (BCIS) office is located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Tununak is accessible by both air and water, 

although the community is very reliant on air 

transportation for mail and cargo service as well as 

passenger transportation. Present in the village is a 

2,010 foot gravel airstrip which is State-owned. The 

approximate cost according to Travelocity and Expedia 

to travel by air roundtrip to Anchorage from Tununak 

is $601 (price given for date as close to September 

1, 2003 as possible). Air services are provided by Era 

Aviation. About two to four times each summer season 

goods are delivered to the village by barge. Locals 

travel using boats, ATVs, and snow machines. There 

are no accommodations for visitors to the village. One 

school is present, Paul T. Albert Memorial School, 

which teaches grades K-12 and had 110 students 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Tununak 
493

and 8 teachers in 2000. Health care is available at 

the Tununak Health Clinic which is operated by the 

Yukon- Kuskokwim Health Corporation (YKHC) and 

owned by the Village Council, although the clinic is in 

need of major renovations. Police services are available 

from the State Village Public Safety Officer (VPSO). 

The electric utility is AVEC which is operated by REA 

Co-op with the main power source of diesel. There 

is no piped water in the village. The water system 

operator is the Traditional Council and the school and 

washteria are operated by the Traditional Council as 

well. Residents are dependent on the washteria for 

bathing and laundry. The sewer system is operated by 

the Traditional Council and by individuals. Thirteen 

honeybucket hoppers are situated down the length 

of the village and serve 66 houses. Some homes are 

serviced by the flush/haul system. Refuse is collected 

by the Council and the landfill is also operated by the 

Traditional Council. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

A total of 78 commercial fishing permits were 

issued to residents of Tununak in 2000 and there were 

23 licensed crew member residents. Twenty-eight 

vessel owners which were residents of the community 

participated in the federal fisheries and two vessel 

owners participated in the salmon fishery. 

Out of the 78 permits issued to community 

members, 50 were fished in 2000. A total of 41 permits 

were issued for the commercial fishing of halibut: 

22 using a hand troll statewide (15 fished), 10 using 

longline on a vessel under 60 feet statewide (8 fished), 

and 9 using mechanical jig statewide (7 fished). With 

regard to herring, 33 permits were issued for the 

harvesting of herring roe: 31 using a gillnet around 

Nelson Island (16 fished), one using a gillnet around 

Nunivak Island (one fished), and one was issued using 

a gillnet in Cape Avinof (not fished). One permit was 

issued for miscellaneous saltwater finfish using a hand 

troll statewide and it was fished in 2000. Three permits 

were issued for salmon using a drift gillnet in Bristol 

Bay and of those two were fished. 

No vessels delivered landings to the community 

of Tununak in 2000, though a processor is present. 

Coastal Villages Seafood, Inc. processes halibut and 

salmon. The plant was built during the 1980s and was 

operated by the Tununak Elders Traditional Council, 

but today is operated by Coastal Villages Seafoods 

which is a subsidiary of the CDQ group, Coastal 

Villages Region Fund (Knapp et, al. 2001). 

Sport Fishing 

There is no real evidence of sport fishing in 

Tununak as no sport fishing licenses were sold in the 

community in 2000 and according to the ADF&G no 

sport fishing guide businesses were listed in 2002, 

although the southwest area is supposed to be known 

for its sport fishing so the community might have the 

opportunity to enter in the industry if desired. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Subsistence harvesting is very important to 

residents of Tununak with the annual per capita harvest 

of subsistence resources being one of the largest in 

Alaska. According to the ADF&G, for the most 

representative year of 1986, 100.0% of households 

used all subsistence resources, 100.0% used salmon, 

100.0% used non-salmon fish (herring, smelt, cod, 

eel, flounder, halibut, sculpin, stickleback, wolffish, 

blackfish, burbot, char, pike, sheefish, and whitefish), 

100.0% used marine mammals, and 97.0% used marine 

invertebrates. The per capita harvest by community 

members was 1092.58 lbs of all subsistence resources 

of which 10.42% was salmon, 60.70% was nonsalmon fish, 20.16% was marine mammals, 0.46% 

was marine invertebrates, 2.92% was birds and eggs, 

1.88% was land mammals, and 3.47% was vegetation. 

Also according to ADF&G there were 109 household 

subsistence salmon permits issued to Tununak residents 

in 1999. Community members are eligible to apply for 

halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Tununak 
494

Twin Hills (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Twin Hills is situated near the mouth of the 

Twin Hills River, a tributary of the Togiak River. The 

community is in the Dillingham Census Area and is 

386 miles southwest of Anchorage. It makes up 21.8 

square miles of land and 0.3 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

Twin Hills had a total population of 69 in 2000. 

The gender ratio of the population was very irregular, 

skewed heavily towards females, who made up 55.1% 

of the population. The population of Twin Hills has 

remained relatively constant since it was first recorded 

in 1970. In 2000 about 5.8% of the population was 

White, 84.1% was American Indian and Alaska 

Native, and 10.1% were of two or more races. A total 

of 94.2% of the population recognized themselves as 

all or part Alaska Native or American Indian. No one 

in the population was Hispanic. The median age of 

the community was 38.5 years of age, which is close 

to the United States age median of 35.3 years. There 

were 33 total housing units in Twin Hills in 2000; 

however, nine were vacant, one due to seasonal use. 

No one in the population lived in group quarters. Of 

the population age 25 years and over about 56.7% 

had graduated from high school or gone on to higher 

education and about 20.0% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher. Approximately 30.0% had completed 

less than 9th grade. 

History 

The region has been inhabited by people since 

prehistory. “Yup’ik and Athabascan people settled 

the region; know as Naugeik, more than 6,000 years 

ago” (inAlaska.com). The village of Twin Hills was 

established in 1965 by families who moved from 

Togiak in order to avoid the reoccurring flooding 

there. Many of the ancestors of the residents of Twin 

Hills migrated to Togiak from the Yukon-Kuskokwim 

region after the 1918-19 influenza epidemics, and there 

are still strong ties with the region because of this. In 

1967-68 school was first conducted in the church. In 

1972 a school building was built; however, it burned 

in 1976 and in 1978 a new school was built. Around 

1977 a post office was established in the community, 

but there have been some interruptions in service. 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

TTwin Hills win Hills Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Twin Hills Twin Hills Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Two or more White, 5.8% 

Age 

Native, 84.1% 

races, 10.1% 

2000 Employment Structure

Twin Hills 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Twin Hills Data source: US Census 

Not seeking, Employed,

50% 50% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Twin Hills 
495

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

For residents of Twin Hills, stable employment 

is limited to employment by the Village Council and 

Post Office. In 2000 there were 18 commercial fishing 

permits issued to residents of Twin Hills and 13 

residents who were licensed crew members. A market 

for the fishermen is provided by Togiak Fisheries and 

by other cash buyers. Residents are very dependent 

upon subsistence harvesting. Exchange relationships 

are in place between the community, Togiak, and 

Manokotak where seal oil is exchanged for blackfish. 

Incomes are also supplemented by handicrafts. In 

2000, of those age 16 years and over in Twin Hills 

about 50.0% were employed and 50.0% were not in 

the labor force. Of those who were employed, about 

60.0% were classified as government workers. The 

median annual per capita income was $16,856 and the 

median household income was $29,375. About 27.9% 

of the population lived below the poverty level at the 

time of the Census. 

Governance 

The community of Twin Hills is unincorporated 

and is not part of any organized borough, so there 

are no city or borough employees in the community. 

The Twin Hills Village Council is the Village Council 

for the community and is a Bureau of Indian Affairs 

(BIA) recognized Traditional Council. The Village 

Council appears to operate many facilities that are 

normally operated by a city, including the washteria, 

sewer system, landfill, and electric utility. The Native 

village corporation for the community is the Twin Hills 

Native Corporation. The Native regional corporation is 

Bristol Bay Native Corporation and the regional nonprofit for the area is the Bristol Bay Native Association. 

The Community Development Quota (CDQ) group 

in which the village is included is the Bristol Bay 

Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC). The 

closest office of the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game (ADF&G) is located in Dillingham. A National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) field office is located 

in Bethel, an office is located in Homer, and a main 

office is located in Anchorage. The nearest Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Twin Hills is accessible for the most part by air 

or by water. A 3,000 foot state-owned lighted gravel 

runway is located east of the village on a ridge. 

Both regular and charter flights are available from 

Dillingham. The approximate cost to travel by air 

roundtrip to Anchorage from Twin Hills is $484. Most 

cargo is delivered by air. A boat landing is present in 

the community, but there are no docking facilities, so 

bulk goods must be lightered to shore. Local residents 

travel by autos, ATVs, and snowmachines. In order to 

access Togiak Fisheries cannery, residents drive along 

the beach. 

There are no hotels present in Twin Hills or any 

accommodations for visitors. There is one school, 

Twin Hills School, teaching third through eighth 

grade. The school had a total of 13 students and two 

teachers in 2000. Health care is available at the Twin 

Hills Health Clinic which is operated by the Bristol 

Bay Area Health Corporation (BBAHC) and owned 

by the Village Council. There are no police services in 

Twin Hills. The electric utility is the Twin Hills Village 

Council which is operated by the Village Council 

with a main power source of diesel. The washteria is 

operated by the Village Council. The water system is 

operated by the Village Council and a separate one is 

operated by the school. The sewer system is operated 

as well by the Village Council, as is the landfill. The 

piped water and sewer systems were installed in 1977. 

Currently 22 occupied houses have piped services 

along with complete plumbing and recently in March 

of 2003 the HUD built seven new housing units with 

individual wells and septic tanks. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

There were a total of 18 commercial fishing permits 

issued to residents of Twin Hills in 2000. In addition, 

13 members of the community were licensed crew 

members. Three residents owned vessels which were 

involved in the salmon fishery; no residents owned 

vessels which were involved in the federal fisheries. 

Of the 18 permits issued to those from Twin Hills, 

only 8 were fished. One permit was issued for halibut 

using a hand troll in statewide waters, but it was not 

fished. Seven permits were issued for herring (none 

fished). Three permits were issued for herring roe 

using gillnets in Goodnews Bay (none fished), and 

four were issued for herring spawn on kelp gathered 

by diving or hand picked in Bristol Bay (none fished). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Twin Hills 
496

A total of 10 permits were issued for salmon, but only 

eight were fished. Seven were issued for salmon using 

drift gillnets in Bristol Bay (five fished), two using set 

gillnets in Bristol Bay (two fished), and one using a 

set gillnet in the Kuskokwim (one fished). Many Twin 

Hills fishermen use special flat-bottomed boats for the 

waters of Togiak Bay which are very shallow. 

No landings were delivered to Twin Hills in 2000 

because no processor was present in the community. 

An onshore processor, Togiak Fisheries, is present 

in the nearby community of Togiak and is operated 

by North Pacific Processors, Inc. In addition, a few 

floating processors operate in the area.

The CDQ group in which Twin Hills is included, 

the Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

(BBEDC), was recently granted $75,026 by the 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference as part of the 

Steller Sea Lion Mitigation program “in recognition 

of the negative economic impacts of federal measures 

to protect the Steller sea lion” with money which had 

been allocated by the U.S. government (Southwest 

Alaska Municipal Conference 2003).

Sport Fishing 

There is no evidence of sport fishing in Twin Hills. 

No sport fishing licenses were sold in 2000 and no 

sport fishing guide businesses or support services 

were present in the community in 2002 according to 

ADF&G. 

Subsistence Fishing 

Little data is available from the ADF&G regarding 

subsistence in Twin Hills. However, according 

to the Department of Community and Economic 

Development, the community is very dependent on 

subsistence activities and utilizes seal, sea lion, walrus, 

whale, salmon, clams, geese, and ducks. A subsistence 

exchange relationship is in place between Twin Hills, 

Togiak, and Manokotak where seal oil is exchanged 

for blackfish. According to a report issued by ADF&G, 

one household permit was issued for subsistence 

salmon to a resident of Twin Hills in 1999 for an 

estimated harvest of 109 total salmon. Residents of 

Twin Hills are eligible to apply for halibut subsistence 

certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/South West Alaska/Western Alaska/Twin Hills 
497

4.4 Northern Alaska
498

4.4.1 Northern Alaska 

Communities 

Elim

Nome

Prudhoe Bay

Shaktoolik

Unalakleet

Geographic Location 

The Northern Alaska sub-region includes three 

areas: the Nome Census Area, North Slope Borough, 

and the Northwest Arctic Borough. These three areas 

together make-up 147,716 square miles of land area, 

but are extremely sparsely populated. All but one of 

the profiled communities belonging to this sub-region 

in this document is located in the Nome Census Area, 

which makes up 23,001 square miles of land. The 

communities in the Nome Census Area are located for 

the most part on the Norton Sound. The Census Area 

reaches to the borders of Russia to the west, 66.25667 

 ̊N Lat to the north, and approximately 62.77778  ̊N 

Lat to the south. The Nome Census Area is also known 

as the Bering Strait Region. One of the communities, 

Prudhoe Bay, is located in the North Slope Borough 

which makes up 88,817.1 square miles of land and 

5,945.5 square miles of water. Prudhoe Bay is located 

on the Beaufort Sea. The North Slope Borough is at 

approximately 69  ̊N Lat and -154  ̊ W Long and spans 

across the entire top of the State of Alaska. It makes 

up over 15% of the total land area of Alaska. 

Weather 

The weather in the Nome Census Area of Northern 

Alaska is for the most part sub-arctic. It ranges in 

temperature in the summer from about the mid-40s 

to mid-60s. During the winter the temperature ranges 

from approximately -12  ̊F to 11  ̊F, depending on 

the community. Precipitation ranges from about 8-18 

inches with 33-56 inches of snowfall. Norton Sound is 

usually free of ice from the months of May to October 

and the Chukchi Sea to the north is typically ice-free 

from about mid-June to mid-November. The weather 

in the North Slope Borough is arctic with extreme 

temperatures ranging from -56  ̊F to 78  ̊F. Precipitation 

is about 5 inches per year in the North Slope; however, 

snowfall averages at about 20 inches. 

General Characterization 

There are no areas which are considered to be 

metropolitan in the Nome locale; however, the city 

of Nome is the center for supplies, transportation, 

and services and its population makes up roughly 

half the population of the entire Census Area which 

included a total of 9,196 persons in 2000. The other 

cities and villages ranged in population from 21 to 747 

inhabitants. Most communities are reachable by both 

air and sea and have runway facilities for air travel and 

docking facilities for vessels. 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census there were a 

total of 7,385 inhabitants of the North Slope Borough, 

with a very mobile population of about 5,000 oil field 

workers who rotate through different sites in the State 

and to different states as well. Communities in the 

North Slope are reachable year-round by air, with land 

providing only seasonal access to the communities. 

A large percentage of Northern Alaskans were 

Alaska Native or American Indian. In the Nome area, 

as well as the North Slope Borough, this was as high 

as 74%. The Nome area was historically occupied by 

Inupiaq peoples, but also by Yupik and Athabascan, 

such as in the Unalakleet area. Traditional livelihoods, 

such as subsistence practices, remain very important 

to inhabitants. In the North Slope Borough area it was 

historically occupied by Inupiaq peoples, however 

with oil exploration and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline 

persons originating from all over the world have come 

to the area for employment. 

The economies of the profiled communities 

in the Nome area are very heavily dependent upon 

subsistence harvests. Even in cities that provide 

wage earning opportunities, subsistence activities 

remain prevalent. The opportunities for employment 

were mostly in commercial fishing. A processor was 

present in Nome as well as one in Unalakleet. A 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Regional Introduction 
499

buying station was located in Elim. Residents also 

held government employment in Elim, Nome, and 

Unalakleet. Mining, oil, and tourism also provided 

employment in Nome. In 2000, the Census Area had 

an annual unemployment rate of 12.3%; however, 

some of the smaller communities held a much higher 

rate. The poverty rate was quite high for the area as 

well, with 17.4% of the population living below the 

poverty level. 

The economy for the North Slope area is based 

on oil operations. The Borough government is funded 

by these oil tax revenues. Subsistence activities are 

prevalent in the North Slope. No one lived below 

the poverty level in the community of Prudhoe Bay; 

however, 9.1% of the population of the Borough lived 

below the poverty level. 

Institutional Framework 

The communities profiled in the Nome Census 

Area of Northern Alaska were not part of any 

organized borough. All were incorporated cities with 

“strong mayor” forms of government, which included 

city councils. All profiled communities had their 

own Traditional Council as well as a Native Village 

Corporation. The Regional Native Corporation in 

which the communities of the Bering Strait Region 

are included is the Bering Straits Native Corporation 

(BSNC). The BSNC is a for-profit Native corporation 

created by the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA) which owns land and is entitled to the 

subsurface rights of that land, as well as holding 

patent or interim conveyance to the subsurface land 

of much of the village corporations. The BSNC has 

quite a few subsidiaries operating various businesses 

including a real estate holdings company (which also 

owns a hotel), a gold mining company, an electrical 

construction business, a car rental business, and 

various other businesses. 

The regional non-profit organization for those 

communities in the Nome Census Area is Kawerak, 

Inc. which has “programs ranging from education 

to housing, and natural resource management to 

economic development. Kawerak seeks to improve 

the region’s social, economic, educational, cultural, 

and political conditions” (Kawerak, Inc. 2001). The 

community development quota (CDQ) organization 

for the area, the Norton Sound Economic Development 

Corporation (NSEDC), includes 15 communities and 

represents the largest population of all the CDQs. 

The NSEDC is given a percentage of the harvests 

of certain species and uses the revenue generated 

from such for community development and various 

programs including scholarships for education as well 

as community outreach. The NSEDC also operates 

Norton Sound Seafood Products (NSSP) in order to 

provide seafood processors who will purchase the fish 

of the area. There are three NSSP processors in the 

Norton Sound area. 

For the North Slope Borough communities the 

situation is quite different. The communities are all part 

of a borough which provides services such as a school 

district, however most of the facilities are provided 

by the oil industry. As in the case of Prudhoe Bay, 

some communities are unincorporated, but it appears 

for the most part that communities in the borough 

are incorporated. Prudhoe Bay was not included in 

ANSCA and thus did not have either a Native regional 

corporation or Native village corporation. There also 

was not a local traditional council for the village which 

was federally recognized. The regional non-profit 

organization in which the community is included is 

the Arctic Slope Association. 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

Every community profiled in this section 

participated in the commercial fishing sector in some 

substantial way: either as having permit holders, 

crew members, or a processor. The most important 

fisheries in regard to the amount of permit holders for 

the area appear to be salmon, king crab, and herring. 

