SUSTAINABILITY

INVASIVE SPECIES

PEOPLE

FIRE WILDLIFE

TREES

CARBON

U.S. Forest 

Resource Facts and 

Historical Trends

http://fia.fs.fed.us
Editors

Sonja N. Oswalt

Resource Analyst 

Forest Inventory and Analysis 

Forest Service 

Southern Research Station 

Knoxville, TN

Mike Thompson

Research Forester 

Forest Inventory and Analysis 

Forest Service 

Rocky Mountain Research Station 

Ogden, UT

W. Brad Smith

Associate National Program Manager 

Forest Inventory and Analysis 

Forest Service 

National Office 

Washington, DC

Contributors

The editors gratefully acknowledge the following people for their 

review and contributions to this brochure:

Susan Alexander

Karen Bennett

Thomas Brandeis

Tom Brown

Brett Butler

Sally Campbell

Sally Collins

Ken Cordell

Dave Darr

Joseph Donnegan

Curt Flather

Linda Heath

James Howard

Linda Joyce

Linda Langner

Jim Menakis

Patrick Miles

Dave Nowak

Charles (Hobie) Perry

Kurt Riitters

Ken Skog

James Smith

Jim Strittholt

Borys Tkacz

Chris Toney

Christopher Woodall
1

Contents	 Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Forest Inventory Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Other Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The United States in a Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Land and Forest Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Reserved Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Timber Land and Other Forest Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Urban Influence on Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Forest Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Fragmentation of Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Forest Composition and Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Forest Carbon and Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Forest Health and Invasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Wildland Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Timber Products and Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Nontimber Forest Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Water Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Forest Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Forest Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Caribbean and Pacific Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Web Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2

Introduction

The 2010 Resources Planning Act (RPA) Assessment is being 

developed in response to the mandate in the Forest and 

Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, P .L . 

93-378, 88 Stat . 475, as amended . This update consists of a 

summary report and supporting documents, which address 

outdoor recreation, wilderness, timber, fish and wildlife, water, 

and range (available at http://www .fs .fed .us/research/rpa) .

The National Report on Sustainable Forests–2010 provides 

a comprehensive account of available data on the current 

condition of the Nation’s forest resources . The report is based on 

64 indicators for the conservation and sustainable management 

of forests . The indicators were endorsed by the United States and 

11 other countries that house 90 percent of the world’s temperate 

and boreal forests and 60 percent of all forests . Information on 

this report may be found on the Web at http://www .fs .fed .us/

research/sustain/ .

This brochure reports selected highlights of the findings of both 

reports . Much of the data for this brochure is reported regionally 

as North, South, and West .

Major reporting regions for the United States for this brochure

West

South

North
3

Forest Inventory Data

The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the Forest 

Service, U .S . Department of Agriculture, inventories various 

attributes of forest resources and reports them in the RPA 

Assessment and various supporting documents . FIA has been 

conducting field inventories for nearly 80 years using state-of-the 

art technology to provide estimates of the status, condition, and 

trends of the Nation’s forests . These estimates are critical to the 

development and implementation of policies and practices that 

support sustainable forestry in the United States . Nine national 

reports based on FIA data have been produced since 1953 .

Extensive field measurement from FIA inventories includes 

over 4 .5 million remote sensing pixels interpreted for land 

use; over 125,000 permanent field plots systematically located 

across all forest lands in the United States; over 100 characteristics measured at each plot location; and over 3 million trees 

measured to evaluate volume, condition, and vigor .

Other Data

Data for forest ownership and products are from periodic FIA 

forest ownership and forest products studies . Data for wildlife, 

recreation, health, timber trade, and nonwood products are 

derived from Forest Service scientists’ contributions to the 

National Report on Sustainable Forests–2010 . Web sources for 

this and other related data are found at the end of this brochure .

This brochure is available in six languages: English, Spanish, 

French, Russian, Chinese, and Portuguese . Visit the FIA Web site 

at http://fia .fs .fed .us for more information .

The United States in	a	Global Context

Global forestry issues are of considerable significance to the 

United States, which has 5 percent of the world population and 

consumes 27 percent of the world’s industrial wood products . 

Although domestic timber inventory is only 8 percent of the 

world total, 76 percent of U .S . consumption of industrial 

wood comes from domestic supplies . Additional demands for 

U .S . forests are also of interest, including protected areas for 

biodiversity and relative contributions of U .S . forests to carbon 

pools, among others .
4

United States as a percent of world totals for selected measures

Population

Land area

Forest land

Woody biomass

Timber inventory

Timber used for

industrial products

0% 10% 20% 30%

5%

7%

8%

11%

8%

27%

Land and ForestArea

It is estimated that in 1630 the area of forest land in the United 

States was 1,037 million acres or about 46 percent of the total 

land area . Since 1630, about 286 million acres of forest land 

have been converted to other uses—mainly agricultural . Nearly 

two-thirds of the net conversion to other uses occurred in the 

last half of the 19th century, when an average of 13 square miles 

of forest was cleared every day for 50 years . By 1910, the area of 

forest land had declined to an estimated 754 million acres, or 34 

percent of the total land area . In 2007, forest land comprised 751 

million acres, or 33 percent of the total land area of the United 

States . Forest area has been relatively stable since 1910 .

Forest area trends in the United States, 1850–2007 Million acres

1850 1900 1953 2007

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

West

South

North

Stable forest area, however, does not mean that there has been 

no change in the character of the forest . In addition to reversions 

to and from agriculture and more intensive land uses like 

urban development, there have been changes inside the forest 

as forests respond to human manipulation, aging, and other 

natural processes . The effects of these changes are reflected in the 

information presented in this brochure .
5

Land area and forest area trends in the United States

 Region 

Category Year U.S. North South West 

 million acres

Land 2,263 413 525 1,325 

 Forest

2007 751 172 215 365 

1997 743 170 214 358 

1987 730 166 211 354 

1977 736 164 217 355 

1963 755 166 228 361 

1953 750 161 226 363 

19381 746 159 221 366 

1910 754 134 247 372 

1850 935 227 329 379 

1630 1,037 298 354 385 

 Timber land

2007 514 164 204 146 

1997 504 159 201 143 

1987 485 155 195 135 

1977 491 153 198 139 

1963 515 156 209 150 

1953 509 154 205 150 

 Reserved forest2

 2007 75 6 3 65 

1997 52 8 4 40 

1987 35 7 3 25 

1977 29 6 2 21 

1963 25 4 1 19 

1953 24 4 1 19 

1

In addition to land area of the United States at that time, estimates for 1938 include forest area in 

the regions that would become the States of Alaska and Hawaii. Estimates for 1630 represent the 

forest area in North America for regions that would become the 50 States within the current United 

States. Source: for 1938: U.S. Congress (1941). Source for 1630: R.S. Kellogg (1909). 

2

Does not include some protected areas. National forest roadless areas are International Union for 

Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Class VI but not identified as “reserved” in FIA statistics and total 

approximately 32 million acres. Currently these lands are reported in timber land and other forest 

land in FIA reports. New inventories will provide more accurate data to place these lands in their 

proper IUCN classification. 
6

 Region 

Category Year U.S. North South West 

 million acres

 Other forest

2007 162 2 7 153 

1997 187 3 9 175 

1987 211 4 13 194 

1977 215 5 17 194 

1963 216 5 18 192 

1953 217 3 20 194 

Reserved Forest

Reserved forest land has tripled since 1953 and now stands at 10 

percent of all forest land in the United States . This reserved forest 

area includes State and Federal parks and wilderness areas but 

does not include conservation easements, areas protected by nongovernmental organizations, many wildlife management areas, 

and most urban and community parks and reserves . Significant 

additions to Federal forest reserves occurred after the passage 

of the Wilderness Act in 1964 . See the description of protected 

forest by International Union for Conservation of Nature 

(IUCN) categories on page 50 for more information .

Trends in reserved forest land in the United States by region, 1953–2007

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Million acres

1953 1963 1977 1987 1997 2007

Year

West

South

North

6
7

Timber Land and Other Forest Land

Timber land is fairly evenly distributed among the three 

major regions of the United States . Other forest land—

such as slow-growing spruce forests in interior Alaska and 

pinyon-juniper in the interior West—dominates many western 

landscapes and comprises more than one-fourth of all U .S . forest 

land . Reserved forest is most common in the West, comprising 

18 percent of all forests in that region . In contrast, only 3 percent 

of eastern forests are set aside as parks and wilderness areas . 

Forest land by land class and region in the United States, 2007

0 80 160 240 320

Timber land

Reserved forest

Other forest

Million acres

West

South

North

400

Urban Influence on Forests

Urban land in the conterminous United States increased from 

2 .5 percent of total land area in 1990 to 3 .1 percent in 2000 . 

Urbanization affects the forest resource and its management in 

many ways . Not only does urban development directly eliminate 

some trees and forests, it also increases population density, 

human activities, and urban infrastructure, which can affect 

forests and their management . As urban landscapes increase 

across the Nation, rural forest landscapes are often converted 

to developed lands . With greater than 80 percent of the U .S . 

population living in urban areas, ecosystem services provided by 

urban trees and forests are significant and valued in the billions 

of dollars, annually .

Nationally, urban areas (cities, towns, or villages with at 

least 2,500 people) have an average tree cover of 27 percent . 

Estimated at nearly 4 billion, urban trees provide many valuable 

benefits based on their current composition and function . 

