U S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Maternity Leave and Employment

Patterns of First-Time Mothers:

1961–2000

Household Economic Studies

P70-103

Issued October 2005

Current

Population

Reports

By 

Julia Overturf Johnson

and

Barbara Downs

INTRODUCTION

A little over half of all American women

with a child under 1 year of age were in

the labor force in 2002.1 A child’s birth,

particularly the first child’s, often requires

changes in a family’s schedule, including

their work schedule. This report examines trends in maternity leave and the

employment patterns of women who gave

birth to their first child between January

1961 and December 2000.

The analysis primarily uses retrospective

fertility, employment, and maternity

leave data from the 2001 panel of the

U.S. Census Bureau’s Survey of Income

and Program Participation (SIPP), conducted in 2001.2 Previously published

results based on similarly collected information from the 1984, 1985, and 1996

SIPP panels are also included.3

The report analyzes trends in women’s

work experience prior to their first birth

and the factors associated with employment during pregnancy. Changes are

1 Barbara Downs, Fertility of American Women:

June 2002, Current Population Reports, P20-548,

U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 2003. 2 The data in this report were collected from June

through September 2001, in the second wave (interview) of the 2001 Survey of Income and Program

Participation (SIPP); from August through November

1996, in the second wave of the 1996 SIPP; from

January through April 1986, in the fourth wave of

the 1985 SIPP; and from January through March

1986, in the eighth wave of the 1984 SIPP. The population represented (population universe) is the civilian noninstitutionalized population living in the

United States. 3 For more information on the previously published report, see Martin O’Connell, “Maternity Leave

Arrangements: 1961–85,” in Work and Family Patterns

of American Women, Current Population Reports, 

P23-165, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, 1990.

placed in the historical context of the

enactment of family-related legislation

during the last quarter of the twentieth

century. The next section identifies the

maternity leave arrangements used by

women before and after their first birth

and the shifts that have occurred in the

mix of leave arrangements that are used.

The final section examines how rapidly

mothers return to work after their first

birth and the factors related to the

SIPP FERTILITY,

EMPLOYMENT, AND

MATERNITY LEAVE DATA

The 2001 panel of the nationally

representative Survey of Income

and Program Participation (SIPP)

included a fertility topical module in

the second wave of interviews conducted June–September 2001.

Information was collected on the

birth dates of the first and last children born to all women 15 to 64

years old at the time of the survey.

Women whose first child was born

between 1991 and the survey date

were also asked a series of questions concerning their employment

history before and after the birth,

as well as their receipt of maternity

leave benefits. Data from this survey were used in combination with

similar information collected in the

1984, 1985, and 1996 SIPP panels

to provide an extended series of

employment and maternity leave

data between 1961 and 2000.
length of time they are absent

from the labor force.

In addition to updating childbearing, employment, and maternity

leave trends through the 1990s,

the changes many new mothers

experience in the number of hours

worked, pay level, and job skill

level after the first birth are

detailed. These changes are examined in relation to whether a

woman returned to the same

employer she had during pregnancy or changed employers after the

birth of the child.

CHARACTERISTICS OF

MOTHERS AT FIRST BIRTH

Many of the social, economic, and

legislative changes that have

occurred in American society since

1961 are related to families, child

bearing, and work.4 At the same

time, the demographic picture of

new mothers has also changed.

This section analyzes some of

these events and details how the

characteristics of first-time mothers have changed over time.

Age and Educational

Attainment of First-Time

Mothers

Two factors that likely shape

women’s employment histories

prior to having their first child are

their age at the time of the first

birth and their educational attainment level. Young women giving

birth in their late teens and early

twenties are just beginning to

develop job skills and often have

not completed their education.

Women who have delayed childbearing until their late twenties

and thirties are more likely to have

completed their schooling and

accumulated more years of work

2 U.S. Census Bureau

4 Bureau of National Affairs, “Work and

Family: A Changing Dynamic,” BNA Special

Report: Washington DC, 1986.

experience. Education and experience can influence income levels

and job security, which may, in

turn, influence their decisions

about working during pregnancy

and how soon to return to work

after their first birth.

Age at first birth and the educational attainment of new mothers has

changed over time. Data from the

National Center for Health Statistics

(NCHS) show that the mean (average) age of first-time mothers

increased from 21.4 years in 1970

to 24.9 years in 2000.5 The percentage of first births that were to

women aged 30 and over tripled

between 1960 and 2000, from 

7 percent to 22 percent. At the

same time, the percentage of first

births that were to women under

20 years of age dropped from 

37 percent to 25 percent.

Educational attainment of first-time

mothers has also increased since

1970, partly because older women

are more likely to have completed

their education than younger firsttime mothers. In 2000, 27 percent

of first-time mothers had completed

16 or more years of school, compared with 10 percent in 1970.6

Another factor is that during this

time, an increasing proportion of

women 25 to 34 years old continued their education beyond high

school. The proportion who had

completed 4 or more years of college increased from 8 percent in

1960, to 12 percent in 1970, and

further increased to 23 percent by

1990. By 2000, the proportion

with a bachelor’s degree or more

5 Matthews, T. J. and B. E. Hamilton,

“Mean Age of Mother, 1970–2000,” National

Vital Statistics Reports; Vol. 51, No. 1,

Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health

Statistics, 2002. 6 National Center for Health Statistics,

2000 Natality Data Set, Vital Statistics of the

United States, Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention, Washington, DC.

education had reached 30 percent.7

Age and educational attainment of

first-time mothers are examined in

ensuing sections of this report.

Factors Related 

to Employment and 

Maternity Leave

In addition to changes in the age

and education of new mothers

over the previous four decades,

changes also occurred in the work

environment in terms of maternity

leave and employment issues. In

the 1970s, the common expectation that women would leave work

upon becoming pregnant began to

change.8 Another change during

the 1970s was the decision in

many families to have a second

income. To maintain economic

well-being and for other reasons,

more mothers began to enter and

stay in the workforce, resulting in

an increase in homes where both

spouses worked.9

Many legislative, judicial, and regulatory changes related to maternal

employment were enacted in the

1970s and 1980s that affected

employer practices during an

employee’s pregnancy and after

giving birth, as well as child care

costs. For example, in 1976 the

federal tax code was changed to

permit working families with a

dependent child to take a tax credit for child care costs. The affordability of child care services is an

issue for many women in deciding

7 Current Population Survey. Educational

Attainment Historical Tables: Table A-1, U.S.

Census Bureau: Washington, DC, 2005. Prior

to 1992, educational attainment was measured by years of schooling completed. Four

or more years of college is equivalent to a

bachelor’s degree or higher. 8 Andrew Cherlin, Marriage, Divorce,

Remarriage, Harvard University Press,

Massachusetts, 1992. 9 Frank Levy, The New Dollars and

Dreams, American Incomes and Economic

Change, Russell Sage Foundation, New York,

1998.
whether and when to return to

work.10 In 1978, the Pregnancy

Discrimination Act was passed,

which prohibited employment discrimination on the basis of pregnancy or childbirth. This act covered hiring and firing policies as

well as promotions and pay levels.

Flexible work schedules, employment-based child care benefits,

and maternity leave became popular employee issues during the

1980s at about the same time that

birth rates among women 30 and

older began to increase steadily in

the United States.11 A U.S.

Supreme Court decision in 1987,

California Federal Savings and

Loan Association v. Guerra, upheld

a California law requiring most

employers to grant pregnant

women 4 months of unpaid

disability leave and the right to

return to their same job. These

types of laws and rights are not

universal across the states. At the

federal level, The Family and

Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA)

mandates up to 12 weeks of

unpaid leave for childbearing or

family care over a 12-month period

for eligible employees. Studies so

far have found no solid evidence

that such laws have increased the

amount of leave women take by

any considerable amount, possibly

because the legislation addresses

unpaid leave only. Many families

identify financial pressures as the

reason why a mother returned to

work before her allotted period of

unpaid leave was over.12

EMPLOYMENT HISTORY

BEFORE THE FIRST BIRTH

This section describes overall

trends in women’s employment

history from 1961–1965 to

1996–2000 and the characteristics

of women who worked during

their first pregnancy.