Halibut was also fished. Quite a few of the permits 

issued for salmon were not fished in 2000 (over 

half were not fished in some communities), perhaps 

because of the recent falling salmon prices attributed 

to competition with foreign aquaculture fish. Both 

Nome and Unalakleet have Norton Sound Seafood 

Products (NSSP) processors in operation. A NSSP 

buying station is present in Elim. Only one permit was 

issued in the community of Prudhoe Bay; however, 

since this one resident accounted for more than 15% 

of the population the community was profiled even 

though other indicators of a fishing community were 

not present. 

Sport fishing did not seem to be much of a major 

industry in the profiled communities in comparison 

to other areas in Alaska. About 1,728 sport fishing 

licenses were sold in the profiled communities. Over 

70% of those licenses were sold to Alaska residents, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Regional Introduction 
500

which may show that little revenue is being generated 

by sport fishing in the area by tourists. Over 70% of 

the licenses were also sold in the city of Nome. There 

were five sport fishing guide businesses in Nome and 

one which was located in Unalakleet. 

Subsistence harvesting is very important to 

members of the region and is a large component of 

the economy. Little has been reported by the Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) in regard to 

total subsistence harvests and species harvested for this 

area, however evidence of its importance is shown in 

the daily wild food harvest totals for the communities 

which are at the high end of the spectrum of subsistence 

in Alaska, ranging from 1.7 to 1.85 lbs per person per 

day for the smaller communities. Those residents of 

Nome harvested approximately 0.658 lbs per person per 

day which is much less than the smaller communities, 

but still shows that subsistence is being utilized. There 

was no specific subsistence information available 

from ADF&G for the community of Prudhoe Bay in 

the North Slope Census Area; however, subsistence is 

important to permanent residents who participate in 

marine mammal hunts and other activities. 

Regional Challenges 

The Bering Strait Region has had its share of 

challenges including those associated with the rural 

character of the region affecting the prices of goods 

and cost of living for the area. There are few jobs 

available in some of the communities and the per 

capita income is comparatively low for the state. 

Education levels are also low, and poverty rates are 

relatively high. The dependence upon salmon fisheries 

has become a serious problem during the recent falling 

salmon prices. Many communities in the area were 

awarded compensation by the federal government in 

salmon disaster funds in order to help to replace funds 

which were lost in salmon taxes which provided basic 

services for many communities. 

Challenges in the North Slope would most likely 

be the fact that most facilities in a community such as 

Prudhoe Bay are provided by the private oil industry 

companies. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Regional Introduction 
501

Elim (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Elim is located on the northwest shore of Norton 

Bay on the Seward Peninsula, 96 miles east of Nome. 

It lies 460 miles northwest of Anchorage. The area 

encompasses 2.4 square miles of land and no water 

area. Norton Sound is ice-free generally between 

mid-June and mid-November. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Elim had 313 

inhabitants. The entire community lived in households, 

20% of all housing units were vacant, and there were 

no group quarters. About 94.2% of the population was 

fully, or in part, Alaska Native or American Indian. 

Approximately 5.1% were white and 2.2% were of 

two or more races. The gender composition presented 

an acute imbalance: 43.1% females and 56.9% males. 

Similar to many other rural communities, Elim 

was a young village. Its median age (23.6 years old) 

was significantly younger than the national median 

(35.3 years in 2000): 44.7% of the population was 19 

years old and under and only 9.9% was 55 years and 

over. A total of 7.5% of the population of Elim age 

25 and over had a bachelor’s degree or higher, 77.4% 

had graduated from high school or gone on to further 

schooling, and 22.6% never passed high school.

History 

Elim was once a Malemiut Inupiat Eskimo village, 

known as Nuviakchak. Inupiak groups occupied all 

this area and managed the territory through hunting 

and gathering practices. In 1911 part of this territory 

was declared federal reindeer reserve. 

Three years later, in 1914, the foundation of the 

Elim Mission Roadhouse, including a mission and 

convent, represented another fundamental moment 

of Elim’s modern history. The City was incorporated 

in 1970. A year later, the community of Elim chose 

not to participate in the political process around the 

Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) and 

instead opted for title to the 298,000 acres of land 

in the former Elim Reserve. Subsistence practices 

remains significant to the economy, diet, and lifestyle 

of the community. The sale or importation of alcohol 

is banned in the village. 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Elim Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Elim Elim 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Two or more White races 

2.2% 5.1% 

Age 

Native 

92.7% 

2000 Employment Structure

Elim 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Employment Structure 

Elim 

Data source: US Census 

Employed,

Not Seeking, 41% 

44.6% 

Unemployed,

14.4% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Elim 
502

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Elim is a small town which has a relatively 

insular economy. Subsistence harvesting is still a 

very important part of the local economy, and is 

fundamental to many households. As a vast majority 

of the community is Alaska Native (Endangered 

Species Act restrictions do not apply), seal, walrus, 

beluga whale, reindeer, moose, fish and home gardens 

are main elements of inhabitants’ diet.

Cash employment is related to two main factors: 

fishing (39 commercial fishing permit holders) and 

government employment (28.4% of the potential 

workforce). Elim’s fishing fleet has two delivery 

alternatives, either landing their catch in Unalakleet 

or Nome - places with processing plants - or selling 

their catch at the buying station owned by the Norton 

Sound Seafood Products company in town.

The employment structure showed that 41% of the 

total workforce was employed, a very high 14.4% was 

unemployed, and 44.6% of the potential workforce was 

not seeking a job. In 2000, 7.9% of the population lived 

below the line of poverty. The community showed a 

per capita income of $10,300 and a median household 

income of $40,179. 

Governance 

The second-class city of Elim, incorporated in 

1970, has a “strong mayor” form of government 

with a six-member council. The city, located in an 

unorganized area, collects a 2% sales tax. Elim Native 

Corporation is the local Native corporation. The 

regional Native corporation, a for-profit organization 

with its headquarters in Nome, is the Bering Straits 

Native Corporation, which operates a series of 

businesses including the Bering Straits Development 

Company and the non-profit Bering Strait Foundation. 

Its counterpart in the area, the regional Native nonprofit institution, is the Kawerak, Inc. The CDQ, 

located in Anchorage, is the Norton Sound Economic 

Development Corporation (NSEDC). NSEDC 

operates the Norton Sound Seafood Products facility. 

Also located in the community is the Native Village of 

Elim, recognized as a traditional council by the Bureau 

of Indian Affairs (BIA). Elim did not participate in 

ANCSA, though they have full title to approximately 

300,000 acres of former reservation lands.

The area is also served by the Bering Straits 

Housing Authority, the Norton Sound Health 

Corporation (regional health corporation serving 

the Bering Strait villages) and the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission (regional non-profit organization serving 

19 communities in the western coast).

Nome and Unalakleet have the closest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) offices. 

In order to access to a Bureau of Citizenship 

and Immigration Services (BCIS) office, Elim 

inhabitants must to go Nome. The National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) has its closest quarters in 

Anchorage.

Facilities 

The community is accessible by air and sea. It has 

a good and recently modernized state-owned 3,000 

foot gravel runway. The local Native corporation owns 

a private 4,700 foot paved airstrip with a 1,390 foot 

crosswind runway at Moses Point. The approximate 

price of a roundtrip ticket by plane from the community 

to Anchorage, with a connection in Nome, in early 

September of 2003 was approximately $560. Elim’s 

airport is served by Hagland Air, Baker Aviation, Cape 

Smith Air Service, Olson Air, and Artic Transportation 

Service. Elim does not have its own dock. Supplies 

are brought and lightered to shore from Nome. There 

are plans to develop a dock which could significantly 

change the economic structure of the village. A cargo 

ship brings freight annually to Nome.

The local school, the Anguiin, has 196 students 

and 9 teachers. There is also a city owned health 

service, Elim Health Clinic, police, and state Village 

Public Safety Officer (VPSO). The city owns the AVEC 

which provides diesel fuel-generated power as well as 

subsidized power. Water is derived from a well, and 

sewage services are provided by centralized systems 

built in 1974. This early infrastructure included indoor 

water heaters and plumbing, and in-home washers and 

dryers. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Elim, with its relatively small size, is deeply 

engaged in all sort of fishing activities. On the 

commercial side, Elim had 48 commercial fishing 

permits, only 26 of which were fished. There were a 

total of 39 permit holders resident in the community. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Elim 
503

There were also 28 residents registered as crewmen. 

The lack of a dock probably limited the operations 

of the part of the community involved in fishing. 

Current plans to build one can significantly change 

this situation. Permits held by community-members 

pertained to three species: herring, salmon, and crab. 

Herring: There were 11 permits to catch herring 

roe with pot gear in vessels under 60 feet. All of them 

were issued to fish in the Norton Sound, although only 

10 of these permits were fished.

Salmon: Salmon permits constitute the largest 

share of Elim’s fleet. There were 36 permits to catch 

salmon (16 fished). There was one permit to set gillnets 

in the Lower Yukon River and 35 permits for gillnets 

in the Norton Sound (15 fished).

Crab: One permit was issued for catch king crab 

with pot gear in a vessel under 60 feet in the Norton 

Sound (not fished).

There were no real fish landings in the community 

due to the absence of processing plants. Vessels from 

this community deliver landings somewhere else, 

usually to Nome or Unalakleet. Elim does have a 

buying station for Norton Sound Seafood Products. 

The NSSP is a company established by the NSEDC 

(CDQ) as a development project.

Although many neighboring communities 

received direct economic compensation through 

federal salmon disaster funds in order to soften the 

impact of plummeting salmon prices, Elim did not. 

The NSEDC did received $78,599 to reduce the impact 

of Steller sea lion protective regulations that came up 

after the inclusion of this species into the endangered 

species list. The NSEDC, in turn, allocated $20,000 

in community benefits to Elim. This allocation, under 

ESA regulations, was implemented in 2002. 

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 this community issued five sport fishing 

licenses, all purchased by local residents. This fact 

however, does not preclude the possibility that the area 

could have been visited by numerous outsiders who 

obtained their permits elsewhere. In 2002 the village 

had no official evidence of any business dealing with 

sport fishing as either a personal endeavor or as a 

tourist activity.

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have systematic and 

reliable surveys on the subsistence activities of most 

of the Norton Sound communities, included Elim. 

However, evidence from similar communities in 

similar environments point out that these practices are 

fundamental to understanding their economy and social 

structure. An estimate of the ADF&G situates Elim’s 

daily wild food harvest over 1.85 lbs per person. Such 

a quantity is evidence of the importance of subsistence 

practices for the local economy.

Additionally, 78 household permits were held 

in Elim to catch subsistence salmon, accounting 

for approximately 4,000 fish (mainly pink salmon 

and coho salmon). Moreover, village inhabitants 

(as part of a tribe and/or part of a rural community) 

are eligible for the Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC). These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Elim 
504

Nome (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

The City of Nome is Alaska’s oldest first-class 

city, incorporated on April 9, 1901. Nome is located 

on the south coast of the Seward Peninsula facing 

Norton Sound and part of the Bering Sea. It lies 539 

air miles northwest of Anchorage (a 75-minute flight) 

and 102 miles south of the Arctic Circle, 161 miles 

east of Russia. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the city of 

Nome had 3,505 inhabitants. The racial composition 

of Nome was as follows: 51% Alaska Native, 37.9% 

White, 1.5% Asian, 0.9% Black, 0.1% Hawaiian 

Native, 0.4% “Other,” and 8.2% identified with two or 

more racial groups. A total of 58.7% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. At the same time, 2.1% of the 

population identified themselves as having Hispanic 

origin. The median age of this community is slightly 

younger than the national average: 32.4 years versus 

35.3 years. In 2000, the largest age group, 46.6%, fell 

between 25 and 54 years old, and a significant 34.4% 

of the population was under 19 years of age.

This community has a fairly skewed gender 

ratio: 53.5% male and 46.5% female. In 2000, 202 

individuals of the community lived in group quarters. 

The rest of the population, 85.7%, lived in households. 

Of those age 25 years and over in Nome, about 80.1% 

had graduated from high school or gone on to further 

schooling and 20.3% had obtained a bachelor’s degree 

or higher. About 19.9% of the population never 

completed high school or received their diploma.

History 

Different Inupiat groups have inhabited the 

Seward Peninsula for hundreds of years. A complex 

and environmentally adapted culture has allowed 

Malemiut, Kauweramiut and Unalikmiut Eskimos to 

survive on a subsistence economy based on several 

forms of hunting, fishing, and harvesting. 

Gold was discovered in the area around the 1860s 

by prospectors. Soon, thousands of miners attracted by 

these discoveries flooded the area. Almost overnight 

an isolated stretch of tundra fronting the beach was 

transformed into a tent-and-log cabin city of 20,000 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Nome Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

Nome 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure 

Nome 

Data source: US Census

Data source: US Census 

Pacific Islander 

0.1% 

Other Asian 

1.6% 0.4% 

White 

41.3% 

Native 

55.6% 

Black 

1.0% 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Nome 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Nome 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 2.1% 

Non-Hispanic,

97.9% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Nome 
505

prospectors, gamblers, claim jumpers, saloon keepers, 

and prostitutes. The gold-bearing creeks had been 

almost completely staked, when some entrepreneur 

discovered the “golden sands of Nome.” This new 

situation affected the traditional Eskimo way of life. 

For instance, a fundamental resource of the peninsula, 

the caribou, started to decline around the 1870s. This 

fact initiated a shift in local diets. Many more changes 

followed.

At the turn of the century, Nome was connected 

by railroad and telephone to Anvil Creek. The City of 

Nome was officially formed in 1901. A few years later 

the chaotic gold rush was taken over by powerful and 

more organized mining companies.

The main negative phenomena that affected 

Nome during the first half of the 20th century were 

gold depletion, the influenza epidemic (1918), the 

depression, and a major fire that almost destroyed 

the city in 1934. Alternatively, WWII - with Alaska 

located centrally on the Pacific front - the expansion of 

the fishing industry, oil discovery in the North Slope, 

and the slowly growing tourism industry were positive 

factors in Nome’s re-consolidation in the second half 

of the century.

Although, as seen in the demographic section, 

Nome is currently populated by all sorts of “racial” 

groups, subsistence activities still play a fundamental 

role in the local economy. Nome is also the place 

where many of the former inhabitants of King Island 

resettled. Nome is the finish line for the 1,100-mile 

Iditarod Sled Dog Race from Anchorage, held each 

March. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Nome’s economy is complex. It needs to be 

understood not just as a self-contained unit but as a 

regional commercial center that supplies all sorts of 

services to the Bering Strait area. The range of services 

includes transportation, supplies, government, and so 

on. An important part of the employment is provided 

by government services but Nome also has mining 

and oil extraction businesses, and tourism is slowly 

developing. 

Nome is also a fishing community with 60 

commercial permit holders, 151 subsistence salmon 

harvest permits, and is the headquarters and home 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters NomeNome Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

99.1 

0.9 14.3 

85.7 

1990 2000 

Year 

Non-group quarters 

Group Quarters 

2000 Employment Structure

Nome 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Nome 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

0.4% 

Not Seeking,

32%

Employed,

60.3% 

Unemployed,

7.4%

of a processing plant of the Norton Sound Seafood 

Products. Subsistence activities are an important 

complement to local household diets and economies.

The employment structure illustrated by the 2000 

U.S. Census shows that 60.3% of the total workforce 

was employed, 7.4% was unemployed, 0.4% worked 

with the armed forces and 32% of the workforce was 

not seeking jobs. In 2000, 6.3% of the population lived 

below the line of poverty. The community showed a 

per capita income of $23,402 and a median household 

income of $59,402. 

Governance 

Nome is a first-class city and was incorporated 

in 1901. It has a “strong mayor” form of government 

with a seven-member council. The city, which is not 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Nome 
506

organized under a borough, has a 4% sales tax, 4% 

accommodation tax, and a 0.126% property tax. 

The Sitnasuak Native Corporation is the local 

Native corporation managing approximately 240,000 

acres under ANCSA. The regional Native corporation, 

a for-profit organization, with its headquarters in 

Nome, is the Bering Straits Native Corporation, which 

operates a series of businesses including the Bering 

Straits Development Company and the non-profit 

Bering Strait Foundation. Its counterpart in the area, the 

regional Native non-profit institution, is the Kawerak, 

Inc. The CDQ of the area, located in Anchorage, is the 

Norton Sound Economic Development Corporation 

(NSEDC). NSEDC operates Norton Sound Seafood 

Products (NSSP). 

Nome is also home to the headquarters of the 

Bering Straits Housing Authority and the Norton 

Sound Health Corporation (regional health corporation 

serving the Bering Strait villages). In addition, the 

Eskimo Walrus Commission, the regional non-profit 

organization which serves 19 communities in the 

western coast, is also located in Nome.

Nome has its own Alaska Department of Fish 

and Game (ADF&G) and Bureau of Citizenship and 

Immigration Services (BCIS) offices. The National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) has its closest office 

in Anchorage.

Facilities 

Nome, as a regional center, is readily accessible 

by air and sea. The town acts as a transport distribution 

center for most of the Norton Sound area. The city has 

two State-owned airports. The Nome Airport has a two 

paved runways, one 6,000 feet in length, and the other 

at 5,500 feet. An $8.5 million airport improvement 

project is nearing completion. Scheduled jet flights are 

available, as well as charter and helicopter services. 

Flights are operated by Baker Aviation, Bering Air, 

Alaska Airlines, Cape Smith Air Service, Hageland, 

Olson, Grant, Artic Transportation Services, Frontier, 

Northern Air Cargo, and Evergreen Helicopters. 

Lynden, Alaska Cargo Express and Everest all provide 

freight service to Nome. The price of a roundtrip ticket 

from the community to Anchorage in early September 

of 2003 was $369.

Nome’s seaward side is protected by a 3,350-

foot-long sea wall. A port and berthing facilities 

accommodate vessels up to 18 feet of draft. Cargo 

services are provided to communities of the area from 

this harbor. Local development groups and the City 

are currently funding harbor dredging, two seasonal 

floating docks, and a boat launch. Local roads lead to 

Teller, Council, and the Kougarok River. 

Visitor accommodations are provided by several 

lodging services. Nome has four schools that in total 

have 739 students and 48 teachers. Healthcare services 

in Nome and neighboring communities are provided 

by the Norton Sound Regional Hospital. Alternative 

healthcare services are provided by the Nome 

Volunteer Ambulance Department, the Norton Sound 

Health Corporation, Medevac Service, and Quyanna 

Care center. The town, in addition, has its own city 

police department as well as a state trooper post.