Beside the basic value of the trees—estimated at $2 .4 trillion 

(Nowak et al . 2002)—two additional benefits of urban trees 

include air pollution removal and carbon sequestration . Annual 

pollution removal (O3

, PM10, NO2, SO2 and CO) by urban trees 
8

is estimated at 783,000 tons ($3 .8 billion value according to 

Nowak et al . 2006), and storage is estimated at 776 million tons 

of carbon ($14 .3 billion value) with a gross carbon sequestration 

rate of 25 .1 million tC/yr ($460 million/yr) .

One coarse measure of expanding urban influence on forests 

is a simple classification of forest area by county based on the 

population demographics . The following graphic demonstrates 

that, in the last 10 years, the area of forest in rural counties 

(no population centers over 2,500 persons) has declined by 52 

million acres or 18 percent . That is, the number of counties with 

small populations and their associated forest area have declined .

Forest land area in the United States by population influence, 

1997 and 2007

250

200

150

100

50

0 EAST WEST EAST WEST EAST WEST

Forest land in counties

with urban centers

over 20,000 persons

Forest land in counties

with urban centers of

2,500 to 20,000 persons

Forest land in counties

with no urban center

greater than 2,500 persons

1997

2007

Million acres

Forest Ownership

Over half of the forest land in the United States is privately 

owned and, of this, over half is owned by families and 

individuals . The other 44 percent of the forest land is controlled 

by Federal, State, and local governments .

8

Photo by Larry Korhnak, http://www.interfacesouth.usda.gov
9

Distribution of forest land ownership in the United States, 2006

Federal

33%

State

9% Local

1% 

Corporate

18% 

Family

36% 

Other private

3% 

* Includes nongovernmental conservation organizations, unincorporated partnerships, and Native 

American lands.

Ownership Patterns

Ownership patterns vary immensely across the country . In the 

West, 70 percent of the land is publicly owned . In the East, 81 

percent of the land is privately owned .

Pattern of forest ownership in the United States, 2006

*Alaska (not pictured) has 126 million acres of forest, 72 percent of which are publicly owned, and 

34 percent of Hawaii’s (not pictured) 1.7 million acres of forest are publicly owned.
10

Public Forests

Public forests are predominantly owned by the Federal 

Government in the West and State and county governments in 

the East . Seventy-six percent of all public forest acres are in the 

West . Most protected forests are in public ownership, while most 

production forests are in private ownership .

Forest Service national forests dominate the Federal lands, but 

the Bureau of Land Management, the National Parks Service, 

and the U .S . Department of Defense also have substantial 

forest holdings . State lands include lands designated as forests, 

parks, wildlife refuges, and for other purposes . The local 

category consists of lands controlled by municipal and county 

governments .

Forest land by owner class in the United States, 2007

Owner class/ Region 

land class U.S. North South West 

Million acres

All owners 751 172 215 365 

 Timber land 514 164 204 146 

 Reserved forest 75 6 3 65 

 Other forest 162 2 7 153 

National Forest 147 11 13 123 

 Timber land 99 10 12 76 

 Reserved forest 26 1 1 25 

 Other forest 22 0 0 22 

Other public 181 33 16 133 

 Timber land 59 27 13 19 

 Reserved forest 48 5 3 40 

 Other forest 74 1 0 74 

Private corporate 138 28 57 52 

 Timber land 106 28 57 21 

 Reserved forest — — — —

 Other forest 32 0 0 31 

Private

noncorporate

 285 100 129 57 

 Timber land 250 99 122 30 

 Reserved forest — — — — 

 Other forest 34 1 7 26 
11

Harvests from public forests currently account for 8 percent 

of the Nation’s total . Public harvesting has decreased since the 

1980s . An increase in harvesting from private forests, particularly 

in the Southern United States, has largely offset this decrease at 

the national level .

Private Forests

There are an estimated 11 .3 million private forest owners in the 

United States . They range from industrial owners with millions 

of acres to families and individuals with just an acre of trees 

behind their homes .

Timber removal trends on private forest land, 1952–2006

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0

North South West 

Million cubic feet

1952

1976

2006

Although more than 60 percent of private forest owners own 

between 1 and 9 acres of forest land, most of the private forest 

land is in holdings of at least 200 acres . More than 20 percent 

of private forest land is in holdings of at least 10,000 acres; 

these are owned primarily by corporations and are managed for 

commercial purposes .

1111
12

Percent of forest area and private owners by holding size class, 2006

Size of forest holdings (acres)

Area

Owners

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1–9 10–19

20–4950–99100–199200–499500–999

1,000–4,999

5,000–9,99910,000+

Percentage of Area/Owners

Private Corporate Forests

Corporate owners collectively control one-third of the private 

forest land in the United States . The major change in corporate 

forest ownership in the past decade or so has been the divestiture 

of forest land by vertically integrated forest products companies 

and the growth of timber investment management organizations 

and real estate investment trusts . This shift has been caused by 

changes in the tax code and changes in corporate strategies . 

The ultimate ramifications of these structural changes are still 

unknown .

Family Forests

The other two-thirds of the private forest land are owned by 

noncorporate owners, the vast majority of whom are families 

and individuals . They own their land for many purposes, most of 

which center around the amenity values their forests provide .

Primary reasons why families and individuals own forest land, 2006

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 

Percent of family forest owners 

Aesthetics

Family legacy

Privacy

Nature protection

Part of home

Land investment

Hunting

Part of farm

Other recreation

Timber production
13

Fifty-eight percent of family forest land is owned by people who 

have commercially harvested trees from their land . However, 

only 17 percent of that forest land is owned by people who also 

have a written management plan and only 37 percent is owned 

by people who have received management advice .

Twenty percent of the family forest owners are 75 years or older . 

Additionally, 23 percent of the land is owned by people who plan 

to sell or pass it on in the next 5 years . Family legacy is, therefore, 

an important objective to many of these owners . 

Top Concerns of Family Forest Owners

1 . Keeping land intact for heirs

2 . Insects or plant diseases

3 . Fire

4 . Trespassing or poaching

5 . High property taxes

Parcellation 

Parcellation, the process of dividing a land holding into two 

or more smaller holdings, is one possible consequence of this 

intergenerational transfer of land . Between 1993 and 2006, 

the average size of private forest holdings decreased by 11 

percent; between 1978 and 2006, it decreased by 20 percent . 

As the parcels become smaller, they become more difficult to 

economically manage, and issues—such as wildfire fighting—can 

become increasingly costly and difficult .

Fragmentation of Forests

The Forest Service used high-resolution satellite imagery to 

determine how much forest land experiences different types and 

degrees of fragmentation . Fragmentation is caused by human 

activities and natural processes, and may lead to the isolation 

and loss of species and gene pools, degraded habitat quality, and 

a reduction in the forest’s ability to sustain the natural processes 

necessary to maintain ecosystem health . The fragmentation of 

forest area into smaller pieces changes ecological processes and 

alters biological diversity .

Analysis of fragmentation is scale dependent and, consequently, 

differs depending on whether the forest is separated into small 

or large pieces (landscapes) for analysis . Simply stated, places 

that are forested tend to be clustered in proximity to other places 

that are forested, but blocks of forest land are usually fragmented 

by inclusions of nonforest land . This pattern is repeated across 

a wide range of spatial scales . For landscapes up to 160 acres in 

size, at least 76 percent of all forest land is in landscapes that are 

at least 60 percent forested . For larger landscapes up to 119,000 
14

acres in size, at least 57 percent of forest land is in forestdominated landscapes . Forest landscapes fall into three main 

categories: (1) core, (2) interior and (3) edge .

Core forests are landscapes that are completely forested . The 

larger the landscape being examined, the less likely it is that it 

will be core forest . For 10-acre landscapes, 46 percent of all forest 

land is classified as core forest . Less than 1 percent of forest land 

is classified as core forest in landscapes that are 1,500 acres or 

larger .

Interior forests are landscapes that are more than 90 percent 

forested . Larger landscapes are less likely to have interior forest . 

When examining landscapes that are 10 acres in size, 60 percent 

of all forest land is interior forest . For landscapes larger than 

250 acres, however, less than one-third of forest land is classified 

as interior forest . Forest area in landscapes dominated by forest 

(more than 60 percent forest) is greater than either core or 

interior forest, and dominant forest area also decreases with 

increasing landscape size .

Edge forests have a different microclimate and often support a 

different species mixture than core or interior forests . Overall, 

54 percent of forest land is within 555 feet of forest land edge, 

74 percent is within 990 feet of forest land edge, and less than 1 

percent is at least 5,700 feet (1 .1 mile) from forest land edge .

The following figure shows the percent of all forest in a county 

that is interior forest (>90 percent forested) when analyzed at 

an approximately 40-acre scale . Larger values indicate that a 

larger share of the existing county forest is relatively intact, in 

comparison to forests in other counties .

Pattern of forest fragmentation by county in the United States

0 to 7.7

7.7 to 27.0

27.0 to 39.2

39.2 to 54.1

54.1 to 87.3

Percent of all forest

that is interior by county
15

In general, western forests tend to be less fragmented than 

eastern forests (North and South regions) . The available data 

permit analysis of overall forest land fragmentation but do not 

incorporate the influence of small roads nor differences in land 

ownership (“parcellation”) . 

Forest Composition andAge

The forests of the United States are very diverse in composition 

and distribution . Oak-hickory and maple-beech-birch forests 

dominate the Northeast; expansive pine forests blanket the 

Southeast; and majestic Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine forests 

cloak the western landscape . In the last 30 years, as the Nation’s 

forests age, eastern early seral types like aspen and spruce-fir have 

given way to mid and late seral types like oak-hickory and maplebeech-birch . In the West, decades of fire suppression are reducing 

areas of ponderosa and lodgepole pine .

