Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

Draft Management Plan 

April 2008 

Prepared by: 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

United States Fish and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration 

Hawai‘i Department of Land and 

Wildlife Service Natural Resources 

300 Ala Moana Blvd., Room 5-231 6600 Kalanianaole Highway, Suite 300 1151 Punchbowl Street, Room 130 

Honolulu, Hawaii 96850 Honolulu, Hawaii 96825 Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96813 
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

Draft Management Plan 

Approval Submission 

In accordance with Presidential Proclamation 8031, Establishment of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

Marine National Monument (71 FR 36443), this Draft Monument Management Plan has been prepared 

for Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument to guide coordinated management of this vast 

marine protected area by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, and the State of Hawai’i. The plan also meets the requirements of the National Wildlife 

Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as amended. After incorporating public comments, a final 

Monument Management Plan will be submitted for approval by all three Co-Trustee agencies. 
Volume I: Draft Management Plan 

Note to Reviewers: 

The December 2006 Memorandum of Agreement for Promoting Coordinated 

Management of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument 

identified the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior, and Governor of Hawai‘i as CoTrustees for the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. The agreement 

provided for the inclusion of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs into the Monument 

management process to provide a voice for Native Hawaiians and their legal rights. 

Through this Agreement and as described in the Monument Management Plan, the CoTrustees will undertake coordinated, integrated management to achieve strong, long-term 

protection and perpetuation of Northwestern Hawaiian Island (NWHI) ecosystems, 

Native Hawaiian traditional and customary cultural and religious practices, and heritage 

resources for current and future generations. 

The Co-Trustees will work together in a coordinated fashion to cooperatively manage 

areas where joint or adjacent jurisdiction exists, while continuing to honor the policies 

and statutory mandates of the various management agencies. Therefore, it is important to 

remember as you read this document that there are both coordinated agency activities and 

specific Co-Trustee responsibilities. Of course even where one agency has primary 

responsibility, input from another Co-Trustee can often be helpful, and this continuing 

coordination is presumed throughout the Monument Management Plan. 

The authors of the Monument Management Plan identified three overarching areas, 

throughout the document, that are important pieces of information to keep in mind as you 

are reviewing this document. They are set forth below. 

1) Cooperative and Individual Co-Trustee Responsibilities

Prior to its designation, several Federal conservation areas existed within the Monument, 

namely the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, managed by 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) within the Department of 

Commerce, and the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuges, 

managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) within Department of the Interior. 

Nothing in the Monument Management Plan will diminish the responsibilities and 

requirements by the Federal agencies to continue to manage these areas. 

Furthermore, the Proclamation issued by President Bush on June 15, 2006, establishing 

the Monument expressly stated it did not diminish or enlarge the jurisdiction of the State 

of Hawai‘i. In 2005 the State designated all of its waters in the NWHI as a Marine 

Refuge, and it has jurisdiction over the State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll, the 

northwesternmost emergent feature in the NWHI. To provide for the most effective 

conservation and management of the natural, cultural, and historic resources of the 

NWHI, Governor Lingle on December 8, 2006, entered into the aforementioned 

agreement with the two Secretaries to have State lands and waters in the NWHI managed 

as part of the Monument, with the three parties serving as Co-Trustees. 

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April 2008 Note to Reviewers 

2) Specific Agency Requirements

FWS must develop Comprehensive Conservation Plans (CCPs) for all National Wildlife 

Refuges by October 2012. So that there would be a single management plan for the 

Monument, FWS moved its planning effort forward to have this Monument Management 

Plan also serve as, and meet the requirements of, the CCPs for the two refuges within the 

Monument. 

Because this Monument Management Plan is a mixture of the draft sanctuary 

management plan, the refuge CCPs, and State plans, as fully described in Section 2.2 of 

the plan, it does not resemble typical sanctuary management plans, typical refuge CCPs, 

or typical State of Hawai‘i management plans. However, we believe this plan and 

accompanying environmental analysis meet all applicable Federal and State 

requirements. 

3) Funding Estimates

This Monument Management Plan provides long-term guidance for management 

decisions over a 15-year horizon and sets forth desired outcomes, with strategies and 

activities to reach those outcomes, including the agencies’ best estimate of future needs. 

These are sometimes substantially above current budget allocations and are included 

primarily for agency strategic planning and program prioritization purposes. Neither this 

draft nor the subsequent final plan constitutes a commitment of funds, or a commitment 

to request funds, by Federal or State agencies. All funding for current and possible future 

Monument activities is subject to the budgeting and appropriations processes of the 

Federal and State governments. 
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Papahāhanaumokuākea Marine National Monument (Monument) in the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands comprises one of the largest protected areas in the world. The Monument, a vast, remote, 

and largely uninhabited marine region, encompasses an area of approximately 139,793 square 

miles(362,061 square kilometers) of Pacific Ocean in the northwestern extent of the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. Covering a distance of 1,200 miles, the 100-mile wide Monument is dotted with 

small islands, islets, and atolls and a complex array of marine and terrestrial ecosystems. This 

region and its natural and historic resources hold great cultural and religious significance to 

Native Hawaiians. It is also home to a variety of post-Western contact historic resources such as 

those associated with the Battle of Midway. As such, the Monument has been identified as a 

national priority for permanent protection as a Monument for its unique and significant 

confluence of conservation, ecological, historical, scientific, educational, and Native Hawaiian 

cultural qualities. 

On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush issued Presidential Proclamation 8031 establishing 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument under the authority of the 

Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 U.S.C. 431). The Monument includes a number of preexisting 

Federal conservation areas: the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, 

managed by the Department of Commerce through the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA); and Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, Hawaiian Islands 

National Wildlife Refuge, and Battle of Midway National Memorial, managed by the 

Department of the Interior through the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). These 

areas remain in place within the Monument, subject to their applicable laws and regulations in 

addition to the provisions of the Proclamation. 

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands also include State of Hawai‘i lands and waters, managed by 

the State through the Department of Land and Natural Resources as the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands Marine Refuge and the State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. These areas also remain in 

place and are subject to their applicable laws and regulations. 

The President accordingly assigned management responsibilities to the Secretaries of Commerce 

and the Interior, acting through NOAA and FWS. The President also directed the Secretary of 

Commerce, in consultation with the Secretary of the Interior and the State of Hawaii to modify, 

as appropriate, the plan developed by NOAA through the public sanctuary designation process 

and for the two federal agencies to promulgate additional regulations. 

The joint implementing regulations for the Monument were promulgated on August 19, 2006 

(50 CFR Part 404). These regulations codify the scope and purpose, boundary, definitions, 

prohibitions, and regulated activities for managing the Monument. Proclamation 8031 was later 

amended on March 6, 2007, to establish the Hawaiian name of the Monument, 

Papahāhanaumokuākea Marine National Monument, and clarify some definitions. 

To provide the most effective management of the area, Governor Linda Lingle, Secretary of 

Commerce Carlos M. Gutierrez, and Secretary of the Interior Dirk Kempthorne signed a 

Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) on December 8, 2006, which provided for coordinated 

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administration of all the Federal and State lands and waters within the boundaries of the 

Monument. The MOA provided that management of the Monument is the responsibility of the 

three parties acting as Co-Trustees: the State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land and Natural 

Resources; the United States Department of the Interior, FWS; and the Department of 

Commerce, NOAA. It also established the institutional arrangements for managing the 

Monument, including representation of Native Hawaiian interests by the Office of Hawaiian 

Affairs on the Monument Management Board. 

The organizational structure for the Monument consists of: 

• a Senior Executive Board composed of a designated senior policy official for each party 

that is directly responsible for carrying out the agreement and for providing policy 

direction for the Monument; 

• a Monument Management Board (that reports to the Senior Executive Board) composed 

of representatives from the Federal and State agency offices that carry out the day-to-day 

management and coordination of Monument activities; and 

• an Interagency Coordinating Committee representing other State and Federal agencies as 

appropriate to assist in the implementation of Monument management activities. 

This Monument Management Plan (Plan) describes a comprehensive and coordinated 

management regime to achieve the vision, mission, and guiding principles of the Monument and 

to address priority management needs over the next 15 years. The Plan is organized into three 

main sections; introduction, management framework, and action plans that address specific 

issues related to priority management needs. 

The introduction provides the vision and mission of the Monument. It also provides the 

background, setting, environmental and anthropologic stressors, as well as the status and 

condition of natural, cultural, and historic resources of the Monument. 

The management framework for the Monument includes key elements to move toward an 

ecosystem approach to management. An ecosystem approach to management requires the 

implementation and coordination of multiple steps in a comprehensive and coordinated way. 

These key management framework elements include: 

• the legal and policy basis for establishment of the Monument; 

• the vision, mission, and guiding principles that provide the overarching policy direction 

for the Monument; 

• institutional arrangements between Co-Trustees and other stakeholders; 

• regulations and zoning to manage human activities and threats;

• goals to guide the implementation of action plans and priority management needs; and 

• concepts and direction for moving toward a coordinated ecosystem approach to 

management. 

The third section of the plan consists of 22 action plans that address 6 priority management needs 

and provide an organizational structure for implementing management strategies. These priority 

management needs are to understand and interpret Monument resources, conserve wildlife and 

their habitats, reduce threats to Monument resources, manage human activities, facilitate 

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coordination, and achieve effective operations. Together the priority management needs, action 

plans, and strategies are aimed at achieving long-term ecosystem protection for the Monument. 

The action plans contain strategies and activities that are aimed at achieving a desired outcome. 

Each action plan describes the issue or management need, the context and history of the action 

plan’s particular issue or management need, and the strategies and activities planned for the 

Monument over the next 15 years. Ongoing evaluation and monitoring of these management 

actions will be conducted to provide informed decision-making and to provide feedback to 

management on the success of meeting the stated desired outcomes of each action plan. 

The six priority management needs, action plans, and corresponding desired outcomes are as 

follows: 

Understanding and Interpreting the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

• Marine Conservation Science Action Plan 

 Increase understanding of the distributions, abundances and functional linkages of 

marine organisms and their habitats in space and time to improve ecosystembased management decisions in the Monument. 

• Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan 

 Increase understanding and appreciation of Native Hawaiian histories and cultural 

practices related to the Monument and effectively manage cultural resources for 

their cultural, educational, and scientific values. 

• Historic Resources Action Plan 

 Identify, document, preserve, protect, stabilize, and where appropriate, reuse, 

recover, and interpret historic resources associated with Midway Atoll and other 

historic resources within the Monument. 

• Maritime Heritage Action Plan 

 Identify, interpret, and protect maritime heritage resources in the Monument. 

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats 

• Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan 

 Protect marine mammals and aid in the recovery of threatened and endangered 

plants and animals within the Monument. 

• Migratory Birds Action Plan 

 Conserve migratory bird populations and habitats within the Monument. 

• Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan 

 Protect and maintain all the native ecosystems and biological diversity of the 

Monument. 

Reducing Threats to Monument Resources 

• Marine Debris Action Plan 

 Reduce the adverse effects of marine debris to Monument resources and reduce 

the amount of debris entering the North Pacific Ocean. 

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• Alien Species Action Plan 

 Detect, control, eradicate where possible, and prevent the introduction of alien 

species into the Monument. 

• Maritime Transportation and Aviation Action Plan 

 Investigate, identify, and reduce potential threats to the Monument from maritime 

and aviation traffic. 

• Emergency Response Action Plan 

 Minimize damage to Monument resources through coordinated emergency 

response and assessment. 

Managing Human Uses 

• Permitting Action Plan 

 Implement an effective and integrated permit program for the Monument that 

manages, minimizes, and prevents negative human impacts by allowing access 

only for those activities consistent with Presidential Proclamation 8031 and the 

implementing regulations of the Monument. 

• Enforcement Action Plan 

 Achieve compliance with all regulations within the Monument. 

• Midway Atoll Visitor Services Action Plan 

 Offer visitors opportunities to discover, enjoy, appreciate, protect, and honor the 

unique natural, cultural, and historic resources of the Monument. 

Coordinating Conservation and Management Activities 

• Agency Coordination Action Plan 

 Successfully collaborate with government partners to achieve publicly supported, 

coordinated management in the Monument. 

• Constituency Building and Outreach Action Plan 

 Cultivate an informed, involved constituency that supports and enhances 

conservation of the natural, cultural, and historic resources of the Monument. 

• Native Hawaiian Community Involvement Action Plan 

 Engage the Native Hawaiian community in active and meaningful involvement in 

the Monument management. 

• Ocean Ecosystems Literacy Action Plan 

 Cultivate an ocean ecosystems stewardship ethic, contribute to the Nation’s 

science and cultural literacy, and create a new generation of conservation leaders 

through formal environmental education. 

Achieving Effective Monument Operations 

• Central Operations Action Plan 

 Conduct effective and well-planned operations with appropriate human resources 

and adequate physical infrastructure in the main Hawaiian Islands to support 

management of the Monument. 

• Information Management Action Plan 

 Consolidate and make accessible relevant information to meet educational, 

management, and research needs for the Monument. 

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• Coordinated Field Operations Action Plan 

 Coordinate field activities and provide adequate infrastructure to ensure safe and 

efficient operations while avoiding impacts to the ecosystems in the Monument. 

• Evaluation Action Plan 

 Determine the degree to which management actions are achieving the goals of the 

Monument. 