Nome obtains its water from a well at Moonlight 

Springs. This water is treated at the Snake River Power 

Plant. The water and the sewage systems, covering 

almost the entire city, are owned and operated by the 

city.

Involvement with North Pacific fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Nome is not a significant player in the North 

Pacific fishing industry; however, the limited extent 

to which the town does engage in the industry is 

significant to its economy. According to official 

records from 2000, Nome had 60 commercial permit 

holders with 83 permits for commercial fisheries, 

28 of which were fished that year. In Nome, 19 

individuals were registered as crewmen and there were 

six federal fisheries vessel owners plus two owners of 

salmon vessels. Nome’s fleet was involved in most of 

the Alaskan fisheries: Crab, Halibut, Herring, other 

Groundfish, and Salmon. Fishing permits are specific 

to species, size of the vessel, type of gear and fishing 

area. 

Salmon: A total of 28 permits were issued for the 

salmon fishery, 9 of which were fished in 2000. These 

pertained to three permits for drift gillnet: one permit 

for Cook Inlet (not fished) and two permits for Bristol 

Bay. There was also a non-fished statewide permit 

for hand troll. The remaining 25 permits were for set 

gillnet: one for the Bristol Bay, 2 for the Lower Yukon, 

3 for Kotzebue (2 fished) and 19 for Norton Sound, of 

which only 2 were fished in 2000.

Crab: In 2000 the bulk of the permits issued in 

Nome pertained to king crab. There were 34 permits 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Nome 
507

of which only 15 were fished that year: 29 for pot gear 

in vessels under 60 feet in Norton Sound (11 fished) 

and 5 with the same gear were given to the YDFDA (4 

fished).

Halibut: There were 14 statewide permits to catch 

halibut with longline gear in vessels under 60 feet of 

which only 3 permits were fished.

Herring: Only four permits were issued for 

herring in 2000: two to catch herring roe with gillnet 

in the Norton Sound (one fished), two permits for 

food/bait with gillnet in Kotzebue and Norton Sound 

respectively (none fished). 

Other finfish: There was one statewide permit to 

catch freshwater fish with beach seine (not fished). 

Two permits were issued to catch the miscellaneous 

saltwater fish with longline, one with a vessel under 

60 feet and the other for a vessel over 60 feet (none 

fished).

In 1993 the NSEDC, the regional CDQ, in 

partnership with the Glacier Fish Company, decided to 

begin supporting local fisheries. In 1995 the NSEDC 

founded the Norton Sound Seafood Products (NSSP). 

The targeted species were salmon, halibut, herring and 

crab. Although the operations of the NSSP spread all 

across the Sound, they are centralized in Nome with 

the Crab Plant and the newly constructed Norton 

Sound Seafood Center.

In accordance with confidentiality regulations, 

landings data for the community are unavailable. The 

city of Nome received a direct allocation of $1,166.27 

in federal salmon disaster funds. These allocations were 

to compensate for losses due to prices plummeting in 

the international market. The NSEDC (the regional 

CDQ) also received $78,598.76 to reduce the impact 

of Steller sea lion protective regulations that came 

up after this species appeared on the Endangered 

Species List. Of this sum, Nome received $20,000 

in community benefits. This allocation, under ESA 

regulations, was implemented in 2002.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 the community issued 1,209 sport fishing 

licenses: 935 were bought by residents of Alaska. 

Although the proportion of locals is high, it does not 

preclude the possibility that the area could have been 

visited by numerous outsiders obtaining their permits 

elsewhere. In 2002 the village had five freshwater 

guide businesses licenses related to sport fishing as a 

tourist activity. Only one of these businesses does not 

have its headquarters in Nome.

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have systematic and 

reliable surveys on the subsistence activities of most 

of the Norton Sound communities, included Nome. 

However, evidences from similar communities in 

similar environments point out that these practices are 

fundamental to understand the economy and social 

structure of these communities.

An estimate of the ADF&G situates Nome’s 

daily wild food harvest over 0.6 lbs per person. Such 

a quantity is an evidence of the importance of such 

practices for the local economy, especially taking into 

account its 3,500 inhabitants (the entire community, in 

average harvests 2,400 lbs per day).

Two more elements that help speculate the 

importance of subsistence activities in Nome are, 

on the one hand, the existence in the community of 

151 household permits to catch subsistence salmon, 

accounting for 1,353 fish, mainly chum, and, on the 

other hand, the fact that the village inhabitants (as 

part of a tribe and/or part of a rural community) are 

eligible for the Subsistence Halibut Registration 

Certificate (SHARC). These allocations are based on 

recognized customary and traditional uses of halibut. 

Regulations to implement subsistence halibut fishing 

were published in the Federal Register in April 2003 

and became effective May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Nome 
Prudhoe Bay 2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure (return to communities) Prudhoe Bay Prudhoe Bay

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

People and Place 80 and over 

Location 70 to 79 

60 to 69 

Prudhoe Bay lies in the northern waters of Alaska, 50 to 59

508

offshore in the Beaufort Sea in the North Slope Age

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

Male 

Female Borough. It is located approximately 800 miles north 20 to 29 

of Anchorage. Its area encompasses 416.3 square 

miles of land and 141.8 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

As the northern station of the Trans-Alaska Oil 

Pipeline, Prudhoe Bay’s population is comprised 

primarily of temporary workers who do not live in 

the community year-round. Some 5,000 people are 

employed in Prudhoe Bay in oil-related industries, 

but U.S. Census figures reflect only the permanent 

residents. 

In 2000, Prudhoe Bay had a population of five 

people, all in one household. The racial composition of 

the community was as follows: White (20%),American 

Indian and Alaska Native (20%), and two or more races 

(60%). Approximately 80% of residents were Native 

or part Native. The median age of the community 

was 11.5 years, much younger than the U.S. national 

median of 35.3 years. The gender composition of the 

community was 60% male and 40% female. In terms 

of educational attainment, 100% of residents aged 25 

or older held a high school diploma. 

History 

The North Slope has been occupied by Athabascan 

and Eskimo peoples since prehistory. Oil was first 

discovered in Prudhoe Bay in the late 1960s. In 1975, 

construction of the Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline, the 

largest privately funded construction project in history 

at that time, was begun. The pipeline was completed in 

1977 and began transporting up to two million barrels 

of crude oil per day to the terminus at Valdez, some 100 

800 miles to the south (Naske and Slotnick 1987:251- 90 

80 270). Today, Prudhoe Bay is primarily a work site for 70 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

2 2 1 1 0 1 1 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure

2000 Racial Structure Prudhoe Bay

Data source: US Census Prudhoe Bay

Data source: US Census 

White 

20% 

Two or more Native races 20%

60% 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters 

Prudhoe Bay Prudhoe Bay 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

0 

100 

0 

100 

temporary workers in the oil industry. 

Percentage

60 

50 

40 

30 Infrastructure 20 

Current Economy 10 

0 The economy of Prudhoe Bay is dominated by the 1990 2000 

oil industry. The Prudhoe Bay oil fields provide 15- Year 

Non-group quarters 

Group quarters 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Prudhoe Bay 
509

2000 Employment Structure

Prudhoe Bay

Data source: US Census 

20% of the domestic oil supply of the U.S., and some 

5,000 people are employed in oil-related industries. 

Data presented here, however, are only for Prudhoe 

Bay’s five permanent residents. 

In 2000, the U.S. Census reported that there was no 

unemployment in Prudhoe Bay, and 33.3% of residents 

aged 16 and older were not in the labor force (i.e. 

not working and not seeking work). The median per 

capita income was $19,880 and the median household 

income was $90,957. 

Governance 

Prudhoe Bay is an unincorporated city under 

the jurisdiction of the North Slope Borough. It is a 

member of the Arctic Slope Association, a regional 

native non-profit organization. The nearest U.S. Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) 

office is located in Fairbanks, as is the nearest Alaska 

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). The nearest 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) office is 

in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

The airport, with a 6,500-foot airstrip located at 

nearby Deadhorse, is the primary means of public 

transportation to Prudhoe Bay. Roundtrip airfare from 

Prudhoe Bay to Anchorage is approximately $612. In 

addition, there is a state-owned heliport at Prudhoe 

Bay. The Dalton Highway is used year-round by trucks 

hauling cargo to the North Slope; it is restricted to the 

public north of Wiseman. 

Most of the services and facilities at Prudhoe Bay 

are provided by the private oil companies that operate 

there. These facilities include group quarters for 

employees, a landfill, and sanitation facilities. There 

are no schools in Prudhoe Bay. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although Prudhoe Bay is dominated by the oil 

industry, it was included in the community profile 

project because its one commercial permit holder 

amounted to more than 15% of the local population 

according to the 2000 U.S. Census. This one permit 

was a freshwater set gillnet permit for statewide 

waters, but was not fished in 2000. Other indicators 

2000 Employment Structure 

Prudhoe Bay 

Data source: US Census 

Not seeking,

33.3% 

Employed,

66.7% 

of a fishing community (commercial fish processors, 

vessel owners, and crew members) were not present in 

Prudhoe Bay. 

Sport Fishing 

Although sport fishing is by no means a major 

component of the local economy, Prudhoe Bay does 

exhibit some involvement in it. A total of 107 sport 

fishing licenses were sold in Prudhoe Bay in 2000, 76 

of them (71%) to Alaska residents. Major sport species 

include Dolly Varden and Arctic grayling. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have information on 

subsistence activities in Prudhoe Bay. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Prudhoe Bay 
510

Shaktoolik (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Shaktoolik is located on the east shore of Norton 

Sound. It lies 125 miles east of Nome and 33 miles 

north of Unalakleet. The area encompasses 1.1 square 

miles of land. Shaktoolik has a sub-arctic climate with 

maritime influences when Norton Sound is ice-free, 

usually from May to January. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Shaktoolik 

had 230 inhabitants. The entire community lived in 

households rather than group quarters. According to 

the Census, 94.3% of the population was Alaska Native 

or American Indian, 5.2% was White, and 0.4% was 

two or more races. A total of 94.8% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native or 

American Indian.

The gender composition was unbalanced: 44.8% 

of residents were female, and 55.2% were male. 

Similar to other predominantly Native communities, 

Shaktoolik was a young village. Its median age of 24.3 

years was far below the national median of 35.3 years. 

Approximately 43% of the population was under 19 

years of age, and only 10.6% of the population was 

over 55. 

In terms of educational attainment, 78.6% of 

the population of Shaktoolik age 25 and over had 

completed high school or gone on to further schooling, 

7.7% had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher, and 

21.7% never graduated from high school.

History 

Shaktoolik was the first modern Malemuit 

settlement on Norton Sound. It was also the 

southernmost of these settlements. It was occupied 

around 1839. Prior to Euro-American settlement, 

Iyatayet, an old site situated 12 miles northeast from 

Shaktoolik was inhabited for some 6,000 to 8,000 

years. Reindeer herds have been managed in the area 

since the beginning of the 20th century.

The location of the village was moved in 1933 

from its former site, six miles upriver, to the mouth of 

the river. This new location proved to be too exposed 

to the elements, and the village was relocated to its 

present location in 1975. The city was incorporated 

in 1969. The economy of the village is still heavily 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Shaktoolik Shaktoolik

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

Male 

Female 

0 to 9

30 20 10 0 10 20 30 

Number of inhabitants 

2000 Racial Structure 

Shaktoolik 

Data source: US Census 2000 Racial Structure 

Shaktoolik 

Data source: US Census 

Two or more 

races White 

Shaktoolik 

Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure 

Shaktoolik 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

40.1% Employed,

43.3% 

Age 

Native 

94.4% 

0.4% 5.2%

2000 Employment Structure 

Unemployed,

16.6% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Shaktoolik 
511

dependent on fishing and subsistence hunting. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

According to most sources, Shaktoolik’s economy 

fundamentally depends on subsistence practices 

supplemented by part-time or seasonal wages, mainly 

in the fishing industry (33 residents held commercial 

fishing permits). Reindeer herding also provides 

income and meat. Fish, crab, moose, beluga whale, 

caribou, seal, rabbit, geese, cranes, ducks, ptarmigan, 

berries, greens, and roots are also primary food 

sources. Shaktoolik’s fishing fleet lands its catch either 

in Nome, Unalakleet, or the buying point operated in 

Shaktoolik by the Norton Sound Seafood Products 

company.

In 2000 the employment structure showed that 

43.3% of the total workforce was employed, 16.6% was 

unemployed, and 40.1% of the adults were not seeking 

a job. Approximately 6.1% of Shaktoolik residents 

lived below the poverty level; this is not a very high 

percentage compared to similar communities with 

similar employment structures. The community had a 

per capita income of $10,491 and a median household 

income of $31,871. 

Governance 

The second-class city of Shaktoolik, incorporated 

in 1969, has a “strong mayor” form of government 

with seven city council members. The city, located 

in an unorganized area, has a 2% sales tax and no 

property tax. 

The Shaktoolik Native Corporation is the local 

Native corporation managing approximately 120,000 

acres. The regional Native corporation, a for-profit 

organization with its headquarters in Nome, is the 

Bering Straits Native Corporation. This corporation 

operates a series of businesses, including the Bering 

Straits Development Company and the non-profit 

Bering Strait Foundation. Its counterpart in the area, the 

regional Native non-profit institution, is Kawerak, Inc. 

The CDQ of the area, headquartered in Anchorage, is 

the Norton Sound Economic Development Corporation 

(NSEDC). 

The area is also served by the Bering Straits 

Housing Authority, the Norton Sound Health 

Corporation (regional health corporation serving 

the Bering Strait villages) and the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission (regional non-profit organization serving 

nineteen communities in western and northern Alaska). 

Also located in the community is the Shaktoolik Native 

Village, recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs as 

a tribal council. 

Shaktoolik does not have an Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) office. Nome and 

Unalakleet are the two closest permanent ADF&G 

offices. In order to access to a Bureau of Citizenship 

and Immigration Services (BCIS) office, Shaktoolik’s 

residents have to go to Nome. The National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) has its closest quarters in 

Anchorage.

Facilities 

Since 2002 Shaktoolik has better accessibility by 

air: a new State-owned airstrip was constructed in 2002 

that enables regular service from Nome. A roundtrip 

ticket from Shaktoolik to Anchorage, connecting in 

Nome, is approximately $650. The village does not have 

docking facilities. Cargo, as for most of the region, is 

shipped from Nome and lightered to shore. The local 

residents travel primarily by ATV, motorbikes, trucks 

and boats in summer; and by snowmachines and dog 

teams in winter.

The Shaktoolik School has 57 students and 8 

teachers. Health care is provided by the city-owned 

Shaktoolik Health Clinic. The town also has a village 

public safety officer (VPSO). The city has piped 

water and sewage systems that cover the majority 

of households. Power is provided by the city-owned 

AVEC Corporation.

Involvement in North Pacific fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Shaktoolik is a small community in which 

fishing activities of all sorts have great significance. 

According to official records Shaktoolik, in 2000, had 

33 commercial permit holders and 39 all-fisheries 

combined permits, 31 of which were fished. In 

Shaktoolik 38 individuals were registered as crewmen 

and there were 6 vessel owners with operations in 

federal fisheries, plus 6 owners of salmon vessels. 

Saktoolik’s fleet was only involved in three very 

specific fisheries: herring, crab, and salmon. The 

following is a detailed breakdown of permits issued to 

Shaktoolik residents in 2000.

Salmon: The salmon fleet encompassed a little bit 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Shaktoolik 
512

more than half of Shaktoolik’s modest fishery effort. It 

accounted for 20 permits, 16 of which were fished. All 

of them were for set gillnet: 19 for the Norton Sound 

(15 fished) and one permit for the Lower Yukon River 

(one fished). 

Herring: The herring fleet accounted for the other 

half of Shaktoolik’s permits. There were 18 permits, 

of which 15 were fished, all of them for herring roe 

caught with gillnet in Norton Sound.

Crab: This was the final species present on the 

2000 reports. There was only one permit to catch king 

crab with pot gear in a vessel under 60 feet in length. 

The permit was for Norton Sound and was not fished 

that year.

There were no processors in Shaktoolik and 

therefore no registered landings. Shaktoolik’s fleet 

likely delivers primarily to Nome and Unalakeet. 

Shaktoolik received a direct allocation of $ 2,577 

in federal salmon disaster funds. These allocations 

were to compensate for losses due to plummeting 

prices in the international market. This allocation was 

implemented in 2003.

The Norton Sound Economic Development 

Corporation (CDQ) also received $78,599 to reduce 

the impact of Steller sea lion protective regulations 

that came up after the inclusion of this species into the 

endangered species list. This allocation, under ESA 

regulations, was implemented in 2002. Of this sum, 

Shaktoolik received $20,000 in direct community 

benefits. The funds not directly allocated to the city 

were added to the general budget of the CDQ and 

helped to compensate the decline on fish taxes and to 

relieve the budgetary tensions of the institutions of the 

area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 this community did not issue a single sport 

fishing permit. This fact, however, does not preclude 

the possibility that the area could have been visited by 

outsiders who got their permits elsewhere. In 2002, 

the village had no businesses licenses related to sport 

fishing as a tourist activity.

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have systematic and reliable 

surveys on the subsistence activities of most of the 

Norton Sound communities, including Shaktoolik. 

However, evidence from similar communities in 

similar environments point out that these practices are 

fundamental to an understanding of the economy and 

social structure of these communities.

The ADF&G estimates that Shaktoolik’s daily wild 

food harvest is over 1.8 lbs per person. In addition, 

57 household permits to catch subsistence salmon, 

accounting for 8,116 fish (mainly pink salmon and 

coho salmon), were issued to residents of Shaktoolik. 

Village inhabitants (as part of a tribe and/or part of 

a rural community) are eligible for the Subsistence 

Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC). These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Shaktoolik 
513

Unalakleet (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Unalakleet lies on the central coast of Norton 

Sound at the mouth of the Unalakleet River, 148 

miles southeast of Nome and 395 miles northwest of 

Anchorage. The area encompasses 2.9 square miles of 

land and 2.3 square miles of water. Norton Sound is 

ice-free, usually from May to October. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 Census, Unalakleet had 747 

inhabitants. The racial composition of Unalakleet was 

as follows: 85.3% Alaska Native, 11.9% White, 0.3% 

Black, and 2.5% more than one racial group. A total of 

87.7% of the population recognized themselves as all 

or part Alaska Native or American Indian. About 0.3% 

of residents were of Hispanic origin.