Forest type area trends in the Eastern United States, 1977 and 2007

0 50 100

Million acres

1977

2007

Aspen-birch

Maple-beech-birch

Elm-ash-cottonwood

Oak-gum-cypress

Oak-pine

Oak-hickory, South

Oak-hickory, North

Loblolly-shortleaf pine

Longleaf-slash pine

Northern conifers

25 75 

Forest type area trends in the Western United States, 1977 and 2007

Million acres 

1977

2007

Pinyon-juniper

Other softwoods

Lodgepole pine

Hemlock-Sitka spruce

Fir-spruce

Ponderosa pine

Douglas fir

0 25 50 75 100
16

Following intensive logging and regeneration in the late 19th 

century and again in the mid 20th century, 51 percent of the 

Nation’s timber land is less than 50 years old . Five percent is 

more than 175 years old .

Forest area in the conterminous United States by region and stand-age 

class, 2007

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0 to

19 

20 to

39 

40 to

59 

60 to

79 

80 to

99 

100 to 

149 

150 to 

199 

200 and 

older 

Million acres 

Stand-age class (years) 

North 

South 

West 

Forest Origin

Forests in the United States are predominantly natural stands of 

native species . Planted forest land is most common in the East 

and heavily comprised of planted stands of native pine in the 

South . In the West, planting is generally used to augment natural 

regeneration .

Primary origin of forest stands in the United States, 2007

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 

Natural Planted 

All US

West

South

North
17

Tree Planting

Forest planting in the United States currently averages about 1 .8 

million acres per year . Pine is the most commonly planted species 

in the South . Spikes in tree planting occurred in the South in 

the 1950s as a result of the Soil Bank Program and in the 1980s 

as a result of the Conservation Reserve Program, which resulted 

in the planting of nearly 3 million acres of nonforest land . 

Western planting has subsided in recent years, mirroring reduced 

harvesting in that region .

Forest planting in the United States by region, 1952–2006

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

1952 1958 1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006 

Million acres

North 

West 

South 

Year

Growing Stock Volume

Growing stock inventory, growth, removals, and mortality trends on timber land by region and species group in the United States, 1952–2007

Region

Category Year Total North South West

Million cubic feet

Inventory 2007 932,082 248,000 288,522 395,560 

1997 835,663 214,246 256,354 365,063 

1987 781,662 190,035 244,631 346,968 

1977 733,042 163,021 223,364 346,685 

1963 665,591 128,276 174,065 363,250 

1953 615,895 103,753 148,466 363,675 

Growth 2006 26,731 6,570 13,281 6,909 

1996 23,871 5,409 11,412 7,023 

1986 23,616 5,663 10,760 7,193 

1976 21,493 5,380 10,053 6,032 

1962 16,707 4,417 8,099 4,191 

1952 20,048 4,955 10,902 4,191 

(cont. on next page)
18

Region

Category Year Total North South West

Million cubic feet

Removals 2006 15,546 2,832 9,684 3,030 

1996 16,027 2,775 10,194 3,058 

1986 16,452 2,718 8,693 5,040 

1976 14,215 2,662 6,570 5,012 

1962 11,950 2,067 5,522 4,361 

1952 11,440 2,209 5,493 3,766 

Mortality 2006 7,815 2,039 2,860 2,945 

1996 6,315 1,614 2,237 2,464 

1986 4,644 1,246 1,671 1,727 

1976 4,106 1,161 1,274 1,671 

1962 4,333 934 1,161 2,237 

1952 3,908 680 963 2,237 

Softwoods

Inventory 2007 529,188 55,869 118,478 354,869 

1997 483,824 49,385 104,858 329,610 

1987 467,570 47,629 105,622 314,347 

1977 466,947 43,863 101,205 321,908 

1963 449,759 33,669 75,097 341,022 

1953 431,806 27,043 60,457 344,278 

Growth 2006 15,235 1,501 7,646 6,116 

1996 13,762 1,189 6,400 6,201 

1986 13,394 1,218 5,947 6,230 

1976 12,035 1,246 5,578 5,210 

1962 9,599 1,218 4,701 4,616 

1952 11,242 1,444 6,116 3,653 

Removals 2006 9,854 680 6,315 2,860 

1996 10,053 680 6,485 2,917 

1986 11,355 736 5,748 4,899 

1976 10,053 708 4,474 4,871 

1962 7,617 538 2,803 4,276 

1952 7,532 708 3,087 3,766 

(continued)
19

Region

Category Year Total North South West

Million cubic feet

Softwoods

Mortality 2006 4,502 538 1,359 2,605 

1996 3,625 453 1,048 2,124 

1986 2,775 368 850 1,586 

1976 2,464 311 623 1,501 

1962 2,775 283 396 2,067 

1952 2,662 227 340 2,124 

Hardwoods

Inventory 2007 402,894 192,131 170,044 40,692 

1997 351,839 164,862 151,524 35,453 

1987 314,092 142,406 139,036 32,621 

1977 266,095 119,158 122,160 24,777 

1963 215,832 94,635 98,996 22,229 

1953 184,089 76,682 88,009 19,397 

Growth 2006 11,497 5,097 5,635 765 

1996 10,081 4,219 5,012 850 

1986 10,194 4,446 4,814 963 

1976 9,458 4,163 4,502 821 

1962 7,108 3,200 3,398 481 

1952 8,807 3,511 4,757 538 

Removals 2006 5,663 2,152 3,370 142 

1996 5,947 2,095 3,710 142 

1986 5,097 1,982 2,945 142 

1976 4,191 1,954 2,095 142 

1962 4,333 1,529 2,718 85 

1952 3,908 1,472 2,407 — 

Mortality 2006 3,313 1,501 1,501 340 

1996 2,690 1,161 1,189 311 

1986 1,869 878 821 170 

1976 1,614 821 651 170 

1962 1,557 651 765 142 

1952 1,246 481 651 142 

Average growing stock volume per acre continues to rise across 

the United States, with the largest gains in the North and South 

where volumes per acre are nearly double what they were in 

1953 .

(continued)
20

Average growing stock volume on timber land in the United States by 

region, 1953, 1977, and 2007

North South West U.S. 

Cubic feet per acre 

1953

1977

2007

3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

Net Growth, Removals, and Mortality Rates for Growing Stock

Over the past 50 years, net growth has consistently exceeded 

removals in the United States . Removals remain at about 2 

percent of inventory, while net growth (growth minus mortality) 

is near 3 percent . Currently, the volume of annual net growth is 

32 percent higher than the volume of annual removals . Mortality 

rates have remained well below 1 percent of inventory for at least 

50 years .

Net annual growing stock growth, removals, and mortality as a percent of 

inventory in the United States, 1952–2006

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

0

Percent of inventory

Growth Removals Mortality

195219621976198619962006195219621976198619962006195219621976198619962006

Forest Carbon and Biomass

Forest Carbon

Concern over consequences of increasing greenhouse gas 

concentrations in the atmosphere has led the United States to 

develop an annual inventory of greenhouse gas sources and sinks 

since 1990 . The U .S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

prepares the official inventory for all sources to comply with 
21

commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention 

on Climate Change . The U .S . Department of Agriculture and 

the Forest Service provide the inventory for the agriculture and 

forestry sectors . In 2006, gross greenhouse gas emissions in the 

United States were equivalent to 7,054 million metric tons (15 .5 

trillion pounds) of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2 eq .) .

Forests take in CO2 and water, store carbon in wood, and 

release oxygen . The carbon stored in forests is released back into 

the atmosphere when trees are burned, such as in forest fires, 

or when dead trees and leaves decay . Forest management can 

affect greatly the amount of carbon stored; vigorously growing 

forests store more carbon than slow growing ones . When trees 

are made into lumber or paper, some CO2

 is released, but much 

continues to be stored in the products or eventually in landfills . 

Substituting wood for nonrenewable materials can also reduce 

CO2 in the atmosphere by reducing fossil fuel energy use .

In 2006, a net 745 million metric tons (1 .6 trillion pounds) of 

CO2 eq . were removed from the atmosphere and stored in forests 

and forest products in the 48 conterminous States . This offsets 

about 11 percent of gross U .S . CO2 emissions from all sources .

Net forest carbon stock change in the United States by carbon pool, 2006

-300

Litter

Dead wood

Trees and understory

North

South

West

-200 -100 0 100

Million metric tons CO2 eq./yr

Wood products

Landfilled wood

Net forest carbon stock change during 2006, 48 States plus part of Alaska—soil not included, 2006. 

(Note: negative value corresponds to storage by forests.)

Forests stored an additional 204 million metric tons (0 .4 trillion 

pounds) of CO2 eq . This biomass was harvested and burned for 

energy as a substitute for fossil fuels, resulting in a net change 

of zero atmospheric CO2 . Forests sequestered an additional 

approximately 268 million metric tons CO2 eq . that had been 

emitted during wildfires . This amount includes the contribution 
22

of the non-CO2 gases methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) . 

Urban forests also sequestered carbon, estimated at 95 million 

metric tons CO2 eq . (200 billion pounds) for 2006 .

Forest Biomass

The greatest amounts of biomass per area are located in the 

Pacific Northwest . Moderate levels are located along the 

Appalachian Mountains, from northern Georgia into central 

Maine, encompassing much of the hardwood region of the 

United States . The rest of the United States is occupied by forests 

containing between 1 and 494 .2 tons/acre CO2

 on average, with 

infrequent extremely heavy biomass accumulations (865+ tons 

CO2/acre) . Overall, the conterminous U .S . forests contain 16 

billion metric tons of carbon in aboveground live biomass .

