Educational Guide

Educators Grades 

K–12

EG-2007-12-179-MSFC

i

Acknowledgements

Adventures in Rocket Science is an expansion of the NASA guidebook 

Rockets by Deborah Shearer, Greg Vogt and Carla Rosenberg.

New and additional material was written and compiled by:

Vince Huegele, Marshall Space Flight Center Scientist and

National Association of Rocketry (NAR) Education Chair

Kristy Hill, Education Specialist for WILL Technology,

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

Brenda Terry, Executive Director, Alabama Mathematics,

Science and Technology Education Coalition (AMSTEC)

This document was produced through

The NASA Explorer Institute (NEI)

Funding for the development of this

rocketry guidebook for Informal Education

was provided by NASA Explorer Institute

and directed by the Marshall Space Flight Center

Academic Affairs Office 2008.

iii

Table of Contents

Adventures in Rocket Science Activity Matrix ....................................................................... v

Standards............................................................................................................................... vi 

How to Use this Guide ........................................................................................................... vii

Adventures in Rocket Science Introduction: Flight of a Model Rocket.................................. 1

Practical Rocketry .................................................................................................................. 7

A Brief History of Rockets ...................................................................................................... 17

Rocket History Glossary ........................................................................................................ 24

Constellation Program America’s Fleet of Next Generation Launch Vehicles ....................... 27

Activities ................................................................................................................................. 31

1. Move It! .................................................................................................................... 32

 2. Magic Marbles ......................................................................................................... 35

 3. Shuttle Drag Parachute............................................................................................ 38

4. Paper Rockets ......................................................................................................... 43

 5. Straw Rockets.......................................................................................................... 49

6. Rocket Racer ........................................................................................................... 50

 7. 3-2-1 POP! ............................................................................................................... 58

 8. Newton Car.............................................................................................................. 62

9. Pop Can Hero Engine .............................................................................................. 68

10. Rocket Transportation ............................................................................................. 74

11. Parachute Area Versus Drop Time........................................................................... 77

12. Balloon Staging........................................................................................................ 83

13. Water Bottle Rocket Assembly ................................................................................ 85

14. The Nose Cone Experts........................................................................................... 90
iv

15. Racing Against Friction............................................................................................ 95

16. The Parachuting Egg................................................................................................ 100

17. Egg Drop Lander...................................................................................................... 103

18. At the Drop of a Ball................................................................................................. 105

19. Free Fall Rocket Ball Drop ....................................................................................... 107

20. Altitude Tracking ...................................................................................................... 109

21. The Scale of a Model Rocket................................................................................... 117

22. Rocket Motion Video Studies .................................................................................. 120

23. Rocket Parachute Flight Duration Study.................................................................. 123

24. Predicting and Measuring Rocket Parachute Drift Rate.......................................... 126

25. Project Enterprise .................................................................................................... 128

Glossary ................................................................................................................................. 143

Appendix A–Assembly Instructions....................................................................................... 145

Appendix B–Rocket Safety Code.......................................................................................... 155

Appendix C–Rocket Principles.............................................................................................. 159

Appendix D–Rocketry Resource Materials ........................................................................... 165
v

Adventures in Rocket Science Activity Matrix

Grade Level Groups Activity

1-3 4-6 7-9 10-12

AltitudeVelocityAccelerationPage Number

1 Move It! (balloon direction) X 32

2 Magic Marbles X 35

3 Shuttle Drag Parachute X 38

4 Paper Rockets X X 43

5 Straw Rockets X 49

6 Rocket Racer X 50

7 3-2-1 POP! X X X 58

8 Newton Car X 62

9 Pop Can Hero Engine 68

10 Rocket Transportation X 74

11 Parachute Area Versus Drop Time X 77

12 Balloon Staging X 83

13 Water Bottle Rocket Assembly X X X 85

14 The Nose Cone Experts X 90

15 Racing Against Friction X 95

16 The Parachuting Egg X 100

17 Egg Drop Lander 103

18 At the Drop of a Ball X X 105

19 Free Fall Rocket Ball Drop X 107

20 Altitude Tracking X 109

21 The Scale of a Model Rocket X X 117

22 Rocket Motion Video Studies X 120

23 Predicting and Measuring Rocket Parachute Drift Rate 123

24 Rocket Parachute Flight Duration X 126

25 Project Enterprise (2 weeks) X X X 128

Legend: X : Denotes the primary target word focus (altitude, velocity and/or acceleration).

 : Denotes secondary target word.

 : Denotes suggested grade level.
vi

Standards

Activity

Science Standard

Science as InquiryPhysical SciencePosition and Motion of ObjectsProperties of Objects and MaterialsUnifying Concepts and ProcessesChange, Consistency and MeasurementEvidence, Models and ExplanationScience and TechnologyAbilities of Technological DesignUnderstanding Science and Technology

Move It! (balloon direction) X X X

Magic Marbles X X X X X X

Shuttle Drag Parachute X X X X

Paper Rockets X X X X X X X X

Straw Rockets X X X X X X X X

Rocket Racer X X X X X X

3-2-1 POP! X X X X X

Newton Car X X X X X X

Pop Can Hero Engine X X X X X X X

Rocket Transportation X X X X X

Parachute Area Versus Drop Time X X X X X X X X X

Balloon Staging X X X X X

Water Bottle Rocket Assembly X X X X

The Nose Cone Experts X X X X X

Racing Against Friction X X X X X X

The Parachuting Egg X X X X X X X X

Egg Drop Lander X X X X X X X X

At the Drop of a Ball X X X

Free Fall Rocket Ball Drop X X X

Altitude Tracking X X X X X

The Scale of a Model Rocket X X X X X X

Rocket Motion Video Studies X X X X X X X X

Predicting and Measuring Rocket Parachute Drift Rate X X X X X X

Rocket Parachute Flight Duration X X X X X X

Project Enterprise (2 weeks) X X X X X
vii

How to Use This Guide

Acknowledgements

The excitement and thrill from experiencing 

the launch of rocket-powered vehicles ignites 

engagement and imagination in children as 

well as adults. Constructing and launching 

model rockets certainly provided a charge 

of excitement among a group of National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

and higher education professionals as they 

planned an Exploration Systems Mission 

Directorate (ESMD) sponsored K-12 rocketry 

curriculum and mentor/coach workshop.

This guide was prepared as a tool useful 

for informal education venues (4-H, Boys 

and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, 

etc.), science clubs and related programs, 

and can be adopted for formal education 

settings. An exciting and productive study in 

rocket science can be implemented using the 

selected activities for the above-mentioned 

settings. The guide’s activities can be 

correlated to meet formal education’s core 

curriculum objectives or used for ancillary 

enrichment and extension activities.

The series of activities in this guide 

require basic, inexpensive materials. They 

demonstrate fundamental principles of 

rocket science. The activities were selected 

and organized around the target concepts 

of altitude, velocity and acceleration (i.e., 

height, distance and speed). The Adventures 

in Rocket Science Activity Matrix on page v 

organizes the activities by suggested grade 

level bands as well as target concepts.

Examine the matrix for a grade level band 

(e.g., grades 1–3). Select a target word 

located in that grade level band (e.g., 

velocity). The activity, “Move It!” will address 

the concept of velocity. Activities are 

included within each grade level band to 

address the three target concepts. Some 

activities can be used to address multiple 

target words. The length of time for each 

activity is approximately one or two hours 

with the exception of the Project Enterprise 

activity which can take up to two weeks to 

complete.

The guide includes a compilation of NASAdeveloped and originally developed activities 

that emphasize hands-on involvement, 

prediction, data collection and interpretation, 

teamwork, and problem solving. Project 

background and an edited, student-friendly 

version of The History of Rocketry is 

included. The guide includes an appendix 

with construction directions for various 

project activities, safety guidelines and a 

glossary of terms.

1

Adventures in Rocket Science

Introduction:

Flight of a Model Rocket

Guidebook Background

The NASA Explorers Institute (NEI) funded the 

development of this model rocketry guidebook for educators. Directed by the Marshall 

Space Flight Center (MSFC) Academic 

Affairs Office, education specialists created 

the curriculum with knowledgeable amateur 

rocketeers who are members of the National 

Association of Rocketry (NAR). The material 

was tested in a workshop pairing NAR members with informal educators from science 

centers, 4-H clubs, Girl Scout troops and 

after school programs. One purpose of the 

workshop was to introduce groups to the use 

of the guidebook with students in informal 

settings. The activities have been very successful in engaging and teaching students 

and are enjoyable for the teachers.

The Rocketry Education Pipeline

The theme of this book is that rocketry can 

be used to teach physical science beginning 

at any level. The subject has successive lessons, like a K through 12 pipeline course, 

that can lead a student to a technical career. 

Students begin an orientation to motion and 

velocity by launching air straw rockets and 

pump-up water bottle rockets. Then, they are 

introduced to force and acceleration as demonstrated in model rockets. In middle school, 

students can apply their understanding in 

design contests and move on in high school 

to launching payload experiments in larger 

models. Model rocketry is fully representative 

of the scientific process and the engineering 

applications of real world challenges. 

Rocketry studies from high school can be 

continued on a college level until the student 

emerges from the pipeline into the job 

market. This guidebook presents the flow of 

model rocket science activities that support 

the pipeline.

The Marvel of Motion

The study of motion is one of the fundamentals of physics that students should 

learn. The dynamic properties of an object 

are given by its altitude, velocity and acceleration. From these properties come the 

concepts of measurement and rate of 

change, which are the foundation of physical 

science. Rocketry demonstrates these concepts in a way that students on many grade 

levels can understand and remember. 

One way to explain motion is to think about 

what is happening when you throw a ball. 

The ball is accelerated as the arm moves until 

the hand releases it; then, the ball appears to 

travel at a constant velocity from the pitcher 

to the catcher, though in actuality the thrown 

baseball is decelerating slightly due to air 

resistance, or drag, after the ball is released 

by the pitcher. When tossing a ball straight 

up, gravity immediately starts slowing the 

ball down, until it stops at the top of its flight 

path and then falls down at increasing speed, 

again due to the effect of gravity.
2

Instead of a ball, the rocket activities in this 

guide can be used to better illustrate this 

simple acceleration and free-fall motion. The 

first worksheet entitled The “Flight of a Water 

Bottle Rocket,” page 3, shows the different 

points of change in the water bottle rocket 

flight. As the students launch the rockets, 

have them watch the flights and then answer 

the questions on the worksheet on page 4. 

You may prompt them before the flights to 

be observing for “When does the rocket go 

the fastest?” and “When is its speed changing the most?” After they choose answers, 

compare those to the worksheet answers and 

learn how altitude, velocity and acceleration 

are related to each other in flight.

The model rocket flight chart is different from 

the water rocket in that instead of the rocket 

free falling from apogee (its highest point), it 

pops a parachute or streamer to slow down 

its descent. The “Flight of a Model Rocket” 

worksheet builds on the water rocket profile 

to teach another kind of motion. 

The rocket’s altitude, velocity and acceleration and their relation in time can be 

illustrated in graphs. The plots of the relation of altitude, velocity and acceleration of 

a rocket on page 6 show how the values of 

the respective aspects change from ascent 

to apogee and on to landing. A model rocket 

simulation program will give a similar plot for 

the rocket being tested. The plots of altitude, 

velocity and acceleration are actually derived 

through calculus, so students progressing in 

math may get their first gentle exposure here.

Tell the students the flight profile of a model 

rocket with a parachute is the same as for the 

Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB) on the Space 

Shuttle and the Ares V. The SRBs launch, 

ascend, burn out, reach apogee, then deploy 

parachutes to land in order to be recovered 

and reloaded. The main differences between 

a NASA rocket and a model rocket is that a 

large rocket continuously controls its position 

during ascent, using moveable engine 

nozzles and aerodynamic surfaces (such as 

fins); whereas, a model rocket does not. The 

physics principles and even the flight phases 

are the same. If students understand the 

fundamentals of how a model rocket works, 

they will understand how any rocket works. 

The first rockets ever built, the fire-arrows of 

the Chinese, were not very reliable. Many just 

exploded on launching. Others flew on erratic 

courses and landed in the wrong place. Being 

a rocketeer in the days of the fire-arrows 

must have been an exciting, but also a highly 

dangerous activity. 
3
4
5

INTERCEPTOR

INTERCEPTOR

INTERCEPTOR

INTERCEPTOR

Altitude = increasing

Velocity = decreasing up

Acceleration = constant, negative

Altitude = increasing

Velocity = increasing up

Acceleration = constant, positive

Altitude = decreasing

Velocity = increasing, down

Acceleration = constant, negative

Altitude = maximum

Velocity = zero

Acceleration = constant, negative Apogee (c)

Launch (a) Landing (d)

Emptyout (b)

Flight of the Water Bottle Rocket

Worksheet Answers

Flight of the Model Rocket

Worksheet Answers

Altitude = increasing

Velocity = decreasing up

Acceleration = constant, negative

Altitude = increasing

Velocity = increasing, up

Acceleration = constant, positive Altitude = decreasing

Velocity = constant, down

Acceleration = zero

Altitude = maximum

Velocity = zero

Acceleration = constant, negative

Powered

Ascent

Coasting

Flight

Ejection

Charge

Apogee

Recovery

Launch

Burnout

Parachute

Descent
6

a

0

V

0

X

0

a

0

V

0

X

0

Relation of x, v, a for the water bottle rocket

Relation of x, v, a for model rocket

Key a=acceleration; v=velocity; x=altitude

Key a=acceleration; v=velocity; x=altitude

Ignition

Launch (a) landing (d)

landing

emptyout (b)

deployment at apogee

apogee (c)

burnout apogee
7

Practical Rocketry

Today, rockets are much more reliable. They 

fly on precise courses and are capable of 

going fast enough to escape the gravitational pull of the Earth. Modern rockets are 

also more efficient today because we have 

an understanding of the scientific principles 

behind rocketry. Our understanding has led 

us to develop a wide variety of advanced 

rocket hardware and devise new propellants 

that can be used for longer trips and more 

powerful take offs. 

Rocket Engines and Their Propellants

Most rockets today operate with either solid 

or liquid propellants. The word propellant 

does not mean simply fuel, as you might 

think; it means both fuel and oxidizer. The 

fuel is the chemical the rocket burns but, for 

burning to take place, an oxidizer (typically 

oxygen) must be present. Jet engines draw 

oxygen into their engines from the surrounding air. Rockets do not have the luxury that 

jet planes have; they must carry the oxidizer 

with them into space where there is no air.

In the following discussion about rocket 

propulsion, several terms appear to be used 

synonymously, but actually have distinct 

meanings. These terms are rocket, rocket 

motor and rocket engine. In simple terms, 

a rocket is a vehicle that contains everything needed to place a payload into space. 

Rocket motors and rocket engines are 

propulsion devices that produce the thrust 

necessary to lift a rocket into space. A rocket 

motor is a simple device that converts stored 

rocket propellant into hot gases to produce 

thrust, such as a solid rocket motor. A rocket 

engine is a more complicated machine with 

moving parts that converts stored rocket 

propellants into hot gases to produce thrust. 

An example of a rocket engine is a liquidpropellant engine, which is a machine with 

valves and often pumps that performs the 

energy conversion to generate thrust.

Solid rocket propellants, which are dry to 

the touch, contain both the fuel and oxidizer 

combined together in the chemical mixture itself. Usually the fuel is a mixture of 

hydrogen compounds and carbon, and the 

oxidizer is made up of oxygen compounds.

Liquid propellants are kept in separate containers, one for the fuel and the other for 

the oxidizer. The fuel and oxidizer are mixed 

together in the engine to produce thrust. 

A rocket with a liquid propulsion system 

can be very complex, but a rocket with a 

solid motor is much simpler because the 

solid motor propulsion system consists of 

a nozzle, a case, insulation, propellant and 

an igniter. The case of the engine is usually a relatively thin metal that is lined with 

insulation to keep the propellant from burning through. The propellant itself is packed 

inside the insulation layer, which is packed 

inside the motor casing. 
8

Many solid-propellant rocket motors feature a 

hollow core that runs through the propellant. 

Motors that do not have the hollow core must 

be ignited at the lower end of the propellant, 

and burning proceeds from one end of the 

motor to the other. In all cases, only the surface of the propellant burns. However, to get 

higher thrust, the hollow core is used. This 

increases the surface area of the propellants 

available for burning. The propellants burn 

from the inside out at a much higher rate, 

sending mass out the nozzle at a higher rate 

and speed. This typically results in greater 

thrust. Some propellant cores are star shaped 

to increase the burning surface even more. 

Typical solid motor propellants are compressed black powder (used in Estes model 

rocket motors) and ammonium perchlorate 

composite propellant (used in the Space 

Shuttle SRBs and higher end model rocket 

motors).

To ignite solid propellants, many kinds of 

igniters can be used. Fuses were used to 

ignite fire-arrows, but sometimes these ignited 

too quickly and burned the rocketeer. A far 

safer and more reliable form of ignition used 

today in model rockets is one that employs 

electricity. An electric current, coming through 

wires from some distance away, heats up 

a special wire inside the rocket. The igniter 

raises the temperature of the propellant to 

the combustion point. Often, there is another 

pyrogenic mixture on the hotwire to more 

quickly reach the combustion temperature of 

the propellant.

Other igniters, especially those for large rockets, are often small rocket motors themselves. 

The small motor inside the hollow core blasts 

a stream of flames through the propellant core 

to ignite the inner surface area very quickly. 

The nozzle in a solid-propellant motor is an 

opening at the back of the rocket that permits the hot expanding gases to escape. 

The narrow part of the nozzle is the throat. 

Just beyond the throat is the exit cone. 

The purpose of the nozzle is to increase 

the acceleration of the gases as they leave 

the rocket and thereby maximize the thrust. 

It does this by cutting down the opening 

through which the gases can escape. To see 

how this works, you can experiment with a 

garden hose that has a spray nozzle attachment. This kind of nozzle does not have an 

exit cone, but that does not matter in the 

experiment. The important point about the 

nozzle is that the size of the opening can be 

varied to change the thrust. 

Start with the opening at its widest point. 

Watch how far the water squirts and feel 

the thrust produced by the departing water. 

Now reduce the diameter of the opening, 

and again note the distance the water squirts 

and feel the thrust. Rocket nozzles work the 

same way. 

As with the inside of the rocket motor 

case, insulation is often needed to protect 

the nozzle from the hot gases. The usual 

insulation is one that gradually erodes as 

the gas passes through. Small pieces of the 

insulation get very hot and break away from 

the nozzle. As they are blown away, heat is 

carried away with them. As will be discussed 

later, there are other methods of protecting 

the nozzle and combustion chamber 

materials from excess heat. 

One of these methods is to use one of 

the propellants to cool the nozzle and 

combustion chamber by sending the 
9

Nozzle Throat

Fins

Combustion 

Chamber

Propellant

(grain)

Casing

(body tube)

Igniter

Payload

Core

Solid Propellant Rocket

propellant through small passages within the 

nozzle and chamber wall before sending the 

propellant into the combustion chamber. This 

is called regenerative cooling. 

Another method to protect the chamber and 

nozzle from the heat of combustion is to 

use materials that can survive the heat for 

the life of the rocket. However, this is much 

easier said than done when you consider that 

combustion temperatures may reach 6,000°F 

(3,315.56 °C), which exceeds the melting point 

of most metals that are suitable for use in 

rocket engines and motors. Fuel must often 

be sprayed directly onto the inner wall of the 

combustion chamber to help cool the chamber wall. Spraying fuel onto the chamber wall 

to keep the temperature of the chamber wall 

lower may seem counterintuitive, but it works 

because the fuel evaporates on the chamber 

wall, pulling heat out of the metal before the 

fuel itself is burned.

The other main kind of rocket engine is one 

that uses liquid propellants that may be either 

pumped or fed into the engine by pressure. 

This is a much more complicated engine, as is 

evidenced by the fact that solid rocket engines 

were used for at least 700 years before the 

first successful liquid engine was tested. 

Contrasted with a relatively simple solid rocket 

motor, a liquid propellant engine requires a 

complicated propulsion system. This propulsion system must have propellant tanks (one 

for the fuel and one for the oxidizer), pressurant tanks to push the liquid propellant out 

of the tanks and into the engine, and valves 

to control the flow of the propellant to the 

engines. The liquid engine itself has valves and 

sometimes a pump, in addition to the combustion chamber and nozzle that you would see in 

a solid rocket motor.

The fuel of a liquid-propellant rocket is usually kerosene or liquid hydrogen; the oxidizer 

is usually liquid oxygen. They are combined 

inside a cavity called the combustion chamber. Here, the propellants burn and build up 

high temperatures and pressures, and the 

expanding gas escapes through the nozzle at 

the lower end. 
10

Payload

Oxidizer

Fuel

Pumps

Injectors

Combustion

Chamber

Fins

Nozzle

Liquid Propellant Rocket

To get the most power from the propellants, 

they must be mixed as completely as possible. Small injectors (nozzles) on the roof of 

the chamber spray and mix the propellants at 

the same time. 

Because the combustion operates best under 

high pressures, the propellants need to be 

forced into the thrust chamber. Modern liquid 

rockets often use powerful, lightweight turbine pumps to take care of this job. Another 

method to increase the pressure within 

the combustion chamber is to use a highpressure gas (typically, helium or nitrogen) 

to pressurize the propellants before they are 

injected into the engine. 

With any rocket, and especially with liquidpropellant rockets, weight is an important 

factor. In general, the heavier the rocket, the 

more thrust is needed to get it off the ground. 

However, getting a rocket into space is a balancing act. You must balance the mass of the 

rocket and payload to be lifted into space, 

the efficiency of the propellant and engines, 

and the overall complexity of the propulsion 

system.

One especially good method of reducing the 

weight of rocket engines is to make the exit 

cone of the nozzle out of very lightweight 

metals. However, the extremely hot, fastmoving gases that pass through the cone 

would quickly melt thin metal. Therefore, a 

cooling system is needed. A highly effective, 

though complex, cooling system that is used 

with some liquid engines takes advantage 

of the low temperature of liquid hydrogen. 

Hydrogen becomes a liquid when it is chilled 

to –423.4 °F (–253 °C). Before injecting the 

hydrogen into the combustion chamber, it 

is first circulated through small tubes that 

lace the walls of the exit cone. In a cutaway 

view, the exit cone wall looks like the edge 

of corrugated cardboard. The hydrogen in 

the tubes absorbs the excess heat entering 

the cone walls and prevents it from melting 

the walls away. It also makes the hydrogen 

more energetic because of the heat it picks 
11

up from the combustion chamber wall. We 

call this kind of cooling system regenerative 

cooling. Typically, a regeneratively cooled 

rocket engine uses the fuel propellant to take 

the excess heat out of the combustion chamber wall before the fuel itself is consumed in 

combustion.

Engine Thrust Control

Controlling the thrust of an engine is very 

important for launching payloads (cargoes) 

into space. Thrusting for too short or too long 

of a period of time will cause a satellite to be 

placed in the wrong orbit. This could cause 

it to go too far into space to be useful or 

make the satellite fall back to Earth too soon. 

Thrusting in the wrong direction or at the 

wrong time will result in a similar situation. 

A computer in the rocket’s guidance system 

determines when thrust is needed and turns 

the engine on or off appropriately. Liquid 

engines do this by simply starting or stopping 

the flow of propellants into the combustion 

chamber. On more complicated flights, such 

as going to the Moon, the engines must be 

started and stopped several times, and multiple sets of engines are required to escape 

Earth’s gravity. 

Some liquid-propellant engines control 

the amount of engine thrust by varying the 

amount of propellant that enters the combustion chamber. Typically, the engine 

thrust varies for controlling the acceleration 

experienced by astronauts or to limit the 

aerodynamic forces on a vehicle. 

Solid-propellant rockets are not as easy 

to control as liquid rockets. Typically, once 

started, the propellants burn until they are 

gone. They are very difficult to stop or slow 

down after the solid motor has ignited. 

Sometimes fire extinguishers are built 

into the engine to stop the rocket in flight. 

However, using them is a tricky procedure 

and does not always work. Some solid-fuel 

engines have hatches on their sides that can 

be cut loose by remote control to release 

the chamber pressure and terminate thrust. 

The burn rate of solid propellants is carefully planned in advance. The hollow core 

running the length of the propellants can be 

made into a star shape. At first, there is a 

very large surface available for burning, but 

as the points of the star burn away, the surface area is reduced. For a time, less of the 

propellant burns, and this reduces thrust. 

The Space Shuttle uses this technique to 

reduce vibrations early in its flight into orbit. 

Note: Although most rockets used by governments and research organizations are 

very reliable, there is still great danger associated with the building and firing of rocket 

engines. Individuals interested in rocketry 

should never attempt to build their own 

engines unless supervised by a propulsion 

expert. Even the simplest-looking rocket 

engines are very complex. Case-wall bursting strength, propellant packing density, 

nozzle design and propellant chemistry are 

all design problems beyond the scope of 

most amateurs. Many home-built rocket 

engines have exploded in the faces of their 

builders with tragic consequences. 

Stability and Control Systems

Building an efficient rocket engine is only 

part of the problem in producing a successful rocket. The rocket must also be stable 

in flight. A stable rocket is one that flies in 

a smooth, uniform direction. An unstable 

rocket flies along an erratic path, sometimes 

tumbling or changing direction. Unstable 
12

Roll

Pitch

Yaw

rockets are dangerous because it is not possible to predict where they will go. They may 

even turn upside down and suddenly head 

back directly to the launch pad or at the 

spectators. 

Making a rocket stable requires some form of 

control system. Controls can be either active 

or passive. The difference between these and 

how they work will be explained later. It is first 

important to understand what makes a rocket 

stable or unstable. 

All matter, regardless of size, mass or shape, 

has a point inside called the center of mass 

(CM). The CM is the exact spot where all of 

the mass of that object is perfectly balanced. 

You can easily find the CM of an object such 

as a ruler by balancing the object on your finger. If the material used to make the ruler is of 

uniform thickness and density, the CM should 

be at the halfway point between one end of 

the stick and the other. If the ruler was made 

of wood and a heavy nail was driven into one 

of its ends, the CM would no longer be in 

the middle. The balance point would then be 

nearer the end with the nail. 

The CM is important in rocket flight because 

it is around this point that an unstable rocket 

tumbles. As a matter of fact, any object in 

flight tends to tumble. Throw a stick, and it 

tumbles end over end. Throw a ball, and it 

spins in flight. The act of spinning or tumbling is a way of becoming stabilized in flight. 

A Frisbee will go where you want it to only 

if you throw it with a deliberate spin. Try 

throwing a Frisbee without spinning it. If you 

succeed, you will see that the Frisbee flies in 

an erratic path and falls far short of its mark. 

Likewise, a knuckleball, which has little or no 

spin, follows an erratic flight from the pitcher 

to the catcher, making it very difficult for the 

batter to hit the ball.

In flight, spinning or tumbling takes place 

around one or more of three axes. They are 

called roll, pitch and yaw. The point where all 

three of these axes intersect is the CM. For 

rocket flight, the pitch and yaw axes are the 

most important because any movement in 

either of these two directions can cause the 

rocket to go off course. The roll axis is the 

least important because movement along 

this axis will not affect the flight path. In fact, 

a rolling motion will help stabilize the rocket 

in the same way a properly passed football 

is stabilized by rolling (spiraling) it in flight. 

Although a poorly passed football may still 

fly to its mark even if it tumbles rather than 

rolls, a rocket will not. The action-reaction 

energy of a football pass will be completely 

expended by the thrower the moment the 

ball leaves the hand. With rockets, thrust 

from the engine is still being produced while 

the rocket is in flight. Unstable motions about 

the pitch and yaw axes will cause the rocket 

to leave the planned course. To prevent this, 

a control system is needed to prevent or at 

least minimize unstable motions. 
13

In addition to CM, there is another important center inside the rocket that affects its 

flight. This is the center of pressure (CP). 

The CP exists only when air is flowing past 

the moving rocket. This flowing air, rubbing 

and pushing against the outer surface of the 

rocket, can cause it to begin moving around 

one of its three axes. Think for a moment of 

a weather vane. A weather vane is an arrowlike stick that is mounted on a rooftop and 

used for telling wind direction. The arrow is 

attached to a vertical rod that acts as a pivot 

point. The arrow is balanced so that the CM 

is right at the pivot point. When the wind 

blows, the arrow turns, and the head of the 

arrow points into the oncoming wind. The tail 

of the arrow points in the downwind direction. 

The reason that the weather vane arrow 

points into the wind is that the tail of the 

arrow has a much larger surface area than 

the arrowhead. The flowing air imparts a 

greater force to the tail than the head, and 

therefore the tail is pushed away. There is a 

point on the arrow where the surface area is 

the same on one side as the other. This spot 

is called the CP. The CP is not in the same 

place as the CM. If it was, the wind would 

favor neither end of the arrow, and the arrow 

would not point. The CP must be between 

the CM and the tail end of the arrow for the 

weather vane to point into the wind. This 

means that the tail end has more surface 

area than the head end. 

Center

of

Mass

Center

of

Pressure

It is extremely important that the CP in a 

rocket be located toward the tail and the CM 

mass be located toward the nose. If they are 

in the same place or very near each other, 

then the rocket will be unstable in flight. The 

rocket would then try to rotate about the 

CM in the pitch and yaw axes, producing an 

erratic flight path. With the CP behind the 

center of gravity, the rocket will maintain a 

stable trajectory, or flight path. 

Control systems for rockets are intended to 

keep a rocket stable in flight and to steer it. 

Small rockets usually require only a stabilizing 

control system. A large rocket, such as the 

ones that launch satellites into orbit, requires 

a system that not only stabilizes the rocket, 

but also enables it to change course while 

in flight. 