This community has a fairly balanced gender ratio, 

by Alaskan standards: 53.4% of the population was 

male and 46.6% female. The entire community lived in 

households. Approximately 7.4% of the houses in the 

community were vacant, some due to seasonal use. 

The median age of this community was 30.5 years, 

significantly younger than the U.S. national median of 

35.3 years. The Census shows a significant increase in 

the local population since the 1970s. In 2000, 64.2% 

of residents were between 25 and 54 years old, and 

20.5% were under 19 years old.

Withregardtoeducational attainment, about82.7% 

of the population age 25 and over had graduated from 

high school or gone on to further schooling, 18.0% 

had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher, and only 

17.3% of the population never completed 12th grade.

History 

Unalakleet has always been situated at a cultural 

crossroads. The area, even before pre-contact times, 

was in a transition area between several central 

Alaskan Athabascan groups and several Eskimo 

groups (Inupiaqs and Yupiks). This explains the flow 

of goods through trade routes covering the entire 

Yukon basin, most of north and west Alaska, as well 

as parts of Siberia.

The name “Unalakleet” comes from the Inupiat 

phrase “from the south side,” probably referring to 

the prevailing wind direction in the area. The remains 

of houses along the beach ridge are dated at 200 BC 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Unalakleet 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Unalakleet Unalakleet

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure 

Unalakleet Unalakleet 

Data source: US Census

Two or more 

races White 

2.5% 11.9% 

Native 

Black 

0.3% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

85.3% Unalakleet 

Data source: US Census 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Unalakleet 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic

0.3% 

Non-Hispanic

99.7% 
2000 Employment Structure

Unalakleet 

Data source: US Census 

514

to 300 AD. Unalakeet’s modern history starts in 1830 

when the Russian-American Company built a post 

there. At the end of the nineteenth century reindeer 

herders from Lapland were imported to Unalakleet to 

establish sound herding practices.

At the beginning of the 20th century Unalakleet 

was incorporated to the American communicational 

network by a telegraph line built by the Army Corps 

Signal Corps, from St. Michael over the Portage to 

Kaltag and Fort Gibbon. The City was incorporated 

in 1974. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Unalakleet’s economy is dominated by two main 

sectors: fishing activities and government employment. 

These are complemented by retail services and a slowly 

growing tourism industry. The city’s dependence on 

fishing has grown with the installment in the city of a 

processing plant.

Fishing, as a commercial activity (109 permit 

holders), subsistence activity, and more recently, 

a sporting activity, is the fundamental element of 

Unalakleet’s economy. Moreover, the Norton Sound 

Economic Development Corporation operates a fish 

processing plant in the town. 

The employment structure shows that 51.4% 

of the total workforce was employed, 8.8% was 

unemployed, and 39.8% of adults were not seeking 

work. In Unalakleet 21.6% of the population works, 

at some level, for the government, that is 32.1% of 

the potential workforce. In 2000, the community had a 

per capita income of $15,845 and a median household 

income of $42,083. The poverty rate was 11%.

Subsistence practices and traditional interchange 

activities are an important part of the town’s economy. 

The local economy is the most active in Norton 

Sound, along with a traditional Unaligmiut Eskimo 

subsistence lifestyle. Fish, seal, caribou, moose, and 

bear are utilized. The sale of alcohol is prohibited in 

the community, although importation and possession 

are allowed. 

Governance 

The second-class city of Unalakleet, incorporated 

in 1974, has a “strong mayor” form of government 

with six city council members. The city, located in an 

2000 Employment Structure 

Unalakleet 

Data source: US Census 

Not Seeking,

39.8%

Employed,

51.4% 

Unemployed,

8.8%

unorganized area (i.e. not located within an organized 

borough), has a 5% sales tax and a 5% accommodation 

tax. There is no property tax. 

Unalakleet Native Corporation is the local Native 

corporation managing approximately 180,000 acres 

under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

(ANCSA). The regional Native corporation, a forprofit organization with its headquarters in Nome, is 

the Bering Straits Native Corporation. This corporation 

operates a series of businesses, including the Bering 

Straits Development Company, and the non-profit 

Bering Strait Foundation. Its counterpart in the area, 

the regional Native non-profit institution, is Kawerak, 

Inc. The Norton Sound Economic Development 

Corporation (NSEDC), the Community Development 

Quota (CDQ) group of the area, has its headquarters 

in Anchorage. 

The area is also served by the Bering Straits Housing 

Authority, the Norton Sound Health Corporation 

(regional health corporation serving the Bering 

Strait villages) and the Eskimo Walrus Commission 

(a regional non-profit organization serving nineteen 

communities along the western coast). Also located 

in the community is the Native village of Unalakleet, 

recognized as a traditional council by the Bureau of 

Indian Affairs. 

Unalakleet has its own Alaska Department of 

Fish and Game (ADF&G) office. In order to access 

a Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(BCIS) office Unalakleets’s inhabitants have to go to 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Unalakleet 
515

Nome. The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 66 for herring roe to be caught with gillnet in Norton 

has its closest office in Anchorage. Sound (22 fished) and one non-fished permit for beach 

seine in Norton Sound.

Facilities 

Unalakleet is a relatively well connected 

community. A recently renewed state-owned 6,200 foot 

gravel runway allows for regular flights to Anchorage. 

The approximate price of a roundtrip to Anchorage is 

$480. The community has a dock to which cargo is 

regularly shipped from Nome. In winter, snowmachines 

and dogsleds are used for transportation.

Accommodation is provided by several lodges. 

The Unalakleet schools have 210 students and 19 

teachers. Health care is provided by the Euksavik 

Clinic, owned by the village council. The town has its 

own police department and state village public safety 

officer. Matanuska Electric Association owns and 

operates the electrical system in Unalakleet, through 

the Unalakleet Valley Electric Cooperative. Water is 

derived from an infiltration gallery on Powers Creek, 

and is treated and stored in a million-gallon steel tank. 

In cold weather the supply of water is not enough to 

cover demand. Only 190 households are connected to 

the piped water and sewer system and have complete 

plumbing. The water and the sewage systems are 

owned and operated by the city.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Despite its size, Unalakleet is deeply engaged in all 

sort of fishing activities, especially commercial fishing. 

In the community, there were 109 permit holders that 

manage 155 all-fisheries permits, although only 68 of 

those permits were fished in 2000. The community 

also had 70 residents registered as crewmen.

The permits held by Unalakleet residents 

encompass some of the most significant fisheries of the 

Alaskan waters: king crab, herring, salmon, halibut, 

and others.

Salmon: Approximately 70 permits were issued in 

2000 (39 fished). There were 65 permits for set gillnet 

issued in the Norton Sound (37 fished), 3 non-fished 

permits for set gillnet limited to the Lower Yukon 

River, and 2 fished permits for drift gillnet in Bristol 

Bay.

Herring: The second most important fishery for 

Unalakleet was herring with 67 permits (22 fished): 

Crab: There were 13 permits to catch king crab 

(5 fished). Ten permits were for pot gear and vessels 

under 60 feet in the Norton Sound (4 fished) and 2 

non-used permits, again for pot gear and vessels under 

60 feet, this time for the Bering Sea. Finally, there was 

a fished permit for the local CDQ (NSEDC). This 

permit was also for pot gear in a vessel under 60 feet. 

Other Fisheries: There was one fished permit to 

catch halibut statewide with longline gear in a vessel 

under 60 feet. There was also a non-fished permit to 

catch miscellaneous saltwater fish with a hand troll 

in statewide waters. Finally, there were three permits 

to catch other types of finfish: one permit to catch 

fresh water fish with hand troll in statewide waters 

(one fished), and two non-fished permits, one for a 

mechanical jig and one experimental, both of them 

with statewide range.

In 1993 the CDQ of the area, the NSEDC, 

in partnership with the Glacier Fish Company, 

started to support local fisheries with a processing 

operation. Norton Sound Seafood Products (NSSP) 

was established in 1995. Although its operations are 

centralized in Nome, there is a plant in Unalakleet. 

The species targeted are salmon, crab, herring, and 

halibut. 

Although, as mentioned above, Unalakleet has a 

processing plant, data on landings cannot be disclosed. 

This report can only acknowledge landings from 

Unalakleet’s fleet, and probably from neighboring 

communities. 

Finally, Unalakleet received a direct allocation 

of $3,720 in federal salmon disaster funds. These 

allocations were to compensate for losses due to falling 

prices in the international market. This allocation was 

implemented in 2003. 

The Norton Sound Economic Development 

Corporation (CDQ group) also received $78,599 

to reduce the impact of Steller sea lion protective 

regulations that came up after the inclusion of this 

species into the endangered species list. Of this sum, 

$20,000 was given to Unalakleet in direct community 

benefits. This allocation, under ESA regulations, was 

implemented in 2002.

The funds not directly allocated to the city were 

added to the general budget of the CDQ and helped 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Unalakleet 
516

to compensate for the decline in fish taxes income and 

to relieve the budgetary tensions of the institutions of 

the area.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 this community issued 407 sport fishing 

permits; 187 of them were bought by Alaska residents. 

This fact, however, does not preclude the possibility 

that the area could have been visited by numerous 

outside fishermen who bought their permits elsewhere. 

In 2002 the village had one freshwater guide business 

license related to sport fishing as a tourist activity.

It is important to mention the dual nature of 

recreational fishing in urban settings. On the one 

hand, this sector works on the commercialization of an 

individual productive activity turning in it into a sport 

for locals or, mainly, outsiders. On the other hand, it 

involves the individual who uses a sport fishing permit 

for catching fish for normal household use. In this way, 

this second side of sport fishing plays the role that in 

rural settings is played by subsistence fishing.

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have systematic and reliable 

surveys on the subsistence activities of most of the 

Norton Sound communities, including Unalakleet. 

However, evidence from similar communities in 

similar environments points out that these practices 

are fundamental to understanding the economy and 

social structure of these communities.

An ADF&G report estimates Unalakleet’s daily 

wild food harvest at over 1.7 lbs per person. Such a 

quantity is evidence of the importance of such practices 

for the local economy, especially taking into account 

the fact that the town’s residents number nearly 800 

people (for an estimated community-wide harvest of 

1,360 lbs per day).

Two more elements that help to speculate about 

the importance of subsistence activities in Unalakleet 

are, on the one hand, the existence in the community 

of 228 household permits to catch subsistence salmon, 

accounting for 25,127 fish (mainly pink salmon and 

coho salmon), and, on the other hand, the fact that the 

village inhabitants (as part of a tribe and/or part of 

a rural community) are eligible for the Subsistence 

Halibut Registration Certificate (SHARC). These 

allocations are based on recognized customary and 

traditional uses of halibut. Regulations to implement 

subsistence halibut fishing were published in the 

Federal Register in April 2003 and became effective 

May 2003. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Northern Alaska/Unalakleet 
517

4.5 Interior Alaska
518

4.5.1 Interior Alaska 

Communities 

Fairbanks

Galena

Geographic Location 

Fairbanks and Galena are the only communities in 

interior Alaska that met the selection criteria for this 

project. Fairbanks is located on the Chena River in the 

Tanana Valley, 358 miles north of Anchorage. It lies at 

approximately 64.84  ̊N Lat. Galena is 270 air miles 

west of Fairbanks, located on the Yukon River. It lies 

at about 64.73  ̊N Lat. 

Weather 

Interior Alaska’s weather is characterized by 

extremes. Winter temperatures average -12  ̊F; 

summer temperatures average 61  ̊F. But the seasonal 

temperature swing in this region is one of the widest 

on earth, with recorded winter lows of -78  ̊F and 

summer highs of 93  ̊F —a swing of 171  ̊F. The 

latitude in Interior Alaska also makes for a high degree 

of seasonal variability of sunlight, with 4 hours of 

daylight in the winter and 21 hours of daylight in the 

summer. Precipitation in the region is relatively low, 

averaging 11.3 inches per year.

General Characterization 

The current situation of Fairbanks is conditioned 

by its past. This region was the traditional territory of 

the Tanana Athabascan Indians for thousands of years 

prior to European contact. Similar to other Athabascan 

groups, the Tanana practiced a hunting and gathering 

lifestyle. That way of life changed dramatically 

in the late 1800s with the influx of European and 

American explorers interested in the natural resources 

of the region. By the early 1900s, when gold was 

discovered, Fairbanks was firmly on the path of largescale development, a path that has continued with the 

establishment of U.S. military bases in the 1940s and 

1950s, and the construction of the Trans-Alaska oil 

pipeline in the 1970s. 

Today, the Fairbanks North Star Borough is home 

to some 85,000 inhabitants, 30,000 of whom live within 

the city limits of Fairbanks itself. The other residents 

are scattered throughout 10 smaller communities 

located in the borough. The demographics of the region 

have changed dramatically over the course of time, 

owing to the factors noted above. In 2000, the racial 

composition of Fairbanks was primarily White, with 

relatively small minority groups of Alaska Natives, 

Blacks, and Hispanics. The gender composition of 

the community was relatively equal, reflecting a more 

permanent residential trend, in contrast to many of the 

working communities elsewhere in Alaska.

The area of Galena was historically occupied by 

Koyukon Athabascans which moved from camps each 

season with the migrating wild game. The community 

of Galena saw its major rise in growth from the 

development of military facilities in the area in the 

1950s. The Air Force Station closed in 1993 and today 

the community has about 675 members of which over 

half the population were American Indian and Alaska 

Native. The rest of the population was largely White, 

but there existed also a small percentage of Black, 

Asian, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 

community members. The ratio of men to women in 

Galena is heavily swayed, with a larger number of 

males in contrast to the more equal distribution in 

Fairbanks. 

Institutional Framework 

Fairbanks is located in the Fairbanks North Star 

Borough, one of only two organized boroughs in Interior 

Alaska. Fairbanks thus serves as an administrative hub 

for much of the interior region. Taxes are administered 

both by the city and by the borough. In addition, there 

are many important Native governmental bodies, 

including a regional Native non-profit corporation, 

a regional Native for-profit corporation, and various 

Native associations and village councils. 

Galena is not located in any organized borough 

and the City administers its own sales tax and operates 

its own school district. Galena is somewhat similar to 

Fairbanks in that it acts as a regional transport center 

for neighboring villages. The City operates most of the 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Regional Introduction 
519

necessary facilities. A village council, Native village 

corporation, and Native regional corporation are all 

active in the community. In addition a regional Native 

health corporation is active in the area. 

Commercial, Sport, and Subsistence Fisheries 

Fairbanks serves as proof that reliance on marine 

resources extends well beyond the coastline. It is 

nearly 400 miles from Fairbanks to the Gulf of Alaska; 

nevertheless, the community has a substantial number 

of vessel owners, commercial permit holders, and 

registered crew members. There is even a commercial 

fish processing plant. In short, Fairbanks is proof that 

Alaska’s commercial fishing industry is as much about 

networks and inter-community linkages as it is about 

location. 

Sport fishing and subsistence fishing are also 

important economic factors for Fairbanks. Sport 

fishing guides based in Fairbanks ply their trade both in 

nearby interior lakes and rivers and at sea hundreds of 

miles away. In addition, despite residents’ of Fairbanks 

urban surroundings, they still rely on subsistence 

fishing and hunting. 

Galena is located particularly far in from the coast 

as well, however, not nearly as far as Fairbanks. Galena 

has an extensively higher ratio of commercial fishing 

permit holders in the community compared to the total 

population of the city. There is also a high proportion 

of sport fishing businesses to other businesses in 

Galena which cater to guiding tourists for freshwater 

fishing and supplying other services. Subsistence is 

very important with a very large yearly per capita 

harvest for community members. 

Regional Challenges 

Interior Alaska faces a few interesting challenges, 

brought on primarily by its relatively remote 

location. Fairbanks has had to cope with a dramatic 

population boom in the last few decades brought on 

by the construction of the Trans-Alaska oil pipeline. 

From the 1970s onward, Fairbanks has dealt with 

an influx of people attracted by the pipeline and the 

construction boom it caused, along with a concomitant 

rise in problems ranging from crime to cost of living 

increases.

With Galena’s commercial fishing sector heavily 

dependent upon salmon, problems have been created 

by recent falling prices attributed to competition with 

farmed salmon. This could perhaps be the reason 

that none of the salmon permits issued to residents 

of Galena in 2000 were fished. This struggle is also 

made visible by the recent allocation of federal salmon 

disaster funds to the community. 

In addition, both Fairbanks’ and Galena’s 

involvement in North Pacific fisheries presents some 

peculiar problems. Because of its location far from 

any fishery, those who choose a livelihood based on 

fishing face either the challenge of seasonal relocation 

to coastal areas, or the challenge of overseeing fishing 

operations from afar. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Regional Introduction 
520

Fairbanks City (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Fairbanks is centrally located in Alaska. This 

centrality though, seems more geographical than social 

or economical. The city was founded on the banks of 

the Chena River in the Tanana Valley and in the very 

heart of interior Alaska. 

Fairbanks is a 45 minute flight from Anchorage, 

and a 3 hour flight from Seattle. It lies 358 road miles 

north of Anchorage. The area encompasses 31.9 

square miles of land and 0.8 square miles of water. 

The artic daylight variations have an important impact 

on Fairbanks lifestyle: 21 hours of daylight between 

May 10th and August 2nd each summer, and less 

than 4 hours of daylight between November 18th and 

January 24th each winter. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, Fairbanks, 

one of Alaska’s main cities, had 30,224 inhabitants. 

The Fairbanks North Star Borough in general contains 

84,791 inhabitants, the second largest concentration 

of population in Alaska after Anchorage. In the city of 

Fairbanks, 93.7% of the population lived in households, 

while 6.3% lived in group quarters. This 6.3% was 

composed of army personnel, institutionalized 

individual, and people employed seasonally by the 

fishing industry. According to the census, 9.9% of the 

population was Alaska Native or American Indian, 

66.7% White, 11.2% Black, 2.7% Asian, 0.5% Pacific 

Islanders, 2.4% “Other,” and 6.6% identified with 

two or more races. A total of 13.3% of the population 

recognized themselves as all or part Alaska Native 

or American Indian. Finally, 6.1% of the population 

identified as Hispanic. 

The gender composition of Fairbanks was fairly 

balanced in comparison to most other Alaskan 

communities: 48.7% females and 51.3% males. These 

percentages presented an important difference with 

most Alaskan communities which are characterized 

by an overwhelming male presence. This may be 

attributed to the urban character of the area.The median 

age in Fairbanks was 27.6 years, quite different when 

compared to the national median (35.3 years in 2000). 