Finally, the Appendices include supporting documents such as the unified permit policy, 

application, and instructions; Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan; Midway Atoll Visitor Services 

Plan; National Wildlife Refuge Appropriateness Findings and Compatibility Determinations; and 

information about maintaining wilderness character in the Proposed Hawaiian Islands 

Wilderness. It also includes reference materials such as Presidential Proclamations 8031 and 

8112, Monument regulations (50 CFR Part 404), the Memorandum of Agreement for Promoting 

Coordinated Management of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument, 

and operational protocols and best management practices. 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS i 

Executive Summary ES-1 

Acronyms v 

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 

1.1 Monument Setting 5 

1.2 Status and Condition of Natural Resources 27 

1.3 Status and Condition of Cultural and Historic Resources 43 

1.4 Environmental and Anthropogenic Stressors 55 

1.5 Global Significance 75 

2.0 MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK 77 

2.1 Legal Framework for the Monument 79 

2.2 Policy Framework 81 

2.3 Initial Management 89 

2.4 Monument Management: The Vision, Mission, Guiding Principles, 

 and Goals 95 

2.5 Management Action Plans 97 

3.0 ACTION PLANS TO ADDRESS PRIORITY MANAGEMENT NEEDS 101 

3.1 Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI 105 

3.1.1 Marine Conservation Science Action Plan 107 

3.1.2 Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan 117 

3.1.3 Historic Resources Action Plan 129 

3.1.4 Maritime Heritage Action Plan 137 

3.2 Conserving Wildlife and Habitats 143 

3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan 145 

3.2.2 Migratory Birds Action Plan 159 

3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan 165 

3.3 Reducing Threats to Monument Resources 179 

3.3.1 Marine Debris Action Plan 181 

3.3.2 Alien Species Action Plan 189 

3.3.3 Maritime Transportation and Aviation Action Plan 205 

3.3.4 Emergency Response and Natural Resource Damage Assessment Action Plan 211 

3.4 Managing Human Uses 217 

3.4.1 Permitting Action Plan 219 

3.4.2 Enforcement Action Plan 231 

3.4.3 Midway Atoll Visitor Services Action Plan 237 

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3.5 Coordinating Conservation and Management Activities 243 

3.5.1 Agency Coordination Action Plan 245 

3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach Action Plan 251 

3.5.3 Native Hawaiian Community Involvement Action Plan 261 

3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy Action Plan 267 

3.6 Achieving Effective Monument Operations 275 

3.6.1 Central Operations Action Plan 277 

3.6.2 Information Management Action Plan 283 

3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations Action Plan 289 

3.6.4 Evaluation Action Plan 305 

GLOSSARY 311 

REFERENCES 321

APPENDICES (See Volumes III and IV) 

Appendix A Permitting Process 

Appendix B Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge Draft Conceptual Site Plan 

Appendix C Draft Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan 

Appendix D FWS Compatibility Determinations 

Appendix E Maintenance of Wilderness Character 

Appendix F Presidential Proclamations 8031 and 8112 

Appendix G Monument Regulations 

Appendix H Monument Memorandum of Agreement 

Appendix I Operational Protocols and Best Management Practices 

LIST OF FIGURES 

1.1 Hawaiian Archipelago Including the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

1.2 Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument Overlaid on Eastern North America 

1.3 Atoll Formation 

1.4 Diagram of Central Pacific Gyre 

1.5 Annual Rainfall (inches) Tern Island, French Frigate Shoals 

1.6 Nihoa 

1.7 Mokumanamana (Necker Island) 

1.8 French Frigate Shoals 

1.9 Gardner Pinnacles 

1.10 Maro Reef 

1.11 Laysan Island 

1.12 Lisianski Island and Neva Shoal 

1.13 Pearl and Hermes Atoll 

1.14 Midway Atoll 

1.15 Kure Atoll 

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1.16 Banks and Shoals Near French Frigate Shoals 

1.17 Differences in Coral Cover Among Regions Within the NWHI 

1.18 Size Frequency Distribution of Pearl Oyster Population at Pearl and Hermes Atoll in 

1930 and 2003 

1.19 Comparison of Biomass in Major Trophic Guilds Between the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands and the Main Hawaiian Islands 

1.20 Geographic Pattern of Apex Predator Biomass Density (t/ha) at the 10 Emergent 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reefs 

1.21 Percent Endemism (Based on Numerical Densities) at Each of 10 Emergent NWHI Reefs 

1.22 Long-Term Trend in the Abundance of Nesting Hawaiian Green Sea Turtles 

1.23 Map from NOAA Showing Hawaiian Monk Seal Breeding Sites and Subpopulation Sizes 

and Foraging Area 

1.24 Quantity of Marine Debris Removal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

1.25 Overall Prevalence of Disease in the Four Major Coral Genera in the NWHI 

1.26 Spread of Bluestripe Snapper Throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago after Introduction to 

O‘ahu in 1958 

2.1 Map of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and Zones 

2.2 Adaptive Management Cycle to Inform Management and Decisionmaking 

2.3 Monument Management Policy Framework 

2.4 Organization of Action Plan by Priority Management Need 

LIST OF TABLES 

1.1 Seabird Species known to breed in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

1.2 Number of Terrestrial Arthropod Species in the NWHI Summarized by Order and Island 

1.3 Biogeographic Description of Land Plants of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument 

1.4 Species Observed in the NWHI Listed as Threatened or Endangered Under the 

Endangered Species Act 

1.5 Marine Alien Species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

2.1 Monument Vision, Mission, Guiding Principles, and Goals 

3.1 Total Estimated Cost to Fully Implement Actions Plan by Year 

3.1.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Marine Conservation Science 

3.1.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Native Hawaiian Culture and 

History 

3.1.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Historic Resources 

3.1.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Maritime Heritage 

3.2.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Threatened and Endangered 

Species 

3.2.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Migratory Birds 

3.2.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Habitat Management and 

Conservation 

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3.3.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Marine Debris 

3.3.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Alien Species 

3.3.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Maritime Transportation and 

Aviation 

3.3.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Emergency Response and 

Natural Resource Damage Assessment 

3.4.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Permitting 

3.4.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Enforcement 

3.4.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Midway Atoll Visitor Services 

3.5.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Agency Coordination 

3.5.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Constituency Building and 

Outreach 

3.5.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Native Hawaiian Community 

Involvement 

3.5.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

3.6.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Central Operations 

3.6.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Information Management 

3.6.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Coordinated Field Operations 

3.6.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Evaluation 
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 

AAUS American Academy of Underwater Sciences 

ATBA Areas to be Avoided 

BRAC Base Realignment and Closure 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations 

COPPS Community Oriented Policing and Problem Solving 

CoRIS NOAA Coral Reef Information System 

CPUE Catch-per-unit-effort 

CRED PIFCS Coral Reef Ecosystem Division 

CRER Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve 

DLNR State of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources 

DOD U.S. Department of Defense 

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

ESA Endangered Species Act 

FAA Federal Aviation Administration 

FAD Fish Aggregation Device 

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

FFS French Frigate Shoals 

GIS Geographic Information System 

HAR Hawai‘i Administrative Rule 

HAZWOPR Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response 

HIMB Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology 

HINWR Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge 

HRS Hawai‘i Revised Statutes 

HURL Hawai‘i Undersea Research Lab 

ICC Interagency Coordinating Committee 

IMO International Maritime Organization 

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

LORAN Long Range Aid to Navigation 

MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 

MBTA Migratory Bird Treaty Act 

MMB Monument Management Board 

MMPA Marine Mammal Protection Act 

MOA Memorandum of Agreement 

MOU Memorandum of Understanding 

NCCOS National Center for Coastal Ocean Science 

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act 1982 

NHPA National Historic Preservation Act 

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service 

NMSP National Marine Sanctuary Program 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NOAA Fisheries National Marine Fisheries Service of the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration 

NRC National Research Council 

NRDA Natural Resource Damage Assessment 

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NRSP Natural Resources Science Plan 

NWHI Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

NWR National Wildlife Refuge 

OHA Office of Hawaiian Affairs 

OPA Oil Pollution Act 

PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyls 

PIFSC NOAA Fisheries Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center 

PISCO Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans 

PSSA Particularly Sensitive Sea Area 

RAC Reserve Advisory Council 

ROP Reserve Operations Plan 

R/V Research Vessel 

SCUBA Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus 

SEB Senior Executive Board 

SHIELDS Sanctuaries Hazardous Incident Emergency Logistics Database System 

SMA Special Management Area 

SOU Special Ocean Use 

SPA Special Preservation Area 

SST Scientific Support Team 

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 

UXO Unexploded Ordnance 

VMS Vessel Monitoring System 
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Introduction 

1.1 Monument Setting 

1.2 Status and Condition of Natural Resources 

1.3 Status and Condition of Cultural and Historic Resources 

1.4 Environmental and Anthropogenic Stressors 

1.5 National and Global Significance 

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Presidential Proclamation 8031, issued by President George W. Bush on June 15, 2006, set aside 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) as the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument (Monument), thereby creating the largest fully protected marine conservation area in 

the world. This Monument designation adds to the mo‘okū‘auhau, or the genealogy, of the 

NWHI, as a place of deep significance to Native Hawaiians, and now, to the Nation and the 

world. 

In the Pacific, the NWHI have played a 

significant role in the culture and 

traditions of Native Hawaiians. 

Significant archaeological finds, as 

well as oral and written histories, 

confirm a deep relationship between 

the Hawaiian people and the NWHI. 

The region was also considered a 

sacred place, as evidenced by the many 

wahi kūpuna (ancestral sites) on the 

islands of Nihoa and Mokumanamana. 

Monument Vision and Mission 

Vision 

That the health, diversity, and resources of the vast NWHI 

ecosystems and the wildlife they support – unique in the world – 

be protected forever. 

Mission 

Carry out seamless integrated management to achieve strong, 

long-term protection and perpetuation of NWHI ecosystems, 

Native Hawaiian traditional and customary cultural and religious 

practices, and heritage resources for current and future 

generations. 

The NWHI have been the focus of various conservation efforts by the United States, beginning 

in 1903, when President Theodore Roosevelt sent in Marines to stop the slaughter of seabirds at 

Midway Atoll. Over the next 100 years, and through the efforts of six U.S. Presidents and one 

Hawai‘i Governor, the region received increasing protection, with the culmination being 

Proclamation 8031 that created the Monument. 

Globally, the NWHI are a natural and cultural treasure of outstanding scientific, conservation, 

and aesthetic value. The establishment of the Monument builds on the long-standing efforts of 

state and federal agencies, nongovernmental organizations, stakeholders, and the public to 

provide for long-term protection of the marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the NWHI and the 

preservation of cultural and historic resources. 

Management of the Monument is the responsibility of three Co-Trustees: the State of Hawai‘i, 

through the Department of Land and Natural Resources; the U.S. Department of the Interior, 

through the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS); and the Department of Commerce, through the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Co-Trustees are committed to 

preserving the ecological integrity of the Monument and perpetuation of the NWHI ecosystems, 

Native Hawaiian culture, and other historic resources. NOAA and FWS promulgated final 

regulations for the Monument under 50 CFR Part 404 on August 29, 2006. These regulations 

codify the scope and purpose, boundary, definitions, prohibitions, and regulated activities for 

managing the Monument. In addition, the Co-Trustees developed and signed a Memorandum of 

Agreement on December 8, 2006, to establish roles and responsibilities of coordinating bodies 

and mechanisms for managing the Monument. 

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Proclamation 8031 states that the Secretary of Commerce, through NOAA, has primary 

responsibility regarding the management of the marine areas of the Monument, in consultation 

with the Secretary of the Interior. The Secretary of the Interior, through FWS, has sole 

responsibility for the areas of the Monument that overlay the Midway Atoll National Wildlife 

Refuge, the Battle of Midway National Memorial, and the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife 

Refuge, in consultation with the Secretary of Commerce. Nothing in the Proclamation diminishes 

or enlarges the jurisdiction of the State of Hawai‘i. The State of Hawai‘i, through the 

Department of Land and Natural Resources, has primary responsibility for the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands Marine Refuge and State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. 

The Memorandum of Agreement also requires the Co-Trustees to develop a Monument 

Management Plan for ensuring the coordinated management of coral reef ecosystems and related 

marine environments, terrestrial resources, and cultural and historic resources of the Monument. 

To develop the Monument Management Plan, the Co-Trustees began with the final draft of 

NOAA's National Marine Sanctuary Program proposal. This document provided a good basis 

and background information from which to start. Requirements for the FWS National Wildlife 

Refuge System Comprehensive Conservation Planning process were added. Alternative plans 

and management approaches were developed and reviewed in an Environmental Assessment (see 

Volume II, Draft Environmental Assessment). Finally, through a process of review and 

synthesis, the draft plan was developed. 

The Monument is situated in the northwestern portion of the Hawaiian Archipelago, located 

northwest of the Island of Kaua‘i and the other main Hawaiian Islands (Figure 1.1). A vast, 

remote, and largely uninhabited region, the Monument encompasses an area of approximately 

139,797 square miles (362,075 square kilometers) of the Pacific Ocean. Spanning a distance of 

approximately 1,200 miles (1,043 nautical miles/1,931 kilometers), the 115-mile-wide 

(100 nautical mile/185.2 kilometer) Monument is dotted with small islands, islets, reefs, shoals, 

submerged banks, and atolls that extend from subtropical latitudes to near the northern limit of 

coral reef development. 

The Monument includes a complex array of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The NWHI are 

intimately connected to Native Hawaiians on genealogical, cultural, and spiritual levels. The 

region’s natural resources, together with its rich Native Hawaiian cultural and other historic 

resources, give this Monument a unique stature as one of the most significant protected areas in the 

world. 

This Monument Management Plan describes a comprehensive and coordinated management 

regime to achieve the vision, mission, and guiding principles of the Monument and to address 

priority management needs over the next 15 years. The plan is organized into three sections 

including this introduction. This Introduction, section 1, describes the Monument’s setting and 

the current status and condition of the ecosystem and cultural resources based on existing 

scientific and historic knowledge. It also describes known anthropogenic stressors that affect 

Monument resources or may do so in the future. 

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The management framework for the Monument is described in section 2 and includes key elements 

to move toward an ecosystem approach to management. This framework comprises the following 

elements: 

• The legal and policy basis leading to the establishment of the Monument 

• Vision, mission, and guiding principles that provide an overarching policy direction for 

the Monument 

• Goals to guide the implementation of specific action plans to address priority 

management needs 

• Institutional arrangements for management among the Co-Trustees and other 

stakeholders 

• Regulations and zoning to manage human activities and threats 

• Concepts and direction to move toward a coordinated ecosystem approach to 

management 

Section 3 presents action plans to address six priority management needs over a 15-year planning 

horizon. These priority management needs are: 

• Understanding and interpreting Monument resources 

• Conserving wildlife and their habitats 

• Reducing threats to Monument resources 

• Managing human activities 

• Facilitating coordination 

• Achieving effective operations 

Each action plan consists of multiple strategies and activities to address one or more priority 

management needs and achieve a desired outcome. Performance measures will be developed to 

evaluate implementation of the Monument Management Plan. Monument regulations and other 

policy and operating instruments are provided in the Appendices, along with references. 
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Figure 1.1 Hawaiian Archipelago Including the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Nihoa Island to Kure Atoll) and Main Hawaiia

Kaua‘i). Inset shows the Hawaiian Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. 

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Hānau Moku–The Birth of Islands

Birth is a core theme in Native Hawaiian culture. Pō, the primordial darkness from which all life 

springs and returns to after death (Kikiloi 2006), is seen as birthing the world and all of the 

Hawaiian gods. The union of her progeny, Kumulipo and Pō‘ele, births all the creatures of the 

world beginning in the oceans with the coral polyp––a genealogy that starts with the simplest life 

form and moves to the more complex. 