Controls on rockets can either be passive or 

active. Passive controls are fixed devices that 

keep rockets stabilized by their very presence 

on the rocket’s exterior. Active controls can 

be moved while the rocket is in flight to stabilize and steer the craft. 

The simplest of all passive controls is a stick. 

The Chinese fire-arrows were simple rockets 

mounted on the ends of sticks. The stick kept 

the CP behind the CM. In spite of this, firearrows were notoriously inaccurate. Before 

the CP could take effect, air had to be flowing 

past the rocket. While still on the ground and 

immobile, the arrow might lurch and fire the 

wrong way.

Years later, the accuracy of fire-arrows was 

improved considerably by mounting them in 

a trough aimed in the proper direction. The 

trough guided the arrow in the right direction 

until it was moving fast enough to be stable 

on its own. 
14

Moveable

Fins

Air Stream

Air Stream

Rocket

Changes

Direction

Rocket

Changes

Direction

As will be explained in the next section, the 

weight of the rocket is a critical factor in 

performance and range. The fire-arrow stick 

added too much dead weight to the rocket 

and, therefore, limited its range considerably. 

An important improvement in rocketry came 

with the replacement of sticks by clusters of 

lightweight fins mounted around the lower 

end near the nozzle. Fins could be made out 

of lightweight materials and be streamlined in 

shape. They gave rockets a dart-like appearance. The large surface area of the fins easily 

kept the CP behind the CM. Some experimenters even bent the lower tips of the fins 

in a pinwheel fashion to promote rapid spinning in flight. With these “spin fins,” rockets 

become much more stable in flight. However, 

the increased drag created by the spin fins 

reduced the rocket’s range.

With the start of modern rocketry in the 20th 

century, new ways were sought to improve 

rocket stability and at the same time reduce 

overall rocket weight. The answer to this was 

the development of active controls. Active 

control systems included vanes, movable fins, 

canards, gimbaled nozzles, vernier rockets, 

fuel injection and attitude-control rockets. Tilting fins and canards are quite similar to each 

other in appearance. The only real difference 

between them is their location on the rocket. 

Canards are mounted on the front end of the 

rocket, while the tilting fins are at the rear. In 

flight, the fins and canards tilt like rudders to 

deflect the air flow and cause the rocket to 

change course. Motion sensors on the rocket 

detect directional changes, and corrections 

can be made by slightly tilting the fins and 

canards. The advantage of these two devices 

is size and weight. They are smaller and lighter 

and produce less drag than large fins. Moveable fins also provide better pointing accuracy 

of the rocket than do fixed, immoveable fins.

Other active control systems can eliminate fins 

and canards altogether. By tilting the angle 

at which the exhaust gas leaves the rocket 

engine, course changes can be made in flight. 

Several techniques can be used for changing 

exhaust direction. 

Vanes are small finlike devices that are placed 

inside the exhaust of the rocket engine. Tilting 

the vanes deflects the exhaust, and, by actionreaction, the rocket responds by pointing the 

opposite way. 

Another method for changing the exhaust 

direction is to gimbal the nozzle. A gimbaled 

nozzle is one that is able to sway while exhaust 

gases are passing through it. By tilting the 

engine nozzle in the proper direction, the 

rocket responds by rotating about the center 

of gravity to change course. 
15

Gimbaled

Nozzle

Rocket

Changes

Direction

Rocket

Changes

Direction

Vernier rockets can also be used to change 

direction. These are small rockets mounted 

on the outside of the large engine. When 

fired, they also produce a desired course 

change. 

In space, only by spinning the rocket along 

the roll axis or by using active controls involving the engine exhaust can the rocket be 

stabilized or have its direction changed. Without air, fins and canards have nothing to work 

upon. (Science fiction movies showing rockets in space with wings and fins are long on 

fiction and short on science.) While coasting 

in space, the most common kinds of active 

controls used are attitude-control rockets. 

Small clusters of engines are mounted all 

around the vehicle. By firing the right combination of these small rockets, the vehicle 

can be turned in any direction. As soon as 

the spacecraft is aimed properly, the main 

engines fire, sending the rocket off in the 

new direction.

Mass

Mass is another important factor affecting 

the performance of a rocket. The mass of a 

rocket can make the difference between a 

successful flight and just wallowing around 

on the launch pad. As a basic principle of 

rocket flight, it can be said that for a rocket to 

leave the ground, the engine must produce a 

thrust that is greater than the total mass of the 

vehicle. It is obvious that a rocket with a lot of 

unnecessary mass will not be as efficient as 

one that is trimmed to just the bare essentials. 

For an ideal rocket, the total mass of the vehicle should be distributed following this general 

formula: of the total mass, 91 percent should 

be propellants; 3 percent should be tanks, 

engines, fins, etc.; and 6 percent can be the 

payload. 

Payloads may be satellites, astronauts, or 

spacecraft that will travel to other planets or 

moons. In determining the effectiveness of a 

rocket design, rocketeers speak in terms of 

mass fraction (MF). The mass of the propellants of the rocket divided by the total mass 

of the rocket gives MF.

 

The MF of the ideal rocket given above is 0.91. 

From the MF formula, one might think that an 

MF of 1.0 is perfect, but then the entire rocket 

would be nothing more than a lump of propellants that would simply ignite into a fireball. 

The larger the MF number, the smaller payload the rocket can carry; the smaller the MF 

number, the less its range becomes. An MF 

number of 0.91 is a good balance between 

payload-carrying capability and range. The 

Space Shuttle has an MF of approximately 

0.82. The MF varies between the different 

orbiters in the Space Shuttle fleet and with 

the different payload weights of each mission. 
16

Large rockets, able to carry a spacecraft into 

space, have serious weight problems. To 

reach space and proper orbital velocities, a 

great deal of propellant is needed; therefore, 

the tanks, engines and associated hardware 

become larger. Up to a point, bigger rockets 

can carry more payload than smaller rockets, 

but when they become too large, their structures weigh them down too much, and the MF 

is reduced to an impossible number. 

A solution to the problem of giant rockets 

weighing too much can be credited to the 

16th-century fireworks maker Johann Schmidlap. Schmidlap attached small rockets to the 

top of big ones. When the large rocket was 

exhausted, the rocket casing was dropped 

behind, and the remaining rocket fired. Much 

higher altitudes were achieved by this method. 

The rockets used by Schmidlap were called 

step rockets. (The Space Shuttle follows the 

step rocket principle by dropping off its SRBs 

and external tank when they are exhausted of 

propellants.) Today this technique of building 

a rocket is called staging. Thanks to staging, it 

has become possible not only to reach outer 

space, but the Moon and other planets too. 
17

A Brief History of Rockets

Isaac Newton came up with three laws that 

govern our world. These laws are the Laws 

of Motion. They deal with position, velocity 

and acceleration. Position is an explanation 

of where something is, based on a certain 

origin (or starting place). For instance, you 

could say your teacher is in front of you in the 

classroom, but it is also true that he/she is in 

front of the chalkboard. We used you as the 

origin in the first position and the chalkboard 

in the second. As you can see, a description of location is always based on the origin. 

Now, velocity is the speed and direction 

something is moving. If I said your teacher is 

walking at 3 mph (4.83 kmph), I have given 

you his/her speed, but not velocity because 

I have not told you the direction in which 

he/she is traveling. Now, if I said that your 

teacher is moving towards the chalkboard at 

3 mph (4.83 kmph) that would be a velocity 

because I have given you her speed, 3 mph 

(4.83 kmph), and her direction, towards the 

board. Acceleration is how velocity changes 

with time. For instance, if I said he/she was 

accelerating across the room at 3 mph2 

(4.83 kmph2), then that would mean that 

for every hour he/she was traveling, his/her 

velocity would increase by another 3 mph 

(4.83 kmph). So, if his/her initial velocity was 

3 mph, her acceleration was 3 mph2

 (4.83 

kmph2), and she traveled for 2 hours, what 

would her new velocity be? 

Newton’s first law states that an object 

traveling at a certain velocity (velocity can 

be zero) will remain traveling at that velocity as 

long as there are no forces acting on it. That 

makes sense, since our shoes do not start 

moving across the floor by themselves. They 

only move if we push them or pick them up. 

Newton’s second law states that an object 

will experience acceleration if a force is 

applied to this object and that the acceleration is in the direction of the applied force. 

Furthermore, the equation Force = mass ×

acceleration (F = m × a) governs this acceleration from an applied force. If you push your 

shoes with a constant force, they will accelerate according to the formula. Note that mass 

is not the same as weight. Mass is how much 

material a body has, usually measured in 

kilograms. Weight is the force a mass experiences in a certain gravity like that of Earth or 

on the Moon. Your weight on the Moon is less, 

but your mass is the same.

Newton’s third law is that every action has an 

equal and opposite reaction. When we push 

against a wall, the wall pushes the exact same 

amount against our hands. Otherwise, one of 

us would begin moving according to the second law. Since it is equal and opposite, the 

net force is zero, so there is no acceleration. 

This law explains why it hurts when we fall 

down. Our body hits the ground with a force 

equal to our weight, which on Earth is approximately 10 times our mass. When we hit the 

ground, the ground hits us back, and that is 

why it hurts so badly.
18

Newton’s laws can be applied to our everyday lives and experiences. They govern 

anything we do and cannot do for that matter. Rockets make use of Newton’s Laws in 

order to carry out the tasks they are designed 

to do. Can you think of other examples that 

demonstrate the three Laws of Motion?

Rockets have been around for centuries. 

These rockets started off in a very simple 

form, like our fireworks, to become the rockets that we use for warfare and traveling 

into outer space. Much of rocketry science 

has been discovered within the last century, 

including new fuels, ways of controlling rockets, and new uses for rockets. 

We will start our discussion of rocketry far 

back in time with the Greeks and continue 

until we reach modern day rocketry. 

A Greek by the name of Hero invented a 

rocket-like device called an aeolipile. It used 

steam as a propulsive gas. Hero mounted a 

sphere on top of a water kettle. A fire below 

the kettle turned the water into steam, and 

the gas traveled through pipes to the sphere. 

Two L-shaped tubes on opposite sides of 

the sphere allowed the steam to escape and, 

in doing so, gave a thrust to the sphere that 

caused it to rotate. The aeolipile used the 

action-reaction principle that was not to be 

stated as a scientific law, by Newton, until the 

17th century.

Would you believe the Chinese made

rockets out of bamboo?

Although we know that inventions that used 

ideas related to rocketry were around for many 

centuries, we are uncertain as to when true 

rockets came into existence. One idea is that 

the Chinese invented the first rockets. The Chinese made a simple form of gunpowder from 

saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal dust that they put 

inside bamboo tubes and tossed into a fire for 

religious or celebration purposes. Some of the 

bamboo tubes may not have fully exploded, 

but instead shot out of the fire. Whatever the 

case, we do know that the Chinese began to 

shoot arrows with rockets attached in order 

to go longer distances, and they soon learned 

that the rockets would launch the arrows by 

themselves without bows. 
19

These rockets were first used in warfare 

against the Mongols in 1232 during the Battle 

of Kai-Keng. The Mongols referred to these 

weapons as “arrows of flying fire.” The firearrows were a simple form of solid-propellant 

rocket. They used a bamboo tube filled with 

gunpowder and capped at one end. The 

other end was left open, and the tube was 

attached to an arrow. When the gunpowder 

was ignited, fire, smoke, and gas all escaped 

out the open end, which propelled the arrow 

towards the enemy. The stick of the arrow 

provided a guidance system to shoot it a 

general direction as it flew through the air. 

There is no way of knowing how many arrows 

hit their target, but the idea of “fire arrows” 

flying towards the Mongols must have disturbed them greatly. Soon after the Battle of 

Kai-Keng, the Mongols produced their own 

rockets and may have spread this valuable 

new invention to the European continent.

Between the 13th and 15th centuries, many 

rocket experiments were conducted in Europe. In 

England, Roger Bacon, a monk, improved gunpowder in order to increase the range of rockets. 

In France, Jean Froissart discovered that accuracy greatly increased by using tubes to launch 

rockets. Modern day bazookas are a result of this 

discovery. Joanes de Fontana of Italy designed a 

type of torpedo, or surface-running rocket, that 

sped across the top of the water and would set 

enemy ships on fire. By the time the 16th century 

rolled around, rockets fell out of use as weapons, 

but still remained in use as fireworks. Around this 

time, Johann Schmidlap, a German, invented 

the step rocket, which enabled fireworks to fly to 

higher altitudes. Basically, this multistage rocket 

was a large rocket that carried a smaller rocket 

inside. When the large rocket burned out, the 

smaller one continued flying before exploding 

and sending the beautiful shower of sparks we 

are accustomed to seeing. This idea of multistage rockets is the basic design for all rockets 

that go into outer space today.

The 17th century brought about scientific inquiry 

that laid the foundations for modern rocketry. 

The scientist Sir Isaac Newton made these 

discoveries between 1642 and 1727. Newton discovered the Three Laws of Motion. These laws 

explain why rockets work and how they are able 

to work in a vacuum, like outer space.
20

Newton’s laws gave scientists new ideas on 

rocket design. Scientists experimenting with 

rockets began to shoot rockets that were 

more than 100 lb (45.36 kg). Some of these 

rockets were even so powerful that they bore 

deep holes into the ground at lift-off.

At the end of the 18th century and beginning 

of the 19th century, rockets soon began to 

be used as weapons of war once again. The 

people of India repelled the British in 1792 

and in 1799 by using rockets. Colonel William 

Congreve, a British artillery expert in the 

battle, set out to design rockets for the British 

military as a result of fighting against India.

Congreve’s rockets were very successful 

in battle. You may have even heard of their 

reputation. The rockets were used by British 

ships against Fort McHenry in the War of 

1812, where they inspired Francis Scott 

Key to write “the rockets’ red glare” words 

in a poem, which later became “The StarSpangled Banner.” Still, the rockets had not 

improved in accuracy. Their devastating 

nature in warfare was the fact that thousands 

of rockets could be fired at the enemy, not the 

power or accuracy of those rockets. Rockets 

were continuously used in warfare with great 

outcomes all over Europe; however, Austria 

came up against a Prussian weapon that 

surpassed the effectiveness of other rockets. 

The Prussians had breech-loading cannons 

with rifled barrels and exploding warheads. 

After everyone realized that rockets were not 

the most effective weapons, their primary use 

once again became peacetime occurrences.

Around 1898, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky 

(1857–1935), a Russian schoolteacher, suggested the idea of space travel by rocket. 

He published a report in 1903 where he 

suggested liquid propellant instead of solid 

propellant to achieve greater height. He 

stated that the speed and height of a rocket 

were only limited by the exhaust velocity of 

the escaping gases. Because of his ideas, 

research and vision, Tsiolkovsky is known 

as the Father of Modern Astronautics.

In the early 1900s, Robert H. Goddard 

(1882–1945), an American, conducted experiments with rockets. He was trying to reach 

heights even greater than lighter-than-air 

balloons. He produced a pamphlet in 1919 

entitled “A Method of Reaching Extreme 

Altitudes.” It was a mathematical analysis, 

which today is called the meteorological 

sounding rocket. 
21

Goddard made several important conclusions. Two of these were that rockets operate 

better in a vacuum than in air, and that multistage or step rockets would be the best way 

to achieve the altitude and velocity needed to 

escape Earth’s gravity. Many did not believe 

Goddard on the basis that they thought propellants needed air to push against, which is 

not true. 

Goddard first worked with solid-propellant 

rockets. In 1915, he experimented with different types of solid fuels and measured the 

exhaust velocities of the burning gases. While 

working with these rockets, he became convinced that a liquid propellant would be much 

better; however, no one had successfully 

used a liquid-propellant rocket before.

The task of building a liquid-propellant rocket 

was very difficult due to the need for fuel 

and oxygen tanks, turbines, and combustion 

chambers. Still, Goddard built the first successful liquid-propellant rocket on March 16, 

1926. The rocket was fueled by oxygen and 

gasoline, flew for only 2.5 s, and went only 

41.01 ft (12.5 m) up, and out 183.73 ft (56 m) 

away into a cabbage patch. 

Although it does not compare to today’s 

standards, Goddard’s gasoline rocket was 

the beginning of a whole new era in rocketry. 

Goddard continued his experiments for many 

years. His rockets got bigger and flew higher. 

He developed a gyroscope system for flight 

control, a compartment to put scientific instruments in, and a parachute recovery system to 

return rocket and instruments safely to Earth. 

For these achievements, Goddard is known as 

the Father of Modern Rocketry.

Herman Oberth (1894–1989) of Germany published a book about rocket travel into outer 

space in 1923. Because of this book, many 

rocket societies sprang up all around the 

world. In Germany, a rocket society by the 

name of Verein fur Raumschiffahrt (Society 

for Space Travel) created the V-2 rocket that 

was used against London in World War II. In 

1937, German rocket scientists and engineers 

assembled on the shores of the Baltic Sea. 
22

They built and flew the most advanced 

rocket of its time under the leadership of 

Wernher von Braun.

The V-2 rocket was small by comparison to 

today’s rockets. It burned a mixture of liquid 

oxygen and alcohol at a rate of about 1 ton 

(907.18 kg) every 7 s. Once launched, the 

V-2 could destroy whole city blocks. The V-2 

was too late to change the outcome of the 

war. We found out after the war had ended 

that the Germans had already laid plans 

for advanced missiles that could span the 

Atlantic Ocean and land in the United States 

(U.S.). However, these rockets would have 

had small payload capacities, not causing 

as much destruction as those for closer 

range fighting. After the war, many German 

rocket scientists moved to the U.S. and the 

Soviet Union.

The U.S. and the Soviet Union realized the 

potential of rocketry as a military weapon 

and began large-scale experimental programs. The U.S. started with high-altitude 

atmospheric sounding rockets, one of 

Goddard’s early ideas. Afterwards, many 

different kinds of medium- and long-range 

intercontinental ballistic missiles were 

created. This was the beginning of the U.S. 

space program. Missiles from this program, 

such as the Redstone, Atlas and Titan, would 

launch astronauts into space.

Would you believe that Russian astronauts 

are called Cosmonauts?

On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union 

launched the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite called Sputnik I. This satellite was the 

first successful entry in the race for space 

between the superpower nations. Less than 

a month later, the Soviets launched a satellite with a dog, named Laika, on board. Laika 

lived for seven days in outer space before 

being put to sleep before oxygen ran out.

On January 31, 1958, the U.S. finally launched 

a satellite of its own, Explorer I. In October of 

1958, the U.S. organized the space program 

by officially creating the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration (NASA). NASA’s 

goal was the peaceful exploration of space for 

the benefit of all humankind.

As of today, many people and machines 

have been launched into space. Astronauts 

have orbited Earth and landed on the Moon 

and robot spacecrafts have traveled to other 

planets to explore their surfaces.
23

Space is now open to exploration and commercialization. Satellites have enabled 

scientists to run experiments to investigate 

our world, forecast weather and communicate quickly and efficiently around the world. 

As our needs grow, so do the payloads that 

are taken out to space. As a result, a wide 

array of powerful and versatile rockets have 

been and will be built.

As you can see, our universe has been 

opened up for exploration by our growing 

understanding of rocketry. If it were not for 

those who experimented with the gunpowder 

rockets centuries ago and those who can take 

modern day rockets and apply new ideas, we 

would not be able to explore the universe and 

all its glory.
24

Rocket History Glossary

Aeolipile: An apparatus consisting of a 

closed globe with one or more projecting bent tubes through which steam is 

made to pass from the globe, causing it 

to revolve.

Bacon, Roger: An English monk who 

improved gunpowder, which increased 

the range of rockets.

Battle of Kai-Keng: A battle between the 

Chinese and Mongolians in 1232 A.D. 

where rockets were first used for military 

purposes.

Breech-loading cannons: A type of cannon 

in which warheads are loaded into the 

backside instead of the front.

Combustion chamber: An enclosure in 

which combustion, especially of a fuel or 

propellant, is initiated and controlled.

Congreve, Colonel William (1772–1828):

Artillery expert who developed rockets 

after a battle with India; led the attack that 

inspired Francis Scott Key.

Exhaust velocity: The average actual velocity 

at which exhaust material leaves the open 

end of a rocket engine.

Explorer I: First satellite the U.S. successfully 

sent into orbit around the Earth.

Fontana, Joanes de: Inventor from Italy who 

designed the surface running rocket or

torpedo.

Fort McHenry: Located in Baltimore, 

Maryland, it is best known for its role in the 

War of 1812, when it successfully defended 

Baltimore Harbor from the British navy. It 

was during this bombardment of the fort 

that Francis Scott Key was inspired to write 

the Star-Spangled Banner.

Froissart, Jean: Inventor who discovered that 

by using tubes you could greatly increase 

the accuracy of fired rockets.

Goddard, Robert H. (1882–1945): A pioneer in 

the field of rocketry, during his time he was 

ridiculed for his ideas, which were ahead of 

his time. After his death, he would become 

known as the “Father of Modern Rocketry.”

Gyroscope: A mounted wheel that spins so 

that it resists movement or change of 

direction. 

Key, Francis Scott: Wrote the poem that 

later became “The Star-Spangled Banner” 

during the War of 1812 while Congreve was 

bombarding Fort McHenry with rockets.
25

Laika: One of the Russian space dogs and 

the first living passenger in orbit around 

Earth.

Liquid-propellant rocket: A rocket that is 

fueled by liquid propellant such as liquid 

oxygen and gasoline.

Mongols: An ethnic group that originated 

from modern day Mongolia and parts of 

Russia and China. For more information, 

read about Genghis Khan.

NASA: National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration created by the U.S. 

Government in 1958, responsible for 

the U.S. space program and aerospace 

research. It is a civilian organization that 

does both civilian and military aerospace 

research.

Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727): English 

mathematician and physicist remembered 

for developing calculus, his law of 

gravitation and his three laws of motion. 

Oberth, Herman (1894–1989): Scientist who 

wrote about the possibility of space travel 

via rockets that inspired many rocket 

societies to spring up all over the world.

Rifled barrel: A barrel that has internal spiral 

grooves that cause the ammunition to 

spin as it leaves, making its path more 

controlled.

Rocket: A vehicle or device propelled by one 

or more engines or motors.

Rocket engine: A machine with moving parts 

that converts stored propellant into hot 

gases to produce thrust, such as liquid 

engines with valves and pumps.

Rocket motor: A simple device that converts 

stored propellant into hot gases to 

produce thrust, such as a solid rocket 

motor.

Saltpeter (KNO3): A transparent white 

crystalline compound used to pickle meat 

and in the manufacture of pyrotechnics, 

explosives, matches, rocket propellants 

and fertilizers.

Schmidlap, Johann: German fireworks maker 

who was the first to use step rockets to 

achieve greater heights.

Solid-propellant rocket: A rocket that is fueled 

by solids, such as gunpowder or ammonium 

perchlorate. 

Sputnik I: First Earth-orbiting artificial 

satellite launched by the Soviet Union 

on October 4, 1957. 

Solid Rocket Booster (SRB): A motor 

composed of a segmented motor case 

loaded with solid propellants, an ignition 

system, a movable nozzle and the 

necessary instrumentation and integration 

hardware.

Staged rocket: A rocket that fires several 

different engines or sets of engines in 

stages, where the first stage lifts the rocket 

off the pad, then that stage falls away as 

the second stage engines ignite to carry the 

remaining rocket to an even higher altitude. 

More stages may be used to achieve an 

objective. For example, the Saturn V Moon 

Rocket used five stages to place astronauts 

on the Moon and an additional two stages 

to return back to Earth.

Step rocket: A rocket that uses multiple rocket 

engines, also called a step engine. When 

one rocket extinguishes, the other ignites 

sending the rocket even further. This is the 

basic set up of modern day rockets that go 

into outer space. 

Sulfur: A yellow nonmetallic element that is 

used in gunpowder.

Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin (1857–1935): A 

Russian school teacher who was the first 

to conceive of space travel by rockets, 

suggested the use of liquid propellant 

instead of solid. He is known as the Father 

of Modern Astronautics. 
26

Turbine: Rotary engine in which the kinetic 

energy of a moving fluid is converted into 

mechanical energy by causing a bladed 

rotor to rotate.

V-2 rocket: An early ballistic missile used by 

Germany during the later stages of World 

War II against mostly British and Belgian

targets.

Vacuum: An absence of matter, a void, or a 

state of emptiness.

Verein fur Raumschiffahrt: An association 

of amateur rocket enthusiasts in Germany 

(1927–1933) that consisted of engineers 

who would contribute to early spaceflight.

von Braun, Wernher: A German scientist 

and one of the leading figures of rocket 

technology in Germany and the U.S. 

He led the V-1 and V-2 rocket effort in 

Germany, worked in the U.S. after WWII 

through the secret effort called Operation 

Paperclip and later worked for NASA, and 

is known as the “Father of the U.S. Space 

Program.”

Warhead: The front part of a guided missile or 

rocket or torpedo that carries the nuclear 

or explosive charge.

War of 1812: A war (1812–1814) between the 

U.S. and England where England was 

trying to interfere with American trade with 

France. 

Body tube: The main body of the rocket that 

contains parachute and engine and to 

which the nose cone and fins are affixed. 

B6–4

Launch Lug

Parachute

Lines

Nose Cone

Payload

Shock

Cord

Recovery

Wadding

Engine

Mount

Body

Tube

Fins

Solid

Parachute Rocket Engine

Engine mount: This is how the force from 

the engine is transmitted to the rocket 

body to make it move.

Fins: These are on the back end or bottom 

of the rocket and help provide stability 

during flight.

Launch lug: These are small “straw-like” 

attachments to the rocket body through 

which a rod is placed in order to increase 

stability during launch.

Nose cone payload: The nose cone is at the 

top or front end of the rocket. It can either 

be empty or carry something such as 

weights or instruments (on larger models).

Parachute: This is a piece of material that 

helps the rocket slowly descend back to 

the Earth in order for a safe recovery to 

take place. 

Parachute lines: How the parachute 

is connected to the rocket, usually 

connected to the nose cone.

Recovery wadding: A piece of cloth 

placed between the engine mount and 

the parachute in order to protect the 

parachute from being burned up when 

the ejection charge is ignited. 

Shock cord: Connects the nose cone to the 

rocket body in order to keep the rocket 

together during recovery. 

Solid rocket engine: The method of 

propellant for most model rockets. The 

engine is used once and is disposable. 

It can be purchased from hobby stores, 

is very stable at room temperature, and 

only ignites when exposed to high heat. It 

produces an exhaust gas that will shoot 

out of one end (the one facing the back of 

the rocket), propelling it forward
27

Constellation Program

America’s Fleet of Next-Generation

Launch Vehicles

The Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle

Ares I

NASA is developing hardware and systems 

for the Ares I rocket that will send future 

astronauts into orbit. Built on cutting-edge 

launch technologies, evolved powerful Apollo 

and Space Shuttle propulsion elements, and 

decades of NASA space flight experience, 

Ares I is the essential core of a safe, reliable, 

and cost-effective space transportation 

system; one that will carry crewed missions 

back to the Moon, on to Mars, and out to 

other destinations in the solar system. 

Ares I has an in-line, two-stage rocket 

configuration topped by the Orion crew 

vehicle and its launch abort system. In 

addition to the vehicle’s primary mission, 

carrying crews of four astronauts in Orion to 

rendezvous with the Ares V Earth Departure 

Stage (EDS) and Altair lunar lander for 

missions to the Moon, Ares I may also use 

its 26-ton (23,586.8-kg) payload capacity 

to deliver six astronauts or supplies to 

the International Space Station or to park 

payloads in orbit for retrieval by other 

spacecraft bound for the Moon or other 

destinations. 

During launch, the first-stage booster powers 

the vehicle toward low-Earth orbit. In midflight, the booster separates and the upper 

stage’s J-2X engine ignites, putting the vehicle 

into a circular orbit. 

Ares I Ares V
28

The first flight test of Ares I, called Ares I-X, 

will launch in 2009. The first crewed mission 

of Orion will be launched aboard Ares I in 

2013. Crew transportation to the International 

Space Station is planned to begin no later 

than 2015. The first lunar excursion is 

scheduled for the 2020 timeframe. 

Ares I First Stage

The Ares I first stage is a single, five-segment 

reusable solid rocket booster (SRB) derived 

from the Space Shuttle program’s reusable 

solid rocket motor that burns a specially 

formulated and shaped solid propellant. 

A newly designed forward adapter called 

a frustum and an interstage will mate the 

vehicle’s first stage to the upper stage, and will 

be equipped with booster separation motors 

to disconnect the stages during ascent. 

Ares I Upper Stage/Upper Stage Engine 

The Ares I second or upper stage is propelled 

by a J-2X main engine fueled with liquid 

oxygen and liquid hydrogen.

The J-2X is an evolved variation of two historic 

predecessors: the powerful J-2 engine that 

propelled the Apollo-era Saturn IB and Saturn 
29

V rockets, and the J-2S, a simplified version 

of the J-2 developed and tested in the early 

1970s, but never flown.

The Ares V Cargo Launch Vehicle

Ares V

NASA is planning and designing hardware 

and propulsion systems for the Ares V cargo 

launch vehicle, the heavy lifter of America’s 

next-generation space fleet.

During launch, the Ares V first stage and 

core propulsion stage power it upward 

toward Earth orbit. After separation from the 

spent core stage, the upper stage EDS takes 

over, and its J-2X engine puts the vehicle into 

a circular orbit.

The cargo vehicle’s propulsion system can 

lift heavy structures and hardware to orbit or 

fire its engines for translunar injection, a trajectory designed to intersect with the Moon. 

Such lift capabilities will enable NASA to 

carry a variety of robust science and exploration payloads to space and could possibly 

take future crews to Mars and beyond.