Fairbanks’ age structure had some striking similarities 

to many young rural communities with a large amount 

of the population between the ages of 20 to 29. In that 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Fairbanks Fairbanks Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000 3000 

Male 

Female 

Number of individuals 

2000 Racial Structure 

Fairbanks Fairbanks 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

Two or more

Pacific Islander Other races

0.5% 2.4% 6.6% 

Asian 

2.7% 

Native 

9.9% 

Black 

11.2% 

White 

66.7% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Fairbanks Fairbanks Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Hispanic, 6.1% 

Non-Hispanic,

93.9% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Fairbanks 
521

sense it differs from Anchorage whose age structure did 

not substantially differ from the national average. Of 

those age 25 and over in Fairbanks about 88.9% of the 

population had graduated from high school or gone on 

to further schooling, 19.4% had obtained a bachelor’s 

degree or higher, and 11.1% never completed 12th 

grade.

History 

The Fairbanks region, in the Tanana Valley, 

had been inhabited by Tanana Athabascans for 

thousands of years prior to European contact. Tanana 

Athabascans were strictly territorial and used hunting 

and gathering practices in their semi-nomadic ways of 

life and dispersed habitation patterns. The boundaries 

of such systems of life were, presumably, fairly fluid, 

which might explain some references to the presence 

of Koyukon Athabascans, the northwest neighbors.

Central Alaska was at the center of the race 

between British, Russian, and American control of the 

Yukon River from Norton Sound and Saint Michael to 

Fort Yukon and the current Canadadian border. 

In the year 1901 a trading post was established on 

the Chena River. Soon after, gold was discovered in the 

area and a new wave of the gold rush was underway. 

Prospectors inundated the place and the city of 

Fairbanks emerged around the old steamboat landing 

banks. The town, named after Indiana Senator Charles 

Fairbanks, boomed along with many other mining field 

communities. The passage of a local government law 

in 1900, which regularized incorporation procedures 

and authorized the use of certain fees by city councils 

and school districts, gave Fairbanks the security and 

tools to avoid the collapse that other boom towns 

had suffered after the gold rush. By 1910, the official 

population had grown to 3,541, although more than 

6,000 miners lived and worked their claims on creeks 

north of town.

During the twentieth century, two major events 

transformed Fairbanks and the rest of Alaska: WWII 

and the oil boom of the 70s. In both cases major 

resource flows and infrastructure construction fueled 

the growth and consolidation of Fairbanks as one 

of the main urban centers of the state. In the 1940s, 

initiated by the war effort and concern about the 

Japanese threat, the Alcan Highway was built. In the 

1970s, coinciding with a world’s oil shortage, the 

Trans-Alaska oil pipeline was established.

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters Fairbanks Fairbanks Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 6.2 

93.8 

6.3 

93.7 

1990 2000 

Year 2000 Employment Structure 

Non-group quarters

Group quarters 

Fairbanks 

Data source: US Census 2000 Employment Structure 

Fairbanks 

Data source: US Census 

Armed Forces, 

14.7%

Employed,

50.4% 

Not Seeking,

28.8% 

Unemployed,

6.2% 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

Fairbanks provides supplies as well as private and 

public services to most of interior Alaska and thus 

plays a central role in the community. This centrality 

is fundamental to understanding the organization and 

composition of Fairbanks economic system.

By virtue of its centrality, Fairbanks has a high 

density of public institutions: city, borough, state, 

and federal government services of all sorts. In fact, 

about 50% of the total employment is in government 

services including Eielson Air Force Base and Fort 

Wainwright personnel. The University of Fairbanks 

is also a large employer as are public services such 

as transportation, communication, manufacturing, 

financial, and regional medical services. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Fairbanks 
522

On a more local basis, tourism, mining, and 

fishing are also a significant part of the economy. The 

recently developed tourism sector attracts 325,000 

visitors each summer. The mines, one of the oldest 

economic endeavors of the city, still produce large 

amounts of gold. In 2000, 126 city residents held 

commercial fishing permits and 180 households held 

salmon harvest subsistence permits. 

The employment structure from the 2000 U.S. 

Census shows that 50.4% of the total workforce was 

employed, 6.2% was unemployed, 14.7% worked with 

the armed forces, and 28.8% of those eligible to work 

were not seeking a job. In 2000, a fairly high 10.5% 

of the population lived below the line of poverty. The 

community showed a per capita income of $19,814 

and a median household income of $40,577. 

Governance 

Fairbanks was incorporated in 1903 and became 

a Home Rule City. It has a strong mayor form of 

government supported by a six-member local council. 

The city imposes a 0.065% property tax and an 8% tax 

on tobacco. The Borough also implements property 

and tobacco taxes: 0.15% and 8% respectively.

Alaskan institutions in the area include regional 

and local corporations as well as village councils: 

Denakkanaaga Inc. (regional Native non-profit.-

Tribal Elders Council for Doyon Region), Doyon 

Ltd. (regional Native corporation), Fairbanks Native 

Association (regional Native non-profit providing 

social services), and the Tanana Chiefs Conference 

(regional health corporation-non-profit for Doyon 

Ltd).Other local or regional institutions of the area are 

the Interior Regional Housing Authority, the Alaska 

Sea Otter Commission, and the Fairbanks Community 

Food Bank.

Permanent offices of both the Alaska Department 

of Fish and Game (ADF&G) and the Bureau of 

Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) are 

located in Fairbanks, the nearest National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) office is in Anchorage.

Facilities 

Fairbanks connects Anchorage with the north, the 

interior, and Canada. It lies at the confluence of the 

Richardson Highway, George Parks Highway, Steese 

Highway, and Elliott Highway. Another major route, 

the Dalton Highway (formerly the North Slope Haul 

road) to Prudhoe Bay, begins about 75 miles north of 

town. The railway connects Fairbanks to Anchorage 

and Seward at the shoreline of the Gulf of Alaska.

The city is also easily reachable by air. The Stateowned Fairbanks International Airport is regularly 

serviced by Alaska Airlines, Air North, Warbelow’s 

Air Ventures, Larry’s Flying Service, Marina Air, 

Frontier Flying Service, Arctic Circle Adventure, 

Midnight Sun Aviation, Interior Alaska Adventures, 

Tanana Air Service, Tatonduck Outfitters, and Wright 

Air Service. The facility has an 11,800 foot asphalt 

runway, a heliport, and a seaplane landing strip. A 

public seaplane base is also located on the Chena 

River. In addition, there are several privately-owned 

airstrips and heliports in the vicinity.

Due to its geographic and climatic features, 

Fairbanks must import most of the goods that its 

population consumes. Goods are transported to 

Fairbanks by air and truck along the Alaska Railroad. 

The city has its own municipal transportation 

system, cab companies, and rental car availability. 

Each summer, this city receives more than 300,000 

visitors and has a correspondingly wide variety of 

accommodation possibilities.

Fairbanks has 23 schools with a total of 10,610 

students and 577 teachers. Healthcare services in 

Fairbanks are provided by the Fairbanks Memorial 

Hospital, the Interior Neighborhood Health Clinic, 

Chief Andrew Isaac Health Center/HIS, Bassett Army 

Community Hospital/Ft. Wainwright. In addition 

specialized care is provided by FNA Regional Center 

for Alcohol & Other Addictions, Fairbanks Pioneers’

Home, and the Denali Center. The town, in addition, 

has its own city police department as well as a state 

troopers post.

Fairbanks has centralized water and sewage 

systems and power is provided by the Golden Valley 

Electric Association and Aurora Energy. City water, 

sewer, and electric systems were sold to a private 

company in 1997. Services are also distributed to the 

greater Fairbanks area.

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

Although the city is more than 300 miles away 

from the shoreline, Fairbanks is included in this 

profile as a “fishing community” by virtue of its 

long distance involvement in the industry. This 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Fairbanks 
523

illustrates how pervasive and important the fishing 

industry of Fairbanks is for Alaska as a whole. In 

2000, 126 commercial fishing permits were held 

by residents of Fairbanks, pertaining to a total of 

164 commercial fishing permits, only 58 of which 

were fished that year. Additionally, 83 inhabitants of 

Fairbanks were registered as crewmen. Four owners of 

federally managed fisheries vessels and 14 owners of 

salmon vessels were also residing in the community. 

Fairbanks’ fleet fished mainly halibut and salmon. Its 

residents also held permits to catch sablefish, herring, 

groundfish, and shellfish.

Salmon: Most of the permits issued pertained to 

salmon: 125 issued, and only 46 fished. The reports 

show 13 permits issued for drift gillnet: one fished 

permit for the Southeast, 6 fished permits for Bristol 

Bay, 4 permits for Cook Inlet (3 fished), and 2 permits 

for Prince William Sound (one fished). There were 

four permits to fish with purse seine, three for Prince 

William Sound and one for Kodiak (none fished). There 

were 15 statewide permits for hand troll fishing (one 

fished). The remaining 51 permits were for set gillnet: 

12 for Bristol Bay (11 fished), 12 for the Lower Yukon 

River (8 fished), 2 non-fished permits for Kotzebue, 3 

for Yakutat (one fished), one fished permit for Prince 

William Sound, 2 for Cook Inlet (one fished), one 

non-fished permit for Kuskokwim, and one non-fished 

permit for Norton Sound. Finally, there were seven 

permits to use power gurdy troll statewide, six of those 

fished that year.

Halibut: Residents of the community held 20 

permits for halibut (8 fished): 15 permits for longline 

vessels under 60 feet (6 fished), 3 for longline vessels 

over 60 feet (2 fished), and 2 non-fished permits for 

statewide hand trolling.

Herring: The city issued nine permits to catch 

herring (two fished). There were five non-fished permits 

to catch herring roe with gillnet: one on Nelson Island, 

two in Bristol Bay, and two in Norton Sound. The 

remaining permits were to harvest spawn on kelp by 

the pound, which pertained to two non-fished permits 

in Prince Williams Sound and two fished permits in 

northern southeast.

Other finfish: This small group was composed of 

only two permits, none of which were fished in 2000. 

Both permits were to catch freshwater fish statewide, 

one to fish with beach seine and the other with set 

gillnet.

Other groundfish: This fishery encompassed five 

statewide permits to catch miscellaneous saltwater 

finfish with longline vessels under 60 feet. 

Other shellfish: In 2000, this group included two 

permits, one to catch shrimp with pot gear in vessels 

under 60 feet and one statewide permit to harvest 

clams with shovels (not fished). 

Sablefish: There was only one non-fished permit 

to catch sablefish in Prince William Sound with fixed 

gear in a vessel of a maximum length of 35 feet.

Fairbanks, has one processing plant owned by 

the Interior Alaska Fish Processors, Inc. Due to 

its geographic location, Fairbanks does not report 

landings. Its fleet delivers to harbors which may be 

proximate to fishing grounds.

Sport Fishing 

In 2000 the community issued 16,387 sport 

fishing permits: 12,362 of them were bought by Alaska 

residents. Although the proportion of locals is high, it 

does not preclude the possibility that the area could 

have been visited by numerous outsiders who obtained 

their permits elsewhere. Due to the inland geographic 

location of Fairbanks, saltwater sport fishermen must 

travel a great distance to the coast. In 2002 the city had 

33 freshwater and one saltwater guide business license 

related to sport fishing as a tourist activity. 

Subsistence Fishing 

The ADF&G does not have systematic and reliable 

surveys on the subsistence activities of most urban 

areas of Alaska.

An estimate of the ADF&G situates Fairbanks’

yearly wild food harvest at over 16 lbs per person 

per year. This figure testifies to the importance of 

subsistence practices for the local economy, especially 

taking into account the 30,000 inhabitants of the 

community (the entire community harvests 480,000 

lbs per year). The community also held 180 household 

permits to catch subsistence salmon, accounting for 

9,300 fish, mainly sockeye and chum.

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Fairbanks 
524

Galena (return to communities) 

People and Place 

Location 

Galena is situated on the north bank of the Yukon 

River. The community is northeast of the Innoko 

National Wildlife Refuge. It is 45 miles east of Nulato 

and 270 air miles west of Fairbanks. Galena is located 

in theYukon-Koyukuk Census Area and makes up 17.9 

square miles of land and 6.1 square miles of water. 

Demographic Profile 

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the community 

of Galena had a total of 675 inhabitants. The gender 

ratio was swayed heavily toward males who comprised 

54.8% of the population versus females who made up 

45.2%. A population was first recorded for Galena 

in 1930 at which time there were 67 residents. The 

population of the community has grown since then, 

but has decreased in recent years with a population of 

833 for the 1990, 158 more people than recorded for 

2000. The racial composition of Galena for 2000 was 

as follows: 30.2% White, 0.3% Black, 63.4%American 

Indian and Alaska Native, 1.0% Asian (0.3% Filipino 

and 0.7% Korean), 0.3% Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander, 0.3% “Other”, and 4.4% two or more 

races. A total of 67.4% of the population recognized 

themselves as all or part Alaska Native or American 

Indian. About 1.9% of the population was of Hispanic 

ethnicity. The median age in the community was 28.5 

years versus the national average of 35.3 years. There 

were a total of 259 housing units in Galena in 2000 and 

of those 43 were vacant, with 18 vacant due to seasonal 

use. There were 63 residents living in group quarters 

and 612 living in households. Of the population age 

25 years and over about 81.3% of the population had 

graduated from high school or gone on to further 

schooling and 28.6% had obtained a bachelor’s degree 

or higher. 

History 

The Native peoples who have occupied the interior 

areas of Alaska have historically been Athabascan, 

whose prototype language “was probably present in 

interior Alaska and the Yukon by at least 6000 BP” 

(National Park Service 2003). The area of Galena 

has been occupied by the Koyukon Athabascans who 

moved as the wild game migrated and had spring, 

summer, fall, and winter camps. Twelve summer fish 

Age 

2000 Population Structure 2000 Population Structure

Galena Data source: US Census Data source: US Census 

80 and over 

70 to 79 

60 to 69 

50 to 59 

40 to 49 

30 to 39 

20 to 29 

10 to 19 

0 to 9 

Male 

Female 

100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 

Number of individuals 

Galena 

2000 Racial Structure 2000 Racial Structure

Galena

Data source: US Census

Data source: US Census 

Some other race 

Pacific Islander, 

0.3% 

0.3% Two or more 

Black 

0.3% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity 

Galena 

Data source: US Census 

Hispanic, 1.9% 

Native 

63.4% 

Asian 

1% 

races 

4.4% 

White 

30.2% 

2000 Hispanic Ethnicity

Galena 

Data source: US Census 

Non-Hispanic,

98.1% 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Galena 
525

camps were situated on the Yukon River between 

the Koyukuk River and the Nowitna River. In 1918 

Galena was established near an Athabascan fish camp 

named Henry’s Point. Lead ore mines were located 

nearby the community and Galena became a supply 

and trans-shipment point for the mines. Athabascans 

who lived 14 miles upriver from the community at 

Louden began moving to Galena in 1920 for work, 

hauling freight for the mines or selling wood. In the 

mid-1920s a school was built in Galena and in 1932 

a post office opened. During WWII, Galena Air Field 

was built. There was a major flood in the community 

in 1945. Growth was sparked in Galena during the 

1950s by military facilities at Galena and Campion Air 

Force Stations and airport and road developments. In 

1971 another severe flood occurred which caused the 

community to move to Alexander Lake, about one and 

a half miles east of the original site. At “New Town” a 

City government was formed and new houses, schools, 

and facilities were built. In 1993 the Air Force Station 

closed. The Base facilities are currently in use by the 

Galena School District as a boarding school and the 

facilities are maintained under contract by Chugach 

Development Corp. 

Infrastructure 

Current Economy 

The city of Galena is the center for the western 

Interior for transportation, government, and commercial 

activities. Jobs are dominated by government 

employment including federal, state, city, school, and 

village employment. Of those employed in Galena 

in 2000, about 68% were classified as government 

workers. In addition to government employment, jobs 

are also available in retail and in air transportation as 

well as seasonal jobs such as construction and BLM 

fire fighting. In 2000, 31 commercial fishing permits 

were issued to residents of Galena, and two residents 

were licensed commercial fishing crew members. Due 

to low market prices, the Illinois Creek gold mine, 50 

miles southwest of Galena, has closed. Residents of 

the community are involved in subsistence activities. 

Of the population age 16 years and over about 67.5% 

were employed, 6.5% were unemployed, and 26.1% 

were not in the labor force. The per capita income 

was $22,143 with the median household income 

having been $61,125. About 10.2% of the population 

% Group Quarters % Group Quarters 

Galena Galena 

Data source: US Census Data source: US Census

Percentage 100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

36.4 

63.6 

9.3 

90.7 

1990 2000 

Year 

Non-group quarters 

Group quarters 

2000 Employment Structure

Galena 

2000 Employment Structure Data source: US Census

Galena 

Data source: US Census 

Unemployed,

6.5% 

Not seeking,

26.1%

Employed,

67.5% 

was below the poverty line at the time of the 2000 

Census. 

Governance 

Galena is a first-class city, incorporated in 1971. 

It has a Manager form of government which includes 

a mayor, six person city council, five person school 

board, and various municipal employees. The city 

implements a 3% sales tax, but has no other taxes. 

Galena is not part of any organized borough and has 

its own school district, Galena City Schools. The 

regional Native corporation for the area is Doyon, Ltd. 

The Native village corporation is Gana-A’Yoo, Ltd 

which is the merged corporation of Galena, Kaltag, 

Koyukuk, and Nulato. The Bureau of Indian Affairs 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Galena 
526

(BIA) recognized Traditional Council and Village 

Council for Galena is Louden Village Council. The 

regional Native health corporation for the area is 

Tanana Chiefs Conference. The closest office of the 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) is 

located within the city of Galena. The nearest Bureau 

of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) office 

is located in either Nome or Anchorage. The National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) main office is 

located in Anchorage. 

Facilities 

Galena is reachable by air, water, and land. The 

community functions as a regional transport center for 

neighboring villages. A 7,254 foot paved and lighted 

runway and a 2,786 foot gravel ski strip next to the 

main runway are present in the community. The airport 

provides the only year-round access to the community. 

The approximate cost to fly to Galena from Anchorage 

roundtrip according to Travelocity and Expedia is 

about $493 (price given for date as close to September 

1, 2003 as possible). Cargo barges are able to access 

the community on the river from mid-May through 

mid-October. A boat launch was recently completed. 