In keeping with the symbolism of birth, Native Hawaiians view the rising of magma from deep 

within the earth as birthing of the islands––the physical manifestation of the union between the 

earth mother, Papahānaumoku, and sky father Wākea. The symbolism of this union is also the 

foundation for the name of the Monument: Papahānaumokuākea. 

From a Native Hawaiian perspective, the NWHI are the kūpuna (elders/grandparents) of Native 

Hawaiians. As a kupuna, each island is our teacher; each island has its own unique message. As 

the younger generation, humans are tasked to mālama (care for) our kūpuna. It is our kuleana 

(responsibility) to take the time to listen to their wisdom. 

Overview – Geographic, Geological and Ecosystem Setting 

As the world’s largest marine protected area, the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument encompasses a vast 

area of the Pacific. Extending for 

a distance of roughly 1,200 

statute miles (1,930 kilometers) 

by 115 statute miles 

(185 kilometers), the Monument 

covers an area of approximately 

140,000 square miles (362,100 

square kilometers) and includes a 

rich, varied, and unique natural, 

cultural, and historic legacy. The 

Monument is located 

approximately between latitudes 

22° N. and 30° N. and longitudes 

161° W. and 180° W. within the 

north-central Pacific Ocean. 

Overlaid on a map of the 

continental United States, the 

Monument would cover a distance 

from the Midwest to the eastern U.S. coastline (figure 1.2). 

Figure 1.2 Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument Overlaid on Eastern North America. 

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The islands and atolls of the Monument constitute the northwestern three-quarters of the world’s 

longest and most remote island 

chain. Formed millions of years 

ago, the islands were created by a 

sequential series of underwater 

shield volcanoes which, in 

combination with the main Hawaiian 

Islands, form the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. These once lofty 

islands have been transported 

northwest, as if on a conveyor belt, 

by the movements of the Pacific 

Plate to their current locations 

(Dalrymple et al. 1974). Due to the 

pervasive and unrelenting forces of 

subsidence and erosion, all that 

remains today are small patches of 

ancient land, and shoals and reefs 

Figure 1.3 Atoll Formation. now lie where magnificent 

mountains once loomed. Northwest of Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, the rocky islands, atolls, and reefs 

become progressively older and smaller. 

Beginning 155 miles (249.4 kilometers) from the main Hawaiian Island of Kaua‘i, the 10 islands 

and atolls of this chain extend for 1,200 miles (1,931 kilometers) and are referred to as the 

NWHI, in past decades as the Leeward or Kūpuna Islands, and now as Papahānaumokuākea. 

None of these islands is more than 2 square miles (5 square kilometers) in size, and all but four 

have an average mean height less than 32 feet (10 meters). As a group, they represent a classic 

geomorphological sequence, consisting of highly eroded high islands, near-atolls with volcanic 

pinnacles jutting from surrounding lagoons, true ring-shaped atolls with roughly circular rims 

and central lagoons, and secondarily raised atolls, one of which has an interior hypersaline lake. 

These islands are also surrounded by over 30 submerged ancillary banks and seamounts. This 

geological progression along the Hawaiian Ridge continues northwestward beyond the last 

emergent island, Kure Atoll, as a chain of submerged platforms that makes a sudden northward 

bend to become the Emperor Seamounts, which extend across the entire North Pacific to the base 

of the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia. This unbroken chain of progressively more senescent 

volcanic structures essentially tracks the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate over the past 

80 million years, and has provided some of the most compelling evidence upon which current 

theories of hot-spot-mediated island formation and global plate tectonic movements have been 

based. 

The Monument supports a diverse and unique array of both marine and terrestrial flora and 

fauna. With a spectrum of bathymetry and topography ranging from abyssal basins at depths 

greater than 15,000 feet (4,572 meters) below sea level to rugged hillslopes and clifftops on 

Nihoa and Mokumanamana (Necker) islands at up to 903 feet (275.2 meters) above sea level, the 

Monument represents a complete cross section of a Pacific archipelagic ecosystem. Habitats 

encompassed within the Monument include deep pelagic basins, submarine escarpments, deep 

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and shallow coral reefs, shallow lagoons, littoral shores, dunes, and dry coastal grasslands and 

shrublands. Relatively high percentages of most taxonomic groups in the NWHI are found 

nowhere else on earth. 

Nutrient conditions in the NWHI may be influenced by local and regional factors. Upwelling 

may occur in response to localized wind and bathymetric features. The Monument is located at 

the northern edge of the oligotrophic tropical Pacific, in the North Pacific central gyre 

ecosystem. (See figure 1.4). Regional factors are largely influenced by the position of the 

subtropical front and associated high chlorophyll content of waters north of the front. Highchlorophyll waters intersect the northern portions of the NWHI during southward winter 

migrations of the subtropical front. The influx of nutrients to the NWHI from these migrations is 

considered a significant factor influencing different trophic levels in the NWHI (Polovina et al. 

1995). It is near the 18 °C sea surface isotherm, a major ecological transition zone in the 

northern Pacific. This boundary, also known as the "chlorophyll front," varies in position both 

seasonally and annually, occasionally transgressing the Monument boundary and surrounding the 

northern atolls of Kure and Midway. The movement of the front influences overall ocean 

productivity, and resultant recruitment of certain faunal elements such as Hawaiian monk seals 

and Laysan and black-footed albatrosses (Polovina et al. 1994.) The northernmost atolls also are 

occasionally affected by an episodic eastward extension of the Western Pacific warm pool, 

which can lead to higher summer ocean temperatures at Kure than are found in the more 

"tropical" waters of the main Hawaiian Islands further south. This interplay of oceanography 

and climate is still incompletely understood but is a dynamic not seen in most other tropical atoll 

ecosystems, and it provides a useful natural laboratory for understanding phenomena such as 

periodic coral bleaching and the effects of El Niño and La Niña ocean circulation patterns. 

Ocean currents, waves, temperature, nutrients, and other oceanographic parameters and 

conditions influence ecosystem composition, structure, and function in the NWHI. The 

archipelago is influenced by a wide range of oceanographic conditions that vary on spatial and 

temporal scales. Spatial variability in oceanographic conditions ranges from a localized 

temperature regime that may affect a small portion of a reef to a temperature regime that 

influences the entire Monument. Temporal variability in ocean conditions may range from 

hourly and daily changes to seasonal, annual, or decadal cycles in nutrient inputs, sea level 

heights, current patterns, and other large-scale oceanographic processes (Polovina et al. 1994). 

Currents play an important role in the dispersal and recruitment of marine life in the NWHI. 

Surface currents in the NWHI are highly variable in both speed and direction (Firing and 

Brainard 2006), with long-term average surface flow being from east to west in response to the 

prevailing northeast trade wind conditions. The highly variable nature of the surface currents is 

due in large part to eddies created by local island effects on large-scale circulation. The 

distribution of corals and other shallow-water organisms is also influenced by exposure to ocean 

waves. The size and strength of ocean wave events have annual, interannual, and decadal time 

scales. Annual extratropical storms (storms that originate outside of tropical latitudes) create 

high waves during the winter. Decadal variability in wave power is possibly related to the 

Pacific Decadal Oscillation events (Mantua et al. 1997). A number of extreme wave events were 

recorded during the periods 1985 to 1989 and 1998 to 2002, and anomalously low numbers of 

extreme wave events occurred during the early 1980s and from 1990 to 1996. Marine debris 

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accumulation in shallow water areas of the NWHI is also influenced by large- and small-scale 

ocean circulation patterns and El Niño and La Niña events (Morishige et al. 2007). 

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Figure 1.4 Diagram of Central Pacific Gyre. The North Pacific, California, North Equatorial, and 

Kuroshio currents along with atmospheric winds generate the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. The 

Subtropical Convergence Zone, an area where marine debris is known to accumulate, shifts seasonally 

between 23o N and 37o N latitude. 

The physical isolation of the Hawaiian Archipelago explains the relatively low species diversity 

and high endemism levels of its biota (DeMartini and Friedlander 2004). The direction of flow 

of surface waters explains biogeographic relationships between the NWHI and other sites, such 

as Johnston Atoll to the south (Grigg 1981), as well as patterns of endemism, population 

structure, and density of reef fish within the archipelago (DeMartini and Friedlander 2006). 

The shallow marine component of the Monument is nearly pristine and has been described as a 

“predator-dominated ecosystem,” an increasingly rare phenomenon in the world’s oceans 

(Friedlander and DeMartini 2002). Large, predatory fish—such as sharks, giant trevally, and 

Hawaiian grouper—that are rarely seen and heavily overfished in populated areas of the world 

are extremely abundant in the waters of the Monument. For instance, such species comprise 

only 3 percent of fish biomass in the heavily used main Hawaiian Islands, but by contrast 

represent 54 percent of fish biomass in the waters of the Monument. The NWHI are also 

characterized by a high degree of endemism in reef fish species, particularly at the northern end 

of the chain, with endemics comprising over 50 percent of the population in terms of numerical 

abundance (DeMartini and Friedlander 2004). 

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Live coral cover is highest in the middle of the chain, with Lisianski Island and Maro Reef 

having 59.3 percent and 64.1 percent of their respective available substrate covered with living 

corals (Maragos et al. 2004). Coral species richness is also highest in the middle of the chain, 

reaching a maximum of 41 reported coral species at French Frigate Shoals (Maragos et al. 2004). 

The coral reefs of the Monument are undisturbed by fishing or tourism, with excellent health and 

high species richness; preliminary faunal inventories indicate that many of their constituent 

species remain undocumented, and new coral species are still being discovered in this area. 

The majority of the Monument consists of deep pelagic waters that surround the island 

platforms. At least 15 banks lie at depths between 100 and 1,300 feet (30 and 400 meters) within 

the Monument, providing important habitat for bottomfish and lobster species, although only a 

few of these banks have been studied in any detail (Kelley and Ikehara 2006). These waters 

represent critical deepwater foraging grounds for Hawaiian monk seals (Parrish et al. 2002) as 

well as a spatial refugium for pelagic fishes such as tunas and their allies, which have been 

declared overfished in other regions throughout the world (Myers and Worm 2003). 

Scientists using deep-diving submersibles have established the presence of deepwater precious 

coral beds at depths of 1,200 to 1,330 feet (365 to 406 meters); these include ancient gold corals 

whose growth rate is now estimated to be only a few centimeters every hundred years and whose 

ages may exceed 2,500 years (Roark et al. 2006). At depths below 1,640 feet (500 meters), a 

diverse community of octocorals and sponges flourish. These deepwater sessile animals prefer 

hard substrates devoid of sediments (Baco-Taylor et al. 2006). Even deeper yet, the abyssal 

depths of the Monument, while harboring limited biomass, are home to many odd and poorly 

documented fishes and invertebrates, many with remarkable adaptations to this extreme 

environment. 

The deep waters are also important insofar as they support an offshore mesopelagic boundary 

community (Benoit-Bird et al. 2002), a thick layer of pelagic organisms that rests in the deep 

ocean (1,300 to 2,300 feet, or 400 to 700 meters) during the day, then migrates up to shallower 

depths (from near zero to 1,300 feet or 400 meters) at night, providing a critical source of 

nutrition for open-ocean fishes, seabirds, and marine mammals. Overall, the fauna of the 

Monument's waters below standard SCUBA diving depths remains poorly surveyed and 

documented, representing an enormous opportunity for future scientific research in a system 

largely undisturbed by trawling or other forms of resource extraction. 

Rates of marine endemism in the NWHI are among the highest in the world. In addition, the 

sheer mass of apex predators in the marine system is simply not seen in areas subject to higher 

levels of human impact (DeMartini and Friedlander 2004). The Monument represents one of the 

last remaining unspoiled protected areas on the planet, and virtually every scientific exploration 

to the area is a voyage of discovery. In the course of just one 3-week research cruise in the fall 

of 2006, conducted as part of the global Census of Marine Life project, more than 100 potentially 

new species were discovered at French Frigate Shoals alone. 

In contrast to its marine systems, the terrestrial area of the Monument is comparatively small but 

supports significant endemic biodiversity. Six species of endemic plants, including a fan palm, 

and four species of endemic birds, including remarkably isolated species such as the Nihoa finch, 

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Nihoa millerbird, Laysan finch, and Laysan duck, one of the world’s rarest ducks, are found only 

in the NWHI. In addition, over 14 million seabirds nest on the tiny islets in the chain, including 

99 percent of the world’s Laysan albatrosses and 98 percent of the world’s black-footed 

albatrosses. Although still poorly documented, the terrestrial invertebrate fauna also shows 

significant patterns of precinctive speciation, with endemic species present on Nihoa, 

Mokumanamana, French Frigate Shoals, Laysan, Lisianski, Pearl and Hermes, and Kure. 

Climate 

The climate of the entire Hawaiian archipelago features mild temperatures year-round, moderate 

humidities, persistent northeasterly trade winds, and infrequent severe storms. Hawai‘i’s climate 

is notable for its low day-to-day and month-to-month variability (Giambelluca and Schroeder 

1998). The climate is influenced by the marine tropical or marine Pacific air masses depending 

upon the season. During the summer, the Pacific High Pressure System becomes dominant with 

the ridge line extending across the Pacific north of Kure and Midway. This places the region 

under the influence of easterly winds, with marine tropical and trade winds prevailing. During 

the winter, especially from November through January, the Aleutian Low moves southward over 

the North Pacific, displacing the Pacific High before it. The Kure-Midway region is then 

affected by either marine Pacific or marine tropical air, depending upon the intensity of the 

Aleutian Low or the Pacific High Pressure System (Amerson et al. 1974). The surrounding 

ocean has a dominant effect on the weather of the entire archipelago. 

Sea surface temperature is an important physical factor influencing coral reefs and other marine 

ecosystems. Maximum monthly climatological mean sea-surface temperature measured over the 

last 20 years at Kure is 80.6 oF (27 oC) in August and September (NOAA Pathfinder SST time 

series; Hoeke et al. 2006), with monthly minimums in February at 66.2 oF (19 oC). The large 

seasonal temperature fluctuations at the northern end of the archipelago result in the coldest and 

sometimes the warmest sea surface temperatures in the entire Hawaiian chain (Brainard et al.

2004). At the southern end of the Monument, the annual variation in sea surface temperature is 

much less, with French Frigate Shoals only varying between 74 and 81.5° F (23.3 and 27.5o C) 

throughout the year. During the period between July and September 2002, sea surface 

temperatures along the entire Hawaiian Archipelago were anomalously warm, resulting in 

widespread mass coral bleaching, particularly in the three northern atolls. 