The first launch of Ares V is scheduled for 

2018. The first crewed mission to the Moon 

is scheduled to occur by 2020.

Ares V First Stage

The first stage of the Ares V vehicle comprises two, five-segment SRBs for liftoff. 

Derived from the space shuttle SRBs, they 

are similar to the single booster that serves 

as the first stage for the cargo vehicle’s 

sister craft, Ares I. 

Ares V Core Stage/Core Stage Engine 

The first stage twin SRBs flank a single, 

liquid-fueled central booster element. With 

a diameter as wide as the Saturn V first 

stage, the central booster tank delivers 

liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen fuel to five 

RS-68 rocket engines. The RS-68s used 

on Ares V will be a modified version of the 
30

ones currently used in the U.S. Air Force’s 

Delta IV evolved expendable launch vehicle 

program and commercial launch applications. 

The RS-68 engines serve as the core stage 

propulsion for Ares V. 

An interstage cylinder is atop the central 

booster element. It includes booster 

separation motors and a newly designed 

forward adapter that mates the first stage 

with the EDS. 

Ares V Earth Departure Stage/Engine

Like the Ares I upper stage, the Ares V EDS is 

propelled by a J-2X main engine fueled with 

liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. 

The EDS separates from the core stage and 

its J-2X engine ignites midflight. 

Once in orbit, the Orion, delivered to orbit by 

Ares I, docks with the orbiting EDS carrying 

the Altair lander, which will ferry astronauts 

to and from the Moon’s surface. Once mated 

with the Orion crew module, the departure 

stage fires its engine to achieve escape 

velocity, the speed necessary to break free 

of Earth’s gravity, and the new lunar vessel 

begins its journey to the Moon.

The EDS is then jettisoned, leaving Orion 

and the lunar lander mated. Once the four 

astronauts arrive in lunar orbit, they transfer to 

the lunar lander and descend to the Moon’s 

surface. Orion remains in lunar orbit until the 

astronauts depart from the Moon in the lunar 

vessel, rendezvous with the crew module in 

orbit and return to Earth. 

Lunar Lander

Anchored atop the EDS is a composite 

shroud protecting the Altair lunar lander. 

This module includes the descent stage that 

will carry explorers to the Moon’s surface 

and the ascent stage that will return them to 

lunar orbit to rendezvous with Orion, their ride 

home to Earth.
31

Activities
32

Move It!

Note: Excellent activity to be used prior to 

Balloon Staging and/or Rocket Transportation.

Objective

Learn how an airplane, rocket or shuttle 

moves forward.

•	 Target concept: Velocity

•	 Preparation time: 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 45 min

•	 Student group size: Pairs

Materials and Tools

•	 Balloons

•	 Student Sheets

Background Information

Aircraft engines provide a constant source 

of thrust to provide the vehicle forward 

movement. Thrust is the force that moves an 

aircraft through the air. It is used to overcome 

the drag of an airplane and to overcome the 

weight of a rocket. Thrust is generated by the 

engines of the aircraft through some kind of 

propulsion system.

After introducing the scientific method, the 

teacher can walk the students through this 

simple experiment to help them become 

accustomed to using the Scientific Method.

The balloon moves in the opposite direction 

of the flow of the released air because every 

action has an opposite and equal reaction 

(Newton’s Third Law). Since the air is released 

from one small hole, the release of the air is 

focused in one direction.

Procedure

1. Ask students:

a. Why is an airplane able to move 

forward?

b. Possible answers might be: 

i. Air coming out the back end 

pushes it forward. 

ii. The engines make it go.

2. Tell students that they are going to get 

to experiment to see how a jet or plane 

moves forward.

3. Distribute the student sheets and 

balloons.

4. Explain to the students that some of 

the steps have been done for them. 

They will complete the steps that 

have not been done. Read over each 

completed step. 

5. As students follow the procedures, 

remind them to use all of their senses.

Discussion/Wrap-up

•	 After completion and cleanup, discuss 

the activity.
33

Move It! Data Sheet

Name:

Balloon Thrust Experiment Log Answer Sheet

1. State the problem.

 Question: What do I want to know?

2. Form a hypothesis. Air comes out the back end and pushes 

it forward. Air blows out one way, and the 

aircraft moves the other way.

3. Design an experiment.

Materials and Procedures

• What steps will I take to do this

 experiment?

• What things do I need?

Materials

• Balloon

• Student Sheet

• Pencil

Procedure:

1. Collect materials.

2. Fill the balloon with air. do not tie a 

knot—hold it so that no air gets out.

3. Hold the balloon up with the opening 

facing left.

4. Let go of balloon. Write what happens.

5. Repeat steps 2–4, with the opening of the 

balloon facing to the right.

6. Repeat steps 2–4, with the opening of the 

balloon facing up.

7. Repeat steps 2–4, with the opeining of the 

balloon facing the ground.
34

Move It! Data Sheet

Name:

Balloon Thrust Experiment Log Answer Sheet

4. Perform the experiment. Observe and 

record the data

What did I learn during this experiment?

Left:

Right:

Up:

Down:

5. Organize and analyze data. 

 In general, describe what happens when 

you release the balloon.

6. Draw conclusions.

 What did I learn?

 Was my hypothesis right or wrong?

 Can I tell why?
35

Magic Marbles

Objective

Observe Newton’s First Law of Motion.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 45 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of two

or three

Materials

(per group)

•	 Two rulers

•	 Several marbles

•	 Tape

Management

You may set up test stations for younger 

students before beginning this lesson.

Background Information

It may be the most famous physics experiment ever done. Four hundred years ago, 

Galileo Galilei started dropping things off 

the Leaning Tower of Pisa and timing their 

falls. In those days, it was widely thought 

that heavy objects fell faster than light ones, 

but he found that everything hit the ground 

at the same time. For cannon balls, musket 

balls, gold, silver and wood, gravity accelerated each item downward at the same rate, 

regardless of mass or composition.

Today, this is called “universality of free fall”

or the “equivalence principle,” and it is a cornerstone of modern physics. Isaac Newton 

made his own tests of the principle using 

pendulums. Satisfied, he devised his famous 

laws of motion. Later, Einstein crafted his 

Theory of General Relativity, assuming the 

principle was true.

Newton’s First Law states that every object 

will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a 

straight line unless compelled to change its 

state by the action of an external force. This is 

normally taken as the definition of inertia. The 

key point here is that if there is no net force 

acting on an object (if all the external forces 

cancel each other out), then the object will 

maintain a constant velocity. If that velocity 

is zero, then the object remains at rest. If 

an external force is applied, the velocity will 

change because of the force.

There are many excellent examples of Newton’s First Law involving aerodynamics. The 

first law describes the motion of an airplane 

when the pilot changes the throttle setting of 

the engine. The motion of a ball falling down 

through the atmosphere and a model rocket 

being launched up into the atmosphere are 

both examples of Newton’s First Law. The first 

law also describes the motion of a kite when 

the wind changes.
36

In this lesson, students will use marbles and 

rulers to observe Newton’s First Law (See page 

160 of this guide) using marbles and rulers.

Guidelines

1. Distribute the rulers, marbles and tape to 

each group. Show students how to tape 

the rulers to a flat surface, parallel, about 

a half-inch apart. Have them place the 

two marbles a few inches from each other 

between the two rulers. Have students take 

turns gently tapping one marble so that it 

rolls and hits the second one.

2. After the students have had a chance to 

perform this activity several times, have 

them put two marbles together, and then a 

third several inches away. Have them take 

turns gently tapping the single marble so 

that it hits the other two.

3. Allow students to experiment with other 

combinations.

Discussion

Ask the students the following questions:

•	 What happened in the first trial? (The 

marble that had been rolling stopped. 

The one that it hit started rolling. 

Explain to them that the force of the 

rolling marble moves to the stationary 

one. The stationary marble stops the 

first one, and then starts rolling.)

•	 What happened as you added more 

marbles? (The rolling marble stopped, 

the middle one stayed still and the third 

one rolled. Tell them that the movement 

of the first marble went through the 

second marble into the third.)

•	 What did you find out when using your 

own combinations? (The number of 

marbles pushed is how many were 

moved when hit.)

Reading Selection: 

1. Read the corresponding NASA explores 

K-4 article, “Was Galileo Wrong” orally.

2. Discuss the current NASA project, Magic 

Marbles, and what students discovered.

3. Discuss Galileo’s work and how it influenced other famous scientists. Reread the 

definitions of the laws of motion.

4. Tell the students, “Newton took Galileo’s 

work and performed his own tests. From 

our experiment we saw what Newton 

discovered.”

5. Relate to Newton’s First Law (refer to 

Newton’s laws in appendix C).
37

Was Galileo 

Wrong?

Galileo was a scientist who lived 400 years 

ago. In his time, people thought that heavy 

things fell faster than light ones. Galileo 

wanted to test this. So, he dropped different 

kinds of balls off a tall tower and found that 

mass did not matter. It did not matter what 

things were made of either. They all fell at the 

same speed.

Lots of scientists have used what Galileo 

found. Isaac Newton used it to write his laws 

of motion, and Einstein used it to write science laws. But, what if Galileo’s science was 

wrong? It would not be the first time it happened, and it will not be the last. Science 

is always changing. We keep learning new 

things. We find that old laws are not always 

right. People used to think that things in

space moved around the Earth. Now we know 

that the Sun is the center of our universe. The 

more we know, the more we learn. That is 

why we explore, and space is one of the best 

places to do that.

A group at NASA is testing Galileo’s ideas. 

They are using laser beams. The beams are 

shot toward the Moon. The crews that went to 

the Moon left mirrors there years ago. These 

were made to catch the beams. Then, they 

bounce them back to Earth. Lasers are used 

because their beams stay together as they go 

through space.

It is a new kind of tower experiment. Balls are 

not dropped, however. Instead, the team will 

watch as the Earth and Moon drop toward 

the Sun. The Earth and Moon are made of 

different things. They are not the same size. 

Are they moving toward the Sun at the same 

speed? We might have the answer soon. But 

will it be the answer we want? This is one 

case where being wrong may be a good thing.

Courtesy of NASA’s ESMD

Published by NASA explores: September 23, 2004
38

Shuttle Drag 

Parachute

Objective

•	 Test the effects of a drag parachute on 

a Shuttle model and to calculate the 

speed variances.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 10–30 min

•	 Duration of activity: 50–60 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of three

to five students

Materials and Tools

(Per group)

•	 Small shoebox or a clean half-gallonsize milk carton 

•	 Round balloon 

•	 One piece of black construction paper 

•	 Two pieces of white construction paper 

•	 String or yarn 

•	 One small plastic shopping bag with 

handles 

•	 Tape 

•	 Scissors 

•	 Stopwatch or watch with a second 

hand 

•	 Yardstick, rulers or meter stick

Management

This lesson is designed as a group project. 

For younger grades, the teacher will need to 

build the model and demonstrate the activity.

Background Information

Drag is the resistance to motion through the 

air. When the Space Shuttle comes back to 

Earth, it has no power once it comes into the 

atmosphere. This 178,000-lb (80,739.44-kg) 

craft lands by gliding to the ground. The 

Shuttle is equipped with a special feature 

called a speed brake to help slow it down. It 

is really not a brake, but it increases drag to 

slow the craft. This drag would be like driving 

down a road in a car and opening both 

doors. The increased resistance drops the 

speed quickly.

When the Shuttle decreases its speed to 

about 185 knots (343 km) per hour, it deploys 

a drag parachute to help slow it at an even 

faster rate. This type of drag parachute is 

also used on some high-performance jets.

In this lesson, students will build a Shuttle 

model and test how a drag parachute affects 

its speed.

Guidelines

1. Explain that drag is very important in 

slowing down the Shuttle. The best way 

to increase drag is to add space that air 

has to flow over. A parachute will slow 

down an object because the air fills it up, 

and it pulls back in the opposite direction from the air that is filling it. Then, the 

parachute pulls back on the object to 

which it is attached.
39

2. Model the following directions for each 

group while they build their Shuttle model. 

For older students, hand out the student 

sheets, and allow them to follow the directions while you observe their progress.

a. Take a small shoebox or a half-gallonsize milk carton, and punch a hole in 

one end with a pencil.

b. Place a balloon inside the shoebox or 

carton, and pull the open end through 

the hole. See the diagram below. This 

will be the back of the Shuttle.

Milk Carton

Balloon

Cone Pattern

Cones can be

any size! Overlap this edge

to form cone

c. Make a nose cone for the Shuttle 

using the black construction paper. 

See the pattern below.

d. Form the cone as shown in the following figure.

Tape

e. Attach the cone to the opposite end 

of the box or carton from the balloon. 

This will be the front of the Shuttle. 

f. Make wings to attach to the sides of 

the Shuttle by drawing two large triangles on the white construction paper, 

and tape one to each side of the box 

with the larger end of the triangle positioned at the back of the Shuttle. See 

the following figure.

Milk Carton

Balloon

Wings

Cone

g. Find an area at least 10 ft (3.05 m) in 

length for the Shuttle to travel on a 

smooth tile floor (a hallway or a clear 

area in the classroom).

h. Place a piece of tape on the floor for 

the starting line.
40

i. Line the path you want the Shuttle to 

travel with books to help keep it in a 

straight line.

j. Carefully blow up the balloon as full 

as you can, and hold the end until 

ready to release it.

k. Place the Shuttle on the floor at the 

starting line. 

l. As soon as you release the balloon, 

start the stopwatch or check the 

watch with the second hand. Record 

the amount of time the Shuttle 

moves.

m. Mark where the Shuttle stops and 

measure the distance traveled. 

3. Write the following formula on the board. 

Speed (in/s) = Distance (in) ÷ Time (s). 

If using metric rulers, substitute 

centimeters for inches.

4. Fill in the numbers and complete the 

formula for calculating speed. Show the 

class the math, and record the speed 

on the board.

5. Repeat the test several times. Ask the 

class why you are testing the Shuttle 

more than once. Explain that an experiment should be tested more than one 

time to check or verify the results. Many 

variables can change the outcome. For 

instance, the balloon may not have been 

blown up to the exact size it was the first 

time. Brainstorm with the class for other 

variables or things that could change 

the results.

6. Explain to the class that they are going 

to add a parachute. Ask them what 

this should do. They should respond 

that it would slow the Shuttle down by 

increasing drag.

7. Add a parachute to the back of the 

Shuttle, and repeat the tests again. Attach 

a small plastic shopping bag to the back 

of the Shuttle with string or yarn. See the 

diagram below.

8. Write the information each time on the 

board, and calculate the speed.

Discussion/Wrap-up

•	 Compare the speeds for the Shuttle 

with and without the parachute. Have 

the older students share their group 

charts with the class. 

•	 Ask the class if the parachute made a 

difference in the speed.

•	 Discuss how speed brakes would slow 

the Shuttle down.

Extensions

Have the class design speed brakes for the 

Shuttle model. Test their designs. Record 

information and calculate the speed with 

speed brakes and a parachute. Discuss the 

class findings.

Milk Carton

Balloon

Parachute

Wings

Cone
41

Space Shuttle Test Chart

(Speed (in/s) = Distance (in) ÷ Time (s))

Equipment 

Configuration Parameter Test #1 Test #2 Test #3

Average Speed

(Test 1 + Test 2 + Test 3)/3

Shuttle

Distance (in)

Time (s)

Speed (in/s)

Shuttle with 

Parachute

Distance (in)

Time (s)

Speed (in/s)
42

Coming in for a Landing

Can you land the Space Shuttle like you land 

a jet airplane? When the Space Shuttle comes 

back into Earth’s atmosphere, it has no power. 

It flies like a plane with no engine.

The Shuttle lands by gliding. It uses flight controls that let it roll, pitch and yaw. This lets the 

pilot land the Shuttle with more control.

To slow down the 178,000-lb (80,739.44-kg) 

Shuttle, the pilot uses a special brake. It is 

a speed brake. It increases drag to help the 

Shuttle slow down. You can feel drag when 

you stick your hand out the window while the 

car is moving.

When the Shuttle slows, it releases a drag 

parachute to help slow it down even more. 

Then, it rolls to a stop.

The pilot has to land right the first time. Without power, the Shuttle cannot circle around 

and try again. NASA likes to have a lot of 

room for the Shuttle to land. That is why they 

made the landing strips extra long.

Weather plays a large role when the Shuttle 

comes home. The Shuttle cannot land in rainy 

weather. The Shuttle cannot land in rainy 

weather because the coating that protects the 

tiles from water burns off when it launches 

and comes back to Earth. If water were to get 

under the tiles while coming back to Earth, 

problems could occur. 

When pilots land a Space Shuttle, they face 

a special problem. Their bodies have not 

had time to adjust to gravity. They are light 

headed, and their bodies feel very heavy. The 

pilots have to work hard to land the Shuttle 

safely due to this sensation.
43

Paper Rockets

Objective

In this activity, students construct small flying 

rockets out of paper and propel them by 

blowing air through a straw. 

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 15 min

•	 Duration of activity: 45 min

•	 Student group size: Individually

or in pairs

Materials and Tools

•	 Scrap bond paper

•	 Cellophane tape

•	 Scissors

•	 Sharpened fat pencil

•	 Milkshake straw (slightly thinner 

than pencil)

•	 Eye protection

•	 Standard or metric ruler

•	 Masking tape or altitude trackers

•	 Pictures of the Sun and planets

Management

After demonstrating a completed paper rocket 

to the students, have them construct their 

own paper rockets and decorate them. See 

diagram on page 44.

CAUTION: Because the rockets are projectiles, make sure students wear eye protection.

When students complete the rockets, distribute straws. Select a location for flying the 

rockets. A room with open floor space or a 

hallway is preferable. Prepare the floor by 

marking a 32.81-ft (10-m) test range with tape 

measures or meter sticks laid end to end. As 

an alternative, lay out the planetary target 

range as shown on page 45.

Have students launch from planet Earth, and 

tell them to determine the farthest planet they 

are able to reach with their rocket. Use the 

planetary arrangement shown on page 45 for 

laying out the launch range. Pictures for the 

planets are found on page 46. Enlarge these 

pictures as desired. 

Record data from each launch on the Paper 

Rocket Test Report form. The form includes 

spaces for data from three different rockets. 

After the first launches, students should construct new and improved paper rockets and 

attempt a longer journey through the solar 

system. Encourage the students to try different sized rockets and different shapes and 

number of fins. For younger students, create 

a chart listing how far each planet target 

is from Earth. Older students can measure 

these distances for themselves. 
44

Roll paper strip around

pencil.

Tape tube in 3 places.

Remove the pencil.

Cut off ends.

Cut out fins in any

shape you like.

Fold out tabs and

tape fins to tube.

Fold over upper end

and tape shut. Insert straw.

Blow through

straw to launch.

Follow the arrows to build your rocket.

4 by 28 centimeter

 strip of paper

How to Build a Paper Rocket

L a u n c h
45

Background Information

Although the activity uses a solar system 

target range, the Paper Rockets activity 

demonstrates how rockets fly through the 

atmosphere. A rocket with no fins is much 

more difficult to control than a rocket with 

fins. The placement and size of the fins is 

critical to achieve adequate stability while 

not adding too much weight. More information on rocket fins can be found on page 14

of this guide. 

Making and Launching Paper Rockets

1. Distribute the materials and construction 

tools to each student.

2. Students should each construct a rocket 

as shown in the instructions on the 

student sheet.

3. Tell students to predict how far their 

rocket will fly and record their estimates 

in the test report sheet. After test flying 

the rocket and measuring the distance 

it reached, students should record 

the actual distance and the difference 

between predicted and actual distances 

on the Paper Rocket Test Report form.

4. Following the flight of the first rocket, 

students should construct and test two 

additional rockets of different sizes and 

fin designs.

Suggested Target Range Layout 

Arrange pictures of the Sun and the planets 

on a clear floor space as shown below. Refer 

to an encyclopedia or other reference for a 

chart on the actual distances to each planet. 

Pluto

Uranus

Neptune

Saturn

Mars

Jupiter

Venus

Earth

Mercury

Sun
46

Planet Targets

(Not Drawn to Scale) Enlarge these pictures on a copy machine or sketch 

copies of the pictures on separate paper. Place these 

pictures on the floor according to the arrangement on the 

previous page. If you wish to make the planets to scale, 

refer to the numbers beside the names indicating the 

relative sizes of each body. Earth's diameter is given as 

one and all the other bodies are given as multiples of one.

Pluto

0.9×

Neptune

3.9×

Uranus

4×

Saturn

9.4×

Jupiter

11.2×

Venus

0.95×

Mars

0.53×

Earth

1×

Mercury

0.38×

Sun

108×
47

Discussion 

1. What makes one rocket perform better 

than another? (Do not forget to examine 

the weight of each rocket. Rockets 

made with extra tape and larger fins 

weigh more.)

2. How small can the fins be and still 

stabilize the rocket?

3. How many fins does a rocket need to 

stabilize it?

4. What would happen if you placed the 

rocket fins near the rocket’s nose?

5. What will happen to the rocket if you bend 

the lower tips of the fins pinwheel fashion?

6. Are rocket fins necessary in outer space?

Extensions

Try to determine how high the rockets fly. To 

do so, place masking tape markers on a wall 

at measured distances from the floor to the 

ceiling. While one student launches the rocket 

along the wall, another student compares 

the height the rocket reached with the tape 

markers. Be sure to have the students 

subtract the height from where the rocket 

was launched from the altitude reached. 

For example, if students held the rocket 

4.92 ft (1.5 m) from the floor to launch it, 

and it reached 13.12 ft (4 m) above the 

floor, the actual altitude change was 8.20 ft 

(2.5 m). Refer to the Altitude Tracker activity 

starting on page 109 for details on a second 

method for measuring the height the paper 

rockets reach. 

Assessment

Students will complete test reports that 

will describe the rockets they constructed 

and how those rockets performed. Ask the 

students to create bar graphs on a blank 

sheet of paper that show how far each of the 

three rockets they constructed flew. Have 

students write a summarizing paragraph in 

which they choose which rocket performed 

the best and explain their ideas for why it 

performed as it did. 
48

1. Launch your rocket three times. How far did it fly each time? What is the average 

distance your rocket flew? Write your answer in the spaces below.

2. Build and fly a rocket of a new design. Before flying it, predict how far it will go. 

Fly the rocket three times and average the distances. What is the difference 

between your prediction and actual average distance?

3. Build a third rocket and repeat step 2.

4. On the back of this paper, write a short paragraph describing each rocket you 

built and how it flew. Draw pictures of the rockets you constructed.

How far did it fly in

inches (centimeters)? 1.

Average distance

in inches (centimeters)?

2.

3.

Predict how many inches

(centimeters) your rocket

wil fly.

How far did it fly in

inches (centimeters)

1.

2.

3.

Average distance?

Difference between your

prediction and the average

distance?

Predict how many inches

(centimeters) your rocket

wil fly.

How far did it fly in

inches (centimeters)

1.

2.

3.

Average distance?

Difference between your

prediction and the average

distance?

Rocket 1

Rocket 2

Rocket 3

Make notes about the flights here.

Make notes about the flights here.

Make notes about the flights here.

Paper Rocket Test Report

Names:
49

Straw Rockets

Objective

Students will be able to construct straw 

rockets and determine the greatest height 

and distance that can be reached. 

•	 Target concept: Altitude

•	 Preparation time: 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 40–45 min

•	 Student group size: Individually 

or in pairs

Material

•	 Straw rocket launcher from 

Appendix A 

•	 Straws (must fit with little space 

remaining around the launcher rod)

•	 Clay

•	 Scissors

•	 Tape

•	 Paper

•	 Graph paper

•	 Pencils

•	 Protractors

•	 Rulers, yardstick, meter stick or 

measuring tapes

Assembly

Make the nose cones by molding clay into

one end of the straw. On the other end of 

the straw tube tape on paper shapes to 

make fins.

Management

After demonstrating a completed straw 

rocket to the students, have them construct 

their own straw rockets and decorate them. 

Participant groups design and build straw 

rockets, launch with a preset force, measure 

distance and altitude, record, and check. 

Straw Rocket Challenge 

1. Try launch angles between 10 and 90 

degrees to determine the launch angle 

that provides the greatest range.

2. Try launch angles between 10 and 90 

degrees to determine the launch angle 

that provides the greatest altitude.

3. Build four rockets of different lengths. Use 

the same nose cone shape and fin shape. 

Launch the rockets at various angles 

and launch rod marks and determine the 

rocket with the most range and the rocket 

with the greatest altitude.

4. Build four rockets of different nose cone 

styles or sizes. Keep the length and fins 

the same to determine the effect of the 

nose cone shape to range and altitude.

5. Build four rockets with different numbers 

of fins. Keep the length and nose cone 

style the same to determine the effect 

of the number of fins on the range.

6. Using the information you gained in these 

experiments, design a rocket that will 

travel as close to 236.22 in (600 cm) as 

possible. You will need to determine the 

launch angle and launch rod settings to 

come as close as possible to the first 

launch. See how many launches it takes 

to achieve the 196.85 in (500 cm) range.
50

Rocket Racer

Objectives

•	 To construct a rocket propelled 

vehicle. 

•	 To experiment with ways of increasing 

the distance the rocket racer travels.

•	 Target concept: Velocity

•	 Preparation time: 15 min

•	 Duration of activity: 30–40 min

•	 Student group size: Individually 

or in pairs

Materials and Tools

•	 Four pins 

•	 Styrofoam meat tray 

•	 Styrofoam cups

•	 Masking tape 

•	 Flexible straw 

•	 Scissors 

•	 Drawing compass* 

•	 Marker pen 

•	 Small round party balloon 

•	 Ruler 

•	 Student Sheets (one set per group) 

•	 32.81 ft (10 m) tape measure or other 

measuring markers for track (one for 

the whole class)

•	 Graph paper 

*If compasses are not available, students can 

trace circular objects to make the wheels or 

use the wheel and hubcap patterns printed 

on page 53. 

Note: Styrofoam cup bottoms can also 

be used as wheels. Putting hubcaps on 

both sides of the wheels may improve 

performance. 

Management 

Students will construct a balloon-powered 

rocket racer from a styrofoam tray, pins, 

tape, and a flexible straw, and test it along 

a measured track on the floor. The activity 

stresses technology education and provides 

students with the opportunity to modify their 

racer designs to increase performance. The 

optional second part of the activity directs 

students to design, construct and test a new 

rocket racer based on the results of the first 

racer. Refer to the materials list, and provide 

what is needed for making one rocket racer 

for each group of two students. Styrofoam 

food trays are available from butchers in 

supermarkets. They are usually sold for a few 

cents each or you may be able to get them 

donated. Students can also save trays at 

home and bring them to class.
51

If using the second part of the activity, provide each group with an extra set of materials. Save scraps from the first styrofoam tray 

to build the second racer. You may wish to 

hold drag or distance races with the racers. 

The racers will work very well on tile floors 

and carpeted floors with a short nap. Several 

tables stretched end to end will also work, 

but racers may roll off the edges. 

Although this activity provides one rocket 

racer design, students can try any racer 

shape and any number, size and placement 

of wheels they wish. Long racers often work 

differently than short racers. 

Background Information

The Rocket Racer is a simple way to observe 

Newton’s Third Law of Motion. (Refer to page

162 of the rocket principles section of this 

guide for a complete description.) While it is 

possible to demonstrate Newton’s Third Law 

with just a balloon (attached to fishing line 

by a straw), constructing a rocket racer provides students with the opportunity to put the 

action/reaction force to practical use. In this 

case, the payload of the balloon rocket is the 

racer. Wheels reduce friction with the floor 

to help racers move. Because of individual 

variations in the student racers, they will 

travel different distances and many times in 

unplanned directions. Through modifications, 

the students can correct for undesirable 

results and improve their racers’ efficiency. 

Extensions

Hold Rocket Racer races.

•	 Tie a loop of string around the inflated 

balloon before releasing the racer. 

Inflate the balloon inside the string loop 

each time you test the racers. This will 

increase the accuracy of the tests by 

ensuring the balloon inflates the same 

amount each time.

•	 Make a balloon-powered pinwheel by 

taping another balloon to a flexible 

straw. Push a pin through the straw 

and into the eraser of a pencil. Inflate 

the balloon and watch it go. 
52

Car Body

Wheels

Hubcaps

How to Build a Rocket Racer

2. Blow up the balloon and let the air out. 

Tape the balloon to the short end of a 

flexible straw and then tape the straw 

to the rectangle.

1. Lay out your pattern 

on a styrofoam tray. 

You need 1 car body, 

4 wheels and 4 hubcaps. 

Use a compass to draw 

the wheels.

4. Blow up the balloon through the 

straw. Squeeze the end of the 

straw. Place the racer on floor 

and let it go!

3. Push pins through the 

hubcaps into the wheels 

and then into the edges 

of the rectangle.
53

Wheel Patterns

(Crosses mark the centers.)

Hubcap Patterns

(Crosses mark the centers.)
54

Rocket Racer Test Report

Draw a picture of your rocket racer.

By

Date:
55

Rocket Racer Test Report

Place your rocket racer on the test track and measure hw far it travels.

1. Describe how your rocket racer ran during the first trial run.

(Did it run on a straight or curved path?)

How far did it go? inches (centimeters).

Color in one block on the graph for each 3.94 in (10 cm) your racer traveled.

2. Find a way to change and improve your rocket racer and test it again.

What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the second trial run?

How far did it go? inches (centimeters)

Color in one block on the graph for each 3.94 in (10 cm) your racer traveled.

3. Find a way to change and imporve your rocket racer and test it again.

What did you do to improve the rocket racer for the third trial run?