Locals use pickups, cars, snowmachines, skiffs, 

and ATVs for transportation. The frozen rivers are 

used for travel during the winter to Ruby, Koyukuk, 

Kaltag, and Nulato. There is a winter trail to Huslia. 

Accommodations are available in the community at 

Huntington’s Venture, G&R Enterprises, Yukon Cactus 

B&B, and the Dancing Bear B&B. There are four 

schools in Galena: Galena Elementary School, Galena 

Jr./Sr. High School, Interior Distance Education of 

Alaska (IDEA), and Project Education Residential 

School. In 2000 there were a total of 3,846 students 

involved in these programs and a total of 63 teachers. 

Health care is available at Galena Health Center which 

is owned by the City and operated by both the City 

and the Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC). In 2002 a 

large addition was added to the clinic. The center is 

qualified for emergency care, x-ray, laboratory, dental, 

dental x-ray, and has a dark room. Police services 

are available from both the City Police and the State 

Trooper Post. The electric utility in Galena is the City of 

Galena and the main power source is diesel. The water 

system, sewer system, and landfill are all operated by 

the City; however, only 28 residences and the school 

are connected to the piped water and sewer system. 

A flush/haul system is used by 110 households, 20 

use honeybuckets, and the remaining use individual 

septic tanks. Currently, construction is in the works on 

a new well, water treatment system, storage tank, and 

washeteria. Additional residences are being added to 

the piped water system. 

Involvement in North Pacific Fisheries 

Commercial Fishing 

In 2000 there were a total of 31 commercial 

fishing permits issued to community members and two 

licensed crew members lived in the city. There were no 

resident vessel owners involved in either the salmon 

fishery or the federal fisheries. 

Of 31 commercial fishing permits issued to 

residents, only one was fished in 2000. One permit 

was issued for herring roe using a gillnet in Norton 

Sound and it was fished in 2000. The remaining 30 

permits were all issued for salmon and none were 

actally fished; six were issued using set gillnets in the 

Upper Yukon, one using a set gillnet in Kotzebue, and 

23 using fish wheels in the Upper Yukon. 

There were no landings of any kind to the 

community of Galena because no processor was 

present in the community in 2000. The city of Galena 

was allocated $2,859 in federal salmon disaster funds 

in July of 2003 because of the recent drop in salmon 

prices and loss in taxes generated.

Sport Fishing 

The city of Galena has a few businesses which 

cater to the sport fishing industry. In 2002 according 

to the ADF&G there were four businesses in Galena 

listed as freshwater guide businesses, three listed as 

full service guiding services, three listed as having 

tent/cabin services, four listed as having drop-off 

services, two with equipment rental services, and one 

with an aircraft/fly-in service. A total of 107 sport 

fishing licenses were sold in Galena in 2000, and all 

except 11 were sold to Alaska State residents. 

Subsistence Fishing 

According to the ADF&G’s Division of Subsistence, 

the most representative subsistence year was 1985. In 

1985, 100.0% of all households in Galena used all 

subsistence resources: 98.6% salmon, and 71.6% nonsalmon fish (blackfish, burbot, grayling, pike, sheefish, 

sucker, trout, and whitefish). The per capita harvest 

of all subsistence resources was 787.06 lbs. Of that 

per capita harvest, 69.24% was salmon, 7.82% was 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Galena 
527

non-salmon fish, 1.00% was birds and eggs, 21.62% 

was land mammals, and 0.33% was vegetation. Also 

according to the ADF&G, 183 household permits were 

issued for subsistence salmon to residents of Galena in 

the year 1999 for an estimated harvest of 6,282 total 

salmon of which the majority was chinook and chum. 

Residents of Galena do not have the right to apply for 

halibut subsistence certificates. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Interior Alaska/Galena 
528

5.0 REFERENCES 

Adak Island, Open to the World. (n.d.). Retrieved June 27, 2003, from 

http://www.alaska.net/~vwadak/island.html 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Commercial Fisheries. (2005). Alaska 

Historical Commercial Salmon Catches (all species), 1878-2004. Retrieved August 18, 

2005 from 

http://www.cf.adfg.state.ak.us/geninfo/finfish/salmon/catchval/history/all_1878.php 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence. (2001). Alaska 

Subsistence Fisheries 1999 Annual Report [Electronic version]. Retrieved between July 

and December 2003 from 

http://www.subsistence.adfg.state.ak.us/geninfo/publctns/articles.cfm 

Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development. (2001). The Year 2000 in 

Review: Growth Picks up in Alaska in 2000. Alaska Economic Trends 2001. Anchorage: 

Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development. 3-15. 

Alaska Department of Revenue. (2000). Fall 2000 Revenue Sources Book. Anchorage: 

Alaska Department of Revenue. Retrieved July 2005 from 

http://www.tax.state.ak.us/sourcesbook/2000/fall2000srcbknew.pdf 

Alaska Department of Revenue, Tax Division. (2000). Fiscal Year 2000 Annual Report. 

Anchorage: Alaska Department of Revenue. Retrieved June 27, 2005 from 

http://www.tax.state.ak.us/programs/division/annualrpt2000.pdf 

Alaska Department of Transportation. (2003). Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel: 

Portage Glacier Highway-Portage to Whittier. Retrieved October 20, 2003 from 

http://www.dot.state.ak.us/creg/whittiertunnel/index.htm 

Alaska Historical Society. (1982). Alaska’s Past: Regional Perspectives, Unit 1: 

Overview Alaska. Anchorage: Alaska Historical Commission. 

Alaska Historical Society. (1982). Alaska’s Past: Regional Perspectives, Unit 2: Interior 

Alaska. Anchorage: Alaska Historical Commission. 

Alaska Historical Society. (1982). Alaska’s Past: Regional Perspectives, Unit 5: 

Southcentral Alaska. Anchorage: Alaska Historical Commission. 

Alaska Internet Marketing, Inc. (n.d.). Discover Dillingham, Alaska! The Great 

Outdoors. Retrieved August 29, 2003, from 

http://www.alaskaoutdoors.com/bristolinn/recreation.htm 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
529

Alaska Native Corporations. (2004). Retrieved between July and December 2003 from 

http://fairbanks-alaska.com/alaska-native-corporations.htm 

Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation. (2005). Permanent Fund 101. Retrieved May 23, 

2005 from http://www.apfc.org/iceimages/homeobjects/2005.PF101.pdf 

Alaska State Department of Natural Resources Division of Parks and Outdoor 

Recreation. (n.d.). Kenai river Special management Area. Retrieved September 30, 2003 

from http://www.dnr.state.ak.us/parks/units/kenairiv.htm 

Alaskool. (2002). The Kashunamiut People, Cup’ik Ancestry. Retrieved August 18, 2003, 

from http://www.alaskool.org/projects/chevak/chevak/TheKashunamiutPeople.html 

Aleut Corporation. (2003). The Aleut Corporation. Retrieved May 28, 2003, from 

http://www.aleutcorp.com/ 

Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association (A/PIA). (2002). Aleutian/Pribilof Islands 

Association, Inc.: Unangan Ataqan Akun- We are one! Retrieved July 10, 2003, from 

http://www.apiai.com 

Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association (A/PIA). (2002). False Pass Community Page. 

Retrieved July 1, 2003 http://www.apiai.com/Apia/Html/apiafalsepass.html 

Ames, Kenneth W. and Herbert D.G. Maschner. (1999). Peoples of the Northwest Coast: 

Their Archaeology and Prehistory. London: Thames and Hudson. 

Anchorage Convention & Visitors Bureau. (2003). Alaska Anchorage. Retrieved between 

July and December 2003 from http://www.anchorage.net 

Armstrong, Robert H. (1996). Alaska’s Fish: A Guide to Selected Species. Anchorage: 

Alaska Northwest Books. 

The Associated Press. (2002, September 6). Tuntutuliak village residents relent on 

poaching probe. Juneau Empire Online. Retrieved September 3, 2003, from 

http://www.jueauempire.com/stories/090602/sta_villageprob.shtml 

Beringsea.com. (2002). TDX Corporation: Introduction, TDX Foundation, and Aleut 

Community of St. Paul Island Tribal Government. Retrieved July 10, 2003, from 

http://www.beringsea.com 

Bering Straits Native Corporation. (2003). A Regional Native Corporation. Retrieved 

between July and December 2003 from http://www.beringstraits.com 

Black, Lydia T.; McGowan, Sarah; Jacka, Jerry; Taksami, Natalia; & Wright, Miranda. 

(1999). The History and Ethnohistory of the Aleutians East Borough. Richard Pierce, 

Katherine L. Arndt and Sarah McGowan (eds.). Fairbanks, AK: Limestone. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
530

Bradner, Tim. (2001). Aleut’s Adak gamble could pay off big for shareholders, region 

[Electronic version]. Alaska Journal of Commerce. Retrieved July 16, 2003, from 

http://www.alaskajournal.com 

Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation (BBEDC). (n.d.). Bristol Bay Economic 

Development Corporation. Retrieved July 1, 2003, from http://www.bbedc.com 

Carothers, Courtney and Jennifer Sepez. (2005). Commercial Fishing Crew 

Demographics and Trends in the North Pacific. Poster presented at the Managing Our 

Nation’s Fisheries: Focus on the Future Conference, Washington, DC, March, 2005. 

Available at ftp://ftp.afsc.noaa.gov/posters/pCarothers01_comm-fish-crewdemographics.pdf 

Chenega Corporation. (n.d.). Corporate History. Retrieved October 15, 2003 from 

http://www.chenega.com/corporate_history.html 

Chugach Alaska Corporation. (2001). Cordova. Retrieved October 15, 2003 from 

http://www.chugach-ak.com/historymap.html 

Corbett, Helen D. & Swibold, Susanne M. (2000). The Aleuts of the Pribilof Islands, 

Alaska. In Milton M.R. Freeman (Ed.), Endangered Peoples of the Arctic: Struggles to 

Survive and Thrive (pp. 1-16). Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. 

Countrysport Limited International Fly Fishing Outfitters. (n.d.). Mission Lodge at 

Aleknagik, Alaska. Retrieved August 21, 2003, from 

http://www.csport.com/travel/freshwaterDestinations/alaska/500ak10.htm 

Diocese of Fairbanks, Catholic Bishop of Northern Alaska. (n.d.). Kotlik – Saint Joseph. 

Retrieved August 18, 2003, from http://www.cbna.info/churches/kotlik.html 

EPA. (2002). Adak Naval Air Station, Alaska EPA ID# AK4170024323 (EPA Region 10, 

Aleutian Islands, Adak). Retrieved June 26, 2003, from http://yosemite.epa.gov 

Fall, James A.; Vanek, Vicki; Brown, Louis; Jennings, Gretchen; Wolfe, Robert J.; & 

Utermohle, Charles. (2000). Wild Resource Harvests and Uses by Residents of Selected 

Communities of the Kenai Peninsula Borough. ADF&G Technical Paper Number 253. 

Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game: Juneau. 

Fienup-Riordan, Ann; Tyson, William; John, Paul; Meade, Marie; & Active, John. 

(2000). Hunting Tradition in a Changing World. New Brunswick: Rutgers University 

Press. 

Gay, Joel. (1997). Commercial Fishing in Alaska. Alaska Geographic, 24(3). 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
531

Ghelfi, Linda. (2002). ERS’s Definition of Farming-Dependent Counties. Paper 

presented to the NMFS NS8 Workshop on Social and Economic Measures of Fishing 

Communities Participation in Fisheries, April 23-25, 2002, Silver Spring, MD, and 

available from the Economic Research Service of the US Department of Agriculture. 

Gilbertsen, Neal. (2003). The Global Salmon Industry and its Impacts in Alaska. Alaska 

Economic Trends, October 2003, 3-11. 

Gislason, Eric. (n.d.). A Brief History of Alaska Statehood (1867-1959). Retrieved June 

2005 from http://xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/BARTLETT/49state.html 

Goldsmith, Scott. (2002). The Alaska Permanent Fund Dividend: An Experiment in 

Wealth Distribution. Presented at the Ninth International Congress of Basic Income 

European Network (BIEN), Geneva, Switzerland, September 12-14, 2005. Retrieved June 

27, 2005 from http://www.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/Publications/BIEN--

Permanent%20Fund%20Dividend%20Paper.doc 

Hadland, Jeff and Gerry Landry. (2002). Nonresidents Working in Alaska. Juneau: 

Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development. 

Hadland, Jeff, Wink, Andy, Erskine, Joanne, and Dapcevich, Sam. (2005). Nonresidents 

Working in Alaska, 2003. Juneau: Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce 

Development. 

Hall-Arber, Madeline; Dyer, Chris; Poggie, John; McNally, James; & Gagne, Renee. 

(2001). New England’s Fishing Communities. Cambridge: MIT Sea Grant College 

Program. 

Halliday, Jan. (1998). Native Peoples of Alaska: A Traveler’s Guide to Land, Art, and 

Culture. Seattle: Sasquatch Books. 

inAlaska.com . (n.d.). Clark’s Point – Wildlife. Retrieved August 28, 2003, from 

http://www.inalaska.com/d/clarkspoint/wildlife.html 

inAlaska.com. (n.d.). Dillingham – History. Retrieved August 28, 2003, from 

http://www.inalaska.com/d/dillingham/history.html 

Inner Harbor Lodge.com. (2000). Elfin Cove, Alaska. Retrieved between July and 

December 2003 from http://www.innerharborlodge.com/elfin.htm 

James, Carey. (2003). Gulf Coast continued to lose salmon jobs in 2002. 

Homernews.com. Retrieved August 6, 2003 from 

http://www.homernews.com/storie/041703/sea001.shtml 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
532

Jannotta, Sepp. (2003, March 13) Seattle company buys Wards Cove’s plant in Seward. 

Seawatch. Retrieved September 30, 2003 from 

http://www.homernews.com/stories/031303/sea_031303sea001.shtml 

Juneau Daily News Online (2002, January 25). Cannery put up for sale by Trident. 

Juneau Daily News Online. Retrieved August 21, 2003, from 

http://alaska.dns2go.com/archives/week_of_01-21-02/jueau_news_01-25-02.html 

Kawerak, Inc. (2001). Kawerak, Inc. Retrieved October 27, 2003 from 

http://www.kawerak.org/ 

Kasson, Joan. (1997). The Trustees’ papers volume V, The Early History of the 

Permanent Fund: Perspectives on the Origins of the Alaska’s Oil Savings Account. A 

Trustee Paper for the Alaska Permanent Fund Corporation. 

Kenai Peninsula Borough. (2005). The Kenai Peninsula Borough. Retrieved May 25, 

2005 from http://www.borough.kenai.ak.us/gov01.htm 

Kenai Peninsula Online. (2000). Adak fish processor gets investment [Electronic 

version]. Kenai Peninsula Online. Retrieved June 27, 2003, from 

http://peninsulaclarion.com. 

Kenai Peninsula Online. (2003). Adak chosen for missile defense system radar 

[Electronic version]. Kenai Peninsula Online. Retrieved August 19, 2003 from 

http://www.peninsulaclarion.com 

Kenai Peninsula Online. (2003). Trident Agrees to $1 Million Penalty for Pollution. 

[Electronic version]. Kenai Peninsula Online. Retrieved January 5, 2003 from 

http://www.peninsulaclarion.com/stories/010503/ala_0105030012.shtml 

Knapp, Gunnar; Wiese, Craig; Henzler, Jude; & Remayne, Peter. (2001). A Village Fish 

Processing Plant: Yes or No? A Planning Handbook. Anchorage: Institute of Social and 

Economic Research, University of Alaska Anchorage. 

Kodiak Area Native Association. (2001). Kodiak Area Native Association. Retrieved 

August 5, 2003 from http://www.kanaweb.org/ 

Kodiak.org. (2000). Kodiak Island, Alaska – Official Vistors Guide – Larsen Bay. 

Retrieved July 30, 2003, from http://www.kodiak.org/larsen_bay.html 

Kohlhoff, Dean. (1995). When the Wind Was a River. Aleut Evacuation in World War II. 

University of Washington Press: Seattle. 

Kohlhoff, Dean W. (2002). Amchitka and the Bomb. Nuclear Testing in Alaska. 

University of Washington Press: Seattle. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
533

Koniag Incorporated. (n.d.). Koniag Incorporated. Retrieved August 5, 2003 from 

http://www.koniag.com/koniag/index.cfm 

Korsmo, Fae L. (1994). The Alaska Natives. In Minority Rights Group (Ed.), Polar 

Peoples: Self Determination and Development. London: Minority Rights Publications. 

Lake & Peninsula Borough. (n.d.). Egegik School. Retrieved July 1, 2003, from 

http://www.lpsd.com/school_web_pages/ege_school/index.html 

Langdon-Pollock, Jennifer. (2004). West Coast Marine Fishing Community Descriptions. 

Portland: Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission, Economic Fisheries Information 

System. 

Lower Yukon School District. (n.d.). Emmonak School. Retrieved August 13, 2003, from 

http://www.lysd.gcisa.net/lysd/emo.htm 

Loy, Wesley. (2005). Last great crab race, open derbies to be eliminated in favor of catch 

quotas for each boat. Anchorage Daily News, January 16, 2005. Retrieved August 18, 

2005 from http://www.ifqsforfisheries.org/cover_story/news_crab.php 

Mahler, Captain Thomas J. (1911.). Reminiscences of Alaska. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved between July and December 2003 from 

http://www.history.noaa.gov/stories/maherala10.html 

Mason, Rachel. (1995). The Alutiiq Ethnographic Bibliography. Retrieved May 22, 2003 

from http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/aeb.html 

McCay, Bonnie J., Bryan Oles, Johnelle Lamarque, Brent Stoffle and Kevin St. Martin, 

eds. (2004). Mid-Atlantic Fishing Communities: A Report to the NEFSC, NMFS, 

NOAA. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Fisheries Project, Department of Human Ecology, 

Cook College, Rutgers the State University. 

Mitchell, Lt. Robert J. (2000). The Capture of Attu. A World War II Battle as Told by the 

Men Who Fought There. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln. 