Overall Trends: 1961–1965 

to 1996–2000

In the Fertility History portion of the

SIPP, all mothers are asked if they

ever worked for pay for at least 6

consecutive months before their

first birth and if they worked for

pay at a job at any time during the

pregnancy leading to their first

birth.13 The categories do not necessarily overlap as new mothers

may have worked for a few months

during their pregnancy while never

having worked for 6 months in a

row.14 Other mothers may have

worked at one time and quit working before they got pregnant. Table

1 shows that for mothers who had

their first child between 1996 and

2000, 74 percent had worked for at

U.S. Census Bureau 3

10 Daphne Spain and Suzanne Bianchi,

Balancing Act: Motherhood, Marriage, and

Employment Among American Women,

Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1996. 11 Harriet B. Presser, “Can We Make Time

for Children? The Economy, Work Schedules,

and Child Care,” Demography, Vol. 26

(1989): 523–543. Current Population Survey,

Fertility of American Women—Historical

Tables, U.S. Census Bureau: Washington, DC,

2003, Table H3.

12 Wen-Jui Hen and Jane Waldfogel,

“Parental Leave: The Impact of Recent

Legislation on Parent’s Leave Taking.”

Demography, Vol. 40, No 2 (2003): 191-200.

Jacob Klerman and Arleen Leibowitz, “Job

Continuity Among New Mothers,”

Demography, Vol. 36, No 2 (1999): 145-155.

13 For the remainder of this report, the

term “pregnancy” is used to refer to the

pregnancy preceding the first birth. 14 Working for 6 consecutive months is a

standard labor force indicator that measures

the likelihood of a serious commitment to

the labor force.

Table 1.

Employment History of Women Before First Birth: 1961–1965 to 1996–2000

Year of first birth Number of

women with

a first birth

(thousands)

Women with a first birth who—

Ever worked for 6

or more months

continuously1

Worked during

pregnancy

Worked full-time2 during pregnancyWorked part-time2 during pregnancy

Percent

Margin3 of error Percent

Margin3 of error PercentMargin3 of error PercentMargin3 of error

1961–1965 ............. 6,306 60.0 2.0 44.4 2.0 39.7 2.0 4.7 0.9

1966–1970 ............. 6,956 66.4 1.8 49.4 1.9 44.2 1.9 5.2 0.9

1971–1975 ............. 6,920 68.9 1.8 53.5 1.9 47.6 2.0 5.9 0.9

1976–1980 ............. 7,192 73.1 1.7 61.4 1.9 53.1 1.9 8.3 1.1

1981–1985 ............. 8,306 73.4 1.4 62.0 1.5 55.3 1.5 6.7 0.8

1986–1990 ............. 8,568 75.5 1.3 67.2 1.4 58.3 1.5 8.9 0.9

1991–1995 ............. 8,542 73.5 1.6 65.3 1.8 56.7 1.8 8.6 1.0

1996–2000 ............. 8,558 74.0 1.6 67.2 1.7 56.6 1.8 10.6 1.1

1 At any time before first birth.

2 Full-time/part-time status refers to last job held before first child’s birth. 3 The margin of error, when added to or subtracted from the estimate, provides the 90-percent confidence interval around the estimate.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Tables C and B-2,

P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
least a 6-month period in their lives.

This percentage had increased

since the early 1960s, when it was

60 percent of new mothers.15 Most

of the increase seen in the percentage of women who had ever

worked occurred by the

1976–1980 first-birth cohort. Age

is related to whether women have

worked before having their first

child. For women 30 years and

older, approximately 9 out of 10

women who had a first birth in

1996–2000 had worked for at least

6 consecutive months, compared

with about half of women under

22 years of age.16

A similar increase over time

occurred in the percentage of new

mothers who worked at all during

their pregnancy. Forty-four percent of women who had their first

birth between 1961 and 1965

worked while pregnant. By the

1986–1990 first-birth cohort, 

67 percent of new mothers worked

while pregnant and the proportion

has remained at about the same

levels since.17

Fifty-seven percent of first-time

mothers in 1996–2000 worked at

full-time jobs during their pregnancy (35 hours or more per week,

Table 1). The proportion of firsttime mothers working full-time during pregnancy in 1961–1965 was

40 percent. The percentage

increased by the late 1970s and has

stayed above 50 percent since.

Working part-time during pregnancy

also increased, from 5 percent of

4 U.S. Census Bureau

15 The estimates in this report (which may

be shown in text, figures, and tables) are

based on responses from a sample of the

population and may differ from the actual

values because of sampling variability or

other factors. As a result, apparent differences between the estimates for two or

more groups may not be statistically significant. All comparative statements have

undergone statistical testing and are significant at the 90-percent confidence level

unless otherwise noted. 16 Separate analysis, not shown in tables.

17 Overall labor force participation rates

for women, regardless of pregnancy status,

increased as follows: 32 percent in 1960, 43

percent in 1970, 52 percent in 1980, 58 percent in 1990, and 60 percent in 2000. See

the Bureau of Labor Statistics Web site at

<www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat2/pdf>.

Table 2.

Work History of Women During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth by Selected Characteristics: 1996–2000

Characteristic Number of women

with a first birth

(thousands)

Percent who worked

during pregnancy

Among women who worked while pregnant,

percent who stopped working—

Less than 3 months

before child’s birth

Less than 1 month

before child’s birth1

Total . . .............................. 8,558 67.2 84.8 56.6

Age at first birth

Under 18 years ........................ 790 32.5 72.4 44.0

18 and 19 years......................... 1,119 48.3 76.5 47.8

20 and 21 years......................... 1,177 56.8 79.5 49.5

22 to 24 years . . ........................ 1,199 74.5 82.2 50.4

25 to 29 years . . ........................ 2,125 77.9 87.4 59.4

30 years and over ....................... 2,147 80.7 90.0 64.4

Race and Hispanic origin

White ................................. 6,865 70.1 86.6 58.6

Non-Hispanic ......................... 5,463 75.7 86.6 58.8

Black .................................. 1,103 55.2 70.8 38.3

Asian and Pacific Islander ............... 498 55.6 81.9 59.6

Hispanic (any race) ..................... 1,530 48.0 84.7 57.6

Timing of first birth2

Before first marriage .................... 3,388 55.5 78.3 48.6

Within first marriage ..................... 4,654 74.1 87.7 59.7

After first marriage....................... 516 81.4 89.8 66.9

Educational attainment

Less than high school ................... 1,318 35.8 76.5 46.4

High school graduate .................... 2,337 59.8 80.9 51.5

Some college . .......................... 2,631 75.4 85.3 55.0

Bachelor’s degree or higher .............. 2,272 83.5 89.1 64.5

1 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy. 2 Refers to marital status at time of first birth. Before first marriage includes never-married women. After first marriage includes first births

outside marriage or within second or subsequent marriages.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
first-time mothers in 1961–1965 to

11 percent in 1996–2000 (the highest percentage among the cohorts).

Subsequent sections of this report

will show the extent to which weekly hours worked while pregnant and

the amount of leave taken from the

workforce around the time of a first

birth correlate with the type of

maternity benefits received.

Women Who Worked 

During Pregnancy

Table 2 summarizes the trends in

women’s work experience during

pregnancy in the late 1990s. Firsttime mothers under age 22 had

lower rates of employment during

pregnancy than older first-time

mothers. There were also large

employment differences between

women at the ends of the age spectrum. Thirty-three percent of new

mothers under the age of 18

worked while pregnant compared

with 81 percent of mothers 30 

and older.

Seventy-six percent of nonHispanic White women worked

during their first pregnancy, the

highest percentage among the

groups shown. About 55 percent

of Asian or Pacific Islander mothers

and Black mothers worked during

pregnancy. About half of Hispanic

women worked during pregnancy.18 

U.S. Census Bureau 5

18 Categories are not exclusive. Hispanics

may be any race. Based on the 2001 SIPP

Panel, Wave 2 maternity leave data, 8 percent

of the Black population and 5 percent of the

Asian or Pacific Islander population were

Hispanic. The percentage of Hispanic women

working during pregnancy is not statistically

different from the percentage of Asian or

Pacific Islander women and Black women who

worked during pregnancy. Data for the

American Indian and Alaska Native population

are not shown in this report because of their

small sample size in the survey.