Air temperature at the northern end of the archipelago varies between 51 and 92 oF (11 and 

33° C). Air temperature measurements made at six sites on Nihoa Island (23o N. latitude) from 

March 2006 to March 2007 ranged between 61 and 94 oF (16 and 34° C). Annual rainfall 

amounts at Tern Island, French Frigate Shoals are shown in figure 1.5. Annual rainfall over the 

last 26 years has been 28.85 inches (73.28 centimeters) on average, ranging between 15.99 and 

41.04 inches (40.61 and 104.24 centimeters) per year. 

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1981198319851987198919911993199519971999200120032005

Year

Total Annual Rainfall (inches)

Figure 1.5 Annual Rainfall (inches) Tern Island, French Frigate Shoals.

On average, between four and five tropical typhoons or hurricanes are observed annually in the 

Central Pacific. Most of these storms develop in the eastern tropical Pacific, but some form in 

the central tropical Pacific, and occasionally typhoons approach the Monument from the Western 

Pacific. The strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Monument area was Patsy in 1959, which 

passed between Midway and Kure with wind speeds of greater than 115 mph (100 knots) 

(Friedlander et al. 2005). Only two hurricanes nearing the NWHI since 1979 were classified as 

Category 2 or weaker. No significant tropical storms have been observed in the NWHI since 

Hurricane Nele passed near Gardner Pinnacles in 1985. 

Much more common, and perhaps more significant as a natural process affecting the geology and 

ecology of the Monument, are the extratropical storms and significant wave events that regularly 

move across the North Pacific in the boreal winter. These large wave events (>33-foot or 

10-meter waves) influence the growth forms and distribution of coral reef organisms (Dollar 

1982; Dollar and Grigg 2004; Friedlander et al. 2005) and affect the reproductive performance of 

winter-breeding seabirds nesting on low islets in the Monument. Most large (16 to 33 feet+ or 

5 to 10+ meters) wave events approach the NWHI from the west, northwest, north, and 

northeast, with the highest energy generally occurring from the northwest sector. The southern 

sides of most of the islands and atolls of the NWHI are exposed to fewer and weaker wave 

events. Annually, wave energy and wave power (energy transferred across a given area per unit 

time) are highest (~1.3 W/m) between November and March and lowest (~0.3 W/m) between 

May and September. Extreme wave events (33+ feet or 10+ meter waves) affect shallow water 

coral reef communities with at least an order of magnitude more energy than the typical winter 

waves (Friedlander et al. 2005). 

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The following section contains brief descriptions of the individual islands and marine habitats 

within the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, and their salient physical and 

biological characteristics. The most commonly used name for each island is given first, with 

alternative names, if any, provided in parentheses. It should be noted that for the islands 

northwest of Mokumanamana, the Hawaiian names provided are not yet in use on many modern 

maps. In addition, multiple Hawaiian names have been given to these islands, with the most 

ancient still being researched through the study of chants, stories, song, and documents written in 

the Hawaiian language. 

Nihoa Island 

23°03′ N., 161°56′ W.

“He pu‘u kolo i Nihoa.” (“Crawling up the 

cliffs of Nihoa”). This traditional Hawaiian 

saying is a compliment to one who perseveres. 

(Pukui 1997). Nihoa has many craggy cliffs, 

and the rough surf in the winter makes landing 

there even more difficult than during the 

summer. “Nihoa” literally means “firmly set,” 

which could refer to the people who frequented 

such rugged conditions, and to the pounding 

that the island takes from the sea and wind. 

Nihoa has also been known as Moku Manu 

(bird island). 

Nihoa Island is located approximately 155 miles 

(249.4 kilometers) northwest of Kaua‘i, the 

closest of the main Hawaiian Islands. 

Measuring roughly 170 acres (0.68 square kilometers), this island is the largest emergent 

volcanic island within the Monument and the tallest, reaching an elevation of 903 feet (275.2 

meters) at Miller Peak. It is also the geologically youngest island within the Monument, with an 

age calculated at 7.3 million years (Clague 1996). Nihoa is a deeply eroded remnant of a oncelarge volcano, and the large basaltic shelf of which it is a part stretches 18 miles 

(28.9 kilometers) in a northeast-southwest direction and averages between 112 to 217 feet (34.1 

and 66.1 meters) deep (NOAA 2003b). The island’s two prominent peaks and steep sea cliffs are 

clearly visible from a distance, rising like a fortress above the sea. The island's northern face is 

composed of a sheer cliff made up of successive layers of basaltic lava, within which numerous 

volcanic dikes are visible. The surface of the island slopes southward with an average slope of 

23o (Johnson 2004). The island's surrounding submerged reef habitat totals approximately 

142,000 acres (574.6 square kilometers) and is a combination of uncolonized hard bottom, 

macroalgae, pavement with sand channels and live coral, and uncolonized volcanic rock (NOAA 

2003b), supporting at least 127 species of reef fish and 17 species of corals. 

Figure 1.6 Nihoa.

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Nihoa’s seabird colony boasts one of the largest populations of Tristam’s storm-petrel, Bulwer’s 

petrel, and blue noddies in the Hawaiian Islands, and very possibly the world. The island is a 

unique example of a lowland native community, resembling those lowland communities that 

once occurred on the main Hawaiian Islands but are now almost completely gone (Wagner et al. 

1990). The island’s vegetation can be classified as part coastal mixed community (Sida mixed 

shrub and grassland) and coastal dry shrubland dominated by ‘ilima (Sida fallax), ‘āweoweo 

(Chenopodium oahuense), and ‘ōhai (Sesbania tomentosa). The island supports 21 native plant 

species, including 3 endemics: a palm or loulu (Pritchardia remota), an amaranth (Amaranthus 

brownii), and an herb (Scheidea verticillata) (Wagner et al. 1999). The avifauna of the island 

includes two endemic passerine birds, the Nihoa finch (Telespiza ultima) and the Nihoa 

millerbird (Acrocephalus familiarus kingii), both listed as endangered under the Federal 

Endangered Species Act. The arthropod fauna of the island includes 33 species of mites, 

3 species of spiders, and 182 species of insects, 17 of which are endemic, including a katydid 

(Banza nihoa), a giant tree cricket (Thaumatogryllus conantae), 2 species of endemic seed bugs 

(Nysius nihoae and Nysius suffusus), and an endemic trapdoor spider (Nihoa mahina) (Evenhuis 

and Eldredge 2004). Nihoa also has a rich cultural heritage, with at least 88 known wahi kupuna 

(ancestral sites) constructed by the precontact Hawaiians who inhabited the island for 700 years 

(until 1700 A.D.), and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. 

Mokumanamana (Necker Island) 

23°35′ N., 164°42′ W.

Mokumanamana is translated as a 

branching or pinnacled island, which 

aptly describes it, but many people who 

have studied its many religious and 

cultural sites suggest that the repetition 

of the word “mana” (spiritual power) 

after the Hawaiian word for “island” 

probably holds even more relevance. 

The facts that most of the 33 shrines on 

the island follow the kua (spine) of the 

island, the solar solstice hits the upright 

stones at a particular angle, navigational 

sites have been noted here, and the 

Hawaiian axes of life and death cross 

directly over Mokumanamana all 

potentially explain the reasoning behind 

the double mana in the name, and the 

concept of branching. 

Figure 1.7 Mokumanamana (Necker Island) 

Mokumanamana is a dry volcanic island shaped like a fishhook, and includes approximately 

45 acres (0.18 square kilometers) of land. Geologists believe the island, with an estimated age of 

10.6 million years, was once the size of O‘ahu in the main Hawaiian Islands, with a maximum 

paleo-elevation of 3,400 feet (1,036 meters) (Clague 1996), but due to centuries of erosion its 

highest point, at Summit Hill, is now only 276 feet (84.1 meters) above sea level. Wave action 

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has eroded the remainder of the original island into a submerged shelf approximately 40 miles 

(64 kilometers) long and 15 miles (24 kilometers) wide. While this shelf holds more than 

380,000 acres (1,538 square kilometers) of coral reef habitat supporting 125 reef fish species and 

18 coral species, severe wave action and currents in the exposed areas tend to inhibit coral 

growth. The bank provides excellent habitat for spiny lobsters (Panulirus marginatus) and 

slipper lobsters (Scyllarides squammosus), especially in areas of less than 90 feet (27.4 meters) 

depth and high benthic relief (Parrish and Polovina 1994). Because of its limited size, 

Mokumanamana supports only 5 indigenous plant species and no land birds, but does harbor 

3 species of mites, 2 species of spiders, and 70 species of insects, of which 11 are endemic, 

including a large weevil (Rhycogonus biformis), 2 species of seed bugs (Nysius neckerensis and 

Nysius chenopodii), and a trapdoor spider (Nihoa hawaiiensis) (Evenhuis and Eldredge 2004). 

Sixteen species of seabirds breed here, including the black noddy (Anous minutus), which 

historically was called the Necker Island tern. 

Mokumanamana is also significant in Native Hawaiian culture. It bears 33 heiau (ceremonial 

sites) with standing stones that stretch the length of the island’s central spine, suggesting that it 

was visited by Native Hawaiians for spiritual and possibly navigational purposes. 

French Frigate Shoals (Mokupāpapa, Kānemiloha‘i) 

23°145′ N., 66°10′ W. 

The first atoll to the northwest of the main 

Hawaiian Islands, Mokupāpapa (flat, sand 

island) is also the midpoint of the archipelago 

and the largest coral reef area in Hawai‘i. 

Pāpapa means low and flat, like a reef, and 

that spelling is sometimes seen in the spelling 

of these shoals. This low, flat area is also 

where the goddess Pele is said to have left her 

brother, Kānemiloha‘i, to build up the land 

during her first journey to Hawai‘i from 

Kahiki (Tahiti). 

French Frigate Shoals is the largest atoll in the 

chain, taking the form of an 18-mile 

(28.9 kilometers) long crescent. It is 

estimated to be 12.3 million years old (Clague 

1996). The shoals consist of 67 acres 

(0.27 square kilometers) of total emergent 

land surrounded by approximately 230,000 acres (931 square kilometers) of coral reef habitat, 

with a combination of sand, rubble, uncolonized hard bottom, and crustose coralline algae in the 

windward and exposed lagoon areas, and patch and linear coral reefs in more sheltered areas 

(NOAA 2003b). Tern Island in the atoll is the site of a FWS field station, which occupies a 

former U.S. Coast Guard Long-Range Aids to Navigation (LORAN) station that closed in 1979. 

Within the NWHI, French Frigate Shoals is the center of diversity for corals (more than 

41 species, including the genus Acropora, which is all but absent elsewhere in Hawai‘i) and reef 

Figure 1.8 French Frigate Shoals. 

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fishes (178 species). A relatively deep (82 to 98 feet or 24.9 to 29.8 meters) coral reef at this 

atoll has been recently discovered to function as a spawning site for the giant trevally, Caranx 

ignobilis (Meyer et al. 2007); a rare discovery of spawning sites for top predators. 

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The lagoon is also unusual in that it contains two exposed volcanic pinnacles representing the 

last vestiges of the high island from which the atoll was derived, as well as nine low, sandy 

islets. The sand islets are small, shift position, and disappear and reappear. In 1923, the Tanager 

Expedition mapped 16 islets (Amerson 1971). In 1963, Whaleskate was a 16.8-acre (0.068 

square kilometers), vegetated island (Amerson 1971); by 1998, it had completely disappeared 

(Antonelis et al. 2006). These islets provide highly important habitat for the world's largest 

breeding colony of the imperiled Hawaiian monk seal, which is listed as endangered under the 

Endangered Species Act and is also internationally recognized as endangered by the World 

Conservation Union. The atoll's sandy islets also provide nesting sites for 90 percent of the 

threatened green turtle population breeding in the Hawaiian Archipelago. In addition, 19 of 

Hawai‘i’s 22 seabird species are found on the island, giving it the highest species richness of 

breeding seabirds within the Monument. The dry coastal shrublands of the larger islets within 

the atoll also support an endemic seed bug (Nysius frigatensis), moth (Agrotis kerri), and mite 

(Phauloppia bryani) (Usinger 1942; Nishida 2002). 

Gardner Pinnacles (Pūhāhonu) 

25°02′ N., 168°05′ W. 

“He pūko‘a kū no ka moana.”(A large rock 

standing in the sea). This traditional H

saying is used to describe someone who is 

stubborn, unchangeable, and very determi

This is a suitable description for Pūhāhonu 

(surfacing of a sea turtle for air/breadth)

which looks a bit like a turtle’s beak coming 

up for air and consists of two rocks, with the

tallest of them 170-feet tall and 200 yards 

long. 

Gardner Pinnacles consists of two emergent 

basaltic volcanic peaks estimated to be 

15.8 million years in age (Clague 1996), 

which represent the oldest high islands in the 

Hawaiian chain. In scale, these pinnacles are 

small, the largest reaching only 180 feet 

(54.8 meters) high and having a diameter of approximately 590 feet (179.8 meters). Due to their 

limited size, they support only a single species of land plant (Portulaca lutea) and a few 

terrestrial arthropod species, but they are by contrast excellent habitat for seabirds (Clapp 1972). 

Guano from such seabirds gives the peaks a “frosted” appearance, indicating their importance as 

roosting and breeding sites for at least 12 subtropical species. Landings and terrestrial surveys 

rarely take place due to the difficulty of getting ashore under all but the most calm ocean 

conditions. 

Figure 1.9 Gardner Pinnacles. 

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These remnant volcanic pinnacles are surrounded by approximately 600,000 acres (2,428 square 

kilometers) of coral reef habitat, most of which is in waters 60 feet (18.3 meters) or deeper, 

harboring 124 reef fish species and 27 species of corals. The intertidal bases of the pinnacles are 

studded with large populations of ‘opihi, endemic Hawaiian limpets that have been seriously 

depleted by overharvesting elsewhere in the main Hawaiian Islands.

Maro Reef (Nalukākala, Ko‘anako‘a) 

25°22′ N., 170°35′ W.

The name Nakukākala describes surf that 

arrives in combers, such as the surf that froths 

over shallow reefs. The less well-known 

name of Ko‘anako‘a describes brave spacing 

between small altars, which could speak to the 

challenge of trying to steer through the 

shallow reefs of Maro, itself a huge, shallow 

island that is flooded by the ocean and surf at 

high tide. 