Naske, C.M. & Slotnick, H. (1987). Alaska: A History of the 49th State, 2nd ed. Norman, 

OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 

National Marine Fisheries Services Office of Valdez Oil Spill Damage Assessment and 

Restoration. (n.d.). Retrieved October 15, 2003 from 

http://www.fakr.noaa.gov/oil/defoult.htm 

National Park Service. (n.d.). Aleutian Natural History. Retrieved May 15, 2003, from 

http://www.nps.gov/aleu/AleutianNaturalHistory.htm 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
534

National Park Service. (n.d.). Archaeology of the Tundra and Arctic Alaska. Retrieved 

May 22, 2003, from http://www.nps.gov/akso/akarc/arctiv.htm 

Nikiski Fire Department. (n.d.). Department History. Retrieved July 30, 2003, from 

http://www.borough.kenai.ak.us/NikiskiFire/History.htm 

NOAA. (1998). 50 CFR Part 600, Magnuson-Stevens Act Provisions; National Standard 

Guidelines; Final Rule. Federal Register 63 (84): 24211-24237. 

NOAA. (2001). Guidance for Social Impact Assessment in Appendix 2g. Retrieved July 

2005 from http:// www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/econ/cia/sia_appendix2g.pdf 

NOAA. (2003). Commercial Fisheries Landings: Data Caveats. Retrieved July 2005 

from http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/commercial/landings/caveat.html 

North Pacific Fishery Management Council. (1994). Faces of the Fisheries. 

Parnow, Patricia H. (2001). Making History: Alutiiq/Sugpiaq Life on the Alaska 

Peninsula. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. 

National Park Service. (n.d.). History of Native People. Retrieved between July and 

December 2003 from http://www.nps.gov/lacl/native_history.htm 

National Park Service. (n.d.). Port Alsworth’s Hardy History. Retrieved between July and 

December 2003 from http://www.nps.gov/lacl/port_alsworth_history.htm 

Norton Sound Economic Development Corporation. (2003). Norton Sound Economic 

Development Corporation. Retrieved between July and December 2003 from 

http://www.nsedc.com/ 

Obeso, Vera. (1994, May 9). Atka changing, striving for economic stability. Dutch 

Harbor Fisherman. 

Rasmuson Foundation. (2002). Retrieved July 29, 2003, from 

http://www.rasmuson.org/awards/2002/T2/grants.html 

Reger, Douglas R. (1981). A Model for Culture History in Upper Cook Inlet, Alaska. 

Dissertation, Washington State University. 

Renneck, Penny, ed. (1994). The Alaskan Peninsula. Alaska Geographic, 21(1). 

Rennick, Penny, ed. (2002). From Kodiak to Unalaska. Alaska Geographic, 29(4). 

Rigby, Phillip W., Ackley, David R., Funk, Fritz, Geiger, Harold J., Kruse, Gordon H., 

and Murphy, Margaret C. (1995). Management of the Marine Fisheries Resources of 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
535

Alaska. Regional Information Report 5J95-04. Alaska Department of Fish and Game: 

Juneau. 

Rourke, Norman Edward. (1997). War Comes to Alaska: The Dutch Harbor Attack, June 

3-4, 1942. Shippensburg, PA: Burd Street Press. 

Sea Lion Corporation. (n.d.). Sea Lion Hotel. Retrieved August 15, 2003, from 

http://www.unicom-alaska.com/~slchotel/index.html 

Seldovia.com. (n.d.). Seldovia Alaska Retrieved September 30, 2003 from 

http://www.seldovia.com/index.htm 

Sitka Economic Development Association (SEDA). (2003). Community Profile 2003: 

Sitka Alaska, City and Borough. Sitka: SEDA 

Snopac Products Inc. (2003). Company Profile. Retrieved July 3, 2003, from 

http://www.snopacproducts.com/ 

Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference. (2003). Steller Sea Lion Mitigation Program. 

Retrieved August 6, 2003 from http://www.swamc.org/stellerlist.html 

St. George Tanaq Corporation. (n.d.). Company Info. Retrieved July 3, 2003, from 

http://www.stgeorgetanaq.com/compinfo/default.html 

State of Alaska. (2003). $7 Million in Salmon Funds Go to Local Govt’s. July 7, 2003, 

No. 03-146. Retrieved August 17, 2005 from 

http://www.gov.state.ak.us/news.php?id=397 

State of Alaska, Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission. (2005). Current Fishery 

Codes Description Table. Retrieved August 11, 2005 from 

http://www.cfec.state.ak.us/MISC/FSHYDESC.HTM 

State of Alaska, Department of Commerce, Department of Community Advocacy. 

(2002). State Revenue Sharing Program. Retrieved June 18, 2005 from 

http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/LOGON/srs/srs-srs.htm 

State of Alaska, Permanent Fund Dividend Division. (2005). Applications and Payments: 

Historical Summary of Dividend Applications and Payments. Retrieved February 15, 

2005 from http://www.pfd.state.ak.us/appsandpaymnts/index.aspx 

Travelocity. (2003). Retrieved between July and December 2003 from 

http://www.travelocity.com. 

Trident Seafoods. (2001). Alaskan Plants. Retrieved July 10, 2003, from 

http://www.tridentseafoods.com 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
536

Unruh, Leon (2003). Fishing puts sockeyes in spotlight: as fish return to spawn, anglers 

score big. Alaska.com. Retrieved August 20, 2003, from 

http://www.alaska.com/akcom/western/visit_travel/story/737251p-785036c.html 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (n.d.). Togiak National Wildlife Refuge. Retrieved 

September 2, 2003, from http://togiak.fws.gov/overview.html 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Region Fisheries Resources, King Salmon Fishery 

Resource Office. (n.d.). Fisheries Investigations on National Wildlife Refuges. Retrieved 

July 7, 2003 from http://www.r7.fws.gov/fish/kingsalm/ksinves.html 

Vaccaro, Ismael, and Sepez, Jennifer. (2003). Three Faces of North Pacific Fisheries: 

Commercial, Recreational, and Subsistence Fishing in Alaskan Fishing Communities. 

Poster presented at Managing Our Nation’s Fisheries: Past, Present and Future, a NMFS 

conference, November 2003, Washington DC. Available at URL: 

ftp://ftp.afsc.noaa.gov/posters/pVaccaro01_3-faces.pdf 

VisitKenai.com . (n.d.). The History of Kenai. Retrieved July 31, 2003, from 

http://www.visitkenai.com/artsculture/history.asp 

Welcome to Halibut Cove.com. (2003). The History of Halibut Cove. Retrieved August 

30, 2003 from http://www.halibutcove.com/artists.htm 

Wolfe, Robert J. & Walker, Robert J. (1987). Subsistence Economies in Alaska: 

Productivity, Geography, and Development Impacts. Arctic Anthropology, 24(2), 56-81. 

Wolfe, Robert J. (2000). Wild Food Harvests in Alaska, Nutritional Contributions Sorted 

by Harvest and Place. Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 

Retrieved between July and December 2003 from 

http://www.subsistence.adfg.state.ak.us/download/nutri97.pdf 

Yukon Delta Fisheries Development Association. (n.d.). Executive Summary, Yukon 

Delta Fisheries Development Association’s Community Development 2003-2005 Plan 

Application: Multi-species Community Development Quota Program. Retrieved August 

14, 2003, from http://www.dced.state.ak.us/cbd/CDQ/pub/YDFDAexesummary.pdf 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/References 
537

6.0 APPENDICES 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
538

6.1 Appendix A: Authors 

Jennifer Sepez leads the non-economic aspects of the social science program at the 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center (National Marine Fisheries Service). She is an affiliate 

member of the faculty in the University of Washington’s Department of Anthropology. 

Prior to receiving her Ph.D. in Environmental Anthropology from the University of 

Washington, she worked in the fishing industry in Prince William Sound and for the 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. She has conducted research on indigenous 

environmental knowledge and resource use in Alaska, the Northwest Coast (US), and 

Mexico. She is responsible for the design and implementation of the community profiles 

project. She can be contacted at Jennifer.Sepez@noaa.gov. 

Heather Lazrus is currently a graduate student in the Environmental Anthropology 

Program at the University of Washington. She began working for the National Marine 

Fisheries Service in June 2003 and has since held Research Assistant positions at both the 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center and the Northwest Fisheries Science Center. She has 

been involved with projects at both Centers to compile socioeconomic profiles of fishing 

communities where residents are involved in the North Pacific and West Coast fisheries. 

In her dissertation research Heather is investigating cultural and political impacts of 

global climate change on small scale societies. As well as Alaska and the West Coast of 

the United States, she has field experience in the Solomon Islands, New Zealand, and 

Tuvalu where she will conduct dissertation fieldwork in 2006. She can be contacted at 

lazrus@u.washington.edu. 

Christina Package is a social science research assistant at the Alaska Fisheries Science 

Center (National Marine Fisheries Service). She holds a bachelor’s degree in 

Anthropology from the University of Washington, with a minor in Environmental 

Studies. Since 2001 when she began as an intern for the project focused on the Pribilof 

Islands, she has done research for NOAA that is centered in Alaska. She has been with 

the Alaska Center since 2002 and has worked during that time on various projects 

including a Traditional Ecological Knowledge database, Dutch Harbor research, and 

worked extensively on the Alaska community profiles. She is also involved in the joint 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center and Northwest Fisheries Science Center project to 

profile mainly West Coast communities with involvement in the North Pacific and/or 

West Coast fisheries. She can be contacted at Christina.Package@noaa.gov. 

Bryan Tilt is currently an assistant professor of anthropology at Oregon State University. 

He earned his Ph.D. in anthropology from the University of Washington, and worked on 

the community profiles project primarily as a graduate student in that department. In 

addition to fisheries management, Dr. Tilt's research focuses on sustainable rural 

development in China. He is presently working on a project that assesses the effects of 

industrialization on health and family structure in Sichuan, China. He can be contacted at 

Bryan.Tilt@oregonstate.edu. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
539

Ismael Vaccaro received his Ph.D. in Environmental Anthropology at the University of 

Washington (2005). His academic background includes a M. A. in Anthropology at the 

Ecole d’ Hautes en Sciences Sociales (Paris), and studies in Political Science. His 

research is mainly devoted at understanding the relationships between conservation areas 

and local communities. He is currently involved in research projects in Spain and 

Mexico. 

Authors by Profile 

Although the profiling was a collaborative effort, individual team members are largely responsible for the 

first draft of each profile. Subsequent revisions and edits were made by other members of the team, plus 

the AFSC Publications Unit. 

Introduction – Jennifer Sepez 

Methods – Jennifer Sepez and Christina Package 

Overview – Bryan Tilt, Christina Package, and Jennifer Sepez 

Adak – Christina Package 

Alaska Peninsula & Aleutian Islands Sub-regional Introduction – Bryan Tilt 

Akhiok – Christina Package 

Akiachak – Bryan Tilt 

Akutan – Bryan Tilt 

Aleknagik – Christina Package 

Alitak Bay – Jennifer Sepez 

Anchor Point – Bryan Tilt 

Anchorage (Anchorage Eagle River-Chugiak Girdwood) – Ismael Vaccaro 

Anchorage/Matsu Regional Introduction – Christina Package 

Angoon – Heather Lazrus 

Atka – Heather Lazrus 

Bethel – Bryan Tilt 

Chefornak – Bryan Tilt 

Chignik Bay – Ismael Vaccaro 

Chignik Lagoon – Ismael Vaccaro 

Chignik Lake – Ismael Vaccaro 

Clam Gulch – Bryan Tilt 

Clark’s Point – Christina Package 

Cordova – Heather Lazrus 

Craig – Bryan Tilt 

Dillingham – Christina Package 

Edna Bay – Ismael Vaccaro 

Eek – Bryan Tilt 

Egegik – Christina Package 

Ekuk – Christina Package 

Ekwok – Christina Package 

Elfin Cove – Heather Lazrus 

Elim – Ismael Vaccaro 

Emmonak – Christina Package 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
540

Excursion Inlet – Heather Lazrus 

Fairbanks – Ismael Vaccaro 

False Pass – Heather Lazrus 

Fritz Creek – Heather Lazrus 

Galena – Christina Package 

Goodnews Bay – Bryan Tilt 

Gustavus – Heather Lazrus 

Haines – Heather Lazrus 

Halibut Cove – Heather Lazrus 

Hobart Bay – Heather Lazrus 

Homer – Bryan Tilt 

Hoonah – Heather Lazrus 

Hooper Bay – Christina Package 

Hydaburg – Bryan Tilt 

Igiugig – Bryan Tilt 

Iliamna – Ismael Vaccaro 

Interior Alaska Regional Introduction – Bryan Tilt and Christina Package 

Ivanof Bay – Bryan Tilt 

Juneau (Juneau/Douglas/Auke Bay) – Ismael Vaccaro 

Kake – Heather Lazrus 

Karluk – Christina Package 

Kasilof – Bryan Tilt 

Kenai Peninsula Regional Introduction – Bryan Tilt 

Kenai – Bryan Tilt 

Ketchikan (Ketchikan/Ward Cove) – Bryan Tilt 

King Cove – Heather Lazrus 

King Salmon – Bryan Tilt 

Kipnuk – Bryan Tilt 

Klawock – Ismael Vaccaro 

Kodiak Sub-regional Introduction – Christina Package 

Kodiak – Christina Package 

Kokhanok – Bryan Tilt 

Koliganek – Christina Package 

Kongiganak – Bryan Tilt 

Kotlik – Christina Package 

Kwigillingok – Bryan Tilt 

Larsen Bay – Christina Package 

Levelock – Ismael Vaccaro 

Manokotak – Christina Package 

Marshall – Christina Package 

Metlakatla – Bryan Tilt 

Meyers Chuck – Ismael Vaccaro 

Naknek – Heather Lazrus 

Napakiak – Bryan Tilt 

Nelson Lagoon – Bryan Tilt 

New Stuyahok – Christina Package 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
541

Newhalen – Bryan Tilt 

Newtok – Bryan Tilt 

Nightmute – Bryan Tilt 

Nikiski – Christina Package 

Nikolaevsk – Bryan Tilt 

Ninilchik – Bryan Tilt 

Nome – Ismael Vaccaro 

Northern Alaska Regional Introduction – Christina Package 

Old Harbor – Christina Package 

Ouzinkie – Christina Package 

Palmer – Ismael Vaccaro 

Pedro Bay – Bryan Tilt 

Pelican – Heather Lazrus 

Perryville – Bryan Tilt 

Petersburg – Heather Lazrus 

Pilot Point – Ismael Vaccaro 

Pilot Station – Christina Package 

Platinum – Bryan Tilt 

Point Baker – Ismael Vaccaro 

Port Alexander – Bryan Tilt 

Port Alsworth – Bryan Tilt 

Port Graham – Bryan Tilt and Heather Lazrus 

Port Heiden – Ismael Vaccaro 

Port Lions – Christina Package 

Port Moller – Jennifer Sepez 

Port Protection – Ismael Vaccaro 

Portage Creek – Christina Package 

Prince William Sound sub-regional intro – Bryan Tilt 

Prudhoe Bay – Bryan Tilt 

Quinhagak – Christina Package 

Sand Point – Ismael Vaccaro 

Scammon Bay – Christina Package 

Seldovia – Heather Lazrus 

Seward – Heather Lazrus 

Shaktoolik – Ismael Vaccaro 

Sitka – Heather Lazrus 

Skwentna – Heather Lazrus 

Soldotna – Bryan Tilt 

South East Alaska Regional Introduction – Bryan Tilt 

South Naknek – Heather Lazrus 

St. George – Christina Package 

St. Mary’s – Christina Package 

St. Paul – Christina Package 

Sterling – Heather Lazrus 

Tenakee Springs – Heather Lazrus 

Thorne Bay – Ismael Vaccaro 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
542

Togiak – Christina Package 

Toksook Bay – Christina Package 

Tuntutuliak – Christina Package 

Tununak – Christina Package 

Twin Hills – Christina Package 

Ugashik – Christina Package 

Unalakleet – Ismael Vaccaro 

Unalaska/Dutch Harbor – Bryan Tilt 

Valdez – Heather Lazrus 

Wasilla – Ismael Vaccaro 

Western Alaska Sub-regional Introduction – Bryan Tilt 

Whale Pass – Heather Lazrus 

Whittier – Heather Lazrus 

Willow – Ismael Vaccaro 

Wrangell – Bryan Tilt 

Yakutat – Heather Lazrus 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
543

6.2 Appendix B: Combined, Unrecognizable, and Subsumed 

Communities 

Date reported for some communities were combined or partially combined based on 

different treatment by different data sources. 

*Bold indicates a community was originally selected for profiling as a place named in the data by the 

method described above; non-bold indicates a community was not originally selected as a separate entity 

for profiling, but that one or more of the data sources included it as part of a selected community. The 

parameters and constraints indicated in the Data Issues column ultimately drove the treatment of the 

communities as indicated in the Action column. 

Community* 

Data Issues 

Treated as 

separate places 

by: 

Action 

CF 

EC 

Census Other 

Akhiok and 

Alitak Bay 

There was no individual 

information available for Alitak 

Bay in the Census or the Alaska 

DCED Community Database. 

CFEC names it as a separate 

community, but does not 

separate the data from Akhiok 

data. Alitak Bay shows up 

separately in fish ticket data 

due to the presence of a 

processor. 

No No Yes 

Alitak Bay not 

profiled 

individually, but 

fishing 

information is 

included in the 

Akhiok profile. 

Alitak Bay is 

also discussed 

in sub-regional 

introduction for 

Kodiak. 

Anchorage, 

Girdwood, 

Eagle 

River/Chugiak 

Data for Anchorage, Girdwood, 

and Eagle River/Chugiak are 

given separately by the CFEC, 

but these are not treated as 

separate “places” in Census or 

other data. For crew data, the 

overall crew numbers are 

reported as combined (based on 

ADF&G data), but CFEC’s 

reported numbers for Girdwood 

and Eagle River/Chugiak are 

also reported. 

Yes No No 

Combined 

during selection 

procedures, 

general data 

reported as 

combined in 

Anchorage 

profile, 

followed by 

separated CFEC 

data. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
544

Dillingham 

and Portage 

Creek 

Although the US Census treats 

Dillingham and Portage Creek 

as separate “places,” the CFEC 

does not give separate data for 

the two. 

No Yes Yes 

Combined in 

Dillingham 

profile. 

Excursion 

Inlet and 

Funter Bay 

Excursion Inlet and Funter Bay 

are named separately in the 

CFEC database, but 

information is only given for 

the two combined. 

No No Yes 

Combined in 

Excursion Inlet 

profile 

Hobart Bay, 

Idaho Inlet, and 

Skagway 

Hobart Bay, Idaho Inlet, and 

Skagway are all named 

separately in the CFEC 

database, but information is 

only given for the three 

combined. Hobart Bay and 

Skagway are treated as separate 

in all other data sources, while 

Idaho Inlet does not appear in 

other data sets. 