A mother’s educational level is also

associated with the probability that

she worked during her first pregnancy. Table 2 shows that for new

mothers in 1996–2000, those with

a bachelor’s degree or higher were

more likely to have worked during

pregnancy (84 percent) than

women with less education (36 to

75 percent of women in other educational categories).

Figure 1 shows how the combination of educational attainment and

age at first birth are related to the

likelihood of working during pregnancy. These data show that older

first-time mothers, almost regardless of educational attainment, were

more likely to have worked during

pregnancy. At every level of educational attainment except a bachelor’s degree or higher, women 25 or

older at the time of their first birth

had higher rates of working during

pregnancy than younger first-time

mothers. There was no statistical

difference between the age groups

for women with bachelor’s degrees.

Women who became mothers later

in life were more likely to have

worked at some time prior to their

first birth. This finding may reflect

a decision to postpone pregnancy in

order to pursue job experiences or

because of reliance on that job’s

income, regardless of their level 

of education.

Women who had their first child

before their first marriage rather

than during or after their first marriage were less likely to have

worked during pregnancy (56 percent compared with 74 percent and

81 percent respectively). This difference by marital status in terms of

employment during pregnancy has

been constant since 1966–1970.19

19 Kristin Smith, Barbara Downs, and

Martin O’Connell. Maternity Leave and

Employment Patterns: 1961–1995, U.S.

Census Bureau, Current Population Reports,

P70-79, Washington, DC, 2001. Op. cit,

O’Connell, 1990, pp. 14–15.

Figure 1.

Percent of Women Who Worked During Pregnancy 

Preceding First Birth by Age at First Birth and 

Educational Attainment: 1996–2000

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, 

Wave 2.

Bachelor's 

degree or higher

All ages Under 25 25 and over

Less than 

high school 

High school 

graduate

Some 

college

83

74

85

75

70

82

60

55

70

36 33

50
Women who have their first child

prior to marriage are generally

younger, more likely to be a minority race or Hispanic, and to have

lower levels of education. All of

these factors are related to lower

levels of employment during pregnancy.20 Women who have their

first birth during or after their first

marriage are more likely to be older

and already in the labor force at the

time they become pregnant.

Duration of Work 

During Pregnancy

Among all first-time mothers who

worked while pregnant, 85 percent

worked into their last trimester (less

than 3 months before their child’s

birth, Table 2). Older mothers were

more likely than younger mothers

to work closer to the end of their

pregnancies. Ninety percent of

mothers 30 and older worked into

the last 3 months of their pregnancy, compared with 72 percent of

mothers under 18 years of age.

Sixty-four percent of the oldest

mothers worked into their last

month of pregnancy, while 44 percent of the youngest mothers did.

In the early 1960s, women who

worked longer into their pregnancy

were those more in need of financial assistance, especially high

school dropouts who are more likely to have low-paying jobs.21

During the 1980s, a greater proportion of college-educated women

began to work into the last

trimester of their pregnancy than

women with less than a high school

education.22 By 1996–2000, 89 percent of college graduates who

worked during their pregnancy

were employed into their last

trimester, compared with 77 percent of women who had not graduated from high school. Table 2 also

shows that a higher proportion of

college graduates worked into the

last month of pregnancy (65 percent) than did women with less

than a high school education 

(46 percent). These more highly

6 U.S. Census Bureau

20 Op. cit., Downs, 2003, Tables C and E.

These factors were found to persist in being

related to lower employment levels in a multivariate analysis controlling for many

socioeconomic factors.

21 Op. cit., O’Connell, 1990, pp. 16–17. 22 Op cit., Smith, Downs, and O’Connell,

2001, pp. 7–9.

educated women might have been

viewing their jobs from a long-term

perspective, such as subsequent job

opportunities after the birth of their

child. It also may be the case that

jobs that require more education

are more conducive to accommodating pregnant women. Women

working at these jobs may be more

likely to sit during the day, have

easy access to rest facilities, not

engage in manual labor, and not be

exposed to hazardous materials or

conditions. Also, their schedules

may be more flexible, allowing for

ease of scheduling medical appointments, late arrivals, and early

departures.

Black women were less likely than

other women to work late into their

pregnancy. For the most recent

period of births (1996–2000), 

71 percent of Black mothers-to-be

worked during their last trimester

of pregnancy and 38 percent

worked into their last month. The

other groups shown all had percentages that were similar to each other.

Table 3 shows how late into pregnancy first-time mothers have

worked since 1961. For the

Table 3.

Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth by When They Stopped

Working: 1961–1965 to 1996–2000

(6,306 represents 6,306,000)

Characteristic 1961–1965 1966–1970 1971–1975 1976–1980 1981–1985 1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000

Number of women with a first birth . . . .

Number of women who worked

6,306 6,956 6,920 7,192 8,306 8,568 8,542 8,558

during pregnancy...................

Percent distribution of women

by number of months before

first birth they stopped working1

2,797 3,435 3,700 4,414 5,147 5,758 5,581 5,749

Total .......................... 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Less than 1 month2 ............... 22.7 25.9 27.1 40.9 52.7 54.8 54.5 56.6

1 month ......................... 11.9 13.2 16.0 18.0 21.0 20.9 19.5 20.1

2 months ........................ 17.1 18.3 20.9 14.7 10.7 9.1 9.2 8.1

3 to 5 months .................... 35.4 28.4 22.9 18.6 10.2 10.0 10.0 7.9

6 or more months ................ 12.9 13.9 13.1 7.7 5.4 5.2 6.9 7.3

1 Among women who worked during pregnancy.

2 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Tables B and B-6,

P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
1961–1965 first-birth cohort, 

13 percent of those who worked

during pregnancy reported they

stopped working during their first

trimester (6 or more months

before the birth) and 23 percent

worked into the last month. A key

transition occurred between

1971–1975 and 1981–1985; the

percentage of women who left

work in their first trimester

declined from 13 percent to 5 percent, while the proportion working

into the last month before their

child’s birth increased from 27 percent to 53 percent.23 Since

1981–1985, both percentages have

remained relatively unchanged.

The proportion of women who

worked full-time during their pregnancy according to when they

stopped working is highlighted in

Table 4. In the 1960s, 90 percent

of women who worked during

pregnancy worked full-time. It was

around the same proportion for the

1981–1985 first-birth cohort. By

the 1996–2000 first-birth cohort,

the percentage of working women

who worked full-time during pregnancy declined to 84 percent.24 In

the early 1960s, the proportion of

working women with full-time jobs

during their pregnancy was

approximately 9 in 10, regardless

of when they stopped working. By

1996–2000, 68 percent of women

who worked only in their first

trimester had full-time jobs, compared with 87 percent of women

who were still working in the last

month before their child’s birth.

MATERNITY LEAVE

ARRANGEMENTS

This section first provides an

overview of the changes in maternity leave arrangements since

1980, when comparable questions

U.S. Census Bureau 7

23 In 1996–2000, of the 57 percent of

women who stopped working up to 1 month

before their child’s birth, almost one-half 

(27 percent) reported that they had never

stopped working before giving birth.

24 Bureau of Labor Statistics data show

that the percentage of employed workers

working part-time increased over the 1970s

and 1980s and then began to decrease in

the late 1990s.

on types of leave arrangements

were first asked on SIPP panels.

Then it discusses leave arrangements women used before and

after the birth of their first child.

It concludes with a look at how the

use of various categories of leave

differs according to selected characteristics of women.

Changes in Leave

Arrangements Since the 1980s

Types of leave used by first-time

mothers include paid, unpaid, and

disability. Other circumstances

that lead to time away from a job

include quitting a job, being let go

from a job, and having an employer go out of business. They are

included as types of leave arrangements in this report. Some women

use only one type of leave and

some combine several types.

Others may return to work before

they wish, due to a lack of leave

options or because of financial

concerns. Maternity leave in the

United States is a common occurrence, yet hardly uniform.

Table 4.