Maro Reef is a largely submerged open atoll 

19.7 million years old (Clague 1996), with 

less than 1 acre (4,046.8 square meters) of 

periodically emergent land. At very low tide, 

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island is believed to break above the surface; 

as a result, Maro supports no terrestrial biota. In contrast, the shallow water reef system is 

extensive, covering nearly a half-million acres (2,023 square kilometers), and is the largest coral 

reef in the Monument. It is also one of the chain’s most ecologically rich shallow water marine 

ecosystems, with 64.1 percent coral cover over the entire area, among the highest percentage 

observed in the Monument (Maragos et al. 2004). The documented marine biota at Maro Reef 

includes 37 species of corals and 142 species of reef fish. Fish species endemic to the Hawaiian 

Archipelago make up half of all fish recorded here. Maro’s reefs are intricate and reticulated, 

forming a complex network of reef crests, patch reefs, and lagoons. Deepwater channels with 

irregular bottoms cut between these shallow reef structures, but navigation through them is 

difficult and hazardous. Cover types range from unconsolidated with 10 percent or less 

macroalgae cover to areas with greater than 10 percent coral or crustose coralline algae (NOAA 

2003b). Because the outermost reefs absorb the majority of the energy from the open ocean 

swells, the innermost reticulated reefs and aggregated patch reefs are sheltered and have the 

characteristics of a true lagoon. Given the structural complexity of this platform, its shallow reefs 

are poorly charted and largely unexplored. 

Figure 1.10 Maro Reef. 

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1 Laysan Island (Kauō) 

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25°46′ N., 171°45′ W.

Kauō (egg) describes both the shape of this 

island and, perhaps, the abundant seabirds 

that nest here. 

Laysan is a raised atoll, estimated to be 

20.7 million years old (Clague 1996), with a 

maximum elevation of approximately 

50 feet (15 meters) above sea level. It 

represents the second largest island in the 

Monument, with a land area of 

approximately 914 acres (3.7 square 

kilometers), surrounded by close to 

100,000 acres (405 square kilometers) of 

coral reef. Most of the reef area at Laysan 

lies in deeper waters, with a small, shallowwater reef area in a bay off the southwest 

side of the island. The reef system as a whole supports 131 species of reef fishes and 27 species 

of corals. Laysan is home to a semi-permanent FWS field camp to support wildlife monitoring 

and habitat restoration. 

Figure 1.11 Laysan Island. 

The island's ring of sandy dunes surrounds a 100-acre (0.4 square kilometers) hypersaline 

interior lake, a feature unique within the Hawaiian Archipelago and rare within the Pacific as a 

whole. Because of its elevation of about 40 feet (12 meters), Laysan is well vegetated, 

supporting at least 30 species of flowering plants, including 5 endemic subspecies prior to human 

contact (Athens et al. 2007), many of which were driven to extinction by the misguided 

introduction of rabbits in 1902 during the guano mining era (Ely and Clapp 1973). The plant 

community is divided into five different associations arrayed in concentric rings around the 

interior hypersaline lake: (1) coastal shrubs, (2) interior bunchgrass, (3) vines, (4) interior shrubs, 

and (5) wetland vegetation (Newman 1988). The island also previously harbored five endemic 

birds, of which two, the Laysan finch (Telespiza cantans) and the Laysan duck (Anas 

laysanensis), still survive (Pratt et al. 1987). In addition, approximately 2 million seabirds nest 

here, including boobies, frigatebirds, terns, shearwaters, noddies, and the world’s second-largest 

black-footed and Laysan albatross colonies. The island also supports a relatively rich arthropod 

fauna, including a large endemic weevil (Rhyncogonus bryani), four endemic moths, an endemic 

wasp, and three endemic mites. A successful 12-year eradication project to remove the sandbur 

Cenchrus echinatus, a plant that had displaced native vegetation over 30 percent of the island, 

has been completed, and an active ecological restoration project is under way to bring back a 

number of other plants and animals that were lost after the introduction of rabbits (Morin and 

Conant 1998).

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1 Lisianski Island (Papa‘āpoho) and Neva Shoal 

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Papa‘āpoho describes a flat area with a 

depression or hollow, which is exactly how 

the island of Papa‘āpoho is shaped. Its 

highest point is a 40-foot-high sand dune, 

and its lowest point is a depression to the 

south that runs as a channel toward the 

ocean. 

Lisianski Island is another raised atoll, 

rising to 40 feet (12.1 meters) above sea 

level, and with approximately 400 acres 

(1.6 square kilometers) of emergent land is 

the third largest island within the 

Monument. This 23.4-million-year-old 

island (Clague 1996) is over 1.2 miles 

(1.9 kilometers) across, consisting of an 

elevated rim surrounding a broad central depression, although unlike Laysan it does not enclose 

an interior saline lake. The coral cover on the platform around the island, called Neva Shoal, is 

extensive, totaling over 290,000 acres (1,174 square kilometers) with an average of almost 

60 percent cover of the substrate. There are 24 coral species at Lisianski, and 124 species of reef 

fish. Fish species endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago compose 58 percent of all fish recorded 

here. 

Figure 1.12 Lisianski Island and Neva Shoal.

Lisianski suffered ecological perturbations similar to those on Laysan due to guano mining and 

the release of rabbits in 1903 (Tomich 1986). It supports no endemic land plant or bird species, 

although it does harbor an endemic seed bug (Nysius fullawayi flavus) and an endemic moth 

(Helicoverpa minuta) (Usinger 1942; Nishida 2002). The island also hosts large Bonin petrel 

and sooty tern colonies, as well as a variety of other seabirds. Lisianski also has the only grove 

of Pisonia grandis trees in the entire Hawaiian Archipelago; this tree is dispersed by seabirds 

and favored as a nesting site for many tree-nesting seabird species. 

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27°50′ N., 175°50′ W.

The name Holoikauaua celebrates the 

Hawaiian monk seals that haul out and rest 

here. Pearl and Hermes Atoll is a large atoll 

with several small islets, forming 96 acres 

(0.38 square kilometers) of land surrounded 

by over 300,000 acres (1,214 square 

kilometers) of coral reef habitat. The atoll 

has an estimated age of 26.8 million years 

(Clague 1996) and is over 20 miles 

(32 kilometers) across and 12 miles 

(19.3 kilometers) wide, with dunes rising 

above sea level. Unlike Lisianski and Laysan 

to the southeast, Pearl and Hermes Atoll is a 

true atoll, fringed with shoals, permanent 

emergent islands, and ephemeral sandy islets. 

These features provide vital dry land for monk seals, green turtles, and a multitude of seabirds, 

with 16 species breeding here. The islets are periodically washed over when winter storms pass 

through the area. The atoll boasts the highest rate of reef fish endemism in the Hawaiian 

Archipelago, with 62 percent of fish species recorded endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago out 

of 174 species overall. Coral species richness is high as well, with 33 species present. The 

permanent islands with higher dunes also support an endemic subspecies of native seed bug 

(Nysius fullawayi infuscatus) (Usinger 1942). Pearl and Hermes also hosts a small population of 

endangered Laysan finches that were translocated here in the 1960s. 

Figure 1.13 Pearl and Hermes Atoll. 

Midway Atoll (Pihemanu) 

28°15′ N., 177°20′ W.

Pihemanu is aptly named for the loud din 

of birds that one hears on this atoll. 

Midway Atoll consists of three sandy 

islets (Sand 1,128 acres (4.56 square 

kilometers), Eastern 337 acres 

(1.36 square kilometers), and Spit 13 acres 

(0.05 square kilometers)) for a total of 

1,464 acres (5.9 square kilometers) in 

terrestrial area, lying within a large, 

elliptical barrier reef measuring 

approximately 5 miles (8 kilometers) in 

diameter. The atoll, which is 28.7 million 

years old (Clague 1996), is surrounded by 

more than 88,500 acres (356 square 

kilometers) of coral reefs. In 1965, the 

U.S. Geological Survey took core 

Figure 1.14 Midway Atoll.

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samples and hit solid basaltic rock 180 feet (54.8 meters) beneath Sand Island and 1,240 feet 

(377.9 meters) beneath the northern reef. Numerous patch reefs dot the sandy-bottomed lagoon. 

These reefs support 163 species of reef fishes and 16 species of corals. 

Although Midway's native vegetation and entomofauna have been greatly altered by more than a 

century of human occupation, the island boasts the largest nesting colonies of Laysan and blackfooted albatrosses in the world, forming the largest colony of albatrosses in the world. The 

Navy, FWS, and U.S. Department of Agriculture-Wildlife Services (USDA Wildlife Services) 

successfully eradicated rats from Midway, and invasive ironwood trees have been entirely 

removed from Eastern Island. Currently the cover on all of the islands at Midway is 

approximately 30 percent paved or structures, 23 percent grass and forbs, 18 percent woodland, 

7 percent sand and bare ground, 22 percent shrublands, and <0.23 percent wetland. A 

translocated population of Laysan ducks is thriving on the introduced insect community at 

Midway, and a large program of invasive weed eradication and native plant propagation is 

ongoing. Introduced canaries breed among historic buildings that mark the beginning of cable 

communication across the Pacific near the beginning of the 20th century. The atoll and 

surrounding seas were also the site of a pivotal battle of World War II, and Midway was an 

active Navy installation during the Cold War. 

Kure Atoll (Kānemiloha‘i, Mokupāpapa) 

23°03′ N., 161°56′ W. 

There is a traditional Hawaiian saying of 

“Mai ka pi‘ina a a kalā i Ha‘eha‘e ai ka lā

welo i Kānemiloha‘i” (From where the sun 

rises at Ha‘eha‘e (Kumukahi, Hawai‘i 

Island) to its setting at Kānemiloha‘i). 

This saying describes the entire 

Archipelago, following the arc of the sun, 

in the direction of pō, which is the “vast 

sea out of which land was born,” according 

to the Kumulipo, a Hawaiian genealogy 

chant of life and human origin. The saying 

also describes the westerly direction that 

Hawaiian spirits move to return to that 

lifesource. As part of a different origin 

history, Kānemiloha‘i is also the name of 

one of Pele’s older brothers. The volcano 

goddess Pele left her home in Kahiki 

(Tahiti) and arrived in the northern Hawaiian Islands, continuing down the Archipelago until 

finally settling in Kīlauea, Hawai‘i Island, where she is said to reside today. 

Figure 1.15 Kure Atoll. 

Kure Atoll is the most northwestern island in the Hawaiian chain and occupies a singular 

position at the “Darwin Point”: the northern extent of coral reef development, beyond which 

coral growth cannot keep pace with the rate of geological subsidence. Kure’s coral is still 

growing slightly faster than the island is subsiding. North of Kure, where growth rates are even 

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slower, the drowned Emperor Seamounts foretell the future of Kure and all of the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. As Kure Atoll continues its slow migration atop the Pacific Plate, it too will 

eventually slip below the surface. 

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This 29.8 million year old atoll (Clague 1996) is nearly circular, with a reef 6 miles 

(9.6 kilometers) in diameter enclosing a lagoon with two islets comprising over 200 acres 

(0.81 square kilometers) of emergent land, flanked by almost 80,000 acres (324 square 

kilometers) of coral reef habitat. The outer reef forms a nearly complete circular barrier around 

the lagoon, with the exception of passages to the southwest, and the associated marine habitats 

support 155 species of reef fishes. Fish species endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago compose 

56 percent of all fish recorded here. There are 27 species of coral found at the atoll. Of the two 

enclosed islets, the only permanent land is found on crescent-shaped Green Island, which rises to 

20 feet (6.1 meters) above sea level and is located near the fringing reef in the southeastern 

quadrant of the lagoon. In addition to harboring an apparently endemic mite (Hemicheyletia 

granula), the atoll is also an important albatross breeding site, and the lagoon supports a 

population of spinner dolphins. 

The U.S. Coast Guard established a LORAN station at Kure in 1960 (Woodward 1972) and 

occupied it until 1993. This land use had far-reaching effects on all the plants and animals at 

Kure Atoll, resulting in elevated invasive species problems and contaminants left behind when 

the base closed. As early as 1870, explorers documented the presence of Polynesian rats (Rattus 

exulans) here. These rodents influenced the species composition of the seabird community and 

the reproductive performance of the species that were there. In 1993, the State Department of 

Land and Natural Resources and USDA Wildlife Services eradicated rats from Kure Atoll. 

Banks and Seamounts 

Approximately 30 submerged banks are 

within the Monument (Miller et al. 2004). 

Deepwater banks and seamounts are one o

the least studied environments of the 

NWHI. Recent use of shipboard mapping 

technologies, submersibles, and remotely 

operated vehicles, however, has provided 

valuable information to characterize the 

physical and biological components of 

these ecosystems. Multibeam mapping 

expeditions have revealed dramatic 

geologic features, including knife-edge rift 

zones, seafloor calderas, sea-level terraces, 

submarine canyons, underwater landslide 

scars and debris fields, and previously 

unmapped seamounts (Smith et al. 

2003, Smith et al. 2004). Figure 1.16 Banks and Shoals near French Frigate Shoals.

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Submersible surveys on South Pioneer Ridge (Pioneer Bank) and two unnamed seamounts, one 

east of Laysan Island and the other east of Mokumanamana, have revealed the presence of 

various substrate types, deposited when these geologic features were at sea level (Smith et al. 

2004). In some areas, dense communities of corals (ahermatypic) and sponges at depths 

approaching 1,000 fathoms (1,830 meters) obscured the underlying substratum. The deepwater 

marine plants of the area are a mixture of tropical species, species with cold-temperature 

affinities, and species with disjunctive distributions, suggesting alternative biogeographical 

patterns and dispersal routes from the main Hawaiian Islands (McDermid and Abbott 2006). 

Mega- to macro-scale descriptions of bottomfish habitats made on Raita Bank, West St. Rogatien 

Bank, Brooks Bank, and Bank 66 indicate the distribution and abundance of bottomfish are 

patchy and appear to be associated with high relief and topographic features, including crevices 

and caves (Kelley et al. 2006). Nihoa sits on a broad double platform, with a large bank 

immediately to the west, and two smaller banks further to the northwest. Surrounding French 

Frigate Shoals is a series of submerged banks, including Southeast Brooks Bank, St. Rogatien 

Bank, and two other smaller banks to the west, plus another unnamed bank immediately to the 

east. Raita Bank lies nearly equidistant between Gardner Pinnacles and Maro Reef. Laysan has 

a small seamount to the southeast, and the large Northampton Seamounts to the southwest. In 

the vicinity of Lisianski, Pioneer Bank is only 22 nautical miles (25.3 miles or 40.7 kilometers) 

from Neva Shoals, and these features combine to form a major coral reef ecosystem with a 

variety of intermingled marine habitats, rich in biodiversity. Telemetry studies of Hawaiian 

monk seals unexpectedly have revealed that these animals spend considerable foraging time at 

subphotic depths on these banks, particularly in areas that have high levels of relief, such as 

pinnacles and walls (Parrish and Abernathy 2006). 