Aboveground live forest biomass stocks by county 

in the United States, 2006

Wood for Energy

Forest biomass sustainably harvested for electricity generation 

can represent an overall net reduction in greenhouse gas 

emissions because the burning of nonrenewable fuels, such 

as coal, is avoided . Across the United States, a great variety of 

electric utility plants used wood in 2007 . Most of the electric 

utilities are located near sources of forest biomass . Overall, 

hundreds of electric utility plants are using wood for power 

generation and, thus, avoiding emission of greenhouse gases . 

However, relative to the use of fossil fuels, the use of forest 

biomass as an energy source is small .
23

Location of avoided CO2 emissions (assuming coal burning)

of electric utilities using wood as a power generation source 

in the United States, 2007

ForestHealth and Invasives

Mortality rates relative to inventory, although currently at the 

highest level in 50 years, remain less than 1 percent of inventory . 

Much of the recent increase, however, may be attributed to a 

confluence of local cyclic effects of forest stressors, such as the 

recent increase in forest fires and large outbreaks of beetles . 

Discerning whether the current high rates are beyond the range 

of normal variability from a regional or national perspective is, 

however, difficult .

23

however, difficult .

23
24

Annual mortality as a percent of inventory in the United States, 1952, 

1976, and 2006

Total North South West 

1.20

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

Percent of inventory

1952

1976

2006

General Health Risk

Areas potentially at risk of 25 percent or higher mortality due 

to insects and disease over the next 15 years are depicted in the 

following graphic for the standing live volume of trees greater 

than 1 inch in diameter .

Areas at risk of mortality due to insect and disease in the next 

15 years.
25

Major Forest Insects

Aerial detection surveys provide information on the extent of 

damage caused by major forest pests . Some of these pests include:

Southern Pine Beetle. Activity was at historically high levels 

throughout the last 20 years, reflecting the widespread 

availability of its preferred host, loblolly pine . Activity has 

recently begun to decline .

Southern pine beetle infestation Million acres

1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999

28

24

20

16

12

8

4

0

2003 2007

Mountain Pine Beetle. Activity gradually declined from the 1980s 

through 2002 . Massive killing of host trees, especially lodgepole 

pine, greatly depleted the availability of suitable host trees . 

Activity has again increased slightly since 2002 .

Mountain pine beetle infestation Million acres

1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2003 2007

Spruce Budworm. Activity has been declining the past 20 years, 

with outbreaks restricted to the Lake States . Spruce budworm 

outbreaks are cyclic, with epidemics occurring at 30- to 50-year 

intervals as a new forest grows up from the old one killed by the 

budworm .
26

Spruce budworm infestation Million acres

1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2003 2007

Western Spruce Budworm. Defoliation peaked from 1983 to 1992 . 

Many trees weakened by budworm defoliation were subsequently 

killed by bark beetle attacks .

Western spruce budworm infestation Million acres

1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2003 2007

Gypsy Moths. Gypsy moths defoliated almost 12 .9 million acres 

of hardwoods in 1981, and defoliation averaged 2 .2 million 

acres annually during the past 25 years . Activity reached 

unprecedented levels as it spread south and west into better 

habitat; the great reduction in recent years appears to reflect the 

effect of Entomophaga maimaiga (a fungal pathogen of the Gypsy 

moth) .

26

Photo by David McComb, http://www.bugwood.org
27

Gypsy moth infestation Million acres

1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2003 2007

Major Forest Diseases

Dozens of diseases affect U .S . forests each year . The following is 

a list of the 10 most commonly found tree diseases in the United 

States:

Disease	 Primary Species Affected

Beech bark disease beech

Dutch elm disease American elm

Dogwood anthracnose dogwood

Dwarf mistletoes conifers

Fusiform rust southern pines

Oak wilt eastern oaks

Port-Orford cedar root disease Port-Orford cedar

Root rots many conifers and hardwoods

Sudden oak death California oaks, tanoak

White pine blister rust 5-needle pines

Air Pollution

Ozone has been shown to alter forest ecosystems in areas of 

high deposition . At high ozone levels, sensitive trees show 

ozone-related injury; while lower ozone levels have been shown 

to reduce photosynthesis of trees—affecting tree health . 

The EPA provides information on the ozone concentration 

at points across the United States . Combined with FIA data 

collected on plots designed to detect ozone damage on sensitive 

species, this information can be used to locate sites for further 

research regarding air quality impacts on forest species .

EPA data show ambient ozone concentrations to be highest at 

points in the Sierra Nevada, some areas of the semiarid Western 

States, and scattered points along the southern Appalachian 

piedmont, northeast coast, and Great Lakes ecological regions, 

where major cities and travel corridors occur . Plot data from 

FIA show similar trends with more damage detected on sensitive 
28

plant species in the following areas than anywhere else in the 

United States: the Sierra Nevada; the area east of Los Angeles; 

the travel corridor of Interstate 85 across the Southern States 

of Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina; the urban 

hotspots of Atlanta, GA, Cincinnati, OH, and Buffalo, NY; 

and the greater Washington, DC, area . The Midwestern 

and Northwestern States, along with Maine, Vermont, and 

New Hampshire, appear to have the lowest levels of ozone 

concentration and damage to forest species . The following map 

shows mean average ozone injury estimates and risk to forests of 

injury from ozone exposure, 2000–2006 .

Mean ozone injury estimates and risk to forests of injury from ozone 

exposure, 2000–2006

Invasive Species

Expanding global trade and travel have increased the risk of 

introducing new, exotic organisms . When brought into new 

ecosystems, exotic (invasive) species often have no natural 

enemies and, therefore, can cause extensive damage . Invasive 

plant species are defined as species being moved beyond their 

natural range or natural zone of potential dispersal, including all 

domesticated species and hybrids . The introduction of invasive 

species can have major ecological and economic consequences 

and can directly affect human health . There are an estimated 

3,723 plants with species of origin outside the United States . 

Areas with the highest rates of introduction tend to be along the 

coasts or major inland waterways . In general, human disruptions 

of natural communities, such as by soil alterations, removal of 

vegetative cover, or suppression of natural disturbance regimes, 

seems to promote opportunities for invasive species .
29

Area of forest affected by woody invasive species in the United States

Common name Scientific name Area Source

Trees 000 ac.

Tallowtree, 

Popcorntree 

Triadica sebifera 3,818 2/ 

Tree-of-Heaven Ailanthus altissima 3,444 3/ 

Silktree, Mimosa Albizia julibrissin 1,127 2/ 

Chinaberrytree Melia azedarach 1,080 3/ 

White mulberry Morus alba 915 3/ 

Princesstree, 

Paulownia 

Paulownia tomentosa 726 3/ 

Siberian elm Ulmus pumila 487 3/ 

Melaleuca Melaleuca quinquenervia 212 3/ 

Bebb willow Salix bebbiana 137 3/ 

Russian Olive Elaeagnus angustifolia 101 3/ 

Shrubs

Chinese / 

European Privet 

Ligustrum sinense 15,969 2/ 

Non-native roses 

(Multiflora, Macartney, 

Cherokee)

Rosa multiflora, 

bracteata, laevigata 

 5,339 2/ 

Japanese / 

Glossy Privet 

Ligustrum japonicum 1,656 2/ 

Other honeysuckle (Amur, 

Morrow’s, 

Tatarian, Sweet-breathof-spring)

Lonicera amur, morrowii, 

tatarica, fragrantissima 

 1,363 2/ 

Autumn Olive Elaeagnus umbellata 648 2/ 

Sacred Bamboo, Nandina Nandina domestica 229 2/ 

Winged Burning Bush Euonymus alata 54 2/ 

Silverthorn, 

Thorny Olive 

Elaeagnus pungens 59 2/ 

Saltcedar Tamarix ramosissima 35 4/ 

Vines

Japanese Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica 46,959 2/ 

Kudzu Pueraria montana 582 2/ 

Common/Bigleaf periwinklesVinca minor, major 240 2/ 

Nonnative climbing 

yams-air yam/chinese 

yam

Dioscorea oppositifolia, 

alata, bulbifera

 252 2/ 

Chinese/Japanese 

wisteria

Wisteria sinensis, 

floribunda 

 191 2/ 

(continued on next page)
30

Common name Scientific name Area Source

Vines

Winter Creeper Euonymus fortunei 65 2/ 

Oriental Bittersweet Celastrus orbiculatus 51 2/ 

English Ivy Hedera helix 78 2/ 

TOTAL 85,816 

 

1/ The total forest area affected by woody invasive species is not necessary the sum of the values 

above, as these may be overlapping. Area reported is area affected by woody invasives, not actual 

area covered by the invasive species.

2/ http://srsfia2.fs.fed.us/nonnative_invasive/southern_nnis.php

3/ FIADB, http://www.fia.fs.fed.us

4/ IWFIA data

Source: FIADB and FIA unit data

Additionally, invasive insects and pathogens threaten many 

forests throughout the United States . This map shows the areas 

and invasive species currently having major impacts .

Current invasive insects and pathogens threatening forests 

in the United States, 2005

(continued)

30
31

Wildland Fire

Wildland fires burn millions of acres of forest land in the United 

States each year, and the intensity of fires and area burned have 

been increasing in recent decades (Running 2006, Westerling et 

al . 2006, Miller et al . 2008) . Federal agencies alone now spend 

more than $1 billion annually on suppression efforts (U .S . 