Women Who Worked Full-time During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth by When They

Stopped Working: 1961–1965 to 1996–2000

(6,306 represents 6,306,000)

Characteristic 1961–1965 1966–1970 1971–1975 1976–1980 1981–1985 1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000

Number of women with a first birth. . .

Number of women who worked

6,306 6,956 6,920 7,192 8,306 8,568 8,542 8,558

during pregnancy ................. 2,797 3,435 3,700 4,414 5,147 5,758 5,581 5,749

Worked full-time (number)1 ....... 2,503 3,074 3,289 3,823 4,591 4,992 4,844 4,846

Worked full-time (percent)2 .......

Percent working full-time among

women who stopped working

at each time interval:

89.5 89.5 88.9 86.6 89.2 86.7 86.8 84.3

Less than 1 month 3 ............ 88.2 91.8 89.9 89.1 92.0 91.0 90.3 87.4

1 month ....................... 91.9 91.6 91.5 90.8 90.6 87.5 87.3 85.3

2 months . . .................... 86.2 90.0 93.7 84.5 88.4 82.1 84.8 84.4

3 to 5 months .................. 91.8 88.5 86.9 79.8 75.7 73.4 81.1 74.0

6 or more months .............. 87.5 85.1 80.0 83.2 83.1 72.0 67.8 68.3

1 Full-time employment status refers to last job held before birth of first child. 2 Among women who worked during pregnancy.

3 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Tables B and B-6,

P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
Table 5 shows the changes over

the past 20 years in the type of

leave arrangements used by

women who worked during their

pregnancy. From the 1981–1985

first-birth cohort to the 1996–2000

first-birth cohort, the percentage of

mothers who quit their jobs before

or soon after their first birth

dropped from 36 percent to 26

percent. During the cohorts

between 1981–1985 and

1996–2000, there is a sawtooth

pattern of quit-job responses. It is

mirrored by the reverse pattern in

unpaid leave responses (unpaid

maternity, sick, vacation, or other

unpaid leave). This pattern may be

due to the difficulty in recalling

exactly when or if they took

unpaid leave as opposed to quitting a job. When these two types

of leave are combined, the percentages are fairly stable over this period: about 70 percent of all cohorts

took unpaid leave or quit their job.

A more consistent pattern occurred

for the use of paid leave (paid

maternity, sick, vacation, or other

paid leave), whose timing of use

may be easier for respondents to

recall than other types of leave

arrangements. In the early 1980s,

the use of paid-leave arrangements

was reported by 37 percent of

women who worked during pregnancy. By the 1986–1990 firstbirth cohort, 43 percent of mothers said they used paid leave. In

each cohort since that time, about

the same percentage of mothers

have reported receiving paid leave.

Employers, perceiving women as

integral to their work force, have

become more likely to offer paid

maternity leave as a job benefit

when they weigh the costs of finding and training a new employee

against a short leave of absence.25

For all of the first-birth cohorts, less not take any after giving birth.

than 5 percent of women reported Both paid and unpaid leave (all

being let go from their job while types combined) were more likely

pregnant or within 12 weeks after to be used after the child’s birth

giving birth. There was no statisti- than during pregnancy. These

cally significant change in disability findings suggest that for women

leave usage over the past two who plan to return to work after

decades either; it was used by having their child, many may work

7 percent of women in the as long as possible into their preg1996–2000 first-birth cohort. nancy in order to have more leave

once their child is born.

Leave Arrangements Before Fifty-five percent of women who and After the First Birth

worked during their pregnancy

Table 6 provides a detailed picture reported using paid or unpaid of leave arrangements—both “maternity leave” specifically, either before and after their child’s before or after giving birth. More birth—used by employed women women took unpaid maternity leave who had their first birth between (39 percent) than paid (33 percent), 1996 and 2000. Women were and for both types, it was more allowed to identify more than one likely to be used after birth than arrangement. It was more com- before. Whether it was used during mon for women not to take any pregnancy or after giving birth, sick leave during pregnancy than it was leave and vacation leave were more not to take any leave after giving likely to be paid than unpaid. birth (26 percent compared with 

1 percent). About 1 percent of One in four women quit their job

women said they did not take any around the time of the birth of

leave during pregnancy and did their child (26 percent).

8 U.S. Census Bureau

25 Commission on Family and Medical

Leave. A Workable Balance: Report to

Congress on Family and Medical Leave

Policies. U.S. Department of Labor:

Washington, DC, 1996.

MATERNITY LEAVE ARRANGEMENTS

In the 1996 and 2001 SIPP panels, two separate questions on leave

arrangements were asked of every woman who worked during pregnancy. The first question concerned arrangements used between the

time she stopped working and when the child was born, while the

second question asked about the arrangements used between the

child’s birth and up to 12 weeks after the child was born. The 1984

and 1985 SIPP panels asked only one question about arrangements

used at any time during pregnancy or up to 6 weeks after the child

was born. If a woman said she had never stopped working during

pregnancy, no other leave arrangements were tabulated.

In the 1996 and 2001 panels, questions about leave arrangements

used after the child was born were asked of all women, including

those who reported that they had never stopped working before the

child’s birth. This change from the earlier SIPP panels complicates

any comparisons with leave arrangements used by women prior to

1980. Respondents in the last two panels were allowed to report as

many arrangements as they used. Beginning in the 1996 panel, “disability leave” was included as a separate response. Women may

have conceptually included it in either the paid or unpaid leave categories in the prior SIPP panels.
Subtracting the percentage that compared with 22 percent who percentage of women that worked

quit before the birth from the total quit during pregnancy. during pregnancy who used paid

percentage that quit indicates that leave only, unpaid leave only, quit Another leave-taking strategy that 4 percent of women waited until their job only, and used multiple women use is to combine different after giving birth to quit their job, types of leave. This is shown types of leave. Figure 2 shows the

U.S. Census Bureau 9

Table 5.

Leave Arrangements Used by Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding First

Birth: 1981–1985 to 1996–2000

Year of first birth

Number of

women who

worked during

pregnancy

(thousands)

Percent of women using type of leave arrangement1

Quit job 2 Paid leave 3 Unpaid leave Disability leave Let go from job

1981–1985 . . . ................

1986–1990 . . . ................

1991–1995 . . . ................

1996–2000 . . . ................

5,147

5,758

5,581

5,749

35.7

26.5

34.2

25.6

37.3

43.3

44.0

42.0

33.7

41.0

33.9

45.0

6.3

7.5

5.4

6.9

3.5

2.3

3.0

2.2

1 The total in individual leave arrangements exceeds 100 percent because of multiple answers. Leave arrangements may have been

used before or up to 12 weeks after the birth. 2 Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave. 3 Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P70-79 (Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), Table F,

and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.

Table 6.

Detailed Leave Arrangements Used by Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding

First Birth: 1996–2000

Type of leave Before or

after birth1 Before birth After birth

Percent who used a leave arrangement......................... 99.2 73.7 98.5

Percent using leave arrangement2

Quit job3 ..................................................... 25.6 21.5 19.4 4 Paid leave .................................................. 42.0 25.3 34.1

Maternity leave .............................................. 32.8 20.4 26.1

Sick leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 4.5 6.4

Vacation leave .............................................. 8.8 3.4 6.6

Other paid leave ............................................ 1.0 (B) 0.6 5 Unpaid leave ................................................ 45.0 20.2 42.5

Maternity leave .............................................. 38.8 15.5 36.8

Sick leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 1.7 2.0

Vacation leave .............................................. 2.6 1.9 1.8

Other unpaid leave .......................................... 3.1 1.3 2.4

Disability leave ............................................... 6.9 4.2 4.7

Other leave .................................................. 9.0 5.6 5.1

Self-employed ............................................... 1.1 (B) 1.1

Employer went out of business . . . ............................. (B) (B) (B)

Other ...................................................... 7.7 5.0 3.9

Let go from job ............................................... 2.2 1.6 1.3

6 Percent who did not take leave ................................ 0.8 26.3 1.3

(B) Base less than 200,000 or numerator too small for comparison.