All of these banks provide prime habitats for bottomfish-associated fish species that are 

important food sources for Hawaiian monk seals. Such banks also support populations of spiny 

and slipper lobsters, and colonies of precious gold, pink, and black corals that have been heavily 

disturbed in much of the remainder of the Pacific by the use of physically damaging harvest 

methods, such as trawling. These deep-living corals, below the depth where enough light 

penetrates for photosynthesis, rely on the capture of plankton from the water column with their 

tentacles rather than deriving energy from symbiotic dinoflagellate algae, known as 

zooxanthellae, that virtually all shallow-water reef-building corals harbor in their cells. 

Submersible surveys conducted at depths of 656 to 1,148 feet (199.9 to 349.9 meters) on Raita, 

West St. Rogatien, and Brooks Banks found little evidence of physical disturbances by 

bottomfishing from anchors and fishing gear (Kelley and Ikehara 2006). 

Pelagic Habitats 

The pelagic marine ecosystem is the largest ecosystem on earth. Biological productivity in the 

pelagic zone is highly dynamic; for example, in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, upwelling extends 

westward along the equator in a cold tongue of water from the coast of South America, 

eventually encountering a large pool of warmer water in the western Pacific (the cold tonguewarm pool system). The eastern cold-tongue system is characterized by high levels of primary 

production, and the western warm pool by lower levels of primary production. 

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Most of the Monument’s area can be considered pelagic habitat. The estimated area of all parts 

of the Monument with depths greater than 1,000 fathoms (6,000 feet or 1.8 kilometers) is 

117,375 square miles (304,000 square kilometers) (Miller et al. 2006). Pelagic habitat can be 

separated into the following five zones relative to the amount of sunlight that penetrates through 

seawater: (a) epipelagic, (b) mesopelagic, (c) bathypelagic, (d) abyssopelagic, and 

(e) hadalpelagic. Sunlight is the principal factor of primary production (phytoplankton) in marine 

ecosystems, and because sunlight diminishes with ocean depth, the amount of sunlight 

penetrating seawater and its effect on the occurrence and distribution of marine organisms are 

important. The epipelagic zone extends to nearly 656 feet (200 meters) and is the near extent of 

visible light in the ocean. The mesopelagic zone occurs between 656 feet (200 meters) and 

3,281 feet (1,000 meters) and is sometimes referred to as the “twilight zone.” Although the light 

that penetrates to the mesopelagic zone is extremely faint, this zone is home to wide variety of 

marine species. The bathypelagic zone occurs from 3,281 feet (1,000 meters) to 13,123 feet 

(4,000 meters), and the only visible light seen is the product of marine organisms producing their 

own light, which is called “bioluminescence.” The next zone is the abyssopelagic zone 

(13,123 to 19,685 feet) (4,000 to 6,000 meters), where there is extreme pressure and the water 

temperature is near freezing. This zone does not provide habitat for very many creatures except 

small invertebrates such as squid and basket stars. The last zone is the hadalpelagic (19,685 feet 

(6,000 meters) and below) and occurs in trenches and canyons. Surprisingly, marine life such as 

tubeworms and seastars is found is this zone, often near hydrothermal vents. 

Pelagic species are closely associated with their physical and chemical environments. Suitable 

physical environment for these species depends on gradients in temperature, oxygen, or salinity, 

all of which are influenced by oceanic conditions on various scales. In the pelagic environment, 

physical conditions such as isotherm and isohaline boundaries often determine whether the 

surrounding water mass is suitable for pelagic fish, and many of the species are associated with 

specific isothermic regions. Additionally, fronts and eddies which become areas of congregation 

for different trophic levels are important habitat for foraging, migration, and reproduction for 

many species (Bakun 1996). 

At least 15 banks lie at depths between 100 and 1,300 feet (30 and 400 meters) within the 

Monument, providing important habitat for bottomfish and lobster species, although only a few 

of these banks have been studied in any detail (Kelley and Ikehara 2006). These waters 

represent critical deepwater foraging grounds for Hawaiian monk seals (Parrish et al. 2002) as 

well as a spatial refugium for pelagic fishes such as tunas and their allies.

The deep waters are also important insofar as they support an offshore mesopelagic boundary 

community (Benoit-Bird et al. 2002), a thick layer of pelagic organisms that rest in the deep 

ocean (1,300 to 2,300 feet, or 400 to 700 meters) during the day, then migrates up to shallower 

depths (from near zero to 1,300 feet or 400 meters) at night, providing a critical source of 

nutrition for open-ocean fishes, seabirds, and marine mammals. This community of organisms 

that inhabit the upper layers of the mesopelagic zone have been surveyed at French Frigate 

Shoals, Lisianski, Pearl and Hermes, Midway, and Kure using echosounding technology 

(Lammers et al. 2006). Their work confirmed the presence of a community of vertical migrators, 

consisting of fish, squid, and shrimp. This temporal variability in the structure of the biotic 

community is important to understand as the spatial patterns are studied. Mesopelagic fishes, in 

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particular, are important prey for bigeye tuna, which tend to live at greater depths than the other 

tuna species. Overall, the fauna of the Monument's waters below acceptable SCUBA diving 

depths (100-130 feet or 30-40 meters) remains poorly surveyed and documented, representing an 

enormous opportunity for future scientific research in a system largely undisturbed by trawling 

or other forms of resource extraction. 

Phytoplankton comprise more than 95 percent of primary productivity in the marine environment 

(Valiela 1995). These represent several different types of microscopic organisms requiring 

sunlight for photosynthesis living primarily in the upper 100 meters of the euphotic zone of the 

water column. Phytoplankton include organisms such as diatoms, dinoflagellates, 

coccolithophores, silicoflagellates, and cyanobacteria. Although some phytoplankton have 

structures (e.g., flagella) that allow them some movement, their general distribution is primarily 

controlled by current movements and water turbulence. Diatoms can be either single celled or 

form chains with other diatoms. They are mostly found in areas with high nutrient levels such as 

coastal temperate and polar regions. Diatoms are one of the major contributors to primary 

production in coastal waters, and occur everywhere in the ocean. Dinoflagellates are unicellular 

(one-celled) organisms that are often observed in high abundance in subtropical and tropical 

regions. Coccolithophores, which are also unicellular, are mostly observed in tropical pelagic 

regions (Levington 1995). Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, are often found in warm nutrientpoor waters of tropical ocean regions. 

Oceanic pelagic fish including skipjack, yellowfin tuna, and blue marlin prefer warm surface 

layers, where the water is well mixed by surface winds and is relatively uniform in temperature 

and salinity. Other pelagic species―albacore, bigeye tuna, striped marlin, and 

swordfish―prefer cooler, more temperate waters, often meaning higher latitudes or greater 

depths. In fact, the largest proportion of the tuna catch in the Pacific Ocean originates from the 

warm pool, even though paradoxically this is a region of low primary productivity. Tuna 

movement to upwelling zones at the fringe of the warm pool may be key in resolving this 

apparent discrepancy between algal and tuna production. Preferred water temperature often 

varies with the size and maturity of pelagic fish, and adults usually have a wider temperature 

tolerance than subadults. Thus, during spawning, adults of many pelagic species usually move to 

warmer waters, the preferred habitat of their larval and juvenile stages. 

Large-scale oceanographic events (such as El Niño) change the characteristics of water 

temperature and productivity across the Pacific, and these events have a significant effect on the 

habitat range and movements of pelagic species. Tuna are commonly most concentrated near 

islands and seamounts that create divergences and convergences, which concentrate forage 

species, and also near upwelling zones along ocean current boundaries and along gradients in 

temperature, oxygen, and salinity. Swordfish and numerous other pelagic species tend to 

concentrate along food-rich temperature fronts between cold upwelled water and warmer oceanic 

water masses (NMFS 2001). These frontal zones also function as migratory pathways across the 

Pacific for loggerhead turtles (Polovina et al. 2000). Loggerhead turtles are opportunistic 

omnivores that feed on floating prey such as the pelagic cnidarian, Vellela vellela (“by the wind 

sailor”) and the pelagic gastropod Janthina spp., both of which are likely to be concentrated by 

the weak downwelling associated with frontal zones (Polovina et al. 2000). 

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The estimated hundreds of thousands of seabirds breeding in the Monument are primarily pelagic 

feeders that obtain the fish and squid they consume by associating with schools of large 

predatory fish such as tuna and billfish (Fefer et al. 1984, Au and Pitman 1986). These 

fish―yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), mahimahi 

(Coryphaena hippurus), wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri), rainbow runner (Elagatis 

bipinnulatus), broadbilled swordfish (Xiphias gladius), and blue marlin (Makaira indica)―are 

apex predators of a food web existing primarily in the epipelagic zone. While both the predatory 

fish and the birds are capable of foraging throughout their pelagic ranges (which encompass the 

entire Monument and tropical Pacific Ocean), the birds are most successful at feeding their 

young when they can find schools of predatory fish within easy commuting range of the breeding 

colonies (Ashmole 1963, Feare 1976, Flint 1991). Recently fledged birds, inexperienced in this 

complex and demanding style of foraging, rely on abundant and local food resources to survive 

while they learn to locate and capture prey. Some evidence from tagging studies done by Itano 

and Holland (2000) suggests both yellowfin and bigeye tuna aggregate around island reef ledges, 

seamounts, and fish aggregating devices and are caught at a higher rate here than in open water 

areas. Yellowfin tuna in Hawai‘i exhibit a summer island-related inshore-spawning run (Itano 

2001). 

Ashmole and Ashmole (1967) and Boehlert (1993) suggest that the circulation cells and wake 

eddies found downstream of oceanic islands may concentrate plankton and therefore enhance 

productivity near islands. Higher productivity, in turn, results in greater abundance of baitfish, 

thus allowing higher tuna populations locally. Johannes (1981) describes the daily migrations of 

skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna to and from the waters near islands and banks. The presence of 

natural densities of these tunas within the foraging radius of seabird colonies enhances the ability 

of birds to provide adequate food for their offspring (Ashmole and Ashmole 1967; Au and 

Pitman 1986, Diamond 1978, Fefer et al. 1984.) Wake eddies also concentrate the larvae of 

many reef fishes and other reef organisms and serve to keep them close to reefs, enhancing 

survivorship of larvae and recruitment of juveniles and adults back to the reefs. For at least three 

of the seabird species breeding in the NWHI (brown noddies, white terns, and brown boobies), 

large proportions (33 to 56 percent) of their diets originate from the surrounding coral reef 

ecosystem, in other areas where their diet has been studied (Ashmole and Ashmole 1967; 

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The NWHI can be characterized as a large marine ecosystem exposed to a wide range of 

oceanographic conditions and environmental and anthropogenic stressors. Submerged 

geomorphologic features, including reef, slope, bank, and seamount habitats, support a diverse 

range of shallow and deepwater marine life. Small islands and islets provide critical breeding 

grounds and nesting sites for endangered, threatened, and rare species, which forage on land and 

throughout the coral reef, deepwater, and pelagic marine ecosystems encompassing the NWHI. 

These natural systems hold important cultural value, as all archipelagic wildlife are regarded as 

ancestors to Native Hawaiians (Malo 1951). The life forms defined in this section are 

inhabitants of the NWHI and referred to in the Kumulipo, a genealogical oli (chant) that frames 

the evolution of life from the simplest of creatures to the most complex. In the Native Hawaiian 

worldview, the interface between natural and cultural resources is seamless. 

Algae 

The marine algal flora in the Monument are diverse and abundant. There are 353 species of 

macroalgae and 2 seagrass species known from the NWHI (McDermid and Abbott 2006). The 

species composition of the macroalgae community is relatively similar throughout the NWHI. 

Representatives of the Chlorophyta, Rhodophyta, Phaeophyta, branched coralline, crustose 

coralline, Cyanophyta, and turf algae occur in varying combinations, with green algae having the 

largest biomass and area coverage (Vroom and Page 2006). Green algae in the genus Halimeda

was found in more than 70 percent of all quadrats during Monumentwide surveys in 2004. This 

calcified algae contributes greatly to sand formation (Vroom and Page 2006). An island-specific 

checklist of the nonvascular plants of the NWHI can be found in Eldredge (2002). The NWHI 

contain a large number of Indo-Pacific algal species not found in the main Hawaiian Islands, 

such as the green calcareous alga (Halimeda velasquezii). Unlike in the main Hawaiian Islands, 

where alien species and invasive algae have overgrown many coral reefs, the reefs of the NWHI 

are largely free of alien algae, and the high natural herbivory results in a natural algal 

assemblage. 

Corals 

Fifty-seven species of stony corals are known in the shallow subtropical waters of the NWHI (at 

depths of less than 100 feet (33 meters), which cover an area of 911,077 acres (3,687 square 

kilometers (Miller et al. 2004; 2006) in the Monument. Endemism of this group is high, with 17 

of those species (30 percent) being found only in the Hawaiian Archipelago. These endemics 

also account for 37 to 53 percent of visible stony corals in all shallow reef areas surveyed 

(Friedlander et al. 2005). Fifteen of the 17 endemic species are in the genera Montipora, Porites, 

or Pocillopora. 

Live coral cover is highest in the middle of the chain, with Lisianski Island and Maro Reef 

having 59.3 and 64.1 percent of their respective available substrate covered with living corals 

(Maragos et al. 2004). Coral cover varies significantly across the NWHI from these high rates at 

Maro and at Lisianski to very minimal coverage at most of the other reef sites (figure 1.16). 

Despite their high latitudes, a similar number of species of coral have been reported for the 

NWHI (57) as the main Hawaiian Islands (59) (Friedlander et al. 2005). Coral species richness 

is also highest in the middle of the chain, reaching a maximum of 41 reported coral species at 

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French Frigate Shoals (Maragos et al. 2004). Stony corals are less abundant and diverse at the 

northern end (Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes) of the archipelago and off the exposed 

basalt islands to the southeast (Nihoa, Mokumanamana, La Perouse, and Gardner). At these 

sites, soft corals such as Sinularia and Palythoa are more abundant. Table coral in the genus 

Acropora is not found in the main Hawaiian Islands, but 7 species are recorded for 

Mokumanamana, Gardner, Pearl and Hermes, Neva, French Frigate Shoals, Maro, and Laysan, 

with the highest number of species and colonies at French Frigate Shoals. These colonies of 

coral may have been established from larvae traveling in currents or eddies from Johnston Atoll, 

450 miles (724.2 kilometers) to the south (Grigg 1981; Maragos and Jokiel 1986). The 

Monument’s coral reefs are relatively undisturbed by the impacts of fishing or tourism, with 

excellent health and high species richness. Preliminary faunal inventories indicate that many of 

their constituent species remain undocumented; even new coral species are still being 

discovered. 