Government Accountability Office 2006) with costs increasing 

rapidly . While less than 5 percent of wildfires become large 

and uncontrollable, these fires can be especially problematic 

and account for more than 95 percent of the area burned 

(Running 2006, Peterson and McKenzie 2008) . Suppression 

efforts directed at large severe wildfires are very costly and put 

firefighters’ lives at risk . Substantial property damage may 

result despite these efforts, with effects often greatest in the 

wildland-urban interface—areas where homes and businesses 

have been built among trees, brush, and other flammable 

vegetation .

Annual area burned in the United States, 1960–2006

10.0

9.0

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 

Million acres 

The potential for an area of forest to experience wildfire 

activity depends on several factors, including the likelihood of 

ignition, the availability of dead fuel near the ground surface 

and combustible fuel in the forest canopy, regional climate, and 

year-to-year variations in weather that influence the length of 

fire seasons . Understanding the relative contribution of these 

factors, along with their spatial patterns and trends over time, 

is important for developing management strategies to mitigate 

wildfire hazards . For example, decades of fire suppression 

resulting in the accumulation of dead fuel, small trees, and brush 

is often cited as a cause of increased fire activity in some western 

U .S . forest types . However, recent research shows that changes 

in climate are closely associated with increased wildfire in some 

areas of the West over the last few decades . Increases in spring 

and summer temperatures and decreases in precipitation have 

resulted in longer fire seasons in these areas, along with increases 
32

in the burn time of large fires (Running 2006, Westerling et 

al . 2006) . In areas where climate change appears to be a major 

driver of wildfire activity, ecological restoration and management 

of hazardous fuel alone may not be sufficient to alter recent 

wildfire trends (Westerling et al . 2006) . The availability of spatial 

information describing vegetation and fuel conditions, coupled 

with information on likely climate trends, can help target 

fuel reduction projects for maximum effectiveness and could 

improve land use planning that reduces wildfire risk to human 

communities .

The following map of wildand fire potential combines spatial 

information about fire behavior and fire probability under 

extreme weather conditions . Fire behavior includes both crown 

fire potential and surface fire potential, while fire probability 

includes both fire weather and historic fire occurrence .

Wildland fire potential in the conterminous United States by risk class

Legend

Very high

High

Moderate

Low

Very low

Barren

A/urban/developed

Water

500 miles

Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection

Source: Wildland fire potential data were provided by Jim Menakis, Fire Modeling Institute, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station, Forest Service. Geographic base data were provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service and the National Atlas of the United 

States.

Timber Products and Residues

Solidwood and paper products consumed in the United States 

require roundwood harvest in the United States and other 

countries, plus recycled paper and solidwood products . Since 

the late 1980s, roundwood harvest for export has declined, 

and roundwood equivalent of imports has increased . Domestic 

roundwood harvest increased from 1950 through the mid-1980s 

and has remained steady since then, maintaining a volume of 15 

billion cubic feet in 2006 .
33

Total and per capita roundwood consumption by category, 1965–2006

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Cubic feet per capita 

Year 

Harvest for domestic use

Exports

Net imports

Per capita consumption

196519701975198019851990199520002005

25

20

15

10

5

0

Billion cubic feet

Total domestic roundwood harvest has been stable to declining 

due to increasing imports and an increase in use of recycled 

paper . With these increases, total consumption of solidwood 

and paper products has increased steadily since 1950 . In 2006, 

consumption for the North, South, and West was 55 .7, 116 .5, 

and 35 .4 billion dry short tons, respectively .

Solidwood and paper products consumption and material sources with 

region of roundwood harvest, 1977–2006

Year 

19771981198519891993199720012005

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Billion dry tons

North

South

West

Recycled fiber

Imports

Nonwood materials
34

Drivers of Timber Demand

Demands for the products and services of forests are driven 

largely by population and disposable income . Per capita 

disposable income (constant 1996 U .S . dollars) more than 

doubled between 1965 and 2006, increasing from $10 .6 

thousand in 1965 to $25 .9 thousand in 2006 . Total U .S . 

population increased by 54 percent during this time, reaching 

299 .2 million in 2006 .

Per capita disposable personal income and population, 1965–2006

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

Disposable income (thousand 1996 dollars)

0

Year 

196519701975198019851990199520002005

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0

Population (millions)

Disposable income per capita

Population

Imports and Exports

Imports accounted for an increasing share of the Nation’s timber 

supply, reaching a maximum value of 29 percent in 2004 and 

2005 . While most of the imports originated in Canada, there 

were increased shipments from Chile, New Zealand, Finland, 

and other countries during this time . However, this trend 

reversed in 2006 when imports as a percent of consumption 

dropped to 28 percent . Exports as a percent of production 

peaked at 16 percent in 1991 and generally declined after that 

point, reflecting a strong dollar and decreased demands in 

key markets such as Japan . Exports as a percent of production 

declined to 11 percent in 2006 . Because of their effects on U .S . 

harvest, both imports and exports affect the condition of the 

domestic forest resource .
35

Imports as a percent of consumption and exports as a percent of 

production of industrial roundwood, 1965–2006

Year 

196519701975198019851990199520002005

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Percent

Imports as percent of consumption

Exports as percent of production

Shifting Timber Sources

Changes in public land policy have had significant impacts 

on private forests . As harvesting declined on public lands in 

the West, harvesting increased on private lands in the East, 

particularly in the South . Overall, domestic harvesting has 

remained steady to declining for the past decade, and increased 

demand has been supported by increased imports and paper 

recycling .

Growing stock removals in the United States by owner group, 

1952–2006

Year 

16.0

14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

Billion cubic feet

1952 1976 1986 1996 2006

Private

Public
36

Harvest Methods and Efficiency

Timber harvests occur on 10 .8 million acres annually . Selective 

harvesting is prevalent on 61 percent of harvested acres in the 

United States . Clearcutting, used on the remaining 39 percent 

of harvested forest, is most prevalent in areas of managed 

plantations in the South and areas in the North where pioneer 

species such as aspen, jack pine, and spruce-fir—which need 

open sunlight to regenerate—are being managed for timber 

production . In the West, clearcutting is generally followed by 

planting to augment natural regeneration .

Proportion of harvested timber land in the United States by method of 

harvest, 2001–2005

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 North South West Total

Percent of harvested area

Clearcut

Partial cut

Logging Residues

Logging residues are portions of trees’ stems left behind after 

logging, and are increasingly being considered as a possible 

resource for bioenergy use . Overall, this material has ranged 

from an equivalent of 20 to 30 percent of the material taken 

for products . In 2006, logging residues totaled 4 .5 billion cubic 

feet . Even after leaving a portion of this material for nutrient 

cycling and soil protection, the volume has the potential to be a 

significant resource .

36
37

Logging residues in the United States as a percent of total harvest by 

region, 1952, 1976, and 2006

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Total North South West 

Percent of harvested material

1952

1976

2006

Nontimber Forest Products

Nontimber forest products involve more species than timber 

products and include trees, woody and herbaceous plants, 

fungi, and other biological material harvested from within and 

on the edges of forests . Plant parts harvested include the roots, 

tubers, leaves, bark, twigs and branches, fruit, sap, and resin, as 

well as the wood (Chamberlain et al . 1998) . These products are 

commonly classified into five product categories:

• Medicinal Plants

• Food and Forage

• Floral

• Arts and Crafts

• Horticultural

As demand for these products grows, it becomes increasingly 

important to monitor the removal of products from forests, 

and the effects of their removal on the viability of current and 

future forest ecosystems . However, despite the importance of 

these products, they are difficult to track because of the revolving 

variety of products they encompass, and regional variability 

within product categories . Domestic values of nontimber forest 

products may be estimated from contract and permit sales on 

public lands operated by the Forest Service and the Bureau of 

Land Management . These extrapolations assume that national 

forests account for approximately 20 percent of nontimber 

forest products and Bureau land accounts for about 2 percent 

of nontimber forest products . If these assumptions are true, the 

wholesale domestic value of nontimber forest products (not 

including personal use) exceeds $600 million .
38

Estimated wholesale value of wild-harvested nontimber resources in 

the United States extrapolated from Forest Service and Bureau of Land 

Management sales receipts

Product category 2005 2006 2007

Million U.S. dollars (unadjusted for inflation)

Landscaping 35 29 31 

Crafts/florals 87 93 152 

Regeneration seed/

cones

 5 3 4 

Edible fruits, nuts, 

sap

 46 37 46 

Grass/forage 24 20 20 

Herbs, medicinals 2 2 2 

 Subtotal 199 183 254 

Fuelwood 271 286 331 

Posts and poles 33 28 26 

Christmas trees 82 69 71 

 Subtotal 386 382 428 

Total 585 565 682.4

Domestic nontimber forest products of particular national 

economic importance include Christmas trees, maple syrup, 

furbearing animals, and products related to the arts and crafts 

industry . Economically important exports include pecans, floral 

products, wild blueberries, ginseng, and honey . Overall, the 

United States is a net importer of nontimber forest products, 

particularly vanilla beans (from Madagascar), which heavily 

influence the net value of the U .S . nontimber forest product 

trade .

Nontimber forest products trade and wholesale values in the United 

States

Category 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Million U.S. dollars (unadjusted for inflation)

U.S. imports minus 

exports

 244 205 71 105 61 

Total wholesale 

value adjusted for 

trade

 461 425 270 288 315 

Total wholesale 

value adjusted for 

trade, plus firewood, 

posts and poles, 

and Christmas trees

 853 801 656 670 743 
39

Ecosystem Services

Healthy forest ecosystems are ecological life-support systems . In 

addition to traditional products, forests provide a full suite of 

goods and services that are vital to human health and livelihood, 

natural assets we call environmental services or ecosystem 

services .