1 Leave arrangements are only counted once if used before and after birth. 2 Total of individual leave arrangements may exceed stated totals using a leave arrangement because of multiple arrangements. 3 Some women who identified having quit their job before birth also said that they quit their (same) job after birth (15.3 percent). An additional 4.1 percent actually quit their job (for the first time) after giving birth. 4 Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave. 5 Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave. 6 The first column is the percentage who took no leave before birth and no leave after birth.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
separately for the time during

pregnancy, up to 12 weeks after

giving birth, and the combined

periods. While 5 percent used

more than one leave arrangement

before birth and 8 percent used

more than one type after birth, 

30 percent of women used multiple leave arrangements in the combined periods of pregnancy and up

to 12 weeks after giving birth.

Using only paid leave was more

common for women after giving

birth than before (27 percent and

22 percent, respectively). The proportion of women who used only

unpaid leave after the birth was

twice as high as the proportion

who used only unpaid leave before

birth (36 percent and 18 percent,

respectively). Many women who

identified quitting a job as a leave

arrangement they used after giving

birth had actually quit working

while they were pregnant, since

they also identified it as an

arrangement used before giving

birth. Seventeen percent of

women quit their job and used no

other type of leave either before or

after the birth.

Characteristics of Women by

the Leave They Use

Among new mothers in 1996–

2000, younger women were more

likely than women who had their

first child at a later age to quit

their jobs (Table 7). About twice

as many women who had their

first birth before age 22 quit their

jobs (41 percent) as women who

had their first child at age 25 or

older (19 percent). The proportion

of women using paid leave for

their first birth generally increased

with age, from 12 percent of

women who were 18 or 19 years

of age at their first birth to 58 percent of those 30 and older. The

longer labor force experience of

older women may bring better

benefits.

Employment characteristics are also benefits. Fifty-nine percent of

associated with the type of leave women with at least a bachelor’s

arrangements women use for the degree used paid leave before or

birth of their first child. Full-time after giving birth, compared with

workers were more likely to use 18 percent of women who had less

paid leave benefits than part-time than a high school education. In

workers (48 percent and 12 per- contrast, 57 percent of women with

cent, respectively), while part-time less than a high school education

workers were more likely to quit took unpaid leave compared with

their jobs (45 percent) than were 39 percent of women with more

full-time workers (22 percent). education (Table 7).

Women who worked into the last In the early 1960s, the use of paid month of pregnancy were more maternity leave for a first birth did likely to receive paid leave benefits not differ statistically by education- (51 percent) than those who left al level. The relationship between work more than 1 month prior to educational attainment and use of their first birth (30 percent). A paid leave began to appear in the small proportion of women who early 1970s and became pro- worked until their last month of nounced by the early 1980s (Figure pregnancy were let go from their 3). The percentage of women with job (1 percent). at least a bachelor’s degree who

Educational attainment at the time received paid leave increased from

of the interview is likely related to a 27 percent of the 1971–1975 firstmother’s type of job, her wages, birth cohort to 47 percent of those

and, in turn, the leave benefits she with a first birth between

is offered. Increasing levels of edu- 1981–1985. It further increased to

cation go hand-in-hand with 59 percent of new mothers between

increases in the use of paid leave 1996 and 2000. The use of paid

10 U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 2.

Percent of Women Using Selected Leave Arrangements

and Multiple Arrangements Before or After 

Their First Birth: 1996–2000 

Note: Multiple types of leave used “before or after birth” include using more than one type 

before birth only, after birth only, and using a different type before birth than after birth. 

Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave. 

Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.

Quit only

Before birth After birth Before or after birth

Multiple types Paid only Unpaid only

(Among women who worked during pregnancy)

20 19 18 17

36

22 22

27

24

5 8

30
leave by mothers without a high

school degree was 18 percent in

1996–2000, about what it was for

all cohorts.

In summary, over the time period

shown in Figure 3, many changes

in U.S. society occurred. The number of family households and the

average number of children per

family have decreased.26

Legislation is now in effect that is

designed to provide more job

U.S. Census Bureau 11

26 Jason Fields and Lynn M. Casper,

America’s Families and Living Arrangements:

2000, U.S. Census Bureau, Current

Population Reports, P20-537, Washington,

DC, 2001.

security for mothers. The profile

of first-time mothers has altered as

well; the average age at first birth

has risen as has educational attainment and labor force participation.27 The average woman is now

27 Op cit., Vital Statistics of the United

States, Volume I – Natality, 1999.

Table 7.

Type of Leave Arrangements Used Before or After Birth by Women Who Worked During

Pregnancy Preceding Their First Birth by Selected Characteristics: 1996–2000

Characteristic

Number of

women who

worked during

pregnancy

(thousands)

Percent of women using specified leave arrangement

Quit job 1 Paid leave

Unpaid2 leave

Disability

leave

Let go

from job

Total . . ..................................

Employment status at last job

5,749 25.6 42.0 45.0 6.9 2.2

Full-time .............................. 4,846 22.1 47.6 44.7 7.6 2.5

Part-time . . . ...........................

Month stopped working before birth

903 44.7 12.2 46.8 (B) (B)

Less than 1 month3 ..................... 3,252 14.0 51.2 46.5 6.7 1.2

1 month . . . ............................ 1,153 22.3 44.0 48.4 9.3 (B)

2 months .............................. 468 41.9 23.5 53.0 1.7 (B)

3 to 5 months . ......................... 457 60.2 18.8 31.9 12.0 (B)

6 or more months ......................

Age at first birth

419 69.7 11.0 (B) 2.4 (B)

Less than 18 years ..................... 257 48.2 (B) 52.9 (B) (B)

18 and 19 years ....................... 540 42.4 11.5 53.0 (B) (B)

20 and 21 years ....................... 669 36.2 30.6 46.0 (B) (B)

22 to 24 years . . . ...................... 893 27.2 32.0 46.7 6.8 (B)

25 to 29 years . . . ...................... 1,656 22.3 50.9 41.8 7.2 (B)

30 years and over ......................

Race and Hispanic origin

1,734 15.5 58.1 43.2 10.4 (B)

White . . ............................... 4,815 24.6 42.9 45.5 7.0 2.4

Non-Hispanic ........................ 4,135 23.7 44.7 44.4 7.2 2.2

Black ................................. 609 35.0 29.9 44.5 5.3 (B)

Asian and Pacific Islander ............... 277 19.5 55.6 36.5 9.0 -

Hispanic (any race) .....................

Timing of first birth4

734 30.4 32.3 50.3 (B) (B)

Before first marriage .................... 1,879 35.1 23.3 51.0 5.6 2.9

Within first marriage ..................... 3,449 21.1 51.3 42.2 7.5 1.8

After first marriage ......................

Educational attainment

420 20.7 49.8 41.4 (B) (B)

Less than high school .................. 472 35.2 17.8 56.4 (B) (B)

High school graduate.................... 1,397 35.9 31.2 46.7 5.2 3.4

Some college, no degree ................ 1,983 23.3 39.4 47.2 8.3 2.5

Bachelor’s degree or more ............... 1,897 18.1 58.7 38.6 7.9 (B)

- Represents or rounds to zero.

(B) Base less than 200,000 or numerator too small for comparison.

Note: The total in individual leave arrangements exceeds 100 percent because of multiple answers. Leave arrangements may have been

used before or up to 12 weeks after the birth.

1 Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave. 2 Unpaid leave includes all unpaid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other unpaid leave. 3 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy. 4 Refers to marital status at time of first birth. Before first marriage includes never-married women. After first marriage includes first births

outside or within second or subsequent marriages.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
working longer into her pregnancy.

These factors are related to the

choices new mothers make concerning their employment and

leave during pregnancy.

WORKING AFTER THE 

FIRST BIRTH

This section looks at how rapidly

women began working after the

birth of their first child. Overall

trends since the 1960s on when

women returned to work will be

examined. Also, new data from

the 2001 SIPP panel are analyzed

to determine the characteristics of

women who return to work most

rapidly and whether changing

employers after birth is related to

changes in job characteristics.