How far did it go? inches (centimeters)

Color in one block on the graph for each 3.94 in (10 cm) your racer traveled.

4. In which test did your racer go the farthest?

Why?
56

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 900 800 1000

0 39.37 78.74 118.11 157.48 196.85 236.22 275.59 354.33 314.96 393.70

Centimeters

Inches

Rocket Racer Trial #3

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 900 800 1000

0 39.37 78.74 118.11 157.48 196.85 236.22 275.59 354.33 314.96 393.70

Centimeters

Inches

Rocket Racer Trial #2

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 900 800 1000

0 39.37 78.74 118.11 157.48 196.85 236.22 275.59 354.33 314.96 393.70

Centimeters

Inches

Rocket Racer Trial #1

Rocket Racer Data Sheet
57

DESIGN SHEET

Design and build a new

rocket racer based on

your earlier experiments.

Front View

Top View

Side View
58

3-2-1 POP!

Objective

Students construct a rocket powered by the 

pressure generated from an effervescing 

antacid tablet reacting with water.

•	 Target concept: Altitude, velocity

and acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 10 minutes

•	 Duration of activity: 40–45 minutes

•	 Student group size: Teams of two 

students

Materials and Tools 

•	 Heavy paper (60–110 index stock or 

construction paper)

•	 Plastic 35 mm film canister* 

•	 Student sheets 

•	 Cellophane tape 

•	 Scissors 

•	 Effervescing antacid tablet 

•	 Paper towels 

•	 Water 

•	 Eye protection

*The film canister must have an internalsealing lid. See management section for 

more details.

Management

It may be helpful to make samples of rockets 

in various stages of completion available 

for students to study. This will help some 

students visualize the construction steps. 

A single sheet of paper is sufficient to make 

a rocket. Be sure to tell the students to plan 

how they are going to use the paper. Let the 

students decide whether to cut the paper 

the short or long direction to make the body 

tube of the rocket. This will lead to rockets of 

different lengths for flight comparison. 

The most common mistakes in constructing 

the rocket are as follows:

•	 Forgetting to tape the film canister to 

the rocket body.

•	 Failing to mount the canister with the 

lid end down.

•	 Not extending the canister far enough 

from the paper tube to make snapping 

the lid easy. 

Some students may have difficulty in forming 

the cone. To make a cone, cut out a pie shape 

from a circle and curl it into a cone. See the 

pattern on page 60. Cones can be any size. 

Film canisters are available from camera 

shops and stores where photographic processing takes place. These businesses 

recycle the canisters and are often willing 

to donate them for educational use. Be sure 

to obtain canisters with the internal sealing 

lid. These are usually translucent canisters. 

Canisters with the external lid (lid that wraps 

around the canister rim) will not work. These 

are usually opaque canisters.
59

Background Information

This activity is a simple, but exciting, demonstration of Newton’s Laws of Motion. The 

rocket lifts off because an unbalanced force 

acts upon it (First Law). This is the force 

produced when the lid blows off by the gas 

formed in the canister. The amount of force 

is directly proportional to the mass of water 

and gas expelled from the canister and how 

fast it accelerates (Second Law).The rocket 

travels upward with a force that is equal and 

opposite to the downward force propelling 

the water, gas and lid (Third Law). For a more 

complete discussion of Newton’s Laws of 

Motion, see page 159 in this guide. 

Procedure

Refer to the Student Sheet on page 61. 

Discussion

•	 How does the amount of water placed 

in the cylinder affect how high the 

rocket will fly?

•	 How does the temperature of the 

water affect how high the rocket will 

fly?

•	 How does the amount of the tablet

used affect how high the rocket will 

fly?

•	 How does the length or empty weight 

of the rocket affect how high the 

rocket will fly?

•	 How would it be possible to create a 

two-stage rocket?

Assessment

Ask students to explain how Newton’s Laws 

of Motion apply to this rocket. Compare the 

rockets for skill in construction. Rockets that 

use excessive paper and tape are likely to 

be less efficient fliers because they carry 

additional weight. 

Extensions

•	 Hold an altitude contest to see which 

rockets fly the highest. Launch the 

rockets near a wall in a room with a 

high ceiling. Tape a tape measure to 

the wall. Stand back and observe how 

high the rockets travel upward along 

the wall. Let all students take turns 

measuring rocket altitudes.

•	 What geometric shapes are present in 

a rocket? 

•	 Use the discussion questions to design 

experiments with the rockets. Graph 

your results. 
60

Lid

2

3

4

Overlap this edge to form cone

Cone Pattern

Cones can be

any size!

3-2-1 POP!

Ready for 

flight.

5 1

Wrap and tape

a tube of

paper around

the film

canister. The

lid end of the

canister goes

down! Tape fins to

your rocket.

Roll a cone of paper

and tape it to the

rocket's upper end.
61

Rocketeer Names

COUNTDOWN:

LIFT-OFF!

What three ways can you improve

your rocket?

1.

2.

3.

1. Put on your eye protection.

2. Turn the rocket upside down

 and fill the canister one-third

 full of water.

3. Drop in 1/2 tablet.

4. Snap lid on tight.

5. Stand rocket on launch

 platform.

6. Stand back.

Work quickly on the next steps!
62

Newton Car

Objective

In this activity, students will test a slingshotlike device that throws a mass causing the car 

to move in the opposite direction. 

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: More than 30 min

•	 Duration of activity: 45–60 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of three

Materials and Tools

•	 One wooden block about 3.94 × 7.87 ×

0.98 in (10 × 20 × 2.5 cm)

•	 Three 3-in (7.62 cm) No. 10 wood 

screws (round head)

•	 Twelve round pencils or short lengths 

of similar dowel

•	 Plastic film canister

•	 Assorted materials for filling canister 

(washers, nuts, etc.)

•	 Three rubber bands

•	 Cotton string

•	 Safety lighter

•	 Eye protection for each student

•	 American Standard or metric beam 

balance (Primer Balance)

•	 Vise

•	 Screwdriver

•	 Yardstick, meter stick or rulers

•	 Graph paper

Management

Use a smooth testing surface such as a 

long, level tabletop or uncarpeted floor. The 

experiment has many variables that students 

must control including the size of the string 

loop they tie, the placement of the mass on 

the car and the placement of the dowels. 

Discuss the importance of controlling the 

variables in the experiment with your students. 

Making the Newton Car involves cutting 

blocks of wood and driving three screws 

into each block. Refer to the diagram on this 

page for the placement of the screws as 

well as how the Newton Car is set up for the 

experiment. Place the dowels in a row like 

railroad ties and extend them to one side as 

shown in the picture. If you have access to a 

drill press, you can substitute short dowels 

for the screws. It is important to drill the 

holes for the dowels perpendicular into the 

block with the drill press. Add a drop of glue 

to each hole. 

The activity requires students to load their 

slingshot by stretching the rubber bands 

back to the third screw and holding them 

in place with the string. The simplest way 

of doing this is to tie the loop first and slide 

the rubber bands through the loop before 

placing the rubber bands over the two 

screws. Loop the string over the third screw 

after stretching the rubber bands back. 

Use a match or lighter to burn the string.

The small ends of string left over from the 

knot acts as a fuse that permits the students 

to remove the match before the string burns 

through. Teachers may want to give student 

groups only a few matches at a time.
63

To completely conduct this experiment, 

student groups will need six matches. It 

may be necessary for a practice run before 

starting the experiment. As an alternative to 

the matches, students can use blunt nose 

scissors to cut the string. This requires some 

fast movement on the part of the student 

doing the cutting. The student needs to move 

the scissors quickly out of the way after 

cutting the string. 

Tell the students to tie all the string loops they 

need before beginning the experiment. The 

loops should be as close to the same size 

as possible. Refer to the diagram on the student pages for the actual size of the loops. 

Loops of different sizes will introduce a significant variable into the experiment, causing 

the rubber bands to be stretched different 

amounts. This will lead to different accelerations with the mass each time the experiment 

is conducted. 

Use plastic 35-millimeter film canisters for 

the mass in the experiments. Direct the students to completely fill the canisters with 

various materials such as seeds, small nails, 

metal washers, sand, etc. This will enable 

them to vary the mass twice during the experiment. Have the students weigh the canister 

after it is filled and record the mass on the 

student sheet. After using the canister three 

times, first with one rubber band and then two 

and three rubber bands, students should refill 

the canister with new material for the next 

three tests.

Refer to the sample graph for recording data. 

The bottom of the graph is the distance the 

car travels in each test. Students should plot 

a dot on the graph for the distance the car

 traveled. The dot should fall on the y-axis 

line representing the number of rubber bands 

used and on the x-axis for the distance the 

car traveled. After plotting three tests with 

a particular mass, connect the dots with 

lines. The students should use a solid line for 

Mass 1 and a line with large dashes for Mass 

2. If the students have carefully controlled 

their variables, they should observe that the 

car traveled the greatest distance using the 

greatest mass and three rubber bands. This 

conclusion will help them conceptualize 

Newton’s Second Law of Motion. 

Background Information

The Newton Car provides an excellent tool for 

investigating Newton’s Second Law of Motion, 

which states that force equals mass times 

acceleration. In rockets, the force is the action 

produced by gas expelled from the engines. 

According to the law, the greater the mass of 

gas that is expelled and the faster it accelerates out of the engine, the greater the force or 

thrust. More details on this law can be found 

on page 163 of this guide.

The Newton Car is a kind of a slingshot. A 

wooden block with three screws driven into 

it forms the slingshot frame. Rubber bands 

stretch from two of the screws and hold to 

the third by a string loop. A mass sits between 

the rubber bands. When the string is cut, the 

rubber bands throw the block to produce an 

action force. The reaction force propels the 

block in the opposite direction over some 

dowels that act as rollers (Newton’s Third 

Law of Motion).

This experiment directs students to launch 

the car while varying the number of rubber 

bands and the quantity of mass thrown off. 

They will measure how far the car travels in 

the opposite direction and plot the data on 

a graph. Repeated runs of the experiment 

should show that the distance the car travels 
64

depends on the number of rubber bands used 

and the quantity of the mass being expelled. 

Comparing the graph lines will lead students 

to Newton’s Second Law of Motion. 

Discussion 

1. How is the Newton Car similar to rockets? 

2. How do rocket engines increase their 

thrust? 

3. Why is it important to control variables in 

an experiment? 

Assessment:

Conduct a class discussion where students 

share their findings about Newton’s Laws of 

Motion. Ask them to compare their results 

with those from other activities, such as 

Pop Can Hero Engine. Collect and review 

completed student pages. 

Extensions

Obtain a toy water rocket from a toy store. 

Try launching the rocket with only air and 

then with water and air and observe how far 

the rocket travels.
65

Newton Car

1. Tie six string loops this size.

2. Fill up your canister and weigh it in ounces (grams). 

Record the weight (mass) in the Newton Car 

Report.

3. Set up your Newton Car as shown in the 

picture. Slip the rubber band through 

the string loop. Stretch the rubber 

band over the two screws and pull 

the string back over the third 

screw. Place the rods 2.5 in 

(6.35 cm) apart. Use only 

one rubber band the

first time.

4. Put on your eye 

protection.

5. Light the string with a match and stand 

back. Record the distance the car traveled on the chart.

6. Reset the car and rods. Make sure that the rods are 2.5 in (6.35 cm) 

apart. Use two rubber bands and record the distance the car travels.

7. Reset the car with three rubber bands and repeat the experiment. 

Record the distance it travels.

8. Refill the canister, and record its new mass.

9. Test the car with the new canister and with one, two and three 

rubber bands. Record the distances the car moves each time.

10. Plot your results on the graph. Use one line for the first set of 

measurements and a different line for the second set.

Place more rods

in this direction

0 in (cm)

2.36 in (6 cm)

4.72 in (12 cm)

7.09 in (18 cm)
66

Newton Car Report

Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two and

three rubber bands.

MASS 1

MASS 2

grams

grams

Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two and

three rubber bands.

Write a short statement explaining the relationship between the amount

of mass in the canister, the number of rubber bands and the distance

the car traveled.

Rubber Bands Distance Traveled

in (cm)

in (cm)

in (cm)

Rubber Bands Distance Traveled

in (cm)

in (cm)

in (cm)

Team

Members

oz (gms)

oz (gms)
67

Mass 1 = oz (gm)

Mass 2 = oz (gm)

0

Inches

3

2

1

Newton CarTest Results

Mass 1 = oz (gm)

Mass 2 = oz (gm)

0 50 100 150 200

0 19.69 39.37 59.06 78.74

Centimeters

Inches

123

Sample Graph

Rubber bands

50 100 150 200

0 19.69 39.37 59.06 78.74

1.06 oz (30 gms)

1.48 oz (42 gms)

Rubber bands

Centimeters
68

Pop Can Hero 

Engine

Objectives

•	 Part One: To demonstrate action and 

reactions by using the force of falling 

water to cause a soda pop can to spin. 

•	 Part Two: To experiment with different 

ways of increasing the spin of the can. 

•	 Target concept: Velocity

•	 Preparation time: Variable 

•	 Duration of activity: 45 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of two 

or three

Management

This activity is divided into two parts. In part 

one, the learners construct the engine and 

test it. Part two focuses on variables that 

affect the action of the engine. The experiment stresses prediction, data collection and 

analysis of results. Be sure to recycle the soda 

cans at the end of the activity. 

Background Information

Hero of Alexandria invented the Hero engine 

in the first century B.C. His engine operated 

because of the propulsive force generated 

by escaping steam. A boiler produced steam 

that escaped to the outside through L-shaped 

tubes bent pinwheel fashion. The steam’s 

escape produced an action-reaction force 

that caused the sphere to spin in the opposite 

direction. Hero’s engine is an excellent demonstration of Newton’s Third Law of Motion 

(See page 18 for more information about 

Hero’s engine and page 162 for details about 

Newton’s Third Law of Motion.). This activity 

substitutes the action force produced by 

falling water for the steam in Hero’s engine. 

Part One

Materials and Tools

•	 Empty soda can with the opener 

lever still attached (one per group 

of students)

•	 Common nail (one per group of 

students)

•	 Nylon fishing line (lightweight)

•	 Bucket or tub of water (several for 

entire class)

•	 Paper towels for cleanup

•	 Yard stick, ruler or meter stick

•	 Scissors to cut fishing line

Making a Soda Can Hero Engine

1. Distribute student pages, one soda can 

and one medium-size common nail to 

each group. Tell the students that you will 

demonstrate the procedure for making the 

Hero engine. 

2. Lay the can on its side and use the nail 

to punch a single hole near its bottom. 

Before removing the nail, push the nail to 

one side to bend the metal, making the 

hole slant in that direction. 
69

2

How To Bend The Holes

1

Punch hole with nail.

With nail still inserted, push 

upper end of nail to the side 

to bend the hole.

3. Remove the nail and rotate the can approximately 90 degrees. Make a second hole 

like the first one. Repeat this procedure 

two more times to produce four equally 

spaced holes around the bottom of the 

can. All four holes should slant in the same 

direction going around the can. 

4. Bend the can’s opener lever straight up 

and tie a 15–20-in (38.1–50.8-cm) length 

of fishing line to it. The soda can Hero 

engine is complete. 

Running the Engine

1. Dip the can in the water tub until it fills with 

water. Ask the students to predict what will 

happen when you pull the can out by the 

fishing line. 

2. Have each group try out their Hero engine. 

Discussion

1. Why did the cans begin spinning when 

water poured out of the holes? 

2. What was the action? What was the 

reaction? 

3. Did all cans spin equally well? Why or 

why not? 

Part Two

Materials and Tools

•	 Student Work Sheets 

•	 Hero engines from part one 

•	 Empty soda can with the opener lever 

still attached (three per group 

of students)

•	 Common nails: two different diameter 

shafts (one each per group)

•	 Nylon fishing line (lightweight) 

•	 Bucket or tub of water (several for 

entire class)

•	 Paper towels for cleanup 

•	 Yard stick, rulers or meter stick 

•	 Large round colored gum labels 

or marker pens 

•	 Scissors to cut fishing line 

Experimenting With Soda Can Hero 

Engines 

1. Tell the students they are going to do an 

experiment to find out if there is any relationship between the size of the holes 

punched in the Hero engine and how 

many times it rotates. Ask students to 

predict what they think might happen 

to the rotation of the Hero engine if they 

punched larger or smaller holes in the 

cans. Discuss possible hypotheses for 

the experiment. 

2. Provide each group with the materials 

listed for Part Two. The nails should have 

different diameter shafts from the one 

used to make the first engine. Identify 

these nails as small (S) and large (L). 

Older students can measure the diameters of the holes in inches (millimeters). 

Since there will be individual variations, 

record the average hole diameter. Have 

the groups make two additional engines 

exactly like the first, except that the holes 

will be different sizes. 
70

3. Discuss how to count the times the 

engines rotate. To aid in counting the 

number of rotations, stick a brightly 

colored round gum label or some other 

marker on the can. Tell them to practice 

counting the rotations of the cans several times to become consistent in their 

measurements before running the actual 

experiment. 

4. Have the students write their answers for 

each of three tests they will conduct on 

the can diagrams on the Student pages. 

(Test one employs the can created in 

Part One.) Students should not predict 

results for the second and third cans until 

they have finished the previous tests. 

5. Discuss the results of each group’s 

experiment. Did the results confirm the 

experiment hypothesis? 

6. Ask the students to propose other ways 

of changing the engine’s rotation (make 

holes at different distances above the 

bottom of the can, slant holes in different 

directions or not slanted at all, etc.).

Be sure they compare the fourth Hero 

engine they make with the engine previously made that has the same size holes. 

Discussion

1. Compare the way rockets in space 

change the directions they are facing in 

space with the way Hero engines work. 

2. How can you get a Hero engine to turn in 

the opposite direction? 

3. Can you think of any way to put Hero 

engines to practical use? 

4. In what ways are Hero engines similar to 

rockets? In what ways are they different? 

Assessment

Conduct a discussion where students share 

their findings about Newton’s Laws of Motion. 

Collect and review completed Student pages. 

Extensions

•	 Compare a rotary lawn sprinkler to 

Hero’s engine. 

•	 Research Hero and his engine. Was the 

engine put to any use? 

•	 Build a steam-powered Hero engine 

(See instructions below).

Teacher Model

Steam-Powered Hero Engine

(Demonstration Model)

This should be created and operated by an 

adult. A steam powered Hero engine can be 

manufactured from a copper toilet tank float 

and some copper tubing. Because this version of the Hero engine involves steam, it 

is best to use it as a demonstration only.

Materials and Tools

•	 Copper toilet tank float (available from 

some hardware or plumbing supply 

stores) 

•	 Thumbscrew: 0.25 in (0.635 cm)

•	 Brass tube: 0.1875-in (0.476-cm) inner 

diameter and 12-in (30.18-cm) long 

(from hobby shops)

•	 Solder 

•	 Fishing line 

•	 Ice pick or drill 

•	 Metal file 

•	 Propane torch 
71

Procedure

1. File the middle of the brass tube to produce a notch. Do not file the tube in half.

File notch in

middle of tube.

(Step 1).

2. Using the ice pick or drill, bore two small 

holes on opposite sides of the float at its 

middle. The holes should be just large 

enough to pass the tube straight through 

the float. 

3. With the tube positioned so that equal 

lengths protrude through the float, heat 

the contact points of the float and tube 

with the propane torch. Touch the end 

of the solder to the heated area so that it 

melts and seals both joints. 

4. Drill a water access hole through the 

threaded connector at the top of the float. 

5. Using the torch again, heat the protruding 

tubes about 1.5 in (3.81 cm) from each 

end. With pliers, carefully bend the tube 

tips in opposite directions. Bend the tubes 

slowly so they do not crimp. 

6. Drill a small hole through the flat part of 

the thumbscrew for attaching the fishing 

line and swivel. Twist the thumbscrew into 

the threaded connector of the float in step 

4 and attach the fishing line and swivel. 

Finished Steam-Powered Hero Engine 

1. Place a small amount of water (about 

0.5–1 oz [114.79–29.7 ml]) into the float. 

The precise amount is not important. The 

float can be filled through the top if you 

drilled an access hole or through the tubes 

by partially immersing the engine in a bowl 

of water with one tube submerged and the 

other out of the water. 

2. Suspend the engine and heat its bottom 

with the torch. In a minute or two, the 

engine should begin spinning. 

Be careful not to operate the engine too long 

because it may not be balanced well and 

could wobble violently. If it begins to wobble, 

remove the heat.

CAUTION: Wear eye protection when demonstrating the engine. Be sure to confirm that the 

tubes are not obstructed in any way before 

heating. Test them by blowing through one 

like a straw. If air flows out of the other tube, 

the engine is safe to use.

Finished Steam-Powered Hero Engine
72

Pop Can Hero Engine Pop Can Hero Engine

Test Number 3

Design an experiment that will test the effect that the size of the holes has

on the number of spins the can makes. What is your experiment hypothesis?

Test Number 2

Based on your results, was your

hypothesis correct?

Why?

Mark each can to help you count the spins. Test each

Hero engine and record your data on the can

diagrams below.

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Names of Team Members

Test Number 1
73

Design a new Hero engine experiment. Remember, change

only one variable in your experiment.

What is your experiment hypothesis?

Compare this engine with the engine from your first experiment 

that has the same size holes.

Based on your results, was

your hypothesis correct?

Why?

Hero Engine

Number of Holes:

of Spins:

Size of Holes:

Actual Number

of Spins:

Difference (+ or -):

Predicted Number

Describe what you learned about Newton's Laws of Motion by

building and testing your Hero engines.

Share your findings with other members of your class.
74

Rocket

Transportation

Objective

To construct a rocket out of a balloon and use 

it to carry a payload vertically. 

•	 Target concept: Altitude

•	 Preparation time: 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 60 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of three or 

four

Materials and Tools

•	 Large long balloons (several per group) 

•	 Fishing line 

•	 Straws 

•	 Small paper cups 

•	 Paper clips 

•	 Tape 

•	 Clothespins 

•	 Scales 

Background Information

The mass of a rocket can make the difference 

between a successful flight and a rocket that 

just sits on the launch pad. As a basic principle of rocket flight, a rocket will leave the 

ground when the engine produces a thrust 

that is greater than the total mass of the 

vehicle. 

Large rockets, able to carry a spacecraft into 

space, have serious weight problems. To 

reach space and proper orbital velocities, a 

great deal of propellant is needed; therefore, 

the tanks, engines and associated hardware 

become larger. Up to a point, bigger rockets 

fly farther than smaller rockets; however, when 

they become too large, their structures weigh 

them down too much. 

A solution to the problem of giant rockets 

weighing too much can be credited to 

the 16th-century fireworks maker John 

Schmidlap. Schmidlap attached small rockets 

to the top of big ones. When the large rockets 

exhausted their fuel supply, the rocket casing 

dropped behind, and the remaining rocket 

fired. Much higher altitudes can be achieved 

this way. 

This technique of building a rocket is called 

staging. Thanks to staging, not only can we 

reach outer space in the Space Shuttle, but 

we can also reach the Moon and other planets 

using various spacecraft. 

Procedure

1. Attach a fishing line to the ceiling or as 

high on the wall as possible. Try attaching 

a paper clip to a fishing line and hooking it 

on to the light or ceiling tile braces. Make 

one vertical drop with the fishing line to 

the floor or tabletop per group. Thread the 

fishing line through a straw. Then attach 

the bottom end of the line to the tabletop 

or floor. 
75

Note: The fishing line should be taut

for the rocket to travel successfully up 

the line.

2. Blow up the balloon, and hold it shut with 

a clothespin. You will remove the clip 

before launch. 

3. Use the paper cup as a payload bay to 

carry the weights. Attach the cup to the 

balloon using tape. Encourage students 

to think of creative locations to attach the 

cup to the balloon. See figure on page 74.

4. Attach the straw to the side of your rocket 

using the tape. Be sure the straw runs 

lengthwise along the balloon. This will 

be your guide and attachment to your 

fishing line. 

5. Launch is now possible simply by 

removing the clothespin and untwisting 

before release. 

Note: The line may be marked off in 

American Standard or metric units with a 

marker to aid students in determining the 

height traveled. 

6. After trying their rocket, have students 

predict how much weight they can lift to 

the ceiling. Allow students to change their 

design in any way that might increase the 

rocket’s lifting ability between each try 

(e.g., adding additional balloons, changing 

locations of the payload bay, or replacing 

the initial balloon as it loses some of its 

elasticity, enabling it to maintain the same 

thrust).

Discussion

1. Compare what you have learned about 

balloons and rockets. 

2. Why is the balloon forced along the string? 

Assessment:

Compare results from student launches. Have 

students discuss design elements that made 

their launch successful and ideas that they 

think could be used to create an even more 

successful heavy lift launcher. 

Extensions

•	 Can you eliminate the paper cup from 

the rocket and have it still carry paper 

clips? 

•	 If each balloon costs 1 million dollars 

and you need to lift 100 paper clips, 

how much money would you need to 

spend? Can you think of a way to cut 

this cost? 

•	 Without attaching the paper cup as a 

payload carrier, have students measure the distance the balloon travels 

along the string in a horizontal, vertical 

and 45 degree angle using American 

Standard or metric units. Discuss the 

differences. 
76

Rocket

Transportation

Rocket Team:

* Predict how much weight your rocket can lift to the ceiling

(two small paperclips = approximately 0.04 oz (1g)

Weight Lifted Results of Test

1

2

3

4

Test

Based on your most successful launch:

* What was the maximum amount of weight you could lift to the ceiling?

Explain how you designed your rocket to lift 

the maximum amount of weight.

Sketch Your Rocket

* What other ways could increase the lifting capacity of your rocket?
77

Parachute Area 

Versus Drop Time

Objective

To study parachute area and its relationship 

to drop time.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: Less than 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 50 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of three

Materials and tools

•	 Plastic trash bags or tissue paper

•	 String

•	 Payload (plastic army man, 

pencil, etc.)

•	 Graph paper

•	 Rulers

•	 Tape

•	 Scissors

•	 Stopwatch

Management

This lesson can be performed using plastic 

trash bags or tissue paper for the parachutes. Each group will need enough of the 

parachute material to make six different 

parachutes. After the completion of the parachutes, they should be dropped from an elevated area, such as a chair for the student to 

stand on, or a second floor. Get permission 

before dropping objects from second stories. 

Each group will need at least three payloads 

to attach to their parachutes. Each payload 

should be the same weight.

Some of the calculations performed in this 

lesson may be a little too advanced for 

younger students. If necessary, provide assistance or perform the calculations as a group.

Background Information

Parachutes come in many different shapes 

and sizes and are made from many different 

types of materials. Even though they come in 

a wide variety, they all serve one purpose, to 

catch air and slow the wearer down for a soft, 

smooth landing on the ground.
78

This lesson will give students the opportunity 

to test different parachute sizes and shapes. 

They will measure each parachute’s area and 

record the amount of time it takes to reach the 

ground. This data will then be graphed.

Guidelines

1. Discuss how the parachute works. The 

parachute creates drag, slowing down the 

airplane. This added air resistance keeps 

the plane from plummeting to the ground.

2. Explain that the students are going to be 

working together to test different parachute designs. They are also going to 

determine if there is a connection between 

the area of the parachute and the time it 

takes the parachute to reach the ground.

3. Place students into groups of two or three, 

and hand out the Student Sheets.

4. Go over the instructions on the Student 

Sheets with the class.

5. Hand out the materials and monitor student progress as they work on the activity. 

6. If desired, move to the chosen drop location for students to experiment with their 

parachutes and to collect their data.

Discussion/Wrap-up

•	 Go over the answers to the questions found at the end of the Student 

Sheets. 

•	 Discuss the correlation between 

parachute area and drop time.

Extensions

•	 Have students create parachutes in the 

form of other shapes and test them.
79

Parachute Area Versus Drop Time

Student Sheet(s)

 

Name

Materials

•	 Plastic trash bag or tissue paper

•	 String

•	 Payload (plastic army man, pencil, etc.)

•	 Graph paper

•	 Ruler

•	 Tape

•	 Scissors

•	 Stopwatch

•	 Science journal

Procedure

Your group will be testing parachute shapes and sizes to determine the best combination 

to safely bring a payload to the ground. Follow the steps below to complete the experiment.

1. To make your first three parachutes, cut out three differently sized squares from the plastic 

bag or tissue paper. You may need to fold the squares into triangles and trim them to make 

them exact squares.

2. Using a pencil, label the parachutes A, B and C.

3. Now, determine the area of each parachute.

a. Measure the length of the sides of the parachute to be sure they are the same.

b. Use the equation “area of square = length of side × length of side” to calculate 

the area of each parachute.

c. Record the data in your science journal.

4. To complete the parachutes, perform the following:

a. Cut nine pieces of string (each piece should be about 6-in [15.24-cm] long).

b. Tape the end of a piece of string to each corner of each square parachute. 

c. If extra payload is available, tie the loose ends of the string to the payload. 

d. If necessary, wait until after square parachutes are tested, and use the same 

payloads for the triangle parachutes.

5. To make your next three parachutes, you will cut three differently sized equilateral 

triangles from the plastic bag or tissue paper. You may need to fold the triangles to

make sure each side is the same length.

6. Using a pencil, label the parachutes 1, 2 and 3.
80

7. Now, determine the area of each parachute.

a. Measure the length of the sides of the parachute to be sure they are the same.

b. Use the equation 

 (side)(side)

to calculate the area of each triangular parachute.

c. Record the data in your science journal.

8. To complete the parachutes, perform the following:

a. Cut nine pieces of string. Each piece should be about 6-in (15.24-cm) long.

b. Tape the end of a piece of string to each corner of each parachute.

c. If extra payload is available, tie the loose ends of the string to the payload.

d. If necessary, wait until after square parachutes are tested, and use the same 

payloads for the triangle parachutes.