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Benthic Shallow Water Invertebrates 

Figure 1.17 Differences in Coral Cover Among Regions Within the NWHI. 

REA surveys were conducted at 173 sites in 2002. Coral cover was calculated from size frequency data of 

colony counts within transects. Data are mean and standard error. Based on unpublished data from 

PIFSC-CRED. Map by Friedlander and Wedding of the NCCOS/CCMA/Biogeography Team. 

With the exception of coral and lobster species, the marine invertebrates of the NWHI are very 

poorly known. Only two comprehensive collections of these groups of animals were conducted 

prior to 2000: the 1902 Albatross Expedition, in which the collected organisms were deposited at 

the Smithsonian Institution, and the 1923 Tanager Expedition, in which the collection was 

deposited at the Bishop Museum. In 2000, the NWHI Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program 

was established, and it continues to the present to assess the biota of all 10 emergent reef areas 

and shallow waters (< 65 feet or 20 meters) in the Monument (Friedlander et al. 2005). While 

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this work is ongoing, a number of new species already have been recorded for Hawai‘i, and some 

of these species may turn out to be endemic to the NWHI (DeFelice et al. 2002). By 2005, a 

total of 838 species from 12 orders had been identified, and many species are being worked on 

by taxonomic experts around the world and have yet to be identified (Friedlander et al. 2005). 

One species of marine invertebrate for which some population data are available is the blacklipped pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera). This oyster was discovered in 1927 and heavily 

harvested at Pearl and Hermes Atoll until 1929, when the practice was prohibited by law. An 

estimated 150,000 oysters were harvested before a 1930 expedition estimated the remaining 

population at 100,000 oysters. More recent surveys in 1969, 1996, and 2000 found only a few 

oysters, indicating that the population had not recovered since the last harvest. Recent surveys 

conducted in 2003 at Pearl and Hermes Atoll mapped and measured over 1,000 individuals 

(Keenan et al. 2004). The average size of pearl oysters in the 2003 surveys was larger than the 

1930 surveys (figure 1.18). It is unclear whether the number and size structure reflect a 

potential recovery of the species 70 years later or a more thorough sampling effort relative to 

the previous survey. However, the slow recovery of this species demonstrates the fragility of 

some of the Monument resources. 

Size Frequency of Pearl Oysters

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Figure 1.18 Size Frequency Distribution of Pearl Oyster Population at Pearl and Hermes Atoll in 1930 and 2003. 

Source: Keenan et al. 2004. 

Crustaceans

The NWHI lobster trap fishery, which commenced in the mid-1970s, primarily targeted the 

Hawaiian spiny lobster (Panulirus marginatus) and slipper lobster (Scyllarides squammosus). 

Three other species, green spiny lobster (P. penicillatus), ridgeback slipper lobster (S. haanii), 

and Chinese slipper lobster (Parribacus antarcticus), were caught in low abundance. (DiNardo 

and Marshall 2001). 

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Fishery statistics during the early developmental phase of the fishery (1976-1982) are scant. The 

total reported catch and landings of lobsters peaked in 1985 and generally declined from 1986 to 

1995. Fishing effort peaked in 1986 and declined in 1988 before increasing in 1990. After 1990 

fishing effort generally declined. The fishery initially targeted spiny lobster, but by 1985 gear 

modifications and improved markets led to an increase in slipper lobster landings. Catches of 

slipper lobster remained high from 1985 to 1987, fell into a general decline from 1988 to 1996, 

and increased significantly from 1997 to 1999. The fishery was closed in 2000 due to 

uncertainty in the population models used to assess the stocks (DeMartini et al, 2003). 

A fishery-independent trap survey has been conducted annually by the PIFSC since 1984, with 

the exception of 1990, to (1) evaluate the performance of commercial and research survey gear, 

(2) calibrate gear types, and (3) monitor the relative abundance of local populations of lobster in 

the NWHI. The survey has also been used as a platform for short-term experiments (e.g., studies 

of handling mortality) and the collection of biological and oceanographic data. Since 1990 the 

abundance of spiny lobsters at Mokumanamana has generally decreased. Significant drops in 

abundance were observed in 1992, 1994, and 1998. The abundance of slipper lobsters has 

remained at relatively low levels at Mokumanamana between 1988 and 2006. Spiny lobster 

abundance at Maro Reef declined significantly after 1988 and remained low through 1999. An 

increasing trend in spiny lobster abundance has been detected at Maro Reef since 2000. Slipper 

lobster abundance at Maro Reef has generally been increasing, with significant increases 

occurring after 1991. These changes suggest a switch in species dominance at Maro Reef in 1990 

(spiny to slipper lobster), and the initial phases of a spiny lobster population recovery in 2000. 

Numerous hypotheses have been advanced to explain population fluctuations of lobsters in the 

NWHI including environmental (Polovina and Mitchum, 1992), biotic (e.g., habitat and 

competition) (Parrish and Polovina, 1994), and anthropogenic (e.g., fishing) (Polovina et al., 

1995; Moffitt et al, 2006). Each hypothesis by itself offers a plausible, however simplistic, 

explanation of events that in fact result from several processes acting together. It is likely that 

population fluctuations of lobsters in the NWHI can be more accurately described by a mix of 

the hypotheses presented, each describing a different set of mechanisms (DiNardo and Marshall 

2001). 

Reef Fish 

The extreme isolation of the NWHI chain and its distance from the diverse fish population 

centers of the Western Pacific contribute to a lower fish species diversity relative to other sites to 

the west (Mac et al. 1998). The long-term protection from fishing pressure that has been 

afforded the NWHI has resulted in high standing stocks of fish more than 260 percent greater 

than the main Hawaiian Islands. The fish community of the coral reef ecosystem of the NWHI 

also shows a very different structure than the main Hawaiian Islands and most other places in the 

world. The shallow-reef fish community is remarkable in the abundance and size of fish in the 

highest trophic levels. In this large-scale, intact, predator-dominated system, more than 

54 percent of the total fish biomass on forereef habitats in the NWHI consists of apex predators. 

In contrast, the total fish biomass in the main Hawaiian Islands is dominated by herbivorus fish 

species (55 percent) with only 3 percent composed of apex predators (Friedlander and DeMartini 

2002). Apex predator biomass on forereef habitats in the NWHI is 1.3 metric tons per hectare, 

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Consumer category

Mean biomass (mT/hectare)

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Figure 1.19 Comparison of Biomass in Major Trophic Guilds Between the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

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Areas with the highest apex predator biomass include Pearl and Hermes Atoll, followed by 

Lisianski and Laysan Islands (figure 1.20). Large, predatory fish such as sharks, giant trevally, 

and Hawaiian grouper that are rarely seen and heavily overfished in populated areas of the world 

are extremely abundant in the waters of the Monument. 

Figure 1.20 Geographic Pattern of Apex Predator Biomass Density (t/ha) at the 10 Emergent Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) Reefs Surveyed During September/October 2000, 2001, and 2002. Based on data 

from DeMartini and Friedlander 2004. Map by Friedlander and Wedding of the NCCOS/CCMA/ 

Biogeography Team. 

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The NWHI are also characterized by a high degree of endemism in reef fish species, particularly 

at the northern end of the chain, with endemism rates well over 50 percent, making it one of the 

most unique fish faunas on earth (DeMartini and Friedlander 2004). Because of the decline in 

global marine biodiversity, endemic “hot spots” like Hawai‘i are important areas for global 

biodiversity conservation. Overall fish endemism is higher in the NWHI compared to the main 

Hawaiian Islands (Friedlander et al. 2005; DeMartini and Friedlander 2004). Within the NWHI, 

endemism increases up the chain and is highest at the three northernmost atolls and Lisianski 

(figure 1.21). Another feature of the shallow-water reef fish community noticed by divers is that 

some species found only at much greater depths in the main Hawaiian Islands inhabit shallower 

water in the NWHI. This might be explained by water temperature preferences or by disturbance 

levels that vary between the two ends of the archipelago. 

Figure 1.21 Percent Endemism (Based on Numerical Densities) at Each of 10 Emergent NWHI Reefs, 

Surveyed During September/October 2000, 2001, and 2002. Note patterns of endemism with latitude. Based 

on data from DeMartini and Friedlander 2004. Map by Friedlander and Wedding of the 

NCCOS/CCMA/Biogeography Team. 

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The bottomfish species in the NWHI are in the taxonomic groups Lutjanidae (snappers), 

Serranidae (groupers), Carangidae (jacks), and Lethrinidae (emperors). The bottomfish stocks 

in the NWHI Mau and Ho‘omalu zones have not been determined to be overfished, but in 1990, 

the stocks in the Mau Zone were considered to be near the overfishing threshold. Since then, 

however, bottomfish harvest rates in the Mau Zone, including the Ho‘omalu Zone, have resulted 

in a bottomfish stock complex that currently is considered “healthy and lightly exploited,” 

particularly in comparison to the main Hawaiian Islands (Brodziak 2007). 

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The oceanic Scombroid fish (billfish, tuna, wahoo) have zoogeographies much more like that of 

plankton than benthic fish. Most are cosmopolitan and occur in all oceans within the tropical 

and subtropical zones but may have very specific water temperature preferences (Longhurst and 

Pauly 1987). The yellowfin tuna, for instance, prefers water no cooler than 18 to 21 oC, which 

coincides with the northern boundary of the Monument. All species undertake seasonal and agerelated migrations, traveling between spawning grounds and feeding grounds appropriate for 

their sizes. They prey upon medium-sized pelagic fish, crustaceans, and cephalopods. Tagging 

studies of yellowfin tuna and bigeye tuna have demonstrated that while these species have 

enormous capacity to travel huge distances, they show very specific attraction to fish aggregating 

devices, island reef ledges, seamounts, and other elements of structure (Itano and Holland 2000). 

Lowe et al. (2006) similarly found that while two species of large sharks, tiger sharks 

(Galeocerdo cuvier) and Galapagos sharks (Carcharhinus galapagensis), are capable of longdistance travel, they showed more site fidelity than expected throughout the year, with 70 percent 

of tiger sharks exhibiting year-round residence at French Frigate Shoals. Some of the study 

subjects did make long-distance movements, with sharks marked at French Frigate Shoals 

showing up at Midway and on the Kona coast of the Island of Hawai‘i. The tremendous 

economic value of these fishes has resulted in serious declines of most populations due to 

industrialized fishing. Myers and Worm (2003) calculated that large predatory fish biomass 

today is only about 10 percent of pre-industrial levels worldwide. Large predatory fish 

populations remain healthy and robust in the Monument (Friedlander et al. 2005). 

Reptiles 

The five species of sea turtles that occur in the NWHI are the loggerhead (Caretta carretta), the 

Hawaiian green (Chelonia mydas), the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), the leatherback 

(Dermochelys coriacea), and the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata). All of these species are 

protected by the Endangered Species Act. Of these species, only the green turtle comes ashore to 

bask and breed. French Frigate Shoals is the site of the principal rookery for the entire Hawaiian 

green turtle stock, with over 90 percent of the population nesting there (Balazs and Chaloupka 

2004a). As adults, most of these turtles travel to foraging grounds in the main Hawaiian Islands 

or in Midway or Johnston atolls, where they graze on benthic macroalgae. They periodically 

swim back to the nesting grounds at French Frigate Shoals (or, in smaller numbers, to Lisianski 

and Pearl and Hermes Atoll) to lay eggs. Breeding adults remain extremely faithful to the 

colony in which they were hatched for their own reproductive activities (Bowen et al.1992). 

Hatchling turtles may spend several years in pelagic habitats foraging in the neritic zone before 

switching to a benthic algae diet as adults. 

The Hawaiian population of green turtles has been monitored for 30 years, following the 

cessation of harvesting in the 1970s, and has shown a steady recovery from its depleted state 

(Balasz and Chaloupka 2004a). (See figure 1.22.) The transition zone chlorophyll front, located 

north of Monument waters most years, occasionally moves southward along with one of the 

species tightly associated with it, the loggerhead turtle. These turtles breed in Japan but feed on 

buoyant organisms concentrated at the convergent front in these high-chlorophyll waters, which 

support a complex food web including cephalopods, fishes, and crustaceans, also fed upon by 

albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) and a variety of billfish (Polovina et al. 2001). 

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The terrestrial herpetofauna of the NWHI is made up of introduced species of lizards including 

four gecko species and two skinks, and a tiny blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus) that was 

imported to Midway, most likely in soil. The greatest diversity of these introduced reptiles is 

found at Midway and Kure atolls. 

Figure 1.22 Long-Term Trend in the Abundance of Nesting Hawaiian Green Sea Turtles (dash lines represent 

Bayesian 95 percent credible region). Source: Balazs and Chaloupka 2004a. 

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Shorebirds 

Forty-seven species of shorebirds have been recorded in the Monument. Most of these are 

classified as infrequent visitors or vagrants, but the Monument does support regionally 

significant populations of four migrants: Pacific golden plovers (Pluvialis fulva), bristle-thighed 

curlews (Numenius tahitiensis), wandering tattlers (Tringa incana), and ruddy turnstones 

(Arenaria interpres). Most of these birds arrive in July and August and return to the Arctic to 

breed in May, but some of the younger individuals may skip breeding their first summer and 

remain in the Monument. While in the NWHI, these species use all the habitats available for 

foraging and sometimes concentrate in large numbers in the hypersaline lake at Laysan and in 

the artificial water catchment pond on Sand Island at Midway Atoll. The rat-free islands of the 

Monument provide important wintering sites for the rare bristle-thighed curlew, because they are 

flightless during molt and require predator-free sites. This species and Pacific golden plovers are 

listed as species of high conservation concern in the National and Regional Shorebird 

Conservation Plans (Engilis and Naughton 2004) and are designated Birds of Conservation 

Concern by the FWS at the regional and national scale (FWS 2002). 