Trends Since the 1960s

As shown in Figure 4, most of the

increases in the percentage of

women working later into their

pregnancy and returning to work

quickly after their first birth came

about by the early 1980s. This

trend is also found in Table 8,

which shows the cumulative

monthly percentage of women

working after the birth of their first

child. In the early 1960s, 14 percent of all mothers with newborns

returned to work by the 6th

month, increasing to 17 percent by

the 12th month. These percentages more than doubled by

1976–1980, with another large

increase occurring by 1981–1985.

In 1996–1999, 57 percent of mothers returned to work by the 6th

month after their child’s birth, and

65 percent by the 12th month.28

When New Mothers Return 

to Work

While women who had their first

birth between 1996 and 1999 and

returned to work within the first

year after giving birth were more

likely to return earlier rather than

later in the child’s infancy, only 

4 percent returned within the first

month. Fifty-one percent were

working by 4 months after giving

12 U.S. Census Bureau

28 Analyses of working after birth is

restricted to those who gave birth by 1999

because some who gave birth in 2000 did

not have one full year of employment data

by the time of the interview.

birth. In the next 8 months another 14 percent of new mothers

returned to work.

Table 8 also shows the relationship

between work experience during

pregnancy and the rate at which

women returned to work in the first

year after giving birth. Women who

had their first child between 1996

and 1999 were more likely to be

working by 12 months after the

birth if they had worked during

their pregnancy than if they had not

(82 percent and 31 percent, respectively). Sixty percent of women

who worked during their pregnancy

were working by the third month

after birth, compared with 15 percent of women who had not

worked during their pregnancy.

Among women who worked during

pregnancy and returned to work in

the first year, 73 percent had

returned by the third month. In

contrast, this was the case for 

48 percent of women who had not

worked during pregnancy and

worked in the first year after birth.

These findings indicate that among

those who worked after having

Figure 3.

Percent of Women Who Received Paid Leave Before or After Their First Birth

by Educational Attainment: Selected Years 1961–1965 to 1996–2000

Note: Paid leave includes all paid maternity, sick, and vacation leave, and other paid leave used before the birth and up to 12 weeks after birth. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Table B-9, P70-79 (Maternity 

Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.

1961–1965 1971–1975 1981–1985 1991–1995 1996–2000

Less than high school High school graduate Some college Bachelor's degree or higher

14

27

47

58 59

16

26

39

42 39

16

22

32 33 31

19 18 19

27

18
their child, those who worked dur- few months after giving birth than (36 percent compared with 20 pering pregnancy were back at work younger first-time mothers. A cent) and a smaller percentage did

sooner than those who had not smaller percentage of women aged not work in the first year (30 perworked during pregnancy. 21 or younger at the time of their cent and 56 percent, respectively).

first birth than mothers who were

To examine the relationships The variations in the timing of 22 to 29 years were working with- between occupational and other returning to work diminish or disap- in 3 months of giving birth. In characteristics of women by when pear when only women who terms of education, women with worked during pregnancy are con- they returned to work, data are college experience were more like- sidered. For example, among all shown in Table 9 in two ways: for ly to work in the first 3 months mothers, 19 percent of mothers all mothers and for mothers who after having their child than under the age of 18 were working worked during pregnancy. women with no more than a high within 3 months, compared with Characteristics are shown by time school education (37 percent com- 33 percent of mothers 30 and older. intervals of when mothers started pared with 29 percent). Women Among women who worked during working after the child’s birth—less who were not high school gradu- pregnancy, the percentages for than 3 months, 3 to 5 months, or ates were the least likely to be these two age groups were not sta- 6 to 11 months after the child’s working within 3 months of giving tistically different. Also among birth. For comparison, characteris- birth (17 percent) and the most mothers who worked during preg- tics of women who were not work- likely to not work in the year after nancy, there was no statistically siging within the first year after their their first child’s birth (55 percent). nificant difference in the percentage

child’s birth are also profiled. A greater percentage of non- returning within 3 months between

Hispanic White women than those without a high school educa- Older first-time mothers were more Hispanic women were working tion and those with at least a bach- likely to return to work in the first within 3 months after childbirth elor’s degree. Hispanic mothers

U.S. Census Bureau 13

6789 5 <11234

Figure 4.

Percent of Women Working During Pregnancy and Percent Working After 

Their First Birth, by Month Before or After Birth: Selected Years,

1961–1965 to 1996–1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Table B-9, P70-79 

(Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961–1995), and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.

Cumulative percent

Months before birth Months after birth

1996–1999

1961–1965

1971–1975

1981–1985

1991–1995 1991–1995

1996–1999

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

4321<1 5 9876 10 1211

1961–1965

1971–1975

1981–1985
who worked during pregnancy were pregnancy returned to work sooner job around the time of their first

less likely than their non-Hispanic after having their child than those birth were less likely to be working

White counterparts to return to who left work earlier in their preg- in the first year after that birth; 

work in the first 3 months after nancy. For example, 50 percent of 61 percent compared with around

birth (35 percent and 44 percent, women who stopped working less 85 percent of women who used

respectively). The percentage-point than 1 month prior to their child’s one of the other leave arrangedifference between these two birth were back at work within 3 ments. In contrast with women

groups is smaller than that between months of their birth. In compari- who used paid leave, women who

all Hispanic women with a first son, 20 percent of women who left quit their jobs around the time of

birth and all non-Hispanic White 6 or more months before their their first child’s birth were less

women with a first birth (20 and child’s birth went back to work likely to be working in the first 3

36 percent, respectively). within 3 months. months after giving birth (20 percent compared to 47 percent). For women who worked during The type of leave arrangement Those who quit were more likely pregnancy, when they left work women used was also related to than women who used paid leave was related to when they returned when or if they returned to work in to first start working between 6 to work. Greater proportions of the first year after having their and 11 months after giving birth women who worked late into their child. Women who said they quit a

14 U.S. Census Bureau

Table 8.

Women Working at Monthly Intervals After First Birth by Year of First Birth: 1961–1965 to

1996–1999

Characteristic 1961–1965 1966–1970 1971–1975 1976–1980 1981–1985 1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–1999

Women with a first birth

Number of women (thousands) . . 6,306 6,956 6,920 7,192 8,306 8,568 8,542 6,918

Percent ......................

Cumulative percent working after:

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Less than 1 month1 ........... 1.9 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.6 3.4 4.2 3.6

1 month . . .................... 3.8 4.6 6.7 7.2 13.1 13.5 12.9 13.6

2 months ..................... 7.8 9.0 12.1 16.8 27.8 31.8 31.3 31.6

3 months ..................... 9.9 12.7 15.6 22.4 35.9 41.6 43.0 44.7

4 months ..................... 11.2 15.2 17.6 27.1 40.8 46.9 47.8 51.1

5 months . .................... 12.3 16.5 19.4 29.5 43.7 49.9 50.3 54.9

6 months . .................... 13.7 18.3 21.9 32.2 48.3 52.9 54.1 57.2

12 months ................... 16.8 23.9 27.9 38.8 56.3 60.8 62.0 64.6

24 months ................... 22.5 29.8 37.0 48.0 63.0 66.6 70.2 (X)

60 months ...................

Women who worked during

pregnancy

33.5 41.1 50.0 64.3 69.9 72.7 78.6 (X)

Number of women (thousands) . . 2,797 3,435 3,700 4,414 5,147 5,758 5,582 4,592

Percent ......................

Cumulative percent working after:

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Less than 1 month1 ........... 4.1 2.4 2.6 3.7 5.4 4.5 5.3 4.7

3 months . .................... 16.5 19.6 24.1 32.6 52.9 57.3 58.5 59.7

6 months . .................... 21.4 26.7 32.1 45.4 66.9 70.6 72.3 74.8

12 months ...................

Women who did not work during

pregnancy

25.8 32.7 38.8 52.6 74.4 78.6 79.3 81.5

Number of women (thousands) . . 3,509 3,522 3,221 2,778 3,160 2,810 2,960 2,327

Percent ......................

Cumulative percent working after:

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Less than 1 month ............ 0.2 0.2 1.0 0.5 0.6 1.1 2.3 1.3

3 months ..................... 4.6 6.0 5.9 6.3 8.3 9.4 13.7 15.1

6 months ..................... 7.5 10.2 10.1 11.1 17.9 16.6 19.6 22.5

12 months ................... 9.6 15.3 15.3 16.8 26.9 24.3 29.5 31.2

(X) Not applicable, interval not completed by date of data collection.