No 

HB 

= 

Yes 

II = 

No, 

S = 

Yes 

HB 

= 

Yes 

II = 

No, 

S = 

Yes 

Combined in 

Hobart Bay 

profile 

Ketchikan and 

Ketchikan East 

and Ward Cove 

The CFEC names “Ketchikan 

East” separately, but does not 

give separate data for it. 

Ketchikan East is not 

recognized as a separate place 

by other data sources. CFEC 

data is given separately for 

Ward Cove and Ketchikan. We 

combined Ward Cove with 

Ketchikan data because Ward 

Cove does not appear 

separately in other (fish ticket 

and Census place-level) data. 

K 

and 

KE 

= 

No, 

K 

and 

WC 

= 

Yes 

No No 

Combined in 

Ketchikan 

profile. 

Kodiak and 

Chiniak 

Although the US Census treats 

Kodiak and Chiniak as separate 

“places,” the CFEC does not 

give separate data for the two. 

No Yes Yes 

Combined in 

Kodiak profile 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
545

Port Moller There was no information 

available for Port Moller from 

the US Census or the Alaska 

DCED It is listed as a separate 

community by the CFEC, but 

permit holdings are recorded as 

zero. Port Moller was selected 

as a profile community because 

there was an active processor 

there in 2000, however, due to 

the lack of information it could 

not be profiled on an individual 

basis. 

Yes No Yes 

Not profiled 

individually. 

Discussed only 

in Regional 

Introduction for 

Alaska 

Peninsula/Aleuti 

an Islands 

Unalaska and 

Dutch Harbor 

Although CFEC separates these 

data, US Census does not treat 

Dutch Harbor as a separate 

“place.” 

Yes No Yes 

Combined for 

profile of 

“Unalaska/Dutc 

h Harbor” 

Whale Pass, 

Port 

Protection, 

Tokean, 

Tuxekan, and 

Noyes Island 

Whale Pass, Port Protection, 

Tokean, Tuxekan, and Noyes 

Island are all named in the 

CFEC database, but 

information is only given for 

the five combined. Whale Pass 

and Port Protection are treated 

as separate places by the 

Census, but the others are not. 

Whale Pass and Port Protection 

also show up independently in 

fish ticket data, but the others 

do not. 

No 

WP 

and 

PP 

= 

Yes 

T ,T 

and 

NI 

= 

No 

WP 

and 

PP 

= 

Yes 

T, T 

and 

NI 

= 

No 

Combined in 

Whale Pass 

profile 

The following communities had fisheries data generated in at least one of the categories, 

but did not have a place-level population recorded by the US Census, and were not able 

to be combined with a Census place for a variety of reasons. In many cases, these are 

unofficial community names used by locals but not clearly recognizable as part of a 

jurisdiction. Therefore, these communities could not have a percent calculated for 

indicators 2-8. The three communities listed in bold were selected for profiling anyway, 

because they had a processing plant present, and thus generated data in indicator 1, which 

does not require a population denominator: 

Admiralty Island, Afognak, Alagnak, Alagnak River, Alexander Creek, Alitak Bay, 

Amook Island, Amook Pass, Annette Island, Ayakulik River, Baranof, Bentalit Lodge, 

Big River Lake, Bird Creek, Boathouse Cove, Bristol Bay, Brooks Lake, Calder Bay, 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
546

Cannery Bay, Cannery Cove, Cape Pole, Chatham, Chelatna Lake, Chilkat Lake, China 

Poot Bay, Chinitna Bay, Chisik Island, Clarks Slough, Coffee Point, Cohen Island, 

Council, Coville Lake, Crow Island, Deep Bay, Deep Creek, Deshka Landing, Diamond 

J, Dry Bay, Ekuk, El Capitan, Ellamar, English Bay, Falls Bay, Farragent Bay, Fire 

Lake, Fish Creek, Fish Lake, Fish Lake Creek, Fish Lakes, Fort Wainwright, Funter Bay, 

Galovin, Goodnews River, Grosvenor Lake, Hewitt Lake, Hidden Basin, Holitna River, 

Icy Bay, Inian Island, Island Lake, Ivan River, Jakolof Bay, Kachemak Silo, Kalgin 

Island, Kalugin Island, Kamishak River, Kanakanak, Kanektok River, Kasitsna Bay, 

Katmai Lodge, Kenai River, Knudson Cove, Kusko River, Kustatan, Kvichak, Kvichak 

River, Lake Clark, Lake Creek, Lake Iliamna, Libbyville, Little Tutka Bay, Lonesome 

Bay, Marabou Landing, Marble Island, Medfra, Meshik, Mile 20 Denali Hwy, Moser 

Bay, Mount Edgecumbe, Mulchatna River, Nelson Island, Nikishka, Ninilchik Harbor, 

Nonvianuk Lake, Nushagak, Nushagak River, Olga Bay, Pederson Point, Pennock, Pile 

Bay, Port Althrop, Port Ashton, Port Bailey, Port Beaucher, Port Moller, Port William, 

Portage, Powder Island Cove, Pybus Bay, Quiet Cove, Raspberry Island, Raymond, Red 

Salmon, Rock Point, Saltery Cove, Sarkar, Security Bay, Shelter, Shelter Island, Silver 

Salmon Cr, Silverton, Sourdough, Squaw Creek, Strawberry Pt, Sunshine, Tacoma, 

Talachulitna, Talachulitna River, Tee Harbor, Terror Bay, Tikchik Lake, Tokeen Cove, 

Tutka Bay, Ugak Bay, Uganik, Umkumute, Vixen Inlet, Warm Springs, Warren, 

Waterfall, Waterfall Resort, Wolf Lake, Wood River, Wooldridge, Yentna River, Yes 

Bay, Zachar Bay. 

In other cases, the community or sub-community has been subsumed by a larger “place” 

recognized the US Census. Where this latter situation was detected prior to the selection 

procedures, fisheries data for sub-communities were combined with fisheries data for the 

Census place-level community for the purpose of selection. Specifically, Aleknagik 

includes Lake Aleknagik; Alitak Bay includes Alitak; Anchorage includes Alexander, 

Chugiak, Eagle River, Fort Richardson, Girdwood, Indian, and Spenard; Angoon 

includes Killisnoo, Killisnoo Harbor, and Killisnoo Island; Chenega includes Chenega 

Bay; Chickaloon includes Sutton; Chignik includes Chignik Bay; Haines includes Port 

Chilkoot; Holitna River includes Holitna; Juneau includes Auke Bay, Douglas, and 

Funter; Kalifornsky includes Kalifornsky Beach; Kanektok River includes Kanektok; 

Ketchikan includes Ward Cove; Knik-Fiarview includes Knik; Kodiak includes Seal Bay; 

Levelock includes Gokona; Marshall includes Fortuna Ledge with Marshall; Naknek 

includes North Naknek; Pilot Point includes Point Pilot; Saint George includes Saint 

George Island; Saint Paul includes Saint Paul Island; Sarkar includes Sarkar Cove; 

Sheldon Point includes Nunam Iquaa; Tenakee Springs includes Tenakee; Tikchik Lake 

includes Tikchik Lodge; Toksook Bay includes Toksook; Uganik Bay includes Uganik; 

Unalaska includes Dutch Harbor; Upper Kalskag includes Kalskag; Warm Springs 

includes Warm Springs Bay. 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
547

6.3 Appendix C: Glossary of Abbreviations 

Glossary of Abbreviations 

ADF&G Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

AEC Aleut Enterprise Corporation 

AKFIN Alaska Fisheries Information Network 

ANCSA Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 

ANILCA Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act 

APIA Aleutian Pribilof Islands Association 

APICDA Aleutian Pribilof Islands Community Development Association 

ATV all terrain vehicle 

BP before the present 

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs 

BBAHC Bristol Bay Area Health Corporation 

BBEDC Bristol Bay Economic Development Corporation 

BBNA Bristol Bay Native Association 

BBNC Bristol Bay Native Corporation 

BCIS Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services 

BLM Bureau of Land Management 

BSAI Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands 

BSNC Bering Straits Native Corporation 

CAC Chugach Alaska Corporation 

CBSFA Central Bering Sea Fishermen’s Association 

CDQ Community Development Quota 

CFEC Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission 

CIRI Cook Inlet Region Incorporated 

CQE Community Quota Entity 

CSPA Chignik Seafood Producers Alliance 

CVRF Coastal Villages Region Fund 

DCED Department of Community and Economic Development 

DIPAC Douglas Island Pink and Chum 

EMS Emergency Medical Services 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

ESA Endangered Species Act 

FCA Fishing Company of Alaska 

GOA Gulf of Alaska 

HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development 

IFQ Individual Fishing Quota 

IRA Indian Reorganization Act 

KANA Kodiak Area Native Association 

LLP License Limitation Program 

Mat-Su Matanuska-Susitna 

MFCMA Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act 

MSFCMA Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service 

NPFMC North Pacific Fishery Management Council 

NSEDC Norton Sound Economic Development Corporation 

NSSP Norton Sound Seafood Products 

OC Ounalashka Corporation 

PFD Permanent Fund Dividend 

PSPA Pacific Seafood Processors Association 

SEARHC SouthEast Alaska Regional Health Consortium 

SHARC Subsistence Halibut Registration Certificate 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
548

SRS State Revenue Sharing 

SWAMC Southwest Alaska Municipal Conference 

TCC Tanana Chiefs Conference 

TDX Tanadgusix Corporation 

THREA Tlingit-Haida Regional Electric Authority 

UNFA Unalaska Native Fisheries Association 

USDA United States Department of Agriculture 

VPO Village Police Officer 

VPSO Village Public Safety Officer 

WACO Willow Area Community Organization 

YDFDA Yukon Delta Fisheries Development Association 

YKHC Yukon-Kuskokwim Health Corporation 

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Appendices 
 549

7.0 Index of Communities 

A

Adak..........................................................................................290

Akhiok.......................................................................................192

Akiachak.....................................................................................391

Akutan........................................................................................294

Aleknagik.....................................................................................394

Alitak Bay........................................................................................195

Anchor Point.....................................................................................219

Anchorage, Municipality of..................................................................167

Angoon.......................................................................................63

Atka..........................................................................................297

Auke Bay (included in Juneau profile).......................................................98

B

Bethel........................................................................................397

C

Chefornak....................................................................................400

Chignik (Bay)....................................................................................301

Chignik Lagoon.................................................................................305

Chignik Lake....................................................................................309

Chugiak (included in Anchorage profile).................................................167

Clam Gulch......................................................................................222

Clark’s Point.....................................................................................402

Cordova.......................................................................................269

Craig..........................................................................................67

D

Dillingham...................................................................................405

Douglas (included in Juneau profile).........................................................98

Dutch Harbor/Unalaska........................................................................313

E

Eagle River (included in Anchorage profile)...............................................167

Edna Bay...........................................................................................71

Eek............................................................................................409

Egegik........................................................................................318

Ekuk..........................................................................................411

Ekwok........................................................................................414

Elfin Cove.........................................................................................74

Elim...........................................................................................501

Emmonak.....................................................................................417

Excursion Inlet....................................................................................78

F

Fairbanks.....................................................................................520

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Index of Communities 
550

False Pass........................................................................................322

Fritz Creek..........................................................................................274

G

Galena........................................................................................524

Girdwood (included in Anchorage profile).................................................167

Goodnews Bay.....................................................................................421

Gustavus.......................................................................................80

H

Haines.........................................................................................84

Halibut Cove.......................................................................................225

Hobart Bay............................................................................................89

Homer.........................................................................................228

Hoonah.......................................................................................91

Hooper Bay.........................................................................................424

Hydaburg.....................................................................................95

I

Igiugig.........................................................................................327

Iliamna.........................................................................................330

Ivanof Bay.........................................................................................333

J

Juneau, City and Bureau of.........................................................................98

K

Kake............................................................................................104

Karluk..........................................................................................196

Kasilof.........................................................................................232

Kenai..........................................................................................235

Ketchikan.....................................................................................108

King Cove..........................................................................................335

King Salmon......................................................................................339

Kipnuk.........................................................................................427

Klawock.......................................................................................112

Kodiak..........................................................................................199

Kokhanok.....................................................................................342

Koliganek......................................................................................430

Kongiganak....................................................................................433

Kotlik..........................................................................................436

Kwillingok....................................................................................439

L

Larsen Bay.........................................................................................205

Levelock.......................................................................................344

M

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Index of Communities 
 551

Manokotak....................................................................................441

Marshall......................................................................................444

Mekoryuk....................................................................................447

Metlakatla....................................................................................116

Meyers Chuck.....................................................................................119

N

Naknek......................................................................................347

Napakiak....................................................................................451

Nelson Lagoon.....................................................................................351

New Stuyahok.....................................................................................454

Newhalen....................................................................................354

Newtok.......................................................................................457

Nightmute...................................................................................459

Nikiski.......................................................................................239

Nikolaevsk..................................................................................243

Ninilchik.....................................................................................246

Nome.........................................................................................504

O

Old Harbor........................................................................................208

Ouzinkie.....................................................................................211

P

Palmer........................................................................................175

Pedro Bay...........................................................................................357

Pelican.......................................................................................122

Perryville....................................................................................359

Petersburg....................................................................................126

PilotPoint...........................................................................................361

Pilot Station.......................................................................................462

Platinum.....................................................................................465

Point Baker.........................................................................................131

Port Alexander....................................................................................134

Port Alsworth......................................................................................364

Port Graham......................................................................................249

Port Heiden........................................................................................366

Port Lions..........................................................................................214

Port Moller........................................................................................369

Port Protection...................................................................................137

Portage Creek.....................................................................................467

Prudhoe Bay......................................................................................508

Q

Quinhagak.....................................................................................470

R

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Index of Communities 
552

S

Saint George......................................................................................370

Saint Mary’s......................................................................................474

Saint Paul........................................................................................374

Sand Point.......................................................................................378

Scammon Bay...................................................................................478

Seldovia........................................................................................252

Seward........................................................................................256

Shaktoolik....................................................................................510

Sitka...........................................................................................140

Skwentna.....................................................................................179

Soldotna.......................................................................................261

South Naknek....................................................................................382

Sterling.......................................................................................264

T

Tenakee Springs................................................................................145 

Thorne Bay.......................................................................................149

Togiak.........................................................................................481

Toksook Bay.....................................................................................485

Tuntutuliak....................................................................................488

Tununak.......................................................................................491

Twin Hills.......................................................................................494

U

Ugashik........................................................................................386

Unalakleet.....................................................................................513

Unalaska/Dutch Harbor.......................................................................313

V

Valdez..........................................................................................278

W

Ward Cove (included in Ketchikan profile).............................................108

Wasilla........................................................................................182

Whale Pass......................................................................................152

Whittier.......................................................................................283

Willow........................................................................................186

Wrangell......................................................................................155

X

Y

Yakutat........................................................................................159

Z

Community Profiles for North Pacific Fisheries – Alaska/Index of Communities 
RECENT TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS


Copies of this and other NOAA Technical Memorandums are available from the 

National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22167 

(web site: www.ntis.gov). Paper and microfiche copies vary in price. 

AFSC159	 ETNIER, M. A., and C. W. FOWLER. 2005. Comparison of size selectivity between marine mammals and 

commercial fisheries with recommendations for restructuring management policies, 274 p. NTIS number 

pending. 

158 	 LANG, G. M., P. A. LIVINGSTON, and K. A. DODD, 2005. Groundfish food habits and predation on 

commercially important prey species in the eastern Bering Sea from 1997 through 2001, 222 p. NTIS 

number pending. 

157	 JOHNSON, S. W., A. DARCIE NEFF, and J. F. THEDINGA. 2005. An atlas on the distribution and habitat 

of common fishes in shallow nearshore waters of southeastern Alaska, 89 p. NTIS number pending. 

156	 HOFF, G. R., and L. L. BRITT. 2005. Results of the 2004 Eastern Bering Sea upper continental slope 

survey of groundfish and invertebrate resources, 276 p. NTIS No. PB2006-100504. 

155	 YANG, M-S., K. AYDIN, A. GRIEG, G. LANG, and P. LIVINGSTON. 2005. Historical review of capelin 

(Mallotus villosus) consumption in the Gulf of Alaska and Eastern Bering Sea, 89 p. NTIS No. PB2005­

110464. 

154	 HOLLAND D. S. 2005. Economic analysis of protection of essential fish habitat in Alaskan fisheries: An 

analysis of research needs, 35 p. NTIS No. PB2005-110129. 

153	 FRITZ, L. W., and C. STINCHCOMB. 2005. Aerial, ship, and land-based surveys of Steller sea lions 

(Eumetopias jubatus) in the western stock in Alaska, June and July 2003 and 2004, 56 p. NTIS number 

PB2005-108287. 

152	 AMES, R. T., G. H. WILLIAMS, and S. M. FITZGERALD. 2005. Using digital video monitoring systems 

in fisheries: Application for monitoring compliance of seabird avoidance devices and seabird mortality in 

Pacific halibut longline fisheries, 93 p. NTIS No. PB2005-107312. 

151	 TESTA, J. W. (editor). 2005. Fur seal investigations, 2002-2003, 72 p. NTIS No. PB2005-104811. 

150 	 GULLAND, F. M. D., H. PÉREZ-CORTÉS M., J. URBÁN R., L. ROJAS-BRACHO, G. YLITALO, J. WEIR, 

S. A. NORMAN, M. M. MUTO, D. J. RUGH, C. KREUDER, and T. ROWLES. 2005. Eastern North Pacific 

gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) unusual mortality event, 1999-2000: A compilation, 33 p. NTIS No. 

PB2005-105795. 

149	 RUGH, D. J., K. E. W. SHELDEN, C. L. SIMS, B. A. MAHONEY, B. K. SMITH, L. K. LITZKY, and R. C. 

HOBBS. 2005. Aerial surveys of belugas in Cook Inlet, Alaska, June 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2004, 71 p. 

NTIS No. PB2005-103921. 

148	 EILER, J. H., T. R. SPENCER, J. J. PELLA, M. M. MASUDA, and R. R. HOLDER. 2004. Distribution and 

movement patterns of chinook salmon returning to the Yukon River basin in 2000-2002, 99 p. NTIS No. 

PB2005-100707. 

147	 MCELDERRY, H., J. SCHRADER, D. MCCULLOUGH, J. ILLINGWORTH, S. FITZGERALD, and S. 

DAVIS. 2004. Electronic monitoring of seabird interactions with trawl third-wire cables on trawl vessels ­

a pilot study, 39 p. NTIS No. PB2005-100243.