9. Your teacher will choose an elevated position for you to do your drop tests. To test your 

parachutes, you must drop each parachute from the exact same location each time.

10. Have one group member drop the parachute while another group member times the 

parachute’s descent. They must time the drop from the moment the parachute is released 

to the time the payload hits the floor. The third group member can record the data in their 

science journal.

11. Repeat this process for each parachute. If time permits, drop each parachute twice.

12. Once you have collected all of your data, create a graph comparing the area of the 

parachute to the drop time. On your graph, label the x-axis with the area of the parachute 

and the y-axis with the drop time. 

3

4

⎛

⎝

⎜ ⎞

⎠

⎟

Answer the following questions in your science journal.

1. Is there a definite relationship between the 

area of the parachute and the drop time?

2. Does more area equal more drop time? 

Why do you think this is so?

3. Were there any variables in this experiment that could have made your results 

invalid?

4. Does the shape of the parachute make 

a difference?

5. Which parachute performed the best? 

Worst? Why do you think so?
81

Safe Landing

Imagine you are flying along in your airplane. 

All of the sudden, the engine stops, and you 

need to bail out. Luckily, you have a parachute to help you land safely. What about the 

airplane though? Could it use a parachute to 

help it get back safely too? NASA is working 

with a few companies to design a parachute 

for airplanes in trouble.

The new parachute will allow the endangered 

airplane and its passengers to land together. 

This means that in an emergency, passengers would not have to bail out of the aircraft. 

Pilots and passengers will not have to learn 

how to use individual parachutes. Instead, 

they can remain fastened in their seats for 

a safe landing.

Many different things can cause an airplane 

to crash land. Engine failure, midair collision, 

out-of-control spin, pilot error, running out of 

fuel, and even ice on the wings can lead to 

disaster. The plane parachute could be used 

in any of these situations. At the first sign of 

trouble, the pilot shuts off the engine and 

pulls a handle. Pulling the handle ignites a 

rocket that deploys the parachute. This feels 

like slamming on the brakes in your car. 

Once the parachute is fully open, the aircraft 

descends to the ground at the safer rate of 

25 ft/s (7.6 m/s). 

The rocket that deploys the parachute is a 

smaller version of the Space Shuttle’s solid 

rocket boosters. It is released from a special opening on top of the plane’s fuselage. 

The parachute is deployed at speeds over 

100 m/hr (160 k/hr). It is connected to the 

airplane with Kevlar® straps. These straps 

help to keep the plane level. The parachute 

rescue system can safely deploy at altitudes 

as low as 300 ft (91 m).

In the early stages, the parachute system 

was designed for lightweight aircraft such 

as the ultralight plane. As the technology 

improved, other small aircraft were also 

equipped with the parachutes. Today, the 

system is used on planes that hold up to 

four passengers.

Photograph provided by Ballistic Recovery Systems
82

The next step is to develop the parachute 

system for planes that carry up to 12 people. 

One challenge is making the system compact 

and lightweight. The entire apparatus can 

weigh no more than 60 lb (27.22 kg). Engineers 

are testing a new lightweight material for the 

parachute. It is a reinforced film that has been 

used for high-performance boat sails.

So far, the plane chute has had over 150 

success stories. It has saved many lives and 

small aircraft. Just last year, a pilot flying in a 

single-engine plane had to make an emergency 

landing with the plane chute. He landed safely 

in a tree grove. The pilot was uninjured, and the 

plane only suffered minimal damage.

The Parachute Recovery System is a team 

effort with Ballistic Recovery Systems. They 

are working together as part of NASA’s Small 

Business Innovation Research program. This 

program’s goal is to make NASA technology 

available to smaller companies.

Kevlar is a registered trademark of 

E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company.
83

Balloon Staging.

Objective

To simulate a multistage rocket launch by 

using two inflated balloons that slide along 

a fishing line by the thrust produced from 

escaping air.

•	 Target concept: Velocity

•	 Preparation time: 10–30 min

•	 Duration of activity: 55–65 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of two 

or three

Materials and Tools

•	 Two long party balloons

•	 Nylon monofilament fishing line 

(any weight)

•	 Two plastic straws (milkshake size)

•	 Styrofoam coffee cup

•	 Masking tape

•	 Scissors

•	 Two spring clothespins

Management 

The activity described below can be done 

by students or used as a demonstration. 

Younger students may have difficulty in 

coordinating the assembly steps to achieve 

a successful launch. For safety, consider 

attaching the fishing line along one wall 

where there is not much traffic, so students 

will not walk into the line. 

Background Information

Traveling into outer space takes enormous 

amounts of energy. This activity is a simple 

demonstration of rocket staging that Johann 

Schmidlap first proposed in the 16th century. 

When a lower stage has exhausted its load 

of propellants, the entire stage drops away, 

making the upper stages more efficient in 

reaching higher altitudes. In the typical rocket, 

the stages are mounted one on top of the 

other. The lowest stage is the largest and 

heaviest.

In the Space Shuttle, the stages attach side 

by side. The Solid Rocket Booster’s attach to 

the side of the external tank. Also attached 

to the external tank is the Shuttle orbiter. 

When exhausted, the SRBs jettison. Later, 

the orbiter discards the external tank as well. 

Thanks to staging, not only can we reach 

outer space in the Space Shuttle, but we can 

also reach the Moon and other planets using 

various spacecraft.

Procedure

1. Thread the fishing line through the two 

straws. Stretch the fishing line snugly 

across a room, and secure its ends. Make 

sure the line is just high enough for people 

to pass safely underneath. 
84

2. Cut the coffee cup in half so that the lip of 

the cup forms a continuous ring. 

3. Stretch the balloons by preinflating them. 

a. Inflate the first balloon about threefourths full of air and squeeze its 

nozzle tight.

b. Pull the nozzle through the ring.

c. Twist the nozzle and hold it shut with 

a spring clothespin.

d. Inflate the second balloon. 

e. While doing so, make sure the front 

end of the second balloon extends 

through the ring a short distance. 

As the second balloon inflates, it will 

press against the nozzle of the first 

balloon and take over the clip’s job 

of holding it shut. It may take a bit of 

practice to achieve this. 

f. Clip the nozzle of the second balloon 

shut also. 

4. Take the balloons to one end of the fishing 

line and tape each balloon to a straw with 

masking tape. The balloons should point 

parallel to the fishing line. 

5. Remove the clip from the first balloon and 

untwist the nozzle. Remove the nozzle 

from the second balloon as well, but 

continue holding it shut with your fingers. 

6. If you wish, do a rocket countdown as 

you release the balloon you are holding. 

The escaping gas will propel both balloons along the fishing line. When the 

first balloon released runs out of air, it 

will release the other balloon to continue 

the trip. 

7. Distribute design sheets and ask 

students to design and describe their 

own multistage rocket. 

Assessment

1. Collect and display student designs for 

multistage rockets. 

2. Ask each student to explain his/her 

rocket to the class. 

Extensions

1. Encourage the students to try other launch 

arrangements, such as side-by-side 

balloons and three stages. 

2. Can students fly a two-stage balloon 

without the fishing line as a guide? How 

might the balloons be modified to make 

this possible? 
85

Water Bottle 

Rocket Assembly

Objective

Working in teams, learners will construct a 

simple bottle rocket from 2-liter soft drink 

bottles and other materials. 

•	 Target concept: Altitude, velocity 

and acceleration

•	 Preparation time: Less than 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 50 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of three 

students

Materials and Tools

•	 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles 

•	 Low-temperature glue guns 

•	 Poster board 

•	 Tape (masking and/or duct)

•	 Modeling clay 

•	 Scissors 

•	 Safety Glasses 

•	 Decals 

•	 Stickers 

•	 Marker pens 

•	 Bottle rocket launcher (see page 88) 

Management

Having the learners work in teams will 

reduce the amount of materials required. 

Begin saving 2-liter bottles several weeks in 

advance to have a sufficient supply for your 

students. You will need to have at least one 

bottle rocket launcher. Construct the launcher 

described on page 146 or obtain one from a 

science or technology education supply 

catalog or on-line. 

Hot Glue

Collect a variety of decorative materials 

before beginning this activity so students 

can customize their rockets. Rockets can be 

constructed with the materials and attached 

by tape or low-temperature electric glue guns 

that are available from craft stores. Hightemperature glue guns will melt the plastic 

bottles. Provide tape or glue guns for each 

table or set up glue stations in various parts 

of the room. When the rockets are complete, 

test fly them.

When launching rockets, it is important for 

the other students to stand back. Countdowns help everybody to know when the 

rocket will lift off. In a group discussion, have 

your students create launch safety rules that 

everybody must follow. Include how far back 

observers should stand, how many people 

should prepare the rocket for launch, who 

should retrieve the rocket, etc.

Refer to the Altitude Tracker activity starting 

on page 109 for information on determining 

how high the rockets fly. While one group of 

students launches its rocket, have another 

group track the rocket and determine its 

altitude. 
86

Background Information

Bottle rockets are excellent devices for 

investigating Newton’s Three Laws of 

Motion. The rocket will remain on the launch 

pad until an unbalanced force is exerted 

propelling the rocket upward (First Law). The 

amount of force depends upon how much 

air you pumped inside the rocket (Second 

Law). You can increase the force further by 

adding a small amount of water to the rocket. 

This increases the mass the rocket expels by 

the air pressure. Finally, the action force of 

the air (and water) as it rushes out the nozzle 

creates an equal and opposite reaction force 

propelling the rocket upward (Third Law). 

The fourth instruction on page 87 asks the 

students to press modeling clay into the 

nose cone of the rocket. Placing 1.75–3.53 

oz (50–100 g) of clay into the cone helps to 

stabilize the rocket by moving the center of 

mass farther from the center of pressure. 

For a complete explanation of how this 

works, see pages 11–14. An example of the 

nose cone can be obtained from page 39.

Procedures

Refer to the page 87 for procedures on 

building a water bottle rocket. 

Assessment

•	 Evaluate each bottle rocket on its 

quality of construction. 

•	 Observe how well fins align and 

attach to the bottle. 

•	 Observe how straight the nose cone 

is at the top of the rocket. 

•	 If you choose to measure how high 

the rockets fly, compare the altitude 

the rockets reach with their design 

and quality of construction. 

Extensions

•	 Challenge rocket teams to invent a 

way to attach a parachute to the rocket 

that will deploy on the rocket’s way 

back down. 

•	 Parachutes for bottle rockets can be 

made from a plastic bag and string. 

The nose cone is merely placed over 

the rocket and parachute for launch. 

The cone needs to fit properly for 

launch or it will slip off. The modeling 

clay in the cone will cause the cone 

to fall off, deploying the parachute, 

after the rocket tilts over at the top of 

its flight. 

•	 Conduct flight experiments by varying 

the amount of air pressure and water 

to the rocket before launch. Have the 

students develop experimental test 

procedures and control for variables. 

•	 Conduct spectacular nighttime 

launches of bottle rockets. Make the 

rockets visible in flight by taping a 

small-size chemical light stick near the 

nose cone of each rocket. (Light sticks 

are available at toy and camping stores 

and can be used for many flights. 

This is an especially good activity for 

summer space camp programs.)
87

Building A Bottle Rocket

1. Wrap and glue or tape or

a tube of posterboard

aroun the bottle.

2. Cut out several fins

of any shape and glue

them to the tube.

3. Form a nose cone

and hold it together

with tape or glue.

4. Press a ball or

modeling clay into

the top of the nose cone.

5. Glue or tape nose cone

to upper end of bottle.

6. Decorate your rocket.

Hot Glue
88

Launching Water 

Bottle Rockets

Objective

To show the connection of propulsion and 

force, pushing the rocket by accelerating 

water out of a bottle. Expand on the straw 

rocket exercise by building a water rocket that 

will fly powered by pressurized water.

•	 Target word: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 1 hour

•	 Activity time: 1 hour

•	 Students involved: 3–12 per adult

Preparation

Refer to the Safety Code in Appendix B. Build 

the water bottle rockets in three or more 

teams of three students each. Materials and 

assembly instructions are given in a previous 

section on page 85. Perform the string-swing 

test given in the section on Rocket Stability 

Determination page 138 on these rockets. 

You will also need to build the water bottle 

launcher (see Appendix A).

Procedure

Students will explore what relative amounts 

of air and water propel the rocket better, or 

make any design adjustments to the fins or 

nose. Observing the flight of various lengths 

and weights of rockets will add to the inquiry 

experience.

1. Begin by having some bottles filled onefourth, one-third and one-half full of water. 

2. Set them on the launcher, and pump these 

rockets each with the same amount of air 

(same number of pumps). Then, launch 

them to see which ones go the highest or 

furthest. 

3. Note the results on a data sheet. 

4. Then, select a set water amount and 

change the number of pumps to increase 

or decrease the air pressure for the next 

launch round. 

5. Note the results on a data sheet. 

6. Determine the best combination of the 

water fill level and air pressure, and fly all 

rockets with that formula.

Sample Data Sheet

Rocket Flight Water 

Fill

Air Pump 

Strokes Height

1 1 1/2 4 low

2 1 1/3 4 low

3 1 1/3 6 high

1 2 1/4 8 highest

Questions

1. How is the air and water pressure operation better than just the air pressure with 

the straw rocket? 

2. What if you just put air in the bottle? Just 

air pressure drove the straw rocket in a 

pulse. The bottle has the pressure expelling water. Ask them to explain the difference. The action of expelling the water 

mass causes the reaction of the bottle 

motion (Newton’s Third Law).

3. How would a 2-liter bottle fly differently 

from a half-liter bottle? Hypothesize what 

would happen and then build and launch 

a rocket made from a small bottle.
89

4. How would you relate pressure, volume 

and bottle mouth size against rate of water 

expulsion for effective propulsion?

5. How do you relate the operation of this 

water-propelled rocket to a liquid fuel 

combustion propelled rocket?
90

The Nose Cone 

Experts

Objective

Students will experiment with different nose 

cone shapes to determine the advantages and 

disadvantages of each type. Conic, parabolic 

and flat shapes will be tested to determine 

which is most aerodynamic. 

•	 Target concept: Altitude

•	 Preparation time: 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 45–60 min

•	 Student group size: One to two 

students

Materials and tools:

•	 Nose Cone Distance Traveled Table

•	 Group Questions and Procedures

•	 Paper towel tube

•	 Nose cone patterns worksheet 

•	 Yard stick or meter stick

•	 Several 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles

•	 Modeling clay

•	 Card stock

•	 Leaf blower or vacuum set to blow

•	 Books to make a path

•	 Long hall or open area

•	 Tape

Background

Aerodynamics is the branch of science that 

deals with the motion of air and the forces on 

bodies moving through the air. There are four 

forces that act on a rocket. They are lift, drag, 

weight and thrust. 

Drag is a force that opposes the upward 

movement of the rocket. It is generated by 

every part of the rocket. Drag is a sort of 

aerodynamic friction between the surface of 

Lift

Drag Weight

Thrust

Forces on a Rocket

the rocket and the air. Factors that affect drag 

include the size and shape of the rocket, the 

velocity and the inclination of flow, and the 

mass, viscosity and compressibility of the air. 

Procedure

1. Students in this expert group will complete 

the What a Drag prelab sheet to allow 

them to build on their past experiences 

with aerodynamics.

2. Students construct nose cones by cutting 

out three different nose cone shapes from 

card stock. Two of the patterns are given 

on the following pages. The third nose 

cone should be a flat against the paper 

towel tube. They will then attach the nose 

cones onto paper towel tubes. This time 

modeling clay can be used inside the nose

cone to provide mass.

3. Use a commercial leaf blower or a vacuum 

cleaner with its airflow reversed to blow to 

force the rocket backwards. This should 
91

be done on a narrow track to keep the 

rocket in line with the wind (books may be 

lined up to make this track).

4. Students should measure the distance 

the rocket traveled backwards. Record 

the results and complete the nose cone 

expert report on the What a Drag sheets. 

Group Questions and Procedure

In your expert groups, complete the following:

1. What is the first thing you think of when 

you hear the word aerodynamic? Where 

have you heard the term before?

2. Using the resources on the Internet or in 

your library, find information on aerodynamics and the importance of the use of 

wind tunnels. Give several examples.

3. What is drag as it relates to aerodynamics?

a. What are some things that can be 

done to an object to decrease its drag?

b. What are the parts of a rocket that 

may result in drag?

4. Using the patterns in the nosecone pattern, cut out three different nose cone

shapes from card stock. Assemble the 

nose cones onto paper towel tubes. The 

tubes will be tested with the leaf blower 

as shown below.

5. List the variables that need to be controlled in this activity.

6. Use a commercial leaf blower or vacuum 

set to blow air to force the rocket backwards. This should be done between two 

rows of books to keep the rocket in line 

with the wind. 

a. Place the nose cone design in front of 

the blower, as shown below. 

b. While holding the blower, turn the 

blower on until the nose cone design 

stops moving.

7. Measure the distance the rocket traveled 

backwards. 

8. Record results in the data table below.

9. Set up a data table in your journal 

similar to the table on page 92 to record 

your results.
92

Nosecone Distance Traveled Table

Shape of Nosecone

Distance Traveled

Trial One Trial Two Trial Three Average
93

Cone Pattern

Cones can be

any size! Overlap this edge to form cone
94

Cut along the lines. Tape the sides of the triangles together starting with the smaller triangles.
95

Racing Against 

Friction

Objective

To understand how friction affects the speed 

of a vehicle.

•	 Target concept: Velocity

•	 Preparation time: 20 minutes

•	 Duration of activity: 40–45 minutes

•	 Student group size: Teams of two to 

four students

Materials and Tools

•	 Large sheets of corrugated cardboard

•	 Masking tape

•	 Felt fabric

•	 Wax paper

•	 Sandpaper

•	 Construction paper

•	 Various textbooks

•	 Small toy cars

•	 Stopwatches

•	 Student Sheets

•	 Scissors

Management

Before the activity begins, cut out strips of 

felt fabric, wax paper and sandpaper slightly 

wider than the width of a toy car and approximately 1 ft (30.48 cm) long. Ensure each 

group has a piece of cardboard approximately 

1.5 × 2 ft (45.72 × 60.96 cm) to make their ramp 

surface. Read Two-Ton Hockey Pucks on 

page 98 to the students.

Background Information

Working in space can be tricky. With no 

gravity or friction to keep things in place, 

relatively simple tasks can become complicated ordeals. To prepare for the rigors of 

working in space, astronauts train in many 

different facilities on Earth. One of these 

facilities, the Precision Air Bearing Facility at 

Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, is 

used to simulate the reduced friction found 

in space.

This lesson will introduce students to the 

concept of friction being a slowing force.

Procedure

1. Write the word FRICTION on the board.

Have students share any information they 

may know about friction. 

2. Explain that the class is going to investigate friction and the effects it has on a 

moving vehicle. 

3. Place students into groups and hand out 

the Student Sheets.

4. Go over the instructions on the Student 

Sheets and answer any questions the students may have. 

5. Allow time for the students to complete 

the activity.

Discussion/Wrap-up

Have students share their results, and discuss 

why the results turned out as they did. 

Extensions

Study Isaac Newton’s Laws of Motion.
96

Racing Against Friction

Procedure

1. Use the scissors to trim the different strips 

of material to the same length. 

2. Place the strips of material on the piece of 

cardboard. One end of each strip should 

be lined up against the edge of one side of 

the cardboard. (See the above diagram.) 

Tape the strips in place using the masking 

tape. 

3. Stack the textbooks on top of one another. 

Place one end of the cardboard on top 

of the books to form a ramp. The ends of 

the strips of material should be toward the 

table. Tape the cardboard in place. 

4. Predict which material will allow the car to 

move down the ramp the quickest. Write 

your prediction on the Data Sheet, and 

explain your prediction. 

5. Place the toy car at the top edge of the 

first strip of material. Let the car roll down 

the ramp to the table. Use the stopwatch 

to time the amount of time it takes the car 

to travel from the top of the material strip 

to the table. Record the time on the Data 

Sheet. 

6. Repeat this process with the first strip of 

material until you have completed three 

trials. Record all data. 

7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 with the other three 

strips of material. Record all results. 

8. Answer the questions on the following 

Data Sheet.
97

Racing Against Friction Data Sheet

Name

Fastest material prediction

Explain your choice

Data Table

Trial

One Time

(s)

Trial

Two Time

(s)

Trial

Three Time

(s)

Average Time

(s)

Construction paper

Felt fabric

Sand paper

Wax paper

Questions

1. Which material was the fastest track for the toy car? Was your prediction correct?

2. Why did the toy car travel at different rates on the different materials?

3. Why is it important for the strips of materials to be the same length?
98

Two-Ton

Hockey Pucks

Superman is not the only one who can 

move a 2-ton (1,814.37-kg) automobile with 

his pinkie finger. Astronauts can do it too. 

There are not any cars in space, but the 

crew can move objects just as heavy with 

just as much ease. In microgravity, there 

is not any friction to provide resistance, so 

large objects take off with just a nudge. The 

only problem is that, while it is easy to glide 

large pieces of equipment, they can be hard 

to maneuver or stop. Nobody wants a 2-ton 

(1,814.37-kg) object drifting out of control. In 

order to keep things under control in space, 

astronauts practice working in microgravity 

on Earth.

That is where it gets tricky. There is not one 

type of microgravity simulator that perfectly 

duplicates the conditions of space. That is 

why NASA has developed a range of simulators; each one recreates a specific aspect 

of microgravity. These simulators include 

the KC-135 airplane that allows astronauts 

to tumble through the air in a free fall. The 

Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory takes astronauts to an underwater lab almost like 

space. Virtual reality simulators reproduce 

the visual aspects of space, and the microgravity drop towers briefly put objects and 

experiments in a near-microgravity setting. 

But when it comes to simulating how to 

move those large objects, performing functions without friction and responding to the 

lack of gravity’s counter forces, astronauts 

head to the Precision Air Bearing Facility at 

Johnson Space Center in Houston.

There, they take advantage of the air-bearing 

floor. Imagine a giant air hockey table about 

20 ft (6 m) wide and 30 ft (9.1 m) long, says 

Tom Smith, mock-up manager for the Precision Air Bearing Facility. Once on the special floor, astronauts can push huge objects 

around as easily as an air hockey puck floats 

across a game table, which is how it feels in 

space. Smith says that if you were playing 

air hockey in a game room, the hockey puck 

would float on a thin cushion of air blown 

from the surface of the table. However, on 

the air-bearing floor, the air is essentially fed 

through the hockey puck to create a layer of 

compressed air hovering just fractions of an 

inch (millimeters) off the floor. Needless to say, 

in order for 2-ton (1,814.37-kg) hockey pucks 

to maintain a position so close to the surface, 

that surface must be very smooth and level.

The floor is made up of steel plates, lined up 

side by side. More steel plates are combined 

to form pads; these pads are attached to 

the bottoms of the large objects astronauts 

practice moving. From there, compressed air 
99

is fed into a tube that runs along the sides 

and bottom of the plates. When running, the 

air-fed plates hover just above the floor’s 

surface, and all it takes is a nudge for mammoth objects to effortlessly glide across the

surface.

What kind of chores do astronauts practice 

on the air-bearing floor? They primarily handle 

large objects—as large as a small car—and 

learn to keep the objects moving in their 

intended direction. They also practice using 

tools the way they would be used in space. 

Without gravity to keep the astronaut in place, 

a simple twist of a screwdriver can send him 

or her zooming. Astronauts can compensate 

for the torque created by drills, wrenches and 

pliers by anchoring themselves or bracing 

their bodies.

“Engineers also use the air-bearing floor as 

they are developing products and parts that 

will travel into space,” Smith says. A simple 

device like a door hinge can be tested to see 

how it will function without the friction found 

on Earth. By operating the hinge on the giant 

air hockey table, it is easy to see if changes 

need to be made because of microgravity.

“Some people call this a zero-gravity room, 

but that is not accurate,” says Smith. “There 

is plenty of gravity in here. This floor simulates the effects of reduced gravity on one 

plane only, not throughout the entire room. It 

is pretty amazing, though, to see how easy 

it is to move something weighing 2 tons 

(1,814.37-kg) with just your pinkie.”
100

The Parachuting 

Egg

Objective

To drop an egg from a height without it 

breaking.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 10 min

•	 Duration of activity: 50–60 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of two 

to five

Background Information

After the Space Shuttle is launched, the Solid 

Rocket Boosters (SRBs) are jettisoned at 

about 2 min into the flight. SRB separation 

occurs at an altitude of about 30 miles (48.3 

km). The separated boosters then coast up 

to an altitude of 47 mi (75.6 km) and free-fall 

into an impact zone in the ocean about 158 

mi (254.3 km) downrange. They are retrieved 

from the Atlantic Ocean by special recovery 

vessels and returned for refurbishment and 

eventual reuse on future Shuttle flights.

When a free-falling booster reaches an altitude of about 3 mi (4.8 km), its nose cap is 

jettisoned, and the SRB pilot parachute pops 

open. The pilot parachute then pulls out the 

54 ft (16.5 m) diameter drogue parachute. The 

drogue parachute stabilizes and slows down 

the descent to the ocean. At an altitude of 

6,420 ft (1,902 m), the frustum, a truncated 

cone at the top of the SRB where it joins the 

nose cap, is separated from the forward skirt, 

causing the three main parachutes to pop out. 

These parachutes are 115 ft (35 m) in diameter 

and have a dry weight of about 1,500 lb (680.4 

kg) each. When wet with seawater, they weigh 

about 3,000 lb (1,360.8 kg).

At 6 minutes and 44 seconds after liftoff, the 

spent SRBs, weighing about 165,000 lb (74.8 

metric tons), have slowed their descent speed 

to about 62 mph (99.8 kph), and splashdown 

takes place in the predetermined area. The 

parachutes remain attached to the boosters 

until recovery personnel detach them. Under 

ideal weather and sea conditions, the retrieval 

operation takes about 5.5 hours. The recovery 

ships with the retrieved SRBs in tow, sail to 

Port Canaveral, travel north up the Banana 

River, and dock near Hangar AF at the Cape 

Canaveral Air Force Station, their mission 

completed.

Once the parachutes have been recovered, 

they are taken to the Parachute Refurbishment 

Facility (PRF) in the Kennedy Space Center. 

The PRF was originally built to process the 
101

parachutes used in the Gemini manned space 

program and was modified for the Shuttle 

program. Parachute systems recovered with 

the SRB casings are delivered to the refurbishment facility on reels provided on the 

retrieval vessels. The parachutes for the SRBs 

are washed, dried, refurbished, assembled 

and stored in this facility. New parachutes 

and hardware from manufacturers also are 

delivered to the PRF.

Parachutes arriving from the retrieval operations are untangled, hung systematically on an 

overhead monorail and transported to in-line 

washers and driers that wash and dry them 

automatically. They are then sent to the refurbishing area, which is equipped with handling 

equipment for producing and installing risers 

and associated equipment. After final inspection and acceptance, the chutes are folded 

and placed in canisters for reuse.

Materials

•	 Egg provided by your group 

•	 Parachuting materials brought in by 

your group 

•	 Stopwatch

•	 Tape measure 

Procedure

1. Your group will design a parachute that 

can be attached to an egg. The egg will 

be dropped from a known height to the 

ground or floor. The parachute is to slow 

the egg’s descent so that, after landing, 

it remains uncracked. 

2. You will spend time in class today discussing how you will design and build your 

parachute. It can be made out of anything 

you choose. Due to the quickness that this 

has to be built, try using household items. 

3. The parachute’s length, including any 

strings or drag devices, can only be 

3.28 ft (1 m). 

4. The parachute must allow the egg to 

come down. This is not a flying contest, 

but a safe, dropping contest. 
102

5. There are no set criteria for your parachute, unless dictated by your teacher due 

to physical or time constraints. 

6. Bring in a hard-boiled or raw egg, based 

on what your teacher says. 

7. Be sure it can be seen from the outside 

when attached to your parachute. There 

should be no foreign material wrapped 

around the egg to protect it from the fall 

(paint, tape, glue, finger nail polish, paper, 

bubble wrap, styrofoam, straws, springs, 

popsicle sticks, etc.). The design of this 

experiment is to make a working parachute, not an egg protection suit. 

8. You can build a harness for it to sit in, so 

long as the egg hits the ground first and 

not the harness. The harness should not 

provide any extra stability for the egg, 

other than to hold it to the parachute. 

9. During the drop, you will need to measure 

the time from the release to the impact. 

10. If it is not already provided, you will need 

to measure the vertical distance the 

egg fell. 

11. Using the speed equation, determine the 

speed of your egg when it hit the ground. 

Answer the following questions: 

a. What is your basic design and how 

does it work? Include a small sketch 

of your parachute. 

b. In designing your parachute, what 

were some of the factors that you 

had to account for to ensure a safe 

landing? 

c. How far did your egg fall? 

d. How long did it take to fall? 

e. What was the speed of your egg at 

impact? 

f. Did the egg break? What does that 

tell you about your speed at impact? 

g. How could you improve the safety of 

your egg? Explain.
103

Egg Drop Lander

Objective

Students will create a package to contain and 

successfully land a raw egg, unbroken from a 

fall to the ground. They will learn how velocity 

and acceleration from falling objects relate to 

a force on landing.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 1 hour

•	 Activity time: 1 hour

•	 Student group size: Teams of three

(3 to 12 per adult)

Materials

•	 Raw egg 

•	 Parachute material ( plastic trash or 

shopping bags) 

•	 Packing material (gelatin, popcorn, 

foam, bubble wrap, etc.) 