Note: 1996–1999 estimates are used for the most recent birth cohort to allow for at least 1 year of post-birth employment data.

1 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy or after their birth.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P23-165 (Work and Family Patterns of American Women), Table B-5, P70-79

(Maternity Leave and Employment Patterns: 1961−1995), and Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
U.S. Census Bureau 15

Table 9.

Women Working at Stated Time Intervals After First Birth by Selected Characteristics:

1996–1999

Characteristic

All women with a first birth Women with a first birth who worked

during pregnancy

Total

(thousands)

Started working after first birth

Total

(thousands)

Started working after first birth

Less than

3

months1 3 to 5

months

6 to 11

months

Did not

work

during2 first year

Less than

3

months1 3 to 5

months

6 to 11

months

Did not

work

during2 first year

Number (thousands) ..........

PERCENT DISTRIBUTION

Total .....................

Employment status during

pregnancy

Not employed ...............

Full-time ...................

Part-time ...................

Age at first birth

Less than 18 years ...........

18 and 19 years .............

20 and 21 years .............

22 to 24 years ..............

25 to 29 years ..............

30 years and over ...........

Race and Hispanic origin

White......................

Non-Hispanic ..............

Black ......................

Asian and Pacific Islander .....

Hispanic (any race) ..........

Timing of first birth3

Before first marriage ..........

Within first marriage ..........

After first marriage ...........

Educational attainment

Less than high school .........

High school graduate .........

Some college ...............

Bachelor’s degree or higher ....

Month stopped working before

birth

Less than 1 month1

...........

1 month....................

2 months ...................

3 to 5 months ...............

6 or more months ............

Type of leave arrangement

used4

Quit job ....................

Paid leave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Unpaid leave ................

Disability leave ..............

Let go from job ..............

Other leave .................

6,918

100.0

2,327

3,866

725

649

923

978

983

1,744

1,639

5,535

4,457

923

391

1,185

2,795

3,696

428

1,043

1,930

2,186

1,761

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

2,183

31.6

10.3

43.5

36.3

19.4

24.2

28.6

39.5

35.6

33.3

32.8

35.9

29.8

19.7

19.8

29.1

31.9

44.4

16.8

28.5

39.3

34.1

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

1,617

23.4

11.0

31.2

21.7

14.6

17.6

19.8

21.1

26.4

30.4

23.8

25.7

19.4

25.8

15.8

19.5

25.7

28.0

15.6

20.8

24.6

29.2

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

582

8.4

8.6

6.8

16.7

12.5

12.0

10.7

7.9

5.6

6.7

8.2

8.1

10.1

(B)

8.8

11.3

6.3

(B)

12.4

9.5

7.5

6.0

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

2,536

36.7

70.2

18.6

25.4

53.5

46.3

40.8

31.5

32.5

29.6

35.2

30.3

40.7

47.6

55.6

40.1

36.0

19.6

55.2

41.2

28.6

30.7

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

(X)

4,592

100.0

(X)

3,866

725

204

438

560

720

1,325

1,345

3,860

3,342

494

206

554

1,524

2,708

358

352

1,147

1,627

1,467

2,612

940

356

342

345

1,177

1,946

2,049

294

108

406

1,944

42.3

(X)

43.5

36.3

34.8

40.0

42.7

48.5

44.8

38.4

42.6

43.8

43.1

37.4

34.5

43.3

40.7

50.6

34.4

41.0

47.6

39.4

49.8

41.5

30.3

22.5

20.3

20.1

47.2

44.0

38.1

(B)

43.1

1,362

29.7

(X)

31.2

21.7

28.9

26.0

25.9

23.6

31.2

34.2

29.8

29.8

27.7

33.5

29.8

26.7

31.2

30.7

29.0

27.7

28.7

32.4

30.0

28.7

33.4

33.0

22.3

23.4

35.1

31.8

39.5

(B)

33.5

383

8.3

(X)

6.8

16.7

(B)

15.1

11.3

9.0

4.8

7.5

7.9

7.7

11.5

(B)

9.6

11.5

6.5

(B)

14.8

11.3

6.4

6.6

6.9

7.1

14.6

12.0

13.0

17.7

4.7

7.6

(B)

(B)

(B)

903

19.7

(X)

18.6

25.4

25.0

18.9

20.2

18.9

19.2

19.9

19.6

18.7

17.6

21.4

26.2

18.5

21.6

(B)

21.9

20.0

17.3

21.6

13.4

22.7

21.6

32.5

44.3

38.9

12.9

16.6

16.0

(B)

17.2

(X) Not applicable. (B) Base less than 200,000, or numerator too small for comparison.

Note: 1996–1999 estimates are used for the most recent birth cohort to allow for at least 1 year of post-birth employment data.

1 Includes women who responded that they never stopped working during their pregnancy or after their birth. 2 Includes women who were working after 1 year and those who never returned to work. 3 Refers to marital status at time of first birth. Before first marriage includes never-married women. After first marriage includes first births outside or within

second or subsequent marriages. 4 Leave arrangement may have been used before or after the birth. The total in individual leave arrangements exceeds 100 percent because of multiple

answers.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
(39 percent and 13 percent,

respectively). Many women who

quit their job would need time to

find new employment if they

wished to go back to work.

Some women may be motivated to

maintain ties to the labor force

because of career goals or because

the jobs they are committed to offer

attractive leave benefits and do not

penalize them for choosing to

become mothers. They may also

feel they have too much invested in

their careers in terms of education,

training, and wages to leave the

labor force.29 Previous research has

shown that in the 1960s and

1970s, those who were most economically in need of and dependent

16 U.S. Census Bureau

29 Sonalde Desai and Linda Waite,

“Women’s Employment During Pregnancy and

After the First Birth: Occupational

Characteristics and Work Commitment,”

American Sociological Review, Vol. 56

(1991), pp. 551–556.

on their own earnings (teenagers,

Black women, and women with premarital first births) returned to work

the most rapidly.30

Occupational Characteristics

After Birth

Since the early 1980s, 74 percent or

more of women who worked during

their pregnancy returned to work

by 12 months after their first child’s

30 Op. cit., O’Connell, 1990, pp. 23–25.

Table 10.

Job Characteristics of Women Who Worked During Pregnancy Preceding First Birth and

Returned to Work Within 12 Months After Birth: 1991–1995 to 1996–1999

Characteristic 1991–1995 1996–1999

Women who returned to work (thousands)1 ................................. 4,205 3,626

Returned to pre-birth employer

Number of women (thousands) ............................................ 3,271 2,771

Percent (among women returning to work) .................................. 77.8 76.4

Percent among women returning to pre-birth employer

Number of hours worked after first birth ................................... 100.0 100.0

More than before first birth ............................................ 2.0 2.3

Same as before first birth . . . .......................................... 82.4 77.8

Fewer than before first birth ........................................... 15.6 19.8

Pay level after first birth ................................................. 100.0 100.0

Higher than before first birth ........................................... 5.4 7.5

Same as before first birth . . . .......................................... 91.4 89.4

Lower than before first birth ........................................... 3.1 3.1

Skill level after first birth ................................................. 100.0 100.0

Higher than before first birth ........................................... 4.4 3.6

Same as before first birth . . . .......................................... 93.5 93.7

Lower than before first birth ........................................... 2.1 2.7

Hours, pay, and skill level all the same as before . . ........................ 75.1 70.6

Different employer after first birth

Number of women (thousands) ............................................ 944.0 858.0

Percent (among women returning to work) .................................. 22.2 23.6

Percent among women returning to different employer

Number of hours worked after first birth ................................... 100.0 100.0

More than before first birth ............................................ 14.1 21.2

Same as before first birth . . . .......................................... 57.5 46.4

Fewer than before first birth ........................................... 28.4 32.5

Pay level after first birth ................................................. 100.0 100.0

Higher than before first birth ........................................... 36.1 33.6

Same as before first birth . . . .......................................... 35.7 42.1

Lower than before first birth ........................................... 28.2 24.3

Skill level after first birth ................................................. 100.0 100.0

Higher than before first birth ........................................... 34.4 28.0

Same as before first birth . ............................................ 48.8 51.8

Lower than before first birth ........................................... 16.7 20.2

Hours, pay, and skill level all the same as before . . ........................ 22.1 21.4

Note: 1996–1999 estimates are used for the most recent birth cohort to allow for at least 1 year of post-birth employment data.