Many of these goods and services are traditionally viewed as 

free benefits to society, or “public goods”—wildlife habitat 

and diversity, watershed services, carbon storage, and scenic 

landscapes, for example . Lacking a formal market, these natural 

assets are traditionally absent from society’s balance sheet; their 

critical contributions are often overlooked in public, corporate, 

and individual decisionmaking .

While it is difficult to establish the value of ecosystem services, 

an illustrative subset of ecosystem services can be highlighted 

for which actual markets and/or payments to landowners exist . 

Although this example does not measure the full value of the 

benefits supplied by forests to society, it does measure the 

amount of revenues landowners actually received for producing 

specific ecosystem services .

Payments to forest landowners from all sources from which data 

are available were $553 million in 2007 with Federal agencies 

providing $248 million, States $12 million, and nongovernment 

sources accounting for $294 million . Of the nongovernment 

sources, greenhouse gas offsets amounted to $5 .5 million, 

conservation easements $110 million, and fee simple purchases 

$176 million .

From 2005 to 2007, government payments—Federal and 

State—remained fairly constant, ranging from $256 million 

in 2005 to $260 million in 2007 . In contrast, payments 

by nongovernment organizations for carbon offsets and 

conservation easements grew from $213 million in 2005 to $294 

million in 2007 .

39

million in 2007 .

39
40

Payments by government and nongovernment organizations for carbon 

offsets and conservation easements, 2005–2007 Million dollars

Federal

Nongovernment

State

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

2005 2006 2007

For the example presented, the distribution of payments among 

States for ecosystem services from all sources in 2007 is shown 

in the following map . Alaska landowners received the lowest 

payments ($276,000), while Georgia received the highest ($52 

million) .

Average revenues from ecosystem services by State, 2005–2007

Toward Stronger Policies and Actions

The Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 takes a 

significant first step towards facilitating landowner participation 

in emerging markets for ecosystem services . Section 2709 of 

the conservation title requires the Secretary of Agriculture, in 

consultation with other agencies and interests, to “establish 
41

technical guidelines that measure the ecosystem services benefits 

from conservation and land management activities .” 

To implement this act, a governmentwide Conservation 

and Land Management Environmental Services Board was 

established . The purpose of this board is to assist the Secretary of 

Agriculture in adopting the technical guidelines that the Federal 

Government will use to assess ecosystem services provided by 

conservation and land management activities and provide for 

reporting protocols, registries, and verification processes .

Technical guidelines will focus on scientifically rigorous and 

economically sound methods for quantifying environmental 

services, such as carbon sequestration, air and water quality, 

wetlands, and endangered species benefits, in an effort to 

facilitate the participation of farmers, ranchers, and forest 

landowners in emerging ecosystem markets .

Improving our ability to quantify ecosystem services will 

enable them to be taken into account, alongside merchantable 

timber and nontimber forest products when decisions are made 

regarding forest resources .

Learn more at http://www .fs .fed .us/ecosystemservices/ .

Water Supplies

In the conterminous 48 States, 24 percent of the water supply 

originates on Federal land . Land owned by the Forest Service 

serves 18 percent of originating water sources . Regardless of 

ownership, about 53 percent of the conterminous water supply 

originates on forest land . National forests and grasslands supply 

51 percent of the water supply in the West . 

Water Uses

Estimates of water use in the United States indicate that about 

408 billion gallons per day were withdrawn for all uses during 

2000 . This total has varied less than 3 percent since 1985 as 

withdrawals have stabilized for the two largest uses—thermoelectric power and irrigation . In 2000, about 48 percent of all 

withdrawals were used for thermoelectric power and 34 percent 

for irrigation .

Watershed Management

Water quality is becoming an increasingly serious concern in 

the United States, as well as globally . High-quality watersheds 

trap sediments; slow runoff; and provide cooling shade and 

excellent habitat for wildlife, fish, and plants . Potential watershed 

management issues include habitat loss and fragmentation, 
42

hydrologic alterations, nutrient enrichment of surface waters, 

and pathogens and toxins . Forests offer significant mitigation 

opportunities for water management .

Effective watershed management must be based on a 

planning process that integrates both scientific analysis and 

public participation . To explore current efforts in watershed 

management, visit http://www .partnershipresourcecenter .org/

watersheds/index .php .

Drought

Another aspect of water is the lack of it . Many forests have 

recently experienced fires of unprecedented intensity and extent, 

and this is partially the result of forest management practices 

that have allowed decades of dead wood (fuels) to accumulate . 

This has been exacerbated by climate variability in the form of 

prolonged periods of drought that have left forests in tinder dry 

conditions, and, thus, more susceptible to intense fires . Public 

resource agencies are shifting their fire policies from complete 

suppression to recognition that fire is an integral component 

of the landscape . Presuppression forests experienced fires more 

frequently, but these fires were less destructive . These less intense 

fires served as a means of keeping fuels from accumulating on 

the forest floor and maintaining low stand density . Current 

information on drought conditions can be found at NOAA’s 

Hydrologic Information Center at http://www .nws .noaa .gov/ 

oh/hic/current/drought/index .html and the University of 

Nebraska–Lincoln, National Drought Mitigation Center 

at http://drought .unl .edu/risk/us/usimpacts .htm .

Forest Wildlife

Wildlife and Climate Change

Wildlife biologists face many challenges in developing recommendations to manage wildlife habitat under a changing climate . 

The Forest Service has developed a consistent and holistic 

approach to analyzing potential threats of climate change to 

terrestrial wildlife habitat . The terrestrial climate stress index was 

developed to rank areas along a gradient of high to low future 

climate stress to terrestrial wildlife habitat, based on components 

that quantify the degree of change in temperature, precipitation, 

habitat types, and habitat quality . Areas of relatively high or low 

stress across the coterminous United States can be identified 

in a consistent and repeatable manner . To evaluate future 

climate change threats with existing threats to wildlife habitat 

management, this information can be integrated with the 

geographic location of current stressors—for example, intensive 
43

land use—or with areas having large numbers of at-risk species . 

The Forest Service analysis to date indicates that the areas of 

greatest stress to terrestrial habitats from future climate change 

were associated with transitions between major biomes or in 

areas of high topographic relief . The least sensitive geographic 

areas on this relative scale were in the southern Great Plains, 

the Appalachian Mountains, and the eastern coast of Florida . 

The States with the greatest proportional area in relatively high 

climate stress include Missouri and Arkansas . The least stress 

States include Texas and Oklahoma .

Wildlife habitats stressed by climate change

Land Ownership and Forest Wildlife

Conservation of biological diversity on public forest lands is 

often a focus in resource planning . However, privately owned 

forest lands also make an important contribution to the 

conservation of species that are at risk of extinction . At-risk 

species are defined as those species listed under the U .S . 

Endangered Species Act or with a global conservation status rank 

of critically imperiled, imperiled, or vulnerable . Analyses by the 

Forest Service and key partners indicate that two-thirds of the 

watersheds in the conterminous United States contain at-risk 

species associated with private forests, with counts ranging from 

1 to 101 species . Those watersheds with the greatest number and 

density of such species are found in the Southeast, Midwest, and 

west coast States . Many private forests are threatened by land-use 

conversion . Those forests projected to experience the greatest 

increase in housing density within the next 25 years—and with 

relatively high densities of at-risk species—are found in over 100 

watersheds, most of them in the Southeastern States .
44

Number of at-risk species that occur on privately owned forest land 

by watershed

Area of privately owned forest land predicted to experience increased 

housing density by 2030
45

Forest Recreation

In the United States, with a few exceptions, public forest lands 

at all levels of government are open for public recreation . Open 

Federal lands include forested areas on national forests, national 

parks, Bureau of Land Management lands, wildlife refuges, and 

most other federally managed land . Open State forest lands 

include State forests, State parks, wildlife management areas, 

and other State management areas . Local government forests 

include municipal watersheds, local parks, local forest preserves, 

greenways, and other local forest areas .

Forest industry and other corporate and noncorporate private 

forest lands are usually also open to recreational uses, although 

access to them is more restricted than is the case with public 

lands . Over half of forest industry lands are in the South . Large 

portions of other corporation forest lands (not owned by forest 

industry) are located in the West and South regions . Almost half 

of the family and individually owned private forest land is in the 

South region; nearly 36 percent is in the North . The National 

Woodland Ownership Survey estimated that about 54 percent 

of family forest land was open only to family or friends, and no 

others (Butler 2008) . Just 14 .6 percent of the family forest area 

was open to the public with permission of the owner . Almost 8 

percent of the family forest area was leased in the last 5 years for 

recreational uses . The percentage of nonindustrial forest available 

for public recreation has been on a downward trend over the last 

three decades .

Recreation Use of Forests

The top 10 forest recreation activities, in terms of numbers 

of times people have participated, are walking for pleasure; 

viewing and photographing natural scenery; viewing and 

photographing flowers, trees, and other forest vegetation; viewing 

and photographing birds; viewing and photographing wildlife; 

day hiking; visiting wild areas; off-highway driving; attending 

outdoor family gatherings; and visiting nature centers . The 

annual total number of forest recreation activity days among 

these activities ranges from an estimated high of almost 7 .5 

billion to just over 680 million . Snowmobiling, mountain 

climbing, cross-country skiing, rock climbing and snowshoeing 

engage much smaller numbers of recreation activity days, but 

still the estimated totals add up to sizeable numbers ranging from 

about 20 million to over 62 million .