•	 Masking tape 

•	 Yardstick or meter stick 

•	 Stopwatch 

Procedure

1. Each team of three students will build its 

own lander capsule. You may wish to build 

more than one for experimentation. Select 

someone to be a timekeeper, distance 

measurer and data recorder.

2. Choose the parachute and packaging 

material you will use around the egg. 

Design and build your lander. Attach the 

parachute.

3. The landing site will be a 1×1 ft target.

4. From the top of a ladder over the target,

drop your lander. A balcony is a good 

place to use too.

5. Record the distance and time it takes for 

the egg lander to reach the ground. 

6. Examine and record the lander. A drop is 

successful if the egg does not crack. 

Data and Results

1. List the packaging material used. Which 

material and packing technique worked 

the best?

2. Draw your design.

3. Time of the fall s 

4. Distance of the fall ft (m)

5. At what speed did the box hit the ground: 

ft/s (m/s)? 

(speed = distance/time or ft/s (m/s)
104

Additional Approach

From what you learned in packaging and protecting the egg in this lander drop test, design 

a capsule from a model rocket nose cone that 

can contain the egg. Test drop that capsule 

to prove the egg in it can land safely. There 

are also commercial rocket kits that can carry 

eggs. Get one of those as a design comparison and fly it, then have students build 

their own version of an egg-carrying rocket 

with their capsule. Launch the egg in the 

rocket and see how well the parachute brings 

it down.
105

At the Drop

of a Ball

Objective

To recreate Galileo’s experiment and 

determine the acceleration of gravity.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 10–30 min

•	 Duration of activity: 45 min

•	 Student group size: Individually

or in pairs

Materials

•	 Golf ball

•	 Softball

•	 Basketball

•	 Stopwatch

•	 Tape measure

•	 Calculator

Background Information

It may be the most famous physics experiment ever done. Four hundred years ago, 

Galileo Galilei started dropping things off 

the Leaning Tower of Pisa and timing their 

falls. In those days, it was widely thought 

that heavy objects fell faster than light ones,

but he found that everything hit the ground 

at the same time. For cannon balls, musket 

balls, gold, silver and wood, gravity accelerated each item downward at the same rate, 

regardless of mass or composition.

Today’s experiment will have your group 

recreating Galileo’s experiment. The size 

of the golf ball will be larger, but similar in 

weight to a musket ball (in other words, a 

bullet in Galileo’s time). The softball will be 

lighter in weight, but of equivalent size to a 

cannon ball. The place of the experiment is 

not important, but the Leaning Tower of Pisa 

did provide a clear view of objects dropped 

straight down. So, what do you think? Will a 

softball and a golf ball dropped at the same 

time, fall to the ground at the same rate and hit 

the ground at the same time?

For advanced students: Here is a 

quick review of the equations of 

motion, which you will need today. 

The first one is vf

 = vi + at, where vf

is the final velocity (ft/s or m/s), vi

 is 

the initial velocity (ft/s or m/s), a is 

the acceleration in feet (or meters) 

per second squared (ft/s2 or m/s2), 

and t is the time in seconds (s). 

The second one is d = vi

t + 0.5at2, 

where d is the distance traveled in 

feet (or meters). The third one is 

vf

2 = vi2 + 2ad. For falling objects, 

we usually substitute –g for a, 

where g = 32.1 ft/s2 (9.8 m/s2), and 

y for d, since the distance traveled is linear in 

the

vertical direction only.

Procedure

1. Acquire a golf ball, a softball and a 

stopwatch.

2. Travel to your “Leaning Tower of Pisa” 

(window or balcony) for your experiment.
106

3. Measure the height above the ground 

(drop zone) that you will be dropping the 

golf ball and softball. Convert this to feet 

(meters), and record the number in the 

chart.

4. Have one group member climb to the top 

of the Leaning Tower to drop the bullet 

and cannon ball.

5. Have one group member time the event in 

seconds, and have another group member 

record the results.

6 Repeat the experiment several times and 

average the results in the chart.

7 Using the equations of motion, determine 

the final velocity (the velocity just before 

it hits the ground) and acceleration of the 

softball and golf ball.

8 Acquire a basketball to repeat the 

experiment with the softball and golf 

ball. Record your results, and use the 

equations of motion to determine the final 

velocity and acceleration.

9 Answer the following questions:

a. Did the golf ball and softball hit the 

ground at the same time?

b. What are some of the things that 

this experiment proved? 

c. Did the basketball change the 

outcome? 

d. What were the sources of error for this 

experiment? 

e. How could you improve the accuracy 

of this experiment? 

f. How does this experiment compare to 

the way Galileo did it 400 years ago? 

g. If you were to compare a piece of 

paper and a golf ball, which would fall 

faster? Would they hit the ground at 

the same time? Why or why not? (If 

time allows, test it.) (Hint: What is 

terminal velocity?) 

h. Average the acceleration for the five 

trials using the softball and golf ball. 

Record that number here: . What 

value should this be? Determine the 

percent difference between your value 

and the expected value.

Drop of a Ball recording chart

Experiment Distance of fall 

(ft or m)

Time 

(s)

Final Velocity 

(ft/s or m/s)

Acceleration

(ft/s2 or m/s2)

Softball and 

golf ball

Softball and 

basketball

Golf ball and 

basketball
107

Free Fall Rocket 

Ball Drop

Objective

To calculate the altitude of a rocket by timing 

the fall of a ball as it drops. This exercise will 

teach the relation of free fall time and altitude 

from acceleration.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration, altitude

•	 Preparation time: 30 min

•	 Duration of activity: 60 min per 

10 students

•	 Student group size: Team of 1–3 

students (3–12 students per adult)

Materials

•	 Golf balls, possibly painted bright 

colors

•	 A model rocket with a BT60 type body 

diameter (1.6 in [4.1 cm]) or made from 

a paper towel tube to contain a golf 

ball as a nose cone

•	 Motors to launch the rocket to 

between 100 and 400 ft (30.48 and 

121.92 m) altitude, B or C size

•	 Launch pad and firing system

•	 Stopwatches

•	 Masking tape

Procedure

1. Each student can have their own rocket 

or work in teams of three. A launch pad 

operator and timekeeper are also needed.

2. Modify the rocket by removing the nose 

cone from the shock cord and connect the 

parachute directly to the shock cord. 

3. Wrap two layers of 0.75-in (1.91 cm) masking 

tape around the ball to form a shoulder so 

that it can fit snugly into the top of the tube. 

It should have the same fit tightness as the 

nose cone did, snug enough not to fall out if 

turned upside down, but able to be popped 

off by the ejection charge.

4. Prepare the rocket for flight as usual, but 

place the golf ball on top of the parachute 

in place of the nose cone.

5. Launch the rocket.

6. At apogee, the golf ball will eject from the 

rocket and free fall to the ground. The rocket 

will descend normally on the parachute. 

Have a student use a stopwatch to time the 

ball’s fall from the ejection point where the 

ball separates from the rocket in the air to 

the moment of ground impact (2–5 seconds). 

7. Record the time measured on a data sheet 

(see page 108). 

8. Use the time value to solve for the free fall 

distance (y = 0.5gt2) (where g = 32 ft/s2 or 

9.8 m/s2), which is the presumed peak 

altitude of the rocket.

9. Repeat the experiment several times, or 

have students launch balls in identical 

rockets and motors and compare the measurements and calculations. Using two 

stopwatches and taking the average time will 

improve accuracy and also helps ensure that 

you get a time reading if one of the watches 

fails during the event.
108

Sample data sheet

Flight Ball drop time (t)

(s)

Altitude (y) = 0.5gt2

(ft or m)

Model 3 on B6-4 3.3 174

Questions

1. What aspects of the golf ball are being 

ignored in the descent measurement?

2. If a billiard ball or baseball were dropped 

instead of the golf ball, how much faster 

would they fall?

3. What would be a problem with using a 

ping-pong ball for this experiment?

4. If the ball separates from the rocket with 

a lot of sideways motion, how does that 

affect the descent time of the fall?

Additional approach

As you launch, have other students measure 

the altitude with the altimeter from that activity 

lesson on page 109. Compare these altitude 

values. If you have a rocket altitude simulation 

software program, how does the prediction 

compare to the calculated value for 

the rocket?

You can also launch the rockets with different 

size motors to measure the different altitudes 

to compare the motor performance effects. 

Another student can time the ascent of the 

rocket (lift-off to ejection) and compare it to 

the ball’s free fall time.
109

Altitude Tracking

Objective

To estimate the altitude a rocket achieves 

during flight. 

•	 Target concept: Altitude

•	 Preparation time: 20 min

•	 Duration of activity: 60 min

•	 Student group size: Teams of two

Materials and Tools

•	 Altitude tracker pattern 

•	 Altitude calculator pattern 

•	 Thread or lightweight string 

•	 Small washer 

•	 Brass paper fastener 

•	 Scissors 

•	 Razor-blade knife and cutting surface 

•	 Stapler 

•	 Yard stick or meter stick 

•	 Rocket and launcher 

Management

Determining the altitude a rocket reaches 

in flight is a team activity. While one group 

of students prepares and launches a rocket, 

a second group measures the altitude the 

rocket reaches by estimating the angle of 

the rocket at its highest point from the 

tracking station. The angle is input into 

the altitude tracker calculator, and then 

the altitude is read. Roles are reversed so 

that everyone gets to launch and to track, 

depending upon the number of launches 

held and whether or not every student 

determines their own altitude.

The trackers and altitude calculators activity 

should take an hour or two. While waiting to 

launch rockets or track them, students can 

work on other projects. 

Altitude tracking, as used in this activity, 

can be used with the Paper Rockets (page 

43), 3-2-1 Pop! (page 58) and Bottle Rocket 

Assembly (page 85) activities and with commercial model rockets. The altitude calculator 

is calibrated for 16.4, 49.2 and 98.4 ft (5, 15 

and 30 m) baselines. Use the 16.2 ft (5 m)

baseline for Paper Rockets and 3-2-1 Pop 

rockets. Use the 49.2 ft (15 m) baseline for 

Project X-35, and use the 98.4 ft (30 m)

baseline for launching commercial model 

rockets. 

For practical reasons, the altitude calculator 

is designed for angles in increments of 

five degrees. Younger students may have 

difficulty in obtaining precise angle measurements with the altitude tracker. For simplicity’s 

sake, round measurements off to the nearest 

five-degree increment and read the altitude 

reached directly from the altitude calculator. 

If desired, you can determine altitudes for 

angles in between the increments by adding 

90

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

5

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

Look at the number in the

window for the distance of the

tracking station location

from the launch site. The

number will tell you the altitude of the rocket in meters.

5 15 30 m

ALTITUDE CALCULATOR

Rotate the nose of the rocket

to the angle you measured.

BASELINE

1.3 4 8

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Staple

Staple

A A A A A A A A A A A A

Staple

Staple

0 10 20 30

50 40

60 70 80 90

Rocket Altitude Tracker
110

the altitudes above and below the angle and 

dividing by 2. A more precise method for 

determining altitudes appears later in the 

procedures. 

A teacher’s aid or older student should cut out 

the three windows in the altitude calculator. 

A sharp knife or razor and a cutting surface 

work best for cutting out windows. The altitude tracker is simple enough for everyone to 

make one of their own, but they can also be 

shared. Students should practice taking angle 

measurements and using the calculator on 

objects of known height, such as a building or 

a flagpole, before calculating rocket altitude. 

Background Information

This activity makes use of simple trigonometry to determine the altitude a rocket reaches 

in flight. The basic assumption of the activity 

is that the rocket travels straight up from the 

launch site. If the rocket flies away at an angle 

other than 90 degrees, the accuracy of the 

procedure diminishes. For example, if the 

rocket climbs over a tracking station, where 

the angle is measured, the altitude calculation 

will yield an answer higher than the actual 

altitude reached. On the other hand, if the 

rocket flies away from the station, the altitude 

measurement will be lower than the actual 

value. Tracking accuracy can be increased 

by using more than one tracking station to 

measure the rocket’s altitude. Position a 

second or third station in different directions 

from the first station. Averaging the altitude 

measurements will reduce individual error. 

Constructing the Altitude Tracker Scope

Procedure

1. Copy the pattern for the altitude tracker 

on heavy weight paper.

2. Cut out the pattern on the dark outside 

lines.

3. Curl (do not fold) the B edge of the pattern to the back until it lines up with the 

A edge.

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Staple

Staple

A A 

 A 

 A 

 A 

 A 

 A 

 A 

 A 

 A 

 A A

Staple

Staple

0 10

20 30

50 40

60 70

80

90

Rocket Altitude Tracker

Completed Altitude Tracker Scope
111

4. Staple the edges together where marked. 

If done correctly, the As and Bs will be on 

the outside of the tracker.

5. Punch a small hole through the apex of 

the protractor quadrant on the pattern.

6. Slip a thread or lightweight string through 

the hole. Knot the thread or string on the 

backside.

7. Complete the tracker by hanging a small 

washer from the other end of the thread 

as shown in the diagram above.

Using the Altitude Tracker

Procedure

1. Set up a tracking station location a short 

distance away from the rocket launch 

site, depending upon the expected altitude the rocket rose after launch. A vertical line is drawn to show the vertical 

distance of 16.4, 49.2 or 98.4 ft (5, 15 or 

30 m) away. (Generally, a 16.4 ft (5 m) 

distance is sufficient for paper rockets 

and antacid-powered rockets, a 49.2 ft 

(15 m) distance is sufficient for bottle 

rockets, and a 98.4 ft (30 m) distance is 

sufficient for model rockets.) 

2. As a rocket launches, the person doing 

the tracking will follow the flight with the 

sighting tube on the tracker. The tracker 

should be held like a pistol and kept at 

the same level as the rocket when it is 

launched. Continue to aim the tracker at 

the highest point the rocket reached in 

the sky. Have a second student read the 

angle the thread or string makes with the 

quadrant protractor. Record the angle. 

Constructing the Altitude Calculator

Procedure

1. Copy the two patterns for the altitude calculator onto heavy weight paper or glue 

the patterns onto lightweight poster board. 

Cut out the patterns.

2. Place the top pattern on a cutting surface, 

and cut out the three windows. 

3. Join the two patterns together where the 

center marks are located. Use a brass 

paper fastener to hold the pieces together. 

The pieces should rotate smoothly.

?

49.2 ft (15 m)

Baseline

Rocket Altitude Tracker

90

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

80

70

5

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

Look at the number in the

window for the distance of the

tracking station location

from the launch site. The

number will tell you the altitude of the rocket in meters.

5 15 30 m

ALTITUDE CALCULATOR

Rotate the nose of the rocket

to the angle you measured.

BASELINE

1.3 4 8
112

Look at the number in thewindow for the distance of thetracking station locationfrom the launch site. Thenumber will tell you the altitude

of the rocket in meters.

5 15 30 m

ALT TI UDE CALCULATOR

Rotate the nose of the rocketto the angle you measured.

BASELINE
113

0.4

1.3

2.6

0.9

5.3

2.6

1.8

4

8

5.5

11

1.3

2.3

7

14

2.9

8.7

17.3

3.5 10.5

21

4.2 12.6 25.2

5 15 30

6 17.9 35.8

7.1 21.4 42.9

8.7

26

52

10.8

32.2

64.3

13.7

41.2

82.4

18.6

55.9

112

28.4

57.2

85.1

343

171

170

ALT TI

UDE

CALC

U

L

AT

O

R - BACK WHEEL

80

0 0 0 90

85

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

30

35

20

25

0

5

10

15
114

Determining the Altitude

Procedure

1. Use the altitude calculator to determine 

the height the rocket reached. To do so, 

rotate the inner wheel of the calculator 

so that the nose of the rocket pointer is 

aimed at the angle measured in step 2 of 

the previous procedure.

2. Read the altitude of the rocket by looking 

in the window. If you use a 5 m (16.5 ft) 

baseline, the altitude the rocket reached 

will be in the window beneath the 5. To 

achieve a more accurate measure, add 

the height of the person holding the 

tracker to calculate altitude. If the angle 

falls between two degree marks, average 

the altitude numbers above and below 

the marks.

Advanced Altitude Tracking

1. A more advanced altitude tracking scope 

can be constructed by replacing the rolled 

sighting tube with a fat milkshake straw. 

Use white glue to attach the straw along 

the 90-degree line of the protractor. 

2. Once you determine the angle of the 

rocket, use the following equation to 

calculate altitude of the rocket: 

Altitude = tan × baseline

3 Use a calculator with trigonometry functions to solve the problem or refer to the 

tangent table on page 116. For example, 

if the measured angle is 28 degrees and 

the baseline is 49.2 ft (15 m), the altitude 

is 26.15 ft (7.98 m).

Altitude = tan 28° × 49.2 ft (15 m)

Altitude = 0.5317 × 49.2 ft (15 m) = 26.15 ft 

(7.98 m)

4 An additional improvement in accuracy 

can be obtained by using two tracking 

stations. Averaging the calculated altitude from the two stations will achieve 

greater accuracy. See the figure below. 

Assessment

Have students demonstrate their proficiency 

with altitude tracking by sighting on a fixed 

object of known height and comparing their 

results. If employing two tracking stations, 

compare measurements from both stations. 

98.43 ft (30 m) 98.43 ft (30 m)

Baseline Baseline

Estimated Altitude 98.43 ft (36 m)

Estimated Altitude 98.43 ft (30 m)

51°

45° Rocket Altitude Tracker

Two Station Tracking

Use average of the two stations
115

This Altitude Tracker belongs to

Rocket Sighting Instructions:

1. Follow rocket by sighting through tube.

2. Read angle of string for highest altitude

 of rocket.

0 10 20

30

40

50

60

70

80 90

Rocket Altitude Tracker

Staple

Staple

B B B B B B B B B B B B

A A A A A A A A A A A A StapleStaple
116

Extensions

•	 Why should the height of the person 

holding the tracker be added to the 

measurement of the rocket’s altitude?

•	 Curriculum guides for model rocketry 

(available from model rocket supply 

companies) provide instructions for 

more sophisticated rocket tracking 

measurements. These activities involve 

two-station tracking with altitude and 

compass direction measurement and 

trigonometric functions.

Tangent table.

Degree Tan Degree Tan Degree Tan

0 0.0000 31 0.6008 62 1.8807

1 0.0174 32 0.6248 63 1.9626

2 0.0349 33 0.6494 64 2.0603

3 0.0524 34 0.6745 65 2.1445

4 0.0699 35 0.7002 66 2.2460

5 0.0874 36 0.7265 67 2.3558

6 0.1051 37 0.7535 68 2.4750

7 0.1227 38 0.7812 69 2.6050

8 0.1405 39 0.8097 70 2.7474

9 0.1583 40 0.8390 71 2.9042

10 0.1763 41 0.8692 72 3.0776

11 0.1943 42 0.9004 73 3.2708

12 0.2125 43 0.9325 74 3.4874

13 0.2308 44 0.9656 75 3.7320

14 0.2493 45 1.0000 76 4.0107

15 0.2679 46 1.3055 77 4.3314

16 0.2867 47 1.0723 78 4.7046

17 0.3057 48 1.1106 79 5.1445

18 0.3249 49 1.1503 80 5.6712

19 0.3443 50 1.1917 81 6.3137

20 0.3639 51 1.2348 82 7.1153

21 0.3838 52 1.2799 83 8.1443

22 0.4040 53 1.3270 84 9.5143

23 0.4244 54 1.3763 85 11.3006

24 0.4452 55 1.4281 86 19.0811

25 0.4663 56 1.4825 87 19.0811

26 0.4877 57 1.5398 88 28.6362

27 0.5095 58 1.6003 89 57.2899

28 0.5317 59 1.6642 90 ∝

29 0.5543 60 1.7320

30 0.5773 61 1.8040
117

The Scale of a 

Model Rocket

Objective

Students will show what scale is using dimensional proportions and ratios and how scales 

relate to models. Students will use unit conversions and compare the altitude of models 

scaled from the same design. 

•	 Target concept: Altitude

•	 Preparation time: 30 min

•	 Duration of activity: 60 min

•	 Student group size: 3 to 15 students

Materials

•	 Dimension information sheet on Saturn 

V, Ares, Delta or other NASA rocket

•	 Large sheet of drawing paper or paper 

sheets taped together

•	 Pencils

•	 Ruler

•	 Long paper tubes, such as from 

wrapping paper or construction paper

Drawing Procedure

1. Take the linear dimensional data (length, 

width, etc.) from the fact sheet, and divide 

all the values by the scale factor of 100. 

2. Using those scaled dimensions and the 

ruler, draw the rocket on the paper. All the 

proportions of length and width will be 

preserved in the shapes.

These are approximate lengths as indicated by the ≈.
118

Sample Work Sheet for Apollo Saturn

Rocket

Parameter

Dimension Scale (1/100) Scale Dimension for 

Drawing

(ft) (m) (ft) (m) (ft) (m)

Length 393.7 120 393.7/100 120/100 3.94 1.2

Diameter 32.8 10 32.8/100 10/100 0.33 0.1

Tail span 39.4 12 39.4/100 12/100 0.39 0.12

Tail length 9.8 3 9.8/100 3/100 0.10 0.03

Modeling procedure

1. Now determine another scale factor for 

multiplying the rocket dimensions to 

build a model. Select a paper tube about 

1–3 in (2.54–7.62 cm) in diameter and 

measure it.

2. Find the scale proportion by dividing 

the diameter of the real rocket by the 

diameter of the tube to get a number like 

1/222 or 1/72. This fraction is the scale 

factor.

3. Use this scale factor to multiply all the 

other rocket dimensions, and list the 

scaled values on your drawing. The first 

number to find will be the length of 

the tube.

4. Now build a model of the rocket 

according to those values around the 

size of the paper tube with other paper, 

tape and art supplies to make a nose 

cone and tail fins. This is just to be a display model of the physical proportions 

and not to be flown. 

Questions

1. Get a scale model rocket kit and evaluate 

its closeness to scale of the real rocket 

by comparing its dimensions to your own 

calculations. How true to the scale factor 

is it in preserving the proportions? What 

other vehicles or objects are often seen 

in scale models?

2. If a Saturn V model is 3.6 ft (1.1 m) tall 

and 1/100 scale, how tall is the real rocket?

3. Scale can also be expressed in proportions, such as 1 in equals 1 ft. What would 

be the ratio for this scale?

4. This lesson looked at the scale of the 

dimensions. What other parameters of a 

rocket could be scaled in a model? What 

characteristics would have to be scaled 

for the model to fly like the full size vehicle?

Additional approach

The point of testing small engineering versions 

of a large device is to economically prove they 

work. This can be done because the scale 

model functions the same way as the full size 

version. To show this point, have students 

design their own rocket and build it to scale at 

two different sizes, such as one having a 0.75 

in diameter body and the other a 1.5 in diameter body. One rocket will be small enough to 

fly on A-B size motors and the bigger one to 

fly on D-E motors or larger. Students should 

try to determine the drag value for the design 

first using a simulation software model for 

both design sizes. They will launch the small 

rocket and compare it to the simulation, then 

build and launch the large rocket and compare 

its altitude performance and drag value. Students will see the relationships of the computer 

model and the small flight-test model to the 

full-scale vehicle. 
119
120

Rocket Motion 

Video Studies

Objective

Students will use a video camera to record 

motion, measure velocity and compute acceleration of a model rocket at launch. This 

lesson will teach measurement methodology, 

data interpretation and deriving acceleration 

from velocity.

•	 Target concept: Acceleration and 

velocity

•	 Preparation time: 60 min

•	 Duration of activity: 60 min to launch 

and 60 min to analyze

•	 Student group size: 3 to 12 students 

per adult

Materials

•	 Model rocket launch pad and firing 

system

•	 Small model rockets

•	 Motors 

•	 Video camera on a tripod

•	 Computer for video editing or 

TV screen connected to camera

•	 Video editing software or camera 

that can view frame by frame

•	 Pole or PVC pipe about 10 ft 

(3.05 m) long

•	 Vinyl electrical tape

•	 Tape measure

Procedure

Launch and filming

1. For this exercise, a student is needed for 

each task to set up the pipe and pad, prep 

the rocket, launch the rocket, record the 

data, and operate the camera. 

2. Measure and mark the pipe off in foot- 

(meter-) long increments. Put a wrap of 

tape around the pole at each foot (meter) 

mark (black tape on a white pipe for contrast). Number the marks so that the pipe 

becomes a giant ruler. 

3. Set the pipe straight up in the launch field 

next to the launch pad. This can be done 

by driving a broomstick in the ground like a 

stake and setting the pipe on it. Set up the 

video camera so that the launcher and the 

entire pipe length is framed and focused 

within the viewfinder. The pipe should be 

directly behind the rocket.

4. Set up a small model on the pad to launch. 

Check the camera operation, and then set 

it to record. Launch the model. Stop the 

camera from recording. Repeat for several 

other launches, and note which motors are 

flown in each scene. A data sheet will help 

listing flight order, motor type, camera 

settings and display counter index.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Tripod

Camera

Field of View

Launcher

Model

In Flight

Marked

Pole

Video Camera set up

for Launch Imaging
121

Launch and filming data sheet

Flight Motor Counter Index of First Motion Count at First Mark Count at Second Mark

Video Analysis

1. Connect the camera to the computer to 

analyze your recording. 

2. Note in the video where the nose of the 

rocket or the fins are against the markings 

on the pipe. Step through the frames until 

you see the moment the rocket begins 

to move. 

3. Count the number of frames from that 

point to where the nose (or fin) crosses 

the next mark on the pipe.

4. From that point, count again the frames 

for the nose to reach the next mark, 

and so on until the rocket is out of view. 

You might like to save and print the best 

frames and work from a hard copy.

Calculations

Check the camera manual to find the video 

frame speed, which is likely 30 frames per 

second. This means each frame is 1/30 of a 

second. The rocket speed is v = y/t where y

is the distance moved, and t is time. 

Calculate the rocket velocity from the actual 

displacement in time.

For example, if the rocket takes five frames to 

move up 1 ft (0.3 m), then five frames (5 x 1/30 

sec) is 1/6 sec, and 1 ft ÷ 1/6 s = 6 ft/s (0.3 m 

÷ 1/6 s = 1.8 m/s).

If the rocket moves 3-ft (0.91-m) marks 

between one frame, then

3 ft ÷ 1/30 s = 90 ft/s (0.91 m ÷ 1/30 s = 27.3 m/s).

To find the acceleration, first compute a final 

velocity for the last frames at the top of the 

pipe. Then, count up the frames of the entire 

flight from first motion to the last view of the 

rocket to get a total time. Acceleration will be 

a = v/t.

If the final velocity is 90 ft/s (27.3 m/s) over a 

total time of 1/3 second, then

a =90 ft/s ÷ 1/3 s = 270 ft/s2

(27.3 m/s ÷ 1/3 s = 81.9 m/s2).

Compare these values to the predicted values 

of the same rocket in a simulation program.

Questions

1. How does the thrust value given in the 

motor code affect the observed acceleration; that is, how does the take off of the 

same rocket with a B4-4 motor compare 

to its launch with a B6-4 motor? 

2. What shutter speeds on the camera work 

best to freeze the motion of rocket flights? 

3. Does changing the contrast of the image 

during analysis help the resolution or 

clarity?

Additional approach

Get a small strobe light that brightly flashes 

at a known constant rate that can be easily 

seen in daylight. This may be a bicycle hazard 

light or a toy blinker. Use a clear plastic nose 

section to contain the strobe in a rocket. Use 

an appropriately sized rocket and motor to 
122

safely carry the weight of the strobe. Test the 

strobe with the video camera by moving the 

strobe through the field of view and noting 

how the flashes appear in the image. Adjust 

the camera exposure to be sure the flashes 

appear bright enough to be clearly recorded. 

Set up the pipe again by the launch pad, but 

position the camera further back or zoom out 

so that it sees space about five times the pipe 

length above the pad. Launch the rocket, and 

record the flight with the strobe light flashing. 

On the video editor, find the frames where the 

flashes appear and use them as time markers. 

Count the frames between the peaks of the 

flashes. Approximate the distance moved 

by the rocket by referring to the pipe length. 

Using the known time of the flashes, find the 

velocity by dividing the approximated distance 

traveled by the rocket by the time.

For another approach, back up the camera 

far enough to see the entire rocket flight in 

the viewfinder. The increasing spacing of the 

flashes along the flight path illustrates the 

rocket’s acceleration.
123

Rocket 

Parachute Flight 

Duration Study

Part 1: Flight Measurements

Objective

To understand the flight time performance 

effects and trades and to relate time to 

velocity, students will measure the flight time 

of rockets of various sizes and parachutes 

types, but using the same motor type.

•	 Target concept: Velocity

•	 Preparation time: 60 min

•	 Duration of activity: 60 min

•	 Student group size: 3 to 12 students 

per adult

Materials

•	 Several identical and some assorted 

size rockets

•	 Various standard size parachutes to 

test

•	 Plastic shopping bags

•	 Thread or string for making custom 

size parachutes

•	 B6-4 motors, or type A motors if 

needed for small fields

•	 Stopwatches

•	 Data sheet

Procedure

1. For this exercise, a student is needed for 

each task to set up the pad, launch the 

rocket, time and record the data. Each 

student can have their own rocket or work 

in teams of three.

2. Tell the students to design a system (they 

will select a rocket and parachute) in order 

to achieve the longest total flight time on a 

B motor. All rockets must fly on the same 

type motor. 

3. Prepare and launch the rockets and record 

each flight time with the rocket information 

on the data sheet. The flight time for the 

stopwatch operation is from the moment 

of first motion by the rocket off the pad 

until any part of it touches the ground. 

Two timers are recommended for better 

accuracy.

4. After the first round of launches, the students will review the data sheet of all flights. 

Discuss which rockets had the highest and 

lowest flight times and why. 