1 Excludes self-employed women and women whose pre-birth employer went out of business.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 2001 Panel, Wave 2.
birth (Table 8). For the 1996–1999 In the 1996–1999 first-birth are staying longer at work, returncohort, 76 percent of these women cohort, 94 percent of women ing more rapidly after having their

returned to their pre-birth employer returning to their pre-birth employ- first child, and in general choosing

(Table 10). Seventy-eight percent of er and 52 percent of women with a to incorporate work life with childthose who returned to their pre- new employer worked at a job bearing and childrearing more than

birth employer experienced no requiring the same level of skill as did women in the 1960s.

change in the number of hours they before the birth of their first child.

worked per week, a decline from Among women who switched SOURCE OF THE DATA

82 percent in 1991– 1995. There employers, more took jobs at an The population represented (the was a corresponding increase in advanced skill level than a dimin- population universe) in the 1984, women working fewer hours after ished one (28 percent and 20 per- 1985, 1996, and 2001 Panels of the having their first child, from 16 per- cent, respectively). Survey of Income and Program cent in 1991–1995 to 20 percent in Participation (SIPP) is the civilian 1996–1999. For both first-birth CONCLUSIONS noninstitutionalized population liv- cohorts, 97 percent of women Since the 1960s, women have ing in the United States. The SIPP is returning to their pre-birth employ- experienced gains in education a longitudinal survey conducted at er earned the same or higher pay beyond the high school years and 4-month intervals. The data in this

and around the same proportion have continued to delay childbear- report were collected from June were at the same or higher job-skill ing to older ages. These factors through September 2001 (2001 level as before their birth. have contributed to increases in Panel), August through November

Compared with mothers who the work experience of women 1996 (1996 Panel), January through

returned to their pre-birth employ- both before and during the preg- April 1986 (1985 Panel), and

ers, a larger proportion of women nancy preceding the birth of their January through March 1986 (1984

who changed employers for their first child. Women are more likely Panel). The number of housing

first job after childbirth experienced to work during their pregnancy units in sample in Wave 1 was

change in their work characteristics. than they were 30 to 40 years ago 50,500 (2001 Panel), 49,200 (1996

For the 1996–1999 first-birth and are continuing to work later Panel), 17,800 (1985 Panel), and

cohort, 21 percent of women who into their pregnancy. More than 26,000 (1984 Panel). The number

changed employers, compared with half of women who worked during of eligible units and number inter71 percent of women who had the their pregnancy in 1996–2000 did viewed were 40,500 and 35,000 for

same employer, maintained consis- so into the last month of their the 2001 Panel; 40,100 and 36,700

tency in hours, pay, and skill level pregnancy. In addition, more for the 1996 Panel; 14,400 and

before and after the birth of their women are returning to work with- 13,400 for the 1985 Panel; and

child. Around half of new mothers in a year of giving birth (65 per- 20,900 and 19,900 for the 1984

in 1996–1999 who changed cent in 1996–1999 compared with Panel. In Wave 2 of the 2001 Panel,

employers worked the same num- 39 percent in 1976–1980). One in 28,100 interviews were obtained

ber of hours after the child’s birth, a four women quit their jobs before from 30,500 eligible units. In Wave

decrease since the previous cohort. or shortly after the birth of their 2 of the 1996 Panel, 35,000 interchild in 1996–2000. Paid leave views were obtained from 37,500

For women who had their first child benefits were received by 42 per- eligible units. In Wave 4 of the

between 1996 and 1999, those who cent of pregnant workers in 1985 Panel, 11,400 interviews were

switched employers were more 1996–2000, a similar proportion obtained from 13,500 eligible units.

likely to have a change in salary. received unpaid leave, and 7 per- In Wave 8 of the 1984 Panel,

Forty-two percent of women who cent took disability leave. 11,100 interviews were obtained

changed employers, compared with from 13,500 eligible units.

89 percent of women who returned Data in this report also show that

to the same employer, returned at 78 percent of mothers who The institutionalized population,

the same pay level. Some women returned to work within 12 months which is excluded from the populamay have switched employers with after birth returned to their same tion universe, is composed primaricompensation in mind, as 34 per- employer. Women who returned to ly of the population in correctional

cent of those who switched their same employer had a good institutions and nursing homes 

received a higher pay, compared chance of returning to a job with (91 percent of the 4.1 million instiwith 8 percent for women who the same pay, skill level, and hours. tutionalized population in 

stayed with the same employer. These findings indicate that women Census 2000).

U.S. Census Bureau 17
ACCURACY OF THE All of these considerations affect Attachment Patterns and Maternity

ESTIMATES comparisons across different sur- Leave: A Review of the Literature,

veys or data sources. Population Division Working Paper Statistics from surveys are subject Series, No. 32, U.S. Census Bureau, to sampling and nonsampling error. For further information on the Washington, DC, 1999. This report All comparisons presented in this source of the data and accuracy of is on the Internet on the report have taken sampling error the estimates, including standard “Population: Working Papers” sec- into account and are significant at errors and confidence intervals, go tion under “Subjects A to Z.” the 90-percent confidence level to <www.sipp.census.gov/sipp

unless otherwise noted. This means /sourceac/S&A2_SIPP2001_w1tow9 CONTACTS the 90-percent confidence interval _20050214.pdf> or contact Reid

for the difference between the esti- Rottach of the Census Bureau’s Maternity leave issues:

mates being compared does not Demographic Statistical Methods Martin O’Connell

include zero. Nonsampling errors in Division at martin.t.oconnell@census.gov

surveys may be attributed to a vari- <reid.a.rottach@census.gov>. Barbara Downs ety of sources, such as how the sur- barbara.a.downs@census.gov vey was designed, how respondents Additional information on the SIPP

interpret questions, how able and can be found at the following Information and Research 

willing respondents are to provide Web sites: Services Branch

correct answers, and how accurately www.sipp.census.gov/sipp 301-763-2422

the answers are coded and classi- /sourceac/s&a96_040501.pdf pop@census.gov fied. The Census Bureau employs www.sipp.census.gov/sipp/ quality control procedures through- USER COMMENTS (main SIPP Web site) out the production process including The Census Bureau welcomes the the overall design of surveys, the www.sipp.census.gov/sipp

wording of questions, review of the comments and advice of users of /workpapr/wp230.pdf 

work of interviewers and coders, its data and reports. If you have (SIPP Quality Profile) and any suggestions or comments, and statistical review of reports to www.sipp.census.gov/sipp minimize these errors. The Survey please write to:

/usrguide/sipp2001.pdf of Income and Program Participation (SIPP User’s Guide) Chief, Population Division weighting procedure uses ratio esti- U.S. Census Bureau

mation, whereby sample estimates MORE INFORMATION Washington, DC 20233 are adjusted to independent estimates of the national population by The report is available on the or send an e-mail inquiry to:

age, race, sex, and Hispanic origin. Internet <www.census.gov> by pop@census.gov

This weighting partially corrects for clicking on the letter “F” in the

bias due to undercoverage, but bias- “Subjects A to Z” section of the Web SUGGESTED CITATION

es may still be present when people page and selecting “Fertility of Overturf Johnson, Julia, and who are missed by the survey differ American Women Data.” Scroll down Barbara Downs, 2005. Maternity from those interviewed in ways to the maternity leave data section. Leave and Employment Patterns: other than age, race, sex, and Other research on maternity leave 1961-2000. Current Population Hispanic origin. How this weighting can be found in the following Report, P70-103. U.S. Census procedure affects other variables in report: Kristin Smith and Amara Bureau, Washington, DC. the survey is not precisely known. Bachu, Women’s Labor Force

18 U.S. Census Bureau
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