The percentage of forest-based activity days that occur on public 

lands ranges from under 50 percent (for example, small-game 

hunting, horseback riding, off-road driving, and gathering 

mushrooms and berries) to over 75 percent (for example, visiting 

wilderness, day hiking, visiting nature centers, and backpacking) . 
46

Over all activities, the percentage of forest-based recreation 

activity days that occur in urban forests ranges between roughly 

15 percent to around 45 percent .

Millions of annual forest recreation activity days* and percentage on 

public and private forest land in the United States by activity, 2007–2008

Forest recreation activity Number of activity

days in forest

Percent on public

forest

Percent in urban

forests

Walk for pleasure 7,493.30 53.8 44.5

View/photograph natural 

scenery

6,170.60 61.9 31.8

View/photograph wildflowers, trees, etc.4,858.94 55.4 36.3

View/photograph birds 3,738.27 51.3 37.6

View/photograph other 

wildlife

3,086.85 57.7 32.2

Day hiking 1,234.82 76.2 34

Visit a wilderness or 

primitive area

947.559 76.4 24.6

Off-highway driving 837.541 50.4 23.2

Family gathering 805.291 55.9 43.5

Visit nature

centers, etc.

683.85 77.6 45.2

Gather mushrooms, berries, etc.623.372 47.9 32.3

Mountain biking 463.324 60.2 32.1

Picnicking 455.942 68.4 44.4

Developed camping 355.966 72.8 21.3

Big game hunting 279.781 45.7 16.5

Primitive camping 211.448 75.8 21.4

Backpacking 198.787 78.5 22.1

Visit historic sites 182.755 60 39.1

Horseback riding on trails 177.453 50.8 34.4

Small game hunting 161.488 46.8 17..4

Visit prehistoric/archaeological sites138.932 70 41.6

Snowmobiling 62.111 55.1 27.4

Mountain climbing 57.091 78.6 20.5

Cross country skiing 41.874 60.5 33.7

Rock climbing 34.088 68.8 26.9

Snowshoeing 19.938 60.2 27.6

Source: NSRE 2005–2008, Versions 1-3b 

*Recreation activity day=recreation in each activity equivalent to the activity completed by one 

person in 1 day.
47

Overall, between 2000 and 2007, recreation use increased 

modestly . As reported in Forest History Today (Cordell 2008), 

the total number of people who participated in one or more 

outdoor activities grew by 4 .4 percent between 2000 and 

2007 . At the same time, the number of recreation activity 

days, summed across all participants and activities, increased 

approximately 25 percent . The number and capacity of public 

and private forest-based recreation sites have remained about 

constant or increased slightly .

Growth in number of participants and recreation days across 60 outdoor 

recreation activities on all land in the United States, 2000–2007 

(reproduced from Forest History Today article, Cordell 2008)

Number who participate (million) 

Number of activity days (billion) 

100

80

60

40

250

230

210

190

170

150

Millions who participate

Billions of days

2000 2007

Caribbean and Pacific Forests

Island Forests

The U .S . Caribbean Islands are composed of Puerto Rico and 

the U .S . Virgin Islands . In general, the Caribbean Islands 

are a 3,900 mile arc of islands, tectonically uplifted from the 

sea floor separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Caribbean 

Sea . Low-lying islands often are capped with limestone from 

ancient coral reefs, and other islands exhibit volcanic activity 

that has pushed up steep peaks that divert the moisture-laden 

northeasterly trade winds upward, greatly increasing rainfall . 

The U .S . affiliated Pacific Islands include American Samoa, 

Guam, Hawaii, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the 

Federated States of Micronesia, the Commonwealth of the 

Northern Mariana Islands, and the Republic of Palau . These 

islands span a vast and diverse area from Hawaii, 3,900 miles 

west of the U .S . mainland, to Palau, about 566 miles east of 

the Philippines . Land masses vary widely and include small 

coral atolls, small sand islands, moderate-sized islands of mixed 

limestone and volcanic substrates, and large, high-elevation, 

volcanic islands .
48

Geographic location of U.S. affiliated islands relative to the U.S. 

mainland

Tropical islands serve as the proverbial “canary in the coal 

mine,” alerting society to the problems inherent to living on a 

constrained land base . The challenges we face in our mainland 

forests—such as land use change, altered fire regimes, nonnative 

species invasions, insect and disease outbreaks, climate change, 

and other human-caused disturbances—become critical for 

societies with restricted, more immediately finite resource bases, 

such as those found on these islands .

Tropical island forests are intimately linked to the surrounding 

ocean . The climate of the ocean impacts island vegetation, 

topography, and soils . Conversely, the islands influence the 

adjacent ocean as vegetation, soils, and pollutants make their way 

to the aquatic environment . Forests filter sediment, keeping it on 

the islands . Mangrove and coastal strand forests buffer the islands 

against the ocean’s erosive force and storm surges . Forests play a 

key role in keeping both terrestrial and aquatic resources in good 

health .

FIA offers resource monitoring assistance in the tropical 

Caribbean Islands of Puerto Rico and the U .S . Virgin Islands, 

the Pacific Islands of American Samoa, Guam, the Republic of 

Palau, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, 

the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall 

Islands, and Hawaii . Inventories are conducted on a rotating 

periodic basis (5 years in the Caribbean, 10 years in the Pacific) 

across island groups .
49

Population, land area, forest area, and percent forest cover for U.S. 

affiliated island groups

Region and 

island group

Population Land area Forest area Forest 

cover

acres acres percent

Caribbean

 Puerto Rico 3,808,610 2,191,816 1,261,332 58

 U.S. Virgin Is. 108,612 85,592 52,478 61

Pacific

 Am. Samoa 57,663 48,433 43,630 90

 Guam 173,456 135,661 63,832 47

 Palau 20,842 111,544 96,689 87

 CNMI 84,546 73,536 53,664 73

 FSM 107,862 149,805 76,526 51

 RMI 61,815 44,477 43,143 97

 Hawaii 1,211,537 4,127,336 1,490,902 43

Islands total 5,634,943 6,951,339 3,439,298 67

The Caribbean Islands

Puerto Rico and the U .S . Virgin Islands were almost entirely 

deforested for agriculture by the mid-20th century . Forest 

cover has steadily increased on Puerto Rico as economic 

activities moved away from agriculture, resulting in abandoned 

agricultural lands being re-colonized by forest . The naturally high 

species diversity of Caribbean tropical forests has been further 

augmented by human introduction of tree species from around 

the world, some beneficial and others invasive .

Species diversity per sampled acres in the Caribbean and Pacific Islands Species found per sampled acre

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0 Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Is. American

Samoa

Guam Palau

(305 spp.)

(52.7 ac)

(105 spp.)

(11 ac)

(50 spp.)

(3.3 ac)

(48 spp.)

(7.6 ac)

(128 spp.)

(9 ac)

This has also occurred in the U .S . Virgin Islands . As urbanization 
50

increases, however, forest loss is accelerating . The U .S . Virgin 

Islands lost 7 percent of their forest cover from 1994 to 2004, 

mostly on the more densely populated island of St . Thomas . 

The Pacific Islands

General trends across the Pacific Islands show that in areas more 

accessible to tourists, urbanization has led to decreases in forest 

cover . However, there is some recovery and maturation of forests 

in other areas that in the past had been disturbed or denuded, 

especially from the effects of World War II and agriculture .

The most important forestry concerns within the Pacific Islands 

involve losses of forest cover owing to urbanization, damage from 

invasive species, and the erosion of soils with subsequent siltation 

of coral reefs . Island resource managers are anxious to cultivate 

additional partnerships to strengthen their efforts to reforest and 

reclaim areas via planting and control of exotics .

Terms

Forest land—Land at least 120 feet wide and 1 acre in size with at 

least 10 percent tree cover (or equivalent stocking) by live trees 

of any size, including land that formerly had such tree cover and 

that will be naturally or artificially regenerated and is not subject 

to nonforest use(s) such as extensive livestock or human activity 

that prevent normal tree regeneration and succession .

Growing stock volume—Live trees on timber land of commercial 

species meeting specified standards of quality and vigor . Cull 

trees are excluded . Includes only trees 5 inches in diameter or 

larger at 4 .5 feet above ground .

Growth (Net Annual )—The net increase in the volume of growing 

stock trees during a specified year . Components include the 

increment in net volume of trees at the beginning of the specific 

year surviving to its end, plus the net volume of trees reaching 

the minimum size class during the year, minus the volume of 

trees that died during the year, and minus the net volume of trees 

that became cull trees during the year .

Hardwood—A dicotyledonous tree, usually broad-leaved and 

deciduous .

IUCN Protection Categories—The International Union for 

Conservation of Nature protected area classifications are as 

follows:

Category I is defined as (a) an area of land and/or sea 

possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems, 

geological or physiological features and/or species, 
51

or available primarily for scientific research and or 

environmental monitoring, or (b) a large area of unmodified 

or slightly modified land and/or sea, retaining its natural 

character and influence, without permanent or significant 

habitation, that is protected and managed so as to preserve 

its natural condition .

Category II land is a natural area of land and/or sea 

designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or 

more ecosystems for present and future generations; (b) 

exclude exploitation or occupation critical to the purposes 

of designation of the area; and (c) provide a foundation for 

spiritual, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities, 

all of which must be environmentally and culturally 

comparable .

Category III land is an area containing one, or more, specific 

natural or natural/cultural feature that is of outstanding or 

unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative or 

aesthetic qualities, or cultural significance .