5. The students then experiment with their 

rocket selection and parachute types to 

determine how to improve and extend their 

flight time. They can design and make 

their own parachute. They can investigate 

packing techniques, shroud line length and 

other chute design parameters. 

6. Students will then launch another round 

of rockets with an adjusted and improved 

design, following the same timing process, 

and observe and record the results.
124

Sample data sheet.

Rocket

Type

Chute Diameter Flight Time

(s) (in) (cm)

Starsquawk 12 30.48 33

Starsquawk 18 45.72 55

Icarus 24 60.96 56

Questions

1. How much better were the flight times of 

the redesigned rockets? 

2. How does the flight time of a large rocket 

with a large parachute compare to a small 

rocket with a small parachute? 

3. What is the main variable affecting 

descent time? 

Part 2: Model Rocket Parachute 

Size Calculation

Objective

The size of the parachute and weight of the 

rocket determine how fast it will all come 

down. This equation shows the relation of all 

the rocket parameters to velocity. Use it to 

select the right size parachute for a rocket.

Procedure

Determine the size for a parachute for a 

typical rocket with the following equation:

D = 8mg !"Cd v2

where:

•	 D is the chute diameter in feet or 

meters.

•	 m is the rocket mass in pounds or 

kilograms.

•	 g is the acceleration of gravity 

= 32 ft/s2 (9.8 m/s2).

•	 π is 3.14159 

•	 ρ is the density of air = 0.076 lb/ft3

(1.22 kg/m3).

•	 Cd is the drag coefficient of the chute, 

which is 0.75 for a parasheet (flat 

plastic sheet used for a model rocket 

parachute

•	 v is the desired velocity at landing

(9.8 ft/s (3 m/s) or less)

D is the parachute diameter you want to 

find. The rocket mass m can be found from 

the manufacturer’s catalog if it is a standard 

kit, or you can weigh it on a scale. All the 

other values are constants in this case and 

given above.

For example, if m = 2.198 oz = 0.137 lb 

(62.3 g = 0.0623 kg). Inputting all the values 

and multiplying them out yields

D =12 8( ) !0.137 !32 3.14 !0.076 !9.82 ( ) "

#

$ %

&

' =17 in

or 8( !0.0623!9.81) 3.14 !1.22!3

2 ( ) = 0.435 m.

Standard rocket parachutes are often made to 

have an 18-in (0.457-m) diameter. 
125

Parachute diameters.

Rocket 

Type

Measured Chute Diameter Total Weight Calculated Diameter

(in) (m) (oz) (kg) (in) (m)

Starsquawk 12 0.305 4 0.113 23 0.584

Icarus 24 0.670 6 0.170 28 0.711

Calculations

Using the weight of the rockets flown in part 

1 and the given values in the parachute equation, solve for the parachute diameter.

Questions

1. How does this equation apply to the previous exercise in understanding parachute 

flight performance? 

2. What’s the most critical parameter in the 

equation?

3. How did the parachute size determined by 

the equation compare to the diameter of 

the actual parachute used in the flights?
126

Predicting and 

Measuring Rocket 

Parachute Drift Rate

Objective

Students will use vector velocity calculations 

to determine the vertical descent rate and 

horizontal drift distance of a rocket parachute. 

Predicted values will be compared to measured data. Students will learn to manage and 

interpret data and evaluate results. 

•	 Target concept: Velocity

•	 Preparation time: 60 min

•	 Duration of activity: 60 min

•	 Student group size: 3 to 12 students 

per adult

Materials

Same as for the parachute duration experiment, but including the following:

•	 Ping-pong anemometer to measure 

wind speed (Plans to make one are in 

Appendix A.)

•	 Scale to measure rocket weight

•	 100 ft (30 m) long tape measure

•	 Data sheet

Procedure

1. This is similar to the previous parachute 

duration experiment. Referring to that 

basic procedure, launch the rocket, but 

in this case, measure the time of the flight 

from the moment when the parachute 

opens to the time of landing. 

2. Measure the wind speed with the 

anemometer near and about the same 

time as the flight. 

3. Use the tape or a long string to measure 

the distance from the launch pad to where 

the rocket lands. You can pace this off 

and approximate the distance if a straightline measurement is not possible.

4. Weigh the landed rocket with its burnt-out 

motor. Record all of this data on the sheet.

Calculations

Calculating Parachute Descent Velocity

The descent velocity equation for the rocket 

can be determined by rearranging the equation for parachute size in the previous section 

to get velocity. Use the following equation to 

calculate the vertical descent velocity from 

Sample data sheet sample.

Rocket 

Type

Weight Chute Diameter Flight Time

(s)

Landing Distance Wind Speed

(oz) (kg) (in) (m) (ft) (m) (ft/s) (m/s)

Icarus 6.2 0.176 24 0.61 56 356 108.51 6 1.83
127

the known rocket weight and parachute 

diameter, 

v = 8mg

!"Cd D2 .

Input the values for a rocket and the constants previously given into this equation and 

solve for velocity. 

Calculating the drift distance 

The horizontal drift velocity of the rocket 

will be assumed to be the same as the wind 

velocity. From the measured wind velocity 

and flight time, calculate the horizontal drift 

distance of the parachute from the following 

equation:

Drift = Timechute × Vwind

where

•	 Drift = How far the rocket will travel 

from the launch site 

•	 Vwind = Wind velocity 

•	 Timechute = Parachute time in seconds 

Compare this value to the drift distance you 

measured with the tape.

Example 

If you have a wind blowing with a V = 12.43 mi/

hr (20 km/hr) and convert it to 18.23 ft/s (5.557 

m/s) and the parachute flight was 33 seconds, 

the drift distance will be,

Drift = 33 s × 18.23 ft/s (33 s × 5.557 m/s) = 

601.61 ft (183.38 m).

Questions

1. What is the highest wind speed you can 

fly a rocket in before its parachute will likely 

drift from your pad to outside the clear area 

of your field? 

2. What is the maximum altitude a rocket can 

have that will still land in the field? You will 

need to estimate your field dimensions to 

get an answer.

Additional approach

Suppose the predicted altitude y of a rocket 

is 1,000 ft (304.8 m). Given the weight and 

parachute size, determine the descent velocity 

v. Now use t=y/v to calculate the parachute 

descent time t. That time can now be multiplied 

with the wind velocity to find the drift distance. 

Taken all together, these values can predict the 

landing point of a rocket or where a launching 

pad needs to be placed in a field.
128

Project

Enterprise

Objective

To demonstrate rocketry principles through 

a cooperative, problem solving simulation.

•	 Target concept: Altitude, velocity 

and acceleration

•	 Preparation time: 1-hour duration 

of activity

•	 Activity time: 10 1-hour periods

•	 Student group size: Teams of 

two to four students

Description

Teams simulate the development of a commercial proposal to design, build and launch 

a rocket. 

Materials and Tools

(All supplies need to be available per group) 

•	 2-liter soda bottles 

•	 1-liter soda bottles 

•	 Film canisters 

•	 Aluminum soda cans 

•	 Scrap cardboard and poster board 

•	 Large cardboard panels

•	 Duct tape

•	 Electrical tape

•	 Glue sticks 

•	 Low-temperature glue gun 

•	 Water

•	 Clay

•	 Plastic garbage bags 

•	 Crepe paper

•	 String

•	 Paint

•	 Safety glasses

•	 Bottle rocket launcher (see page 88)

•	 Altitude calculator (see page 110)

Management

Prior to this project, students should have 

the opportunity to design, construct and 

launch a bottle rocket, evaluating various 

water volumes and air pressures and calculating the altitude traveled by these rockets. 

See Water Bottle Rocket Assembly page 85 

and Altitude Tracking page 109. 

This project is designed to offer students 

an interdisciplinary approach to life skills. 

Students work in teams of threes. Each 

member has designated tasks for their 

specific job title to help the team function 

effectively. These include: Project Manager, 

Budget Director and Design and Launch 

Director. The student section provides 

badges and tasks. 

The project takes approximately two weeks 

to complete and includes a daily schedule 

of tasks. Students may need additional time 

to complete daily tasks. 
129

Collect all building materials and copy all 

reproducible items before beginning the 

activity. Be sure to make several copies of 

the order forms and checks for each group. 

Allow enough time on the first day for the 

students to read and discuss all sheets and 

determine how they apply to the project 

schedule. Focus on the student score sheet 

to allow a clear understanding of the criteria 

used for assessment of the project. 

Background Information

This project provides students with an exciting 

activity to discover practical demonstrations 

of force and motion in actual experiments, 

while dealing with budgetary restraints and 

deadlines reflected in real life situations. 

The students should have a clear understanding of rocket principles dealing with 

Newton’s Laws of Motion found on page 

159 and Practical Rocketry found on page 7 

before beginning this project. 

Procedure

Refer to the student sheets. The events for 

day three and day six call for teacher demonstrations on how to make nose cones and 

how to determine the center of mass and 

the center of pressure. See page 138 for an 

explanation.

Assessment

Assessment will be based on documentation of three designated areas: each group’s 

project journal, silhouette and launch results. 

See Student Score Sheet for details. 
130

Request for

Proposals

The United Space Authority (USA) is seeking 

competitive bids for a new advanced rocket 

launch vehicle that will reduce the costs of 

launching payloads into Earth orbit. Interested 

companies are invited to submit proposals to 

USA for designing and building a rocket that 

will meet the following criteria.

The objectives of Project Enterprise are: 

1. Design and draw a bottle rocket plan 

to scale (1 square = 1 in [2.54 cm]).

2. Develop a budget for the project and 

stay within the budget allowed.

3. Build a test rocket using the budget 

and plans developed by your team.

4. Identify rocket specifications and evaluate 

rocket stability by determining center of 

mass and center of pressure and conducting a swing test. See page 139 for 

an explanation.

5. Display fully illustrated rocket design in 

class. Include dimensional information, 

location of center of mass and center of 

pressure, and flight information, such as 

time aloft and altitude reached.

6. Successfully test launch rocket achieving 

maximum vertical distance and accuracy.

7. Successfully and accurately complete 

rocket journal.

8. Develop a cost analysis and demonstrate 

the most economically efficient launch.

Proposal Deadline

2 weeks 
131

Project Enterprise Schedule

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 1

•	 Form rocket companies.

•	 Brainstorm ideas for design and 

budget.

•	 Sketch preliminary rocket design.

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 2

•	 Develop materials and budget list.

•	 Develop scale drawing.

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 3

•	 Demonstration: nose cone 

construction.

•	 Issue materials and begin 

construction.

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 4

•	 Continue construction.

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 5

•	 Complete construction.

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 6

•	 Demonstration: Find center of mass 

and center of pressure.

•	 Introduce rocket silhouette 

construction and begin rocket analysis.

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 7

•	 Finish silhouette construction and 

complete prelaunch analysis.

•	 Hang silhouette.

•	 Perform swing test.

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 8

•	 Launch Day!

Project Enterprise Schedule: Day 9

•	 Complete post launch results and 

silhouette documentation.

•	 Prepare journal for collection.

•	 Documentation and journal due at 

beginning of class tomorrow.
132

Project Enterprise Checklist

Project Grading

•	 Documentation (See Project Journal below. Must be complete, neat, accurate 

and on time.): 50 percent.

•	 Proper display and documentation of rocket silhouette: 25 percent.

•	 Launch data (measurements, accuracy and completeness): 25 percent.

Project Awards

USA will award exploration contracts to the companies with the top three rocket designs 

based on the above criteria. The awards are valued at the following:

•	 First: $10,000,000

•	 Second: $5,000,000

•	 Third: $3,000,000

Project Journal

Check off the following items as you complete them:

1. Creative cover with member’s names, date, project number and company name.

2. Certificate of Assumed Name (Name of your business).

3. Scale drawing of rocket plans. Clearly indicate scale. Label: Top, Side and End View.

4. Budget Projection.

5. Balance Sheet.

6. Canceled checks (staple or tape checks in ascending numerical order, four to a sheet 

of paper).

7. Prelaunch Analysis.

8. Rocket Launch Day Log.

9. Score Sheet (Part 3).
133

Badges

Each group member will be assigned specific tasks to help their team function successfully.

All team members assist with design, construction, launch and paper work. Enlarge the

badges and glue them front and back to poster board. Cut out the slot and attach a string.
134

Project Enterprise 

Budget

Each team will be given a budget of $1 million. Use the money wisely and keep accurate 

records of expenditures. Once your money 

runs out, you will operate in the “red,” and 

this will count against your team score. If you 

are broke at the time of launch, you will be 

unable to purchase rocket fuel. You will then 

be forced to launch with compressed air. You 

may only purchase as much rocket fuel as 

you can afford at the time of launch.

All materials not purchased from listed subcontractors will be assessed an import duty tax of 

20 percent of the market value. Materials not 

on the subcontractors list will be assessed an 

Originality Tax of $5,000 per item.

A project delay penalty fee will be assessed for 

not working, lacking materials, etc. This penalty 

fee could be as high as $300,000 per day.

Approved Subcontractor List

Subcontractor Material Market Price

Bottle Engine Corporation 2-L bottle $200,000

1-L bottle $150,000

Aluminum Cans Ltd Can $ 50,000

International Paper 

Corporation Cardboard 1 sheet $ 25,000

Tag board 1 sheet $ 30,000

Manila paper 1 sheet $ 40,000

Silhouette panel 1 sheet $100,000

International Tape and 

Glue Company Duct tape 50-cm 

segments $ 50,000

Electrical tape 100-cm 

segments $ 50,000

Glue stick 1 ea $ 20,000

Aqua Rocket Fuel Service 1 ml $ 300

Strings, Inc 1 m $ 5,000

Plastic Sheet goods 1 bag $ 5,000

Common Earth 

Corporation Modeling clay 100 g $ 5,000

NASA Launch Port Launch $100,000

NASA Consultation Question 1 ea $ 1,000
135

Project Enterprise

Balance Sheet

Company Name

Check No. Date To

Amount

($)

Balance

($)
136

Rocket Measurements

For Scale Drawing

Project No.

Date

Company Name

Use American Standard measurements to measure and record the data in the blanks below. 

Be sure to accurately measure all objects that are constant (such as the bottles) and those you 

will control (like the size and design of fins). If additional data lines are needed, use the back of 

the sheet.

Data table.

Object Length

(ft)

Width

(in)

Diameter

(in)

Circumference

(in)

Using graph paper, draw a side, top and bottom view or your rocket, to scale 

(1 square = 1 in), based on the measurements as recorded above. Attach your 

drawings to this paper.
137

Scale Drawing

Note: One square equals 1 in.
138

Rocket Stability 

Determination

A rocket that flies straight through the air is 

said to be a stable rocket. A rocket that veers 

off course or tumbles wildly is said to be an 

unstable rocket. The difference between the 

flight of a stable rocket and an unstable rocket 

depends upon its design. All rockets have two 

distinct centers. The first is the center of mass 

(CM). This is a point about which the rocket 

balances. If you could place a ruler edge 

under this point, the rocket would balance 

horizontally like a seesaw. What this means is 

that half of the mass of the rocket is on one 

side of the ruler edge, and half is on the other. 

CM is important to a rocket’s design because 

if a rocket is unstable, the rocket will tumble 

about this center. 

The other center in a rocket is the center of 

pressure (CP). This is a point where half of 

the surface area of a rocket is on one side 

and half is on the other. The CP differs from 

the CM in that its location is not affected by 

the placement of payloads in the rocket. This 

is just a point based on the surface of the 

rocket, not what is inside. During flight, the 

pressure of air rushing past the rocket will balance half on one side of this point and half on 

the other. You can determine the CP by cutting out an exact silhouette of the rocket from 

cardboard and balancing it on a ruler edge. 

The positioning of the CM and the CP on a 

rocket is critical to its stability. The CM should 

be towards the rocket’s nose, and the CP 

should be towards the rocket’s tail for the 

rocket to fly straight. That is because the 

lower end of the rocket (starting with the CM 

and going downward) has more surface area 

than the upper end (starting with the CM and 

going upward). When the rocket flies, more air 

pressure exists on the lower end of the rocket 

than on the upper end. Air pressure will keep 

the lower end down and the upper end up. If 

the CM and the CP are in the same place, neither end of the rocket will point upward. The 

rocket will be unstable and tumble.

Stability Determination Instructions

1. Tie a string loop around the middle of your 

rocket. Tie a second string to the first so 

that you can pick it up. Slide the string 

loop to a position where the rocket balances. You may have to temporarily tape 

the nose cone in place to keep it from 

falling off.
139

2. Draw a straight line across the scale diagram of the rocket you made earlier to 

show where the ruler’s position is. Mark 

the middle of the line with a dot. This is 

the rocket’s CM. 

3. Lay your rocket on a piece of cardboard. 

Carefully trace the rocket on the cardboard, and cut it out.

4. Lay the cardboard silhouette you just cut 

out on the ruler and balance it. 

5. Draw a straight line across the diagram of 

your rocket where the ruler is. Mark the 

middle of this line with a dot. This is the 

CP of the rocket.

Scale Diagram

Center of Pressure

Center of Mass

If your CM is in front of the CP, your rocket 

should be stable. Proceed to the swing test. 

If the two centers are next to or on top of 

each other, add more clay to the nose cone 

of the rocket. This will move the CM forward. 

Repeat steps 2 and 3, and then proceed to 

the swing test.

Swing Test

1. Tape the string loop you tied around your 

rocket in the previous set of instructions 

so that it does not slip.

2. While standing in an open place, slowly 

begin swinging your rocket in a circle. 

If the rocket points in the direction you 

are swinging it, the rocket is stable. If 

not, add more clay to the rocket nose 

cone or replace the rocket fins with 

larger ones. Repeat the stability determination instructions, and then repeat the 

swing test.
140

Prelaunch Analysis

 Center of Mass (CM) Center of Pressure (CP)

Distance from nose: ______________in Distance from nose: ___________in

Distance from tail: _______________ in Distance from tail: _____________in

Distance of CM from SP: _______________in

Did your rocket pass the swing test? ______________

Total Mass: __________________oz Number of Fins: _____________

Total Length: _________________in Length of Nose Cone: ______________in

Width (widest part): ___________in Volume of Rocket Fuel (water) to be used

Circumference: _______________in on Launch Day: _________oz __________qt

 Company Name: __________________________________ Project Number:

Employee Name: ___________________________________

 Job Title: __________________________

Employee Name: ___________________________________

 Job Title: __________________________

Employee Name: ___________________________________

 Job Title: __________________________

Prelaunch Analysis

Rocket Specifications

Rocket Stability
141
142

Project Enterprise

Score Sheet

Total Score: Project No. 

Date:

Company Name: 

Part I: Documentation (50 percent of project grade)

Neatness: Completeness: 

Accuracy: Order: 

On Time: Score: 

Part II: Silhouette (25 percent of project grade)

Neatness: Completeness: 

Accuracy: Order: 

On Time: Score: 

Part III: Launch Results (25 percent of project grade) (teams complete this section)

a. Rocket Altitude: Rank:

b. Expenditures and Penalty Fees: 

 (Check total from Balance Sheet)

c. Final Balance: 

 (New balance on Balance Sheet)

d. Efficiency (Cost/Foot [Cost/Meter]): 

 (Divide investment [b] by rocket altitude [a])

e. Contract Award: 

f. Profit: 

 (Contract award [f] minus expenditures [b])

Score:
143

Glossary

Acceleration: Increase in speed or velocity, 

 a change in velocity

Action: A force (push or pull) acting on an 

object. See Reaction.

Active controls: Devices on a rocket that 

move to control the rocket’s direction

 in flight.

Airfoil: A streamlined shape given to fins 

or wings for maximum aerodynamic 

efficiency in flight.

Altitude: Extent or distance upward, height

Apogee: The highest point of a rocket’s 

flight path.

Attitude control rockets: Small rockets that 

are used as active controls to change the 

attitude (direction) a rocket or spacecraft 

is facing in outer space.

Burnout: The point at which propellant is 

exhausted in a motor.

Canards: Small movable fins located towards 

the nose cone of a rocket.

Case: The body of a solid propellant rocket 

that holds the propellant.

Center of mass (CM): The point in an 

object about which the object’s mass 

is centered. 

Center of pressure (CP): The point in an 

object about which the object’s surface 

area is centered.

Chamber: A cavity inside a rocket where 

propellants burn.

Combustion chamber: See Chamber.

Drag: Friction forces in the atmosphere 

that drag on a rocket to slow its flight.

Escape velocity: The velocity an object must 

reach to escape the pull of Earth’s gravity.

Extravehicular activity (EVA): Spacewalking.

Fins: Arrow-like wings at the lower end of a 

rocket that stabilize the rocket in flight.

Friction: The interaction of the surface of one 

body against that of another causing a 

slowing of motion.

Fuel: The chemical that combines with an 

oxidizer to burn and produce thrust.

Gimbaled nozzles: Tiltable rocket nozzles 

used for active controls.

Igniter: A device that ignites a rocket’s 

engine(s).

Injectors: Showerhead-like devices that spray 

fuel and oxidizer into the combustion 

chamber of a liquid-propellant rocket.

Insulation: A coating that protects the case 

and nozzle of a rocket from intense heat.

Liquid propellant: Rocket propellants in 

liquid form.

Mass: The amount of matter contained within 

an object.

Mass fraction (MF): The mass of propellants in a rocket divided by the rocket’s 

total mass.

Microgravity: An environment that imparts to 

an object a net acceleration that is small 

compared to that produced by Earth at its 

surface.

Motion: Movement of an object in relation 

to its surroundings.

Movable fins: Rocket fins that can move 

to stabilize a rocket’s flight.
144

Newton’s First Law of Motion: A body 

remains at rest or in motion with a 

constant velocity unless acted upon 

by an external force.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion: A force 

on an object will cause the object to 

accelerate in the direction of the force. 

The object will accelerate directly 

proportional to the force and inversely 

proportional to the mass of the object. 

Force = Mass × Acceleration.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion: For every 

action, there is an equal and opposite 

reaction.

Nose cone: The cone-shaped front end of 

a rocket.

Nozzle: A bell-shaped opening at the lower 

end of a rocket through which a stream 

of hot gases is directed.

Oxidizer: A chemical containing oxygen 

compounds that permits rocket fuel to 

burn both in the atmosphere and in the 

vacuum of space.

Passive Controls: Stationary devices, such 

as fixed rocket fins, that stabilize a rocket 

in flight.

Payload: The cargo (scientific instruments, 

satellites, spacecraft, etc.) carried by 

a rocket. 

Propellant: A mixture of fuel and oxidizer 

that burns to produce rocket thrust.

Pumps: Machinery that moves liquid fuel 

and oxidizer to the combustion chamber 

of a rocket.

Reaction: A movement in the opposite 

direction from the imposition of an action. 

See Action.

Rest: The absence of movement of an object 

in relation to its surroundings.

Regenerative cooling: Using the low 

temperature of a liquid fuel to cool a 

rocket nozzle.

Solid propellant: Rocket fuel and oxidizer 

in solid form.

Stages: Two or more rockets stacked on 

top of each other in order to reach higher 

altitudes or have a greater payload 

capacity.

Throat: The narrow opening of a rocket 

nozzle.

Terminal velocity: The constant speed 

obtained by a falling object when the 

upward drag on the object balances the 

downward force of gravity.

Unbalanced force: A force that is not 

countered by another force in the 

opposite direction.

Velocity: A moving object’s speed and 

direction of movement.

Vernier rockets: Small rockets that use 

their thrust to help direct a larger rocket 

in flight. 
145

Appendix A – Assembly Instructions
146

Straw Rocket 

Launcher Building 

Instructions

Objective

Build an air pulse (stomp) launcher to propel 

straw and paper rockets used in the activities 

of this guidebook. 

Preparation Time

10 min

Materials

•	 33.8-oz (1-L) plastic soft drink bottle

•	 Drinking straw or similar size tube.

(A straight tube will work, but a straw 

or tube with a right angle elbow bend 

in it is better.)

•	 Modeling clay 

Assembly

Insert the straw or tube into the mouth of the 

bottle about an inch. Seal the mouth around 

the straw with the modeling clay to completely 

fill the bottle’s neck. The length of the outside 

tube should be as long as the rocket to allow 

it to slide on completely.

Operation

•	 Set the bottle on its side on a table or 

solid surface. 

•	 Slide a straw rocket all the way onto 

the tube. It should slide freely.

•	 Point the rocket in a safe direction 

away from people. 

•	 To launch the rocket, squeeze the 

bottle quickly or strike down on the 

side of it with your fist.

•	 Restore the roundness of the bottle by 

removing crumples or creases before 

the next launch.
147

Water Bottle 

Rocket Launcher

Objective

To construct a bottle rocket launcher for use 

with the Bottle Rocket and Project Enterprise 

activities.

Description

Students construct a bottle launcher from offthe-shelf hardware and wood using simple tools. 

Management

Consult the materials and tools list to determine what you will need to construct a single 

bottle rocket launcher. The launcher is simple 

and inexpensive to construct. Air pressure is 

provided by means of a hand-operated bicycle 

pump. The pump should have a pressure gauge 

for accurate comparisons between launches. 

Most needed parts are available from hardware 

stores. In addition, you will need a tire valve from 

an auto parts store and a rubber bottle stopper 

from a school science experiment. The most 

difficult task is to drill a 0.375 inch hole in the 

mending plate called for in the materials list. An 

electric drill is a common household tool. If you 

do not have access to one, or do not wish to 

drill the holes in the metal mending plate, find 

someone who can do the job for you. Ask a 

teacher or student in your school’s industrial 

arts shop, a fellow teacher or the parent of 

one of your students to help.

If you have each student construct a bottle 

rocket, having more than one launcher may 

be advisable. Because the rockets are projectiles, safely using more than one launcher will 

require careful planning and possibly additional 

supervision. Please refer to the launch safety 

instructions.

Materials and Tools

•	 Four 5 in corner irons with 12.75 in 

wood screws to fit 

•	 One 5 in mounting plate 

•	 Two 6 in spikes 

•	 Two 10 in spikes or metal tent stakes 

•	 Two 5 in by 0.25 in carriage bolts 

with six 0.25 in nuts 

•	 One 3 in eyebolt with two nuts and 

washers 

•	 0.75 in diameter washers to fit bolts 

•	 One number 3 rubber stopper with a 

single hole 

•	 One Snap-in Tubeless Tire Valve 

(small 0.453 in hole, 2 in long) 

•	 Wood board 12 × 18 × 0.75 in

•	 One 2-liter plastic bottle 

•	 Electric drill and bits including a 

0.375 in bit 

•	 Screwdriver 

•	 Pliers or open-end wrench to fit nuts 

•	 Vice 

•	 12 ft of 0.25 in cord 

•	 Pencil 

•	 Bicycle pump with pressure gauge 
148

Background Information

Like a balloon, air pressurizes the bottle 

rocket. When released from the launch platform, air escapes the bottle, providing an 

action force accompanied by an equal and 

opposite reaction force (Newton’s Third Law 

of Motion). Increasing the pressure inside the 

bottle rocket produces greater thrust since a 

large quantity of air inside the bottle escapes 

with a higher acceleration (Newton’s Second 

Law of Motion). Adding a small amount of 

water to the bottle increases the action force. 

The water expels from the bottle before the 

air does, turning the bottle rocket into a bigger version of a water rocket toy available in 

toy stores. 

Construction Instructions

1. Prepare the rubber stopper by enlarging 

the hole with a drill. Grip the stopper lightly 

with a vice and gently enlarge the hole 

with a 0.375 in bit and electric drill. The 

rubber will stretch during cutting, making 

the finished hole somewhat less than 

0.375 in.

2. Remove the stopper from the vice and 

push the needle valve end of the tire stem 

through the stopper from the narrow end 

to the wide end.

3. Prepare the mounting plate by drilling a 

0.375 in hole through the center of the 

plate. Hold the plate with a vice during 

drilling and put on eye protection. Enlarge 

the holes at the opposite ends of the 

plates, using a drill bit slightly larger 

than the holes to do this. The holes must 

be large enough to pass the carriage 

bolts through them. (See Attachment of 

Mending Plate and Stopper diagram on 

page 149.)

Rubber

Tire Stem Stopper Carriage Bolt

Wood Base Attachment of Mending Plate and 

Stopper

4. Lay the mending plate in the center of the 

wood base and mark the centers of the 

two outside holes that you enlarged. Drill 

holes through the wood big enough to 

pass the carriage bolts through.

5. Push and twist the tire stem into the hole 

you drilled in the center of the mounting 

plate. The fat end of the stopper should 

rest on the plate.

6. Insert the carriage bolts through the wood 

base from the bottom up. Place a hex nut 

over each bolt and tighten the nut so that 

the bolt head pulls into the wood.

7. Screw a second nut over each bolt and 

spin it about half way down the bolt. Place 

a washer over each nut, and then slip the 

mounting plate over the two bolts.

8. Press the neck of a 2-liter plastic bottle 

over the stopper. You will be using the 

bottle’s wide neck lip for measuring in the 

next step.
149

Tire Valve

Positioning Corner Irons

9. Set up two corner irons so they look like 

book ends (see page 148). Insert a spike 

through the top hole of each iron. Slide 

the irons near the bottle’s neck so that the 

spike rests immediately above the wide 

neck lip. The spike will hold the bottle in 

place while you pump up the rocket. If 

the bottle is too low, adjust the nuts 

beneath the mounting plate on both sides 

to raise it.

10. Set up the other two corner irons as you 

did in the previous step (see page 150). 

Place them on the opposite side of the 

bottle. When you have the irons aligned 

so that the spikes rest above and hold 

the bottle lip, mark the centers of the 

holes on the wood base. For more precise 

screwing, drill small pilot holes for each 

screw, and then screw the corner irons 

tightly to the base.