Category IV is an area of land and/or sea subject to active 

intervention for management purposes so as to ensure the 

maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of 

specific species .

Category V is an area of land with coast and sea as 

appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature 

over time has produced an area of distinct character with 

significant aesthetic, ecological, and/or cultural value, 

and often with high biological diversity . Safeguarding 

the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the 

protection, maintenance, and evolution of such an area .

Category VI is an area containing predominantly unmodified 

natural systems, managed to ensure long-term protection 

and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at 

the same time a sustainable flow of natural products and 

services to meet community needs .

Logging residues—The unused portions of growing-stock trees cut 

or killed by logging and left in the woods .

Mortality—The volume of sound wood in growing-stock trees that 

died from natural causes during a specified year .

National forest—An ownership class of Federal lands, designated 

by Executive order or statute as national forests or purchase 

units, and other lands under the administration of the Forest 

Service .
52

Other Federal—An ownership class of Federal lands other than 

those administered by the Forest Service . Primarily lands owned 

by the Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, U .S .

Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U .S . Departments of Energy 

and Defense .

Other forest land—Forest land other than timber land and 

reserved forest land . It includes available land that is incapable 

of producing annually at least 20 cubic feet per acre of 

industrial wood under natural conditions because of adverse site 

conditions, such as sterile soils, dry climate, poor drainage, high 

elevation, steepness, or rockiness .

Removals—The net volume of growing stock trees removed from 

the inventory during a specified year by harvesting, cultural 

operations such as timber stand improvement, or land clearing .

Reserved forest land—Forest land withdrawn from timber 

utilization through statute, administrative regulation, or 

designation . Does not include all land in IUCN protection 

categories .

Roundwood products—Logs, bolts, and other round timber 

generated from harvesting trees for industrial or consumer use .

Softwood—A coniferous tree, usually evergreen, having needles or 

scale-like leaves .

Timber land—Forest land that is capable of producing crops of 

industrial wood and not withdrawn from timber utilization by 

statute or administrative regulation . (Note: Areas qualifying as 

timber land are capable of producing in excess of 20 cubic feet 

per acre per year of industrial wood in natural stands .)

References

Ambrose, M.J.; Conkling, B.L., eds. 2007. Forest health monitoring: 2005 national technical report. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-104. 

Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southern Research Station. 76 p.

Bickel, K.; Brenner, J.; Duffield, J.; Follett, R.F.; Heath, L.; Kimble, 

J.; Kruger, D.; Mangino, J.; Mosier, A.R.; Ogle, S.; Paustian, K.; 

Shapouri, H.; Smith, J.; Wirth, T.; and Woodbury, P. 2004. U.S. 

agriculture and forestry greenhouse inventory: 1999–2001. 

United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 

1907. 164 p. 
53

Brown, T.C. 1999. Past and future freshwater use in the United States: 

a technical document supporting the 2000 USDA Forest Service 

RPA assessment. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-39. Fort Collins, 

CO: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station. 47 p.

Butler, B. J. 2008. Family Forest Owners of the United States, 2006. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-27. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 72 p.

Chamberlain, J.; Bush, R.; and Hammett, A.L. 1998. Non-timber forest 

products: the other forest products. Forest Products Journal. 

48(10): 2-12.

Cordell, H.K. Principal Investigator. 1999. Outdoor recreation in 

American life: a national assessment of demand and supply 

trends. Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing. 449 p.

Dwyer, J.F.; Nowak, D.J.; Noble, M.H.; Sisinni, S.M. 2000. Connecting 

people with ecosystems in the 21st century: an assessment of 

our nation’s urban forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-490. Portland, OR: Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 

483 p.

Flather, C.H.; Brady, Stephen J.; Knowles, M.S. 1999. Wildlife 

resource trends in the United States: a technical document 

supporting the 2000 USDA Forest Service RPA Assessment. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-33. Fort Collins, CO: Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. 79 p.

Haynes, R.W.; Adams, D.M.; Alig, R.J.; Ince, P.J.; Mills, J.R.; Zhou, X. 

2007. The 2005 RPA timber assessment update. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PNW-GTR-699. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 212 p.

Haynes, R.W. Tech. Coord., 2003. An analysis of the timber situation 

in the United States: 1952 to 2050. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNWGTR-560. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. 254 p.

Howard, J.L. 2007. U.S. timber production, trade, consumption, and 

price statistics, 1965 to 2005. Research Pap. FPL-RP-637. 

Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products 

Laboratory. 91 p.

Joyce, L.A.; Flather, C.H.; Koopman, M. 2008. Analysis of potential 

impacts of climate change on wildlife habitats in the U.S. Final 

Report to the National Council for Science and the Environment’s Wildlife Habitat Policy Research Program. 69 p.
54

Miller, J.D.; Safford, H.D.; Crimmins, M.; and Thode, A.E. 2008. 

Quantitative evidence for increasing forest fire severity in the 

Sierra Nevada and southern Cascade Mountains, California and 

Nevada, USA. Ecosystems. Department of the Interior. 10.1007/

s10021-008-9201-9.

Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E.; Dwyer, J.F. 2002. Compensatory value of 

urban trees in the United States. Journal of Arboriculture 28(4): 

194-199.

Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E.; Stevens, J.C. 2006. Air pollution removal by 

urban trees and shrubs in the United States. Urban Forestry and 

Urban Greening. 4: 115-123.

Peterson, D.L. and McKenzie, D. 2008. Wildland fire and climate 

change. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Climate 

Change Resource Center. http://www.fs.fed.us/ccrc/topics/

wildland-fire.shtml. [last accessed Jan. 23, 2009]

Robles, M.D.; Flather, C.H.; Stein, S.M.; Nelson, M.D.; Cutko, A. 2008. 

The geography of private forests that support at-risk species in 

the conterminous United States. Frontiers in Ecology and the 

Environment 6:301-307.

Running, S.W. 2006. Is global warming causing more, larger wildfires? Science. 313: 927-928. 

Smith, W.B., tech. coord.; Miles, P.D., data coord.; Perry, C.H., map 

coord.; Pugh, S.A., Data CD coord. 2009. Forest resources of the 

United States, 2007. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-GTR-78. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington 

Office.

Smith, W.B.; Vissage, J.; Sheffield, R.; Darr, D.. 2001. Forest resources 

of the United States, 1997. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-219. St. Paul, 

MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 190 p. 

U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2000. Statistical Abstract of the United 

States (12th edition). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1958. Timber resource 

for America’s future. Forest Resource Report No. 14. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; 1958. 713 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1965. Timber trends in 

the United States. Forest Resource Report No. 17. Washington, 

DC: Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; 1965. 235 p.
55

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1982. An analysis of 

the timber situation in the United States, 1952-2030. Forest 

Resources Report No. 23. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service. 499 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 2007. Forest Inventory and Analysis Strategic Plan. FS-865. Washington, DC: USDA 

Forest Service. 17p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2003. Forest insect and disease 

conditions in the United States, 2002. Forest Health Protection 

Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service. 124 p.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. 2006. Wildland fire suppression. Lack of clear guidance raises concerns about cost sharing 

between Federal and nonfederal entities. Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Public Lands and Forests, Committee on 

Energy and Natural Resources, U.S. Senate. GAO-06-570, United 

States Government Accountability Office, 49 p. URL: http://www.

gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-06-570. [last accessed Feb. 17, 

2009]

Waddell, K.L.; Oswald, D.D.; Powell, D.S. 1989. Forest statistics of 

the United States, 1987. Resour. Bull. PNW-RB-168. Portland, 

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station. 106 p.

Westerling, A.L.; Hidalgo, H.G.; Cayan, D.R.; and Swetnam, T.W. 2006. 

Warming and earlier spring increase western U.S. forest wildfire 

activity. Science. 313: 940-943.

Web Resources

Forest Service http://www .fs .fed .us

Forest Inventory and Analysis http://fia .fs .fed .us

National Resource Assessment http://www .fs .fed .us/research/rpa

Forest Health 

http://www .fs .fed .us/foresthealth/

http://www .na .fs .fed .us/sustainability/index .shtm

National Report on Sustainable Forests

http://www .fs .fed .us/research/sustain 
56

Recreation/Wilderness http://www .srs .fs .usda .gov/trends

http://www .fs .fed .us/recreation

Forest Wildlife http://www .fs .fed .us/research/rpa

Fire http://www .nfic .gov

http://www .fs .fed .us/fire/

Forest Products

http://ncrs2 .fs .fed .us/4801/fiadb/rpa_tpo/wc_rpa_tpo .asp

http://www .fpl .fs .fed .us

Nontimber Forest Products http://www .sfp .forprod .vt .edu

http://www .fao .org/forestry/site/6367/en

http://ifcae .org/ntfp

Forest Ownership http://familyforestresearchcenter .org/projects01 .html

Protected Areas http://www .IUCN .org

http://www .consbio .org

http://www .protectedlands .net/main/home .php

Water Resources http://water .usgs .gov/watuse

http://www .partnershipresourcecenter .org/watersheds/index .php

Drought http://www .drought .unl .edu

http://www .nws .noaa .gov/oh/hic/current/drought/index .html

Global Forest Information http://www .fao .org/forestry
The U .S . Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its 

programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, 

and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, 

sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all 

or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program . 

(Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs .) Persons with disabilities who 

require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, 

large print, audiotape, etc .) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 

720-2600 (voice and TDD) . To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, 

Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S .W ., Washington, 

D .C . 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD) . 

USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer .
FS-801

Revised September 2009