11. Install an eyebolt to the edge of the opposite holes for the hold down spikes. Drill 

a hole, and hold the bolt in place with 

washers and nuts on top and bottom (see 

page 150).

12. Attach the launch pull cord to the head 

end of each spike. Run the cord through 

the eyebolt.

13. Make final adjustments to the launcher 

by attaching the pump to the tire stem 

and pumping up the bottle. Refer to the 

launching instructions for safety notes. If 

the air seeps out around the stopper, the 

stopper is too loose. Use a pair of pliers 

or a wrench to raise each side of the 

mounting plate in turn to press the stopper 

with slightly more force to the bottle’s 

neck. When satisfied with the position, 

thread the remaining hex nuts over the 

mounting plate and tighten them to hold 

the plate in position.

14. Drill two holes through the wood base 

along one side (see page 150). The holes 

should be large enough to pass large 

spikes or metal tent stakes. When the 

launch pad is set up on a grassy field, the 

stakes will hold the launcher in place when 

you yank the pull cord. The launcher is 

now complete (see page 150).

Launch Safety Instructions

1. Select a grassy field that measures 

approximately 100 ft (30.48 m) across. 

Place the launcher in the center of the 

field, and anchor it in place with the 

spikes or tent stakes. 

Note: If it is a windy day, place the 

launcher closer to the side of the field 

from which the wind is coming so that the 

rocket will drift onto the field as it comes 

down.

2. Have each student or student group set 

up their rocket on the launch pad. Other 

students should stand back several feet 

(meters). It will be easier to keep observers 

away by roping off the launch site. 
150

3. After the rocket is attached to the 

launcher, the student pumping the rocket 

should put on eye protection. The rocket 

should be pumped no higher than about 

50 lb/in2 (8.93 kg/cm2) of pressure.

4. When pressurization is complete, all students should stand in back of the rope for 

the countdown. 

5. Before conducting the countdown, be sure 

the place where the rocket is expected to 

come down is clear of people. Launch the 

rocket when the recovery range is clear. 

6. Only permit the students launching the 

rocket to retrieve it.

Hold Down

Spike

To Pump

Launch Release

Cord

Complete Launcher Ready for Firing

Extensions

Look up the following references for additional bottle rocket plans and other teaching 

strategies: 

•	 Hawthorne, M.; and Saunders, G.: “It’s 

Launchtime!,” Science and Children, 

Volume 30 No. 5, pp. 17–19, 39, 1993. 

•	 Rogis, J.: “Soaring with Aviation Activities,” Science Scope, Volume 15 No. 2,

pp. 14–17, 1991.

•	 Winemiller, J.; Pedersen, J.: and Bonnstetter, R.: “The Rocket Project,” Science 

Scope, Volume 15 No. 2, pp. 18–22, 1991.
151

The Ping-Pong Ball 

Pendulum

Anemometer

Objective

This is how to make a simple device to measure wind speed. It can be used to understand 

meteorology, but is applied in this guidebook 

to learn about rocket parachute drift speed. 

A pendulum anemometer operates by the 

wind blowing a bob suspended from an 

angular scale. The angle the bob is displaced 

from neutral corresponds to the wind speed. 

Materials

•	 One 180 degree, 6 in clear plastic 

protractor

•	 One standard ping-pong ball 

•	 One lightweight, monofilament line 

or strong thread

•	 One small bubble level

•	 One 0.5 in diameter wooden dowel 

handle or piece of broomstick

•	 Long thumbtack

•	 Glue

•	 Needle or small sharp knife point

•	 Marker

•	 Drill with a 0.0625 in bit

Assembly

1. Pierce the ping-pong ball to make a small 

hole. Thread one end of the line through 

the ball with the needle. Anchor the line 

with a dab of glue, but do not use any kind 

that might dissolve the ping-pong plastic. 

If this is difficult, just use a small piece of 

good strong tape to hold the string on 

the ball.

2. Next, glue the level to the protractor, 

parallel to the baseline. Be sure you align 

it correctly. 

3. Pass the other end of the line through 

the index hole of the protractor. Adjust the 

length so that the top of the ball is 12 in 

(30.48 cm) from the suspension point at 

the hole. Then tie off or glue the line in 

place. If the line is a light color, you may 

want to darken it with a pen or marker where 

it crosses the scale for easier reading.

4. Drill a 0.0625 in hole in the protractor on the 

top edge on the side opposite the level. The 

12 in (30.48 cm) length of handle can be cut 

from a broomstick or dowel to have a flat 

end. Attach the protractor to the handle by 

pressing the thumbtack through the hole in 

the protractor into the end of the wood stick. 

See finished anemometer on page 152.

5. Use a marker to label the protractor with 

wind scale values as follows:

a. Mark the 90° mark of the protractor 

0 mph.

b. 80° mark 8 mph.

c. 70° mark 12 mph.

d. 60° mark 15 mph.

e. 50° mark 18 mph.

f. 40° mark 21 mph.

g. 30° mark 26 mph.

h. 20° mark 33 mph.

If you prefer to not mark the protractor, just 

read the protractor’s angle graduations and 

find the wind speed from this fine scale chart. 

Protractor

Fishing Line

Ping-Pong Ball

Bubble Level

Handle

Mounting Hole

Wind

12 in
152

Protractor scale chart.

Angle Fishing Line 

Makes with Protractor

(degrees)

Wind Speed

(mph)

90 0.0

85 5.8

80 8.2

75 10.1

70 11.8

65 13.4

60 14.9

55 16.4

50 18.6

45 19.5

40 21.3

35 23.4

30 25.7

25 28.6

20 32.4

Operation

1. Take your reading in an open area.

2. Hold the handle out with the wind on 

your side and point the anemometer 

into the wind so that the ball moves 

the line along the protractor. It should 

be held away from the body to avoid 

the turbulent airflow surrounding you. 

3. Sight on the level and turn your handle 

to adjust the tilt of the protractor and 

center the bubble. Then just read the 

mark where the line crosses the scale. 

You may want a helper to hold the 

anemometer level while you take the 

reading. Just keep your body at right 

angles to the wind. 

4. Since not every degree in the chart 

is given as a speed, you may have to 

interpolate between the values. As 

with many instruments, the line may 

oscillate around the true value, so you 

have to watch for the maximum and 

minimum swings to average a reading. 

Gusts and lulls will bounce the ball 

around too, but with practice you can 

read the anemometer properly. 

Angle
153

A Model Rocket 

Launcher

Objective

A simple model rocket launcher and firing 

system can be made from household tools 

and a few items from a hardware store. 

Materials

•	 Drill with a 0.125 in bit

•	 Wire stripper and pliers

•	 12–15 feet of electrical wire, like 

an extension cord 

•	 Two alligator battery clips

•	 Two small microclips

•	 Doorbell button or push button switch

•	 Empty coffee or similar large size can 

or ceramic flowerpot

•	 One 1 ft square piece of plywood, 

0.5 in thick or greater

•	 One 0.125 in diameter metal rod 

3 ft long

Assembly

1. Refer to the drawing as you build the 

system.

2. First, make the launcher by drilling a 

0.125 in hole perpendicular through the 

center of the plywood base. Drill or punch 

with a nail a hole in the center of the 

coffee can lid. Insert the rod into the hole 

in the base and then slide the can over 

the rod. A ceramic pot will also work well 

as a blast deflector.

3. Take the wire and strip off enough of the 

insulation on the ends to attach the clips. 

The battery clips can be almost any size, 

but the igniter clips need to be small and 

lightweight. Flat jaw microclips are 

the best.

4. About 2 feet from the end of the battery 

clips, cut one wire and strip the ends. 

Connect the ends to the push button 

switch. Depending on the style of the 

switch, you may want to mount it on a 

small piece of wood for better handling 

during the launch.

5. The battery can be a 6 volt or 12 volt dry 

or wet cell, or a pack of four connected 

1.5 volt flashlight batteries. The battery 

needs to be fresh or recharged to give a 

good current supply.
154

Operation

At the launch site in the field, stretch out the 

wire to its full length between the launch pad 

and the battery. Prep the rocket, and place 

it on the pad. Connect the microclips to the 

ignitor wire. Clear the area, and get ready for 

the final countdown. Connect the battery clips 

to the battery. Give the countdown, and push 

the button to fire the rocket. After launch, 

unclip one wire on the battery. Reconnect the 

wire only after the next rocket is on the pad. 

Always read and follow the instructions that 

come with the rocket motors, and observe the 

NAR safety code in Appendix B.
155

Appendix B – Rocket Safety Code
156

Water Rocket 

Safety Guide

Safety is very important with any rocket. 

Rockets are safe when everyone understands and abides by safe behavior. Only 

plastic drinking bottles should be used. New 

bottles should be used whenever possible. 

Bottles should be retired from use after 10–15 

launches.

Caution: Children should be closely supervised when they are using rockets. Even if 

they understand and agree to the safety rules, 

there will be lapses in concentration or judgment. Children cannot be made responsible 

for the safety of others. A child may feel it is 

enough to tell a two-year old to stay out of 

the way.

Launch Safety Instructions

•	 Select a grassy field or athletic practice 

field that measures at least 100 ft (30.48 

m) in width. Place the launcher in the 

center of the field, and anchor it in place.

Caution: If it is a windy day, place the 

launcher closer to the side of the field 

from which the wind is blowing so that 

the rocket will drift onto the field as it 

descends.

•	 As you set up your rocket on the launch 

pad, observers should stand back several 

feet (meters). It is recommended that you 

rope off the launch site.

•	 Do not point your water rocket at another 

person, animal or object. Water rockets 

take off with a good deal of force from the 

air pressure and weight from the water.

•	 The team member responsible for 

pumping air into the rocket should wear 

eye protection. The bottle rocket should 

be pumped no higher than about 50 psi 

(3.52 kg-fscm) and never above 90 psi 

(6.33 kg-fscm). Before launching, consult 

the pressure-distance table below.

•	 When pressurization is complete, 

everyone should stand behind the ropedoff area for the countdown. Two-liter bottles can weaken and will explode. Bottles 

should be retired from use after 10–15 

launches.

•	 Continue to countdown and launch the 

rocket only when the recovery range is 

clear.

•	 If you do not experience successful liftoff, 

remember that the bottle is pressurized 

and may blast off when you touch it. Be 

careful; do not let it hit you. NEVER stand 

over a rocket.

•	 A team member should retrieve the rocket.

Table of distances for a given pressure.

Typical Classroom Maximums

Pressure Distance

(psi) (kPa) (ft) (m)

20 0.1379 85.30 26.00

40 0.2758 167.32 51.00

60 0.4137 252.62 77.00

80 0.5516 334.65 102.00

 

 
157

NAR Model 

Rocket 

Safety Code

Revised February 2001

1. Materials. I will use only lightweight, 

nonmetal parts for the nose, body, and 

fins of my rocket.

2. Motors. I will use only certified, 

commercially made model rocket motors, 

and will not tamper with these motors or 

use them for any purposes except those 

recommended by the manufacturer.

3. Ignition System. I will launch my rockets 

with an electrical launch system and 

electrical motor igniters. My launch system 

will have a safety interlock in series switch 

the launch switch and will use a launch 

switch that returns to the “off” position 

when released.

4. Misfires. If my rocket does not launch 

when I press the button of my electrical 

launch system, I will remove the launcher’s 

safety interlock or disconnect its battery 

and will wait 60 seconds after the 

last launch before allowing anyone to 

approach the rocket.

5. Launch Safety. I will use a countdown 

before launch and will ensure that 

everyone is paying attention and is a safe 

distance of at least 15 ft (4.572 m) away 

when I launch rockets with D motors or 

smaller and 30 ft (9.14 m) when I launch 

larger rockets. If I am uncertain about the 

safety or stability of an untested rocket, 

I will check the stability before flight and 

will fly it only after warning spectators and 

clearing them away to a safe distance.

6. Launcher. I will launch my rocket from a 

launch rod, tower, or rail that is pointed to 

within 30 degrees of the vertical to ensure 

that the rocket flies nearly straight up, and 

I will use a blast deflector to prevent the 

motor’s exhaust from hitting the ground. 

To prevent accidental eye injury, I will 

place launchers so that the end of the 

launch rod is above eye level or will cap 

the end of the rod when it is not in use.

7. Size. My model rocket will not weigh 

more than 53 oz (1,500 g) at liftoff and 

will not contain more than 4.4 oz (125 

g) of propellant or 71.9 lb-s (320 N-s) of 

total impulse. If my model rocket weighs 

more than 1 lb (453 g) at liftoff or has 

more than 4 oz (113 g) of propellant, I will 

check and comply with Federal Aviation 

Administration regulations before flying.

8. Flight Safety. I will not launch my rocket 

at targets, into clouds, or near airplanes, 

and will not put any flammable or 

explosive payload in my rocket.

9. Launch Site. I will launch my rocket 

outdoors, in an open area at least as 

large as shown in the accompanying table, 

and in safe weather conditions with wind 

speed no greater than 20 mi/hr (32.19 

km/hr). I will ensure that there is no dry 

grass close to the launch pad and that the 

launch site does not present risk of 

grass fires.

10. Recovery System. I will use a recovery 

system, such as a streamer or parachute, 

in my rocket so that it returns safely and 
158

undamaged and can be flown again, and 

I will use only flame-resistant or fireproof 

recovery system wadding in my rocket.

11. Recovery Safety. I will not attempt to 

recover my rocket from power lines, tall 

trees, or other dangerous places.

Launch Site Dimensions

Installed Total Impulse 

Equivalent Motor Type

Minimum Site Dimensions 

lb-sec (N-sec) (ft) (m)

0.00–0.28 0.00–1.25 1/4A, 1/2A 50 15.24

0.28–0.56 1.26–2.5 A 100 30.48

0.56–1.12 2.51–5.00 B 200 60.96

1.12–2.25 5.01–10.00 C 400 121.92

2.25–4.49 10.01–20.00 D 500 152.40

4.50–8.99 20.01–40.00 E 1,000 302.40

8.99–17.97 40.01–80.00 F 1,000 302.40

17.98–35.95 80.01–160.00 G 1,000 302.40

35.95–71.90 160.01–320.00 Two Gs 1,500 457.20
159

Appendix C – Rocket Principles

A rocket in its simplest form is a chamber 

enclosing a gas under pressure. A small 

opening at one end of the chamber allows 

the gas to escape, and, in doing so, provides 

a thrust that propels the rocket in the opposite 

direction. A good example of this is a balloon. 

A balloon’s rubber walls compress the air 

inside the balloon. The air pushes back 

so that the inward and outward pressing 

forces balance. When the nozzle is released, 

air escapes through it, and the balloon is 

propelled in the opposite direction. 

When we think of rockets, we rarely think of 

balloons. Instead, our attention is drawn to 

the giant vehicles that carry satellites into 

orbit and spacecraft to the Moon and planets. 

Nevertheless, there is a strong similarity 

between the two. The only significant 

difference is the way the pressurized gas 

is produced. With space rockets, burning 

propellants, which can be solid or liquid in 

form or a combination of the two, produce

the gas. 

One of the interesting facts about the 

historical development of rockets is that while 

rockets and rocket-powered devices have 

been in use for more than 2,000 years, it has 

been only in the last 300 years that rocket 

experimenters have had a scientific basis for 

understanding how they work. 

The science of rocketry began with the 

publishing of a book in 1687 by the great 

English scientist Sir Isaac Newton. His book, 

entitled Philosophiae Naturalis Principia 

Mathematica, described physical principles 

in nature. Today, Newton’s work is usually just 

called the Principia. 

Balloon Moves

Inside

Air Pressure

Air Moves
160

In the Principia, Newton stated three important scientific principles that govern the 

motion of all objects, whether on Earth or in 

space. Knowing these principles, now called 

Newton’s Laws of Motion, rocketeers have 

been able to construct the modern giant 

rockets of the 20th century, such as the 

Saturn V and the Space Shuttle. Here are 

Newton’s Laws of Motion in simple form: 

1. Objects at rest will stay at rest, and objects 

in motion will stay in motion in a straight 

line, unless acted upon by an unbalanced 

force. 

2. Force is equal to mass (m) × acceleration (a). 

3. For every action, there is always an 

opposite and equal reaction. 

As will be explained shortly, all three laws are 

really simple statements of how things move, 

but with them, precise determinations of 

rocket performance can be made.

Newton’s First Law

This law of motion is just an obvious statement of fact, but to know what it means, it 

is necessary to understand the terms rest, 

motion, and unbalanced force. 

Rest and motion can be thought of as being 

opposite to each other. Rest is the state of 

an object when it is not changing position in 

relation to its surroundings. If you are sitting 

still in a chair, you can be said to be at rest. 

However, this term is relative. Your chair may 

actually be one of many seats on a speeding 

airplane. The important thing to remember 

here is that you are not moving in relation to 

your immediate surroundings. If rest were 

defined as a total absence of motion, it would 

not exist in nature. Even if you were sitting in 

your chair at home, you would still be moving, 

because your chair is actually sitting on the 

surface of a spinning planet that is orbiting 

a star. The star is moving through a rotating 

galaxy that is, itself, moving through the 

universe. While sitting still, you are, in fact, 

traveling at a speed of hundreds of miles or 

kilometers per second. 

Motion is also a relative term. All matter in the 

universe is moving all the time, but in the first 

law, motion here means changing position in 

relation to surroundings. A ball is at rest if it is 

sitting on the ground. The ball is in motion if 

it is rolling. A rolling ball changes its position 

in relation to its surroundings. When you are 

sitting in a seat in an airplane, you are at rest, 

but if you get up and walk down the aisle, you 

are in motion. A rocket blasting off the launch 

pad changes from a state of rest to a state 

of motion. 

Lift

Gravity

Ball at Rest
161

The third term important to understanding this 

law is unbalanced force. If you hold a ball in 

your hand and keep it still, the ball is at rest. 

However, all the time the ball is held there, 

forces are acting on it. The force of gravity is 

trying to pull the ball downward, while at the 

same time your hand is pushing against the 

ball to hold it up. The forces acting on the ball 

are balanced. Let the ball go or move your 

hand upward, and the forces become unbalanced. The ball then changes from a state of 

rest to a state of motion. 

In rocket flight, forces become balanced 

and unbalanced all the time. A rocket on the 

launch pad is balanced. The surface of the 

pad pushes the rocket up, while gravity tries 

to pull it down. As the engines are ignited, the 

thrust from the rocket unbalances the forces, 

and the rocket travels upward. Later, when the 

rocket runs out of fuel, it slows down, stops 

at the highest point of its flight, and then falls 

back to Earth. 

Resultant Path

(Orbit)

Pull of

Planet’s Gravity

Objects in space also react to forces. A 

spacecraft moving through the solar system 

is in constant motion. The spacecraft will 

travel in a straight line if the forces on it are 

in balance. This happens only when the 

spacecraft is very far from any large gravity 

source, such as Earth or the other planets 

and their moons. If the spacecraft comes 

near a large body in space, the gravity of 

that body will unbalance the forces and 

curve the path of the spacecraft. This happens, in particular, when a satellite is sent 

by a rocket on a path that is tangent to the 

planned orbit about a planet. The unbalanced gravitational force causes the satellite’s path to change to an arc. The arc is 

a combination of the satellite’s fall inward 

toward the planet’s center and its forward motion. When these two motions are 

just right, the shape of the satellite’s path 

matches the shape of the body it is traveling 

around. Consequently, an orbit is produced. 

Since the gravitational force changes with 

height above a planet, each altitude has 

its own unique velocity that results in a circular orbit. Obviously, controlling velocity is 

extremely important for maintaining the circular orbit of the spacecraft. Unless another 

unbalanced force, such as friction with gas 

molecules in orbit or the firing of a rocket 

engine in the opposite direction, slows down 

the spacecraft, it will orbit the planet forever.

Now that the three major terms of this 

first law have been explained, it is possible to restate this law. If an object, such 

as a rocket, is at rest, it takes an unbalanced force to make it move. If the object 

is already moving, it takes an unbalanced 

force to stop it, change its direction from a 

straight-line path or alter its speed. 
162

Newton’s Third Law

For the time being, we will skip the Second 

Law and go directly to the Third. This law 

states that every action has an equal and 

opposite reaction. If you have ever stepped 

off a small boat that has not been properly 

tied to a pier, you will know exactly what this 

law means. 

A rocket can lift off from a launch pad only 

when it expels gas out of its engine. The 

rocket pushes on the gas, and the gas in turn 

pushes on the rocket. The whole process is 

very similar to riding a skateboard. Imagine 

that a skateboard and rider are in a state 

of rest (not moving). The rider jumps off the 

skateboard. In the Third Law, the jumping is 

called an action. The skateboard responds to 

that action by traveling some distance in the 

opposite direction. The skateboard’s opposite 

motion is called a reaction. When the distance 

traveled by the rider and the skateboard are 

compared, it would appear that the skateboard has had a much greater reaction than 

the action of the rider. This is not the case. 

The reason the skateboard has traveled farther is that it has less mass than the rider. 

This concept will be better explained in a 

discussion of the Second Law. 

With rockets, the action is the expelling of 

gas out of the engine. The reaction is the 

movement of the rocket in the opposite direction. To enable a rocket to lift off from the 

launch pad, the action, or thrust, from the 

engine must be greater than the weight of the 

rocket. While on the pad, the weight of the 

rocket is balanced by the force of the ground 

pushing against it. Small amounts of thrust 

result in less force required by the ground 

to keep the rocket balanced. Only when the 

thrust is greater than the weight of the rocket 

does the force become unbalanced and the 

rocket lifts off. In space, where unbalanced 

force is used to maintain the orbit, even tiny 

thrusts will cause a change in the unbalanced 

force and result in the rocket changing speed 

or direction. 

One of the most commonly asked questions 

about rockets is how they can work in space 

where there is no air for them to push against. 

The answer to this question comes from the 

Third Law. Imagine the skateboard again. On 

the ground, the only part that air plays in the 

motions of the rider and the skateboard is to 

slow them down. Moving through the air 

causes friction or, as scientists call it, drag.

The surrounding air impedes the

action-reaction. 

Reaction

Action
163

As a result, rockets actually work better in 

space than they do in air. As the exhaust gas 

leaves the rocket engine, it must push away 

the surrounding air; this uses up some of the 

energy of the rocket. In space, the exhaust 

gases can escape freely. 

Newton’s Second Law 

This law of motion is essentially a statement 

of a mathematical equation. The three parts 

of the equation are mass, acceleration, and 

force. Using letters to symbolize each part, 

the equation can be written as follows: 

f = ma

The equation reads: force equals mass times 

acceleration. To explain this law, we will use 

an old style cannon as an example. 

A F M A

When the cannon is fired, an explosion propels a cannon ball out the open end of the 

barrel. It flies several yards to its target. At 

the same time, the cannon itself is pushed 

back several yards. This is action and reaction 

at work (Third Law). The force acting on the 

cannon and the ball is the same. The Second 

Law determines what happens to the cannon 

and the ball. Look at the following two equations:

f = m(cannon)a(cannon)

and

f = m(ball)a(ball).

The first equation refers to the cannon and 

the second to the cannon ball. In the first 

equation, the mass is the cannon itself, and 

the acceleration is the acceleration of the 

cannon. In the second equation, the mass is 

the cannon ball, and the acceleration is the 

acceleration of the cannon ball. Because the 

force (exploding gun powder) is the same for 

the two equations, the equations can be 

combined and rewritten as follows:

m(cannon)a(cannon) = m(ball)a(ball).

In order to keep the two sides of the equations equal, the accelerations vary with mass. 

In other words, the cannon has a large mass 

and a small acceleration. The cannon ball has 

a small mass and a large acceleration.

Apply this principle to a rocket. Replace the 

mass of the cannon ball with the mass of the 

gases being ejected out of the rocket engine. 

Replace the mass of the cannon with the 

mass of the rocket moving in the other direction. Force is the pressure created by the controlled explosion that takes place inside the 

rocket’s engines. That pressure accelerates 

the gas in one direction and the rocket the 

opposite direction.

Some interesting things happen with rockets 

that do not happen with the cannon and ball 

in this example. With the cannon and cannon 

ball, the thrust lasts for just a moment. However, the thrust for the rocket continues as 

long as its engines are firing. Furthermore, 

the mass of the rocket changes during flight. 

Its mass is the sum of all its parts. A rocket’s 

parts include engines, propellant tanks, payload, control system and propellants. By 

far, the largest part of the rocket’s mass is 

its propellants, but that amount constantly 

changes as the engines fire. That means that 
164

the rocket’s mass gets smaller during flight. 

In order for the left side of our equation to 

remain in balance with the right side, acceleration of the rocket has to increase as its 

mass decreases. That is why a rocket starts 

off moving slowly and goes faster and faster 

as it climbs into space. 

Newton’s Second Law of Motion is especially useful when designing efficient rockets. 

To enable a rocket to climb into low-Earth 

orbit, it is necessary to achieve a speed in 

excess of 17,398.39 mph (28,000 kmph). A 

speed of over 25,010.19 mph (40,250 kmph), 

called escape velocity, enables a rocket to 

leave Earth and travel out into deep space. 

Attaining space flight speeds requires the 

rocket engine to achieve the greatest action 

force possible in the shortest time. In other 

words, the engine must burn a large mass 

of fuel and push the resulting gas out of the 

engine as rapidly as possible. 

Newton’s Second Law of Motion can be 

restated in the following way: the greater the 

mass of rocket fuel burned and the faster the 

gas produced can escape the engine, the 

greater the thrust of the rocket. 

Putting Newton’s Laws of Motion Together

An unbalanced force must be exerted for a 

rocket to lift off from a launch pad or for a 

craft in space to change speed or direction 

(First Law). The amount of thrust (force) produced by a rocket engine will be determined 

by the rate at which the mass of the rocket 

fuel burns and the speed of the gas escaping 

the rocket (Second Law). The reaction, or 

motion, of the rocket is equal to and in the 

opposite direction of the action, or thrust, 

from the engine (Third Law). 
165

Appendix D – Rocketry Resource Materials

Who is NAR?

Who is the National 

Association of Rocketry 

(NAR)? The NAR is the 

organized body of rocket 

hobbyists. Chartered 

NAR sections conduct 

launches, connect modelers, and support all 

forms of sport rocketry. NAR was founded 

in 1957 to help young people learn about 

science and math through building and 

safely launching their own models.

NAR Sections and its members host 

hundreds of launches each year—both 

sport launches and competitions—from the 

local and regional levels to national events. 

Designing, building and flying rockets is 

always more fun when you are doing it with 

friends.

The NAR membership consists mainly 

of adults, but also includes many young 

people and families. The most experienced 

model rocketeers who fly every kind of 

sport rocket are in NAR, and they launch 

together with the newbies who have just 

joined and discovered that they like rockets. 

The NAR gives its members the chance to 

improve and advance their rocketry skills by 

the association and participation in member 

activities and group projects.

As a national organization, NAR approves and 

certifies the hobby rocket motors that consumers use. NAR developed the safety code 

for both model and high-power sport rocketry 

that has protected users for 50 years. Other 

member benefits include NAR insurance coverage and the chance to attend NAR conferences, launches and contests. Members 

receive the bimonthly Sport Rocketry magazine 

that NAR produces.

How NAR Can Help You

The NAR is a nationwide network of local clubs 

with experienced rocketeers available to provide advice and launch sites for your flights. 

They welcome beginners and students who 

want to enjoy rocketry and learn to fly safely. 

Many adult NAR members are mentors and 

assist individuals or schools in their local area. 
166

Please visit the NAR Web site at <www.nar.

org and select http://www.nar.org/tarcmentors.pdf> for the current list of Mentors. The 

section directory is at <http://www.nar.org/

NARseclist.php> to help you find the closest 

club. If you would like to have a club closer 

to you, NAR can show you how to start your 

own section.

Team America Rocketry Challenge

Aerospace Industries Association (AIA) and 

the NAR are proud to sponsor the annual 

Team America Rocketry Challenge (TARC), 

the largest model rocket showcase on the 

planet (see <www.rocketcontest.org>). 

The Challenge is to design, build and fly a 

model rocket carrying a raw egg and return 

it safely to the ground, while staying aloft for 

a specific time and reaching a specific altitude. Teams whose score is in the 100 best 

are invited to compete for a share of the 

$60,000 prize package at the National Finals 

at The Plains, Virginia. NAR mentors can 

help you form a team and learn to launch 

eggs in this contest.

Rocketry Resource Materials

Electronic Resources

The following listing of Internet addresses 

will provide users with links to educational 

materials throughout the World Wide Web 

(WWW) related to rocketry.

National Association of Rocketry

<http://www.nar.org/>

Rockets Educator Guide

EG-2003-01-108-HQ

http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/

topnav/materials/listbytype/Rockets.html

The activities and lesson plans contained in 

this educator guide for grades K–12 emphasize hands-on science, prediction, data collection and interpretation, teamwork, and 

problem solving. The guide also contains 

background information about the history 

of rockets and basic rocket science.

NASA Educator Resource Centers 

referenced for this project:

U.S. Space and Rocket Center

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA MSFC

One Tranquility Base

Huntsville, AL 35807

Phone: 256-544-5812

<http://erc.msfc.nasa.gov>

NASA Glenn Research Center

Mail Stop 8-1

21000 Brookpark Road

Cleveland, OH 44135

Phone: 216-433-2017

<http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/PAO/html/

edteachr.htm>

Beginner’s Guide to Rockets

<http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/

rocket/bgmr.html>

This is an excellent site with interactive features and simulations describing many rocket 

topics with plenty of middle to high school 

math and science background material. 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville, AL 35812

www.nasa.gov/marshall

www.nasa.gov

8-337460