Seabirds 

The importance of seabirds in the NWHI was recognized in 1909 with the establishment of the 

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Early protection and active management have 

resulted in large, diverse, and relatively intact seabird populations. Seabird colonies in the 

NWHI constitute one of the largest and most important assemblages of tropical seabirds in the 

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world, with approximately 14 million birds (5.5 million breeding annually), representing 

21 species (Naughton and Flint 2004). (See table 1.1). Greater than 98 percent of the world’s 

Laysan and black-footed albatrosses nest here. For several other species, such as Bonin petrel, 

Christmas shearwater, Tristram’s storm-petrel, and the gray-backed tern, the Monument supports 

colonies of global significance. The last complete inventory of NWHI breeding populations was 

done between 1979 and 1984 (Fefer, et al. 1984). Population trends since then have been 

derived from more intensive monitoring at three islands. Population trends in the NWHI are 

stable or increasing for most species, but there is concern for a few, especially the albatrosses. 

The conservation status of Hawaiian seabirds was assessed as part of the North American 

Waterbird Conservation Plan. Eleven of the 21 species were classified highly imperiled or of 

high conservation concern at the broad scale of the plan (eastern north Pacific, western north 

Atlantic, and Caribbean). (See table 1.1.) At the regional scale (Pacific Islands), 6 species were 

included in these highest concern categories: Laysan, black-footed, and short-tailed albatrosses; 

Christmas shearwater; Tristram’s storm-petrel; and blue noddy. 

Table 1.1 Seabird Species Known to Breed in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (FWS data)1 

Common Name Species Estimated Number of Breeding Birds 

Black-Footed Albatross Phoebastria nigripes 111,800

Phoebastria 

immutabilis 

Laysan Albatross 1,234,000

Bonin Petrel Pterodroma hypoleuca 630,000

Bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii 180,000

Wedge-Tailed Shearwater Puffinus pacificus 450,000

Christmas Shearwater Puffinus nativitatis 5,400

Tristam’s Storm-Petrel Oceanodroma tristrami 11,000

Red-Tailed Tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda 18,400

White-Tailed Tropicbird Phaethon lepturus 8

Masked Bobby Sula lepturus 3,400

Red-Footed Booby Sula sula 15,800

Brown Booby Sula leucogaster 800

Great Frigatebird Fregata minor 19,800

Little Tern Sternula albifrons 20

Gray-Backed Tern Onychoprion lunatus 86,000

Sooty Tern Onychoprion fuscatus 3,000,000

Blue Noddy Procelsterna cerulean 7,000

Brown Noddy Anous stolidus 150,000

Black Noddy Anous minutus 26,000

White Tern Gygis alba 22,000

Total 5,971,428

1 - Laysan and black footed albatrosses, Christmas shearwater, Tristram’s storm-petrel, and blue-gray noddy are on the 

Birds of Conservation Concern list for the Hawaiian Bird Conservation Region, and black-footed albatrosses are on the 

national list (FWS 2002). 

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Distribution, population status and trends, ecology, and conservation concerns for each of these 

species are contained in the Regional Seabird Conservation Plan, Pacific Region (FWS 2005). 

The greatest threats to seabirds that reside in the NWHI are both local and global. These 

threats include introduced mammals and other invasive species, fishery interactions, 

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contaminants, oil pollution, marine debris, and climate change. Over the past 20 years, active 

management in the National Wildlife Refuges and State Seabird Sanctuary has included the 

eradication of black rats (Rattus rattus) at Midway Atoll and Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans)

at Kure Atoll; eradication or control of invasive plants; cleanup of contaminants and hazards at 

former military sites; and coordination with NOAA Fisheries and the Regional Fishery 

Management Councils, as well as industry and conservation organizations, to reduce fishing 

impacts. 

Marine Mammals 

The marine and littoral ecosystems of the Monument provide essential habitat for the Hawaiian 

monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi), one of the world’s most endangered marine mammals. 

The Hawaiian monk seal was listed as an endangered species under the U.S. Endangered Species 

Act in 1976 (FR 51612). About 1,200 individuals exist (Antonelis et al. 2006; NMFS 2003; 

NMFS 2004a), and models predict that the population will fall below 1,000 individuals within 

the next 5 years. While a few Hawaiian monk seals coexist with humans in the main Hawaiian 

Islands, the great majority of the population lives among the remote islands and atolls of the 

Monument. Their range generally consists of the islands, banks, and corridors within the 

Monument, although individual animals may be found beyond this extensive area on occasion, 

sometimes farther than 50 nautical miles (92.6 kilometers) from shore. 

In May 1988, NOAA Fisheries designated critical habitat under the Endangered Species Act for 

the Hawaiian monk seal from shore to 20 fathoms in 10 areas of the NWHI. Critical habitat for 

this species includes all beach areas, sand spits and islets, including all beach crest vegetation to 

its deepest extent inland, lagoon waters, inner reef waters, and ocean waters out to a depth of 

20 fathoms around the following: Pearl and Hermes Atoll; Kure Atoll; Midway Atoll, except 

Sand Island and its harbor; Lisianski Island; Laysan Island; Maro Reef; Gardner Pinnacles; 

French Frigate Shoals; Mokumanamana; and Nihoa Island (50 CFR §226.201). Critical habitat 

was designated to enhance the protection of habitat used by monk seals for pupping and nursing, 

areas where pups learn to swim and forage, and major haulout areas where population growth 

occurs. 

Reproductive success of the Hawaiian monk seal population has declined, with the total mean 

nonpup beach counts at the main reproductive NWHI subpopulations in 2001 being 

approximately 60 percent lower than in 1958 (NMFS 2003). French Frigate Shoals has the 

largest Hawaiian monk seal breeding site and breeding subpopulation, followed by Laysan 

Island, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and Lisianski Island (figure 1.23). 

The foraging biogeography of the Hawaiian monk seal has been described in a number of recent 

reports (Stewart 2004a, b, and c; Stewart and Yochem 2004a, b, and c) and is illustrated in figure 

1.23. Between 1996 and 2002, the movements and diving patterns of 147 Hawaiian monk seals 

in the NWHI (consisting of 41 adult males, 35 adult females, 29 juvenile males, 15 juvenile 

females, 12 weaned male pups, and 15 weaned female pups) were monitored with satellite-linked 

depth recorders. Overall findings of these studies include the following: 

• Monk seal foraging range covers an area of approximately 18,593 square miles 

(48,156 square kilometers), or almost 14 percent of the total area of the Monument. 
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Figure 1.23 Map from NOAA Showing Hawaiian Monk Seal Breeding Sites and Subpopulation Sizes and Foraging Area (Stew

Nesting Sites (Balazs and Ellis 2000); and Largest Nesting Sites for Seabird Species of Highest Concern for the Pacific Island Hawaiian Islands (Kushlan et al. 2002; Fefer et al. 1984 for seabird colony size). 

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• Seals foraged extensively at or near their breeding sites and breeding subpopulations and 

haulout sites (95 percent within 20 miles of these sites), except at French Frigate Shoals, 

where foraging distances were demonstrated to be greater. 

• The highest concentration of monk seal activity in the NWHI is focused on French 

Frigate Shoals and surrounding banks. 

• Seals moved along specific corridors to travel between breeding sites and haulout sites. 

These corridors were closely associated with the NWHI submarine ridge. Seals likely 

forage along these corridors around subsurface features like reefs, banks, and seamounts. 

Several banks located northwest of Kure Atoll represent the northern extent of the monk seal 

foraging range (Stewart 2004a). These areas have also been identified as important precious 

coral habitat as a result of recent research conducted with submersibles and remotely operated 

vehicles by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration (NOAA 2003c). The main terrestrial habitat 

requirements include haulout areas for pupping, nursing, molting, and resting. These are 

primarily sandy beaches, but virtually all substrates are used at various islands. The loss of 

terrestrial habitat is a priority issue of concern in the NWHI, especially habitat loss due to 

environmental factors such as storms and sea level rise that could further exacerbate this problem 

in the future. While some habitat loss (e.g., the subsidence of Whaleskate Island at French 

Frigate Shoals) has already been observed, sea level rise over the longer term may threaten a 

large portion of the resting and pupping habitat in the NWHI. Habitat loss has decreased 

available haulout and pupping beaches. 

Past and present impacts to the monk seal population in the NWHI include hunting in the 1880s; 

disturbance from military uses of the area; entanglement in marine debris (Henderson 2001; 1990; 

1984a; 1984b); direct fishery interaction, including recreational fishing (Kure Atoll) and 

commercial fishing prior to the establishment of the 50-mile Protected Species Zone around the 

NWHI in 1991 (NMFS 2003); predation by sharks (Nolan 1981); aggression by adult male monk 

seals; and reduction of habitat and prey due to environmental change (Antonelis et al. 2006). 

The waters of the Monument are also home to over 20 cetacean species, six of them federally 

recognized as endangered and “depleted” under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, but 

comparatively little is known about the distributions and ecologies of these whales and dolphins 

(Barlow 2006). Recent research by Johnston et al. (2007) reveals that the Monument also hosts 

many more humpback whales than originally thought. The most well-studied cetacean species in 

the Monument is the Hawaiian spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). This geographically 

isolated subgroup of the spinner dolphin is genetically distinct from those of the Eastern tropical 

Pacific (Galver 2000). They occur off all of the main Hawaiian Islands and only four of the 

NWHI (Kure, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and French Frigate Shoals) (Karczmarski 

et al. 2005). Andrews et al. (2006) found that the animals at the three northern sites were a 

genetically homogeneous population that was distinct from the group at French Frigate Shoals, 

which had some exchange with dolphins in the main Hawaiian Islands. Genetic isolation, 

together with an apparent low genetic diversity, suggests that spinner dolphins could be highly 

vulnerable to anthropogenic and environmental stressors (Andrews et al. 2004). 

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Native terrestrial arthropods and land snail communities of the NWHI are the least well studied 

of the animal groups, but perhaps the most seriously affected by human activities and 

introductions. In particular, the many species of ants that have accidentally reached all the 

islands of the archipelago except Gardner Pinnacles have had enormous effects on these native 

terrestrial invertebrates. 

The entomofauna of the Monument includes some groups of insects that demonstrate dramatic 

adaptive radiations. One such group is the seedbugs, specifically the genus Nysius, which shows 

the complete range of feeding types: from host-specific plant feeders, to diverse plant hosts, to 

omnivorous feeding, and finally to predator/scavengers. It is a rare occurrence to find herbivory 

and carnivory occurring within the same genus. Nowhere else in the world is there a lineage like 

the Hawaiian Nysius in which to explore the evolution of carnivory in Heteroptera. Some of 

these species are single-island endemics and of particular conservation concern because of their 

limited ranges. 

Table 1.2 Number of Terrestrial Arthropod Species in the NWHI Summarized by Order and Island (Nishida 

1998; Nishida 2001) 

Number of Terrestrial Arthropod Species by Island 

Terrestrial 

Arthropod Species 

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Island 

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Shoals 

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Pinnacles 

Laysan 

Island 

Lisianski 

Island 

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Hermes 

Atoll 

Midway 

Atoll 

Kure 

Atoll 

ARTHROPODA 221 84 108 11 235 55 109 508 155 

Arachnida 42 10 10 4 34 6 16 85 35 

Acari 31 2 5 2 22 4 13 63 25 

Araneae 10 8 5 2 11 2 3 22 10 

Pseudoscorpionida 1 1 

Insecta 174 69 94 7 195 49 87 412 115 

Blattodea 4 2 3 5 2 3 8 4 

Coleoptera 36 11 8 1 36 3 11 78 19 

Collembola 2 3 5 10 19 4 

Dermaptera 4 1 3 2 4 2 4 4 2 

Diptera 28 12 18 1 31 20 15 62 23 

Embiidina 2 2 1 2 1 1 

Heteroptera 15 4 9 9 4 8 14 8 

Homoptera 10 7 10 15 4 8 21 12 

Hymenoptera 37 7 14 21 4 7 105 16 

Isoptera 1 1 1 3 

Lepidoptera 23 14 16 2 32 6 15 34 13 

Mantodea 1 

Neuroptera 1 1 2 2 

Odonata 1 1 1 

Orthoptera 5 2 4 1 1 9 3 

Pthiraptera 3 1 1 24 3 42 3 

Psocoptera 3 1 3 1 1 2 

Siphonaptera 1 1 1 

Thysanoptera 2 3 1 4 1 6 3 

Thysanura 2 1 1 

Chilopoda 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 
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Pearl 

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Terrestrial 

Arthropod Species 

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Necker 

Island 

Gardner 

Pinnacles 

Laysan 

Island 

Lisianski 

Island 

Midway 

Atoll 

Kure 

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Anostraca 1 

Isopoda 3 3 3 3 3 5 9 3 

Amphipoda 1 

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Terrestrial Plants 

The land plants of the NWHI are typically salt-tolerant and drought-resistant species of the beach 

strand and coastal scrub. The number of native species found at each site is positively correlated 

with island size but negatively influenced by the number of alien species occurring at the site. 

The three sites with airstrips and a longer history of year-round human habitation have much 

larger populations of alien species of land plants. (See table 1.3.) At least three species of 

NWHI endemic plants (Achyranthes atollensis, Phyllostegia variabilis, and Pritchardia species

of Laysan) are believed to have gone extinct since European contact. Some other native species 

and genera have found refuge in areas of the NWHI where rats were never introduced, and now 

occur at much greater densities than they do in the main Hawaiian Islands (e.g., Pritchardia

remota and Sesbania tomentosa, commonly known as ‘ohai). 

At least six species of terrestrial plants found only in the region are listed under the U.S. 

Endangered Species Act, some so rare that due to the limited surveys on these remote islands, 

they may have already vanished from the planet. The World Conservation Network lists 

Cenchrus agrimonioides var. laysanensis as extinct, though biologists still hold hope that it may 

exist. Amaranthus brownii, endemic to Nihoa Island, is deemed critically endangered by the 

World Conservation Network, while Pritchardia remota is considered endangered. 

Table 1.3 Biogeographic Description of Land Plants of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

( number of species that have been observed at each site in previous 20 years). (Bruegmann, M.M. 1995; 

Starr, F., and K. Martz 1999; Starr, F., K. Martz, and L. Loope 2001; Morin, M., and S. Conant 1998; 

Wagner, W.L., D.R. Herbst, and S.H. Sohmer 1999.) 

Island 

Emergent 

land area 

(acres) 

Indigenous to 

Island 

endemic 

Hawai‘i and Total no. Alien other Pacific of Species 

Islands 

Nihoa 171 3 14 3 20 

Mokumanamana 46 0 5 0 5 

French Frigate Shoals1 67 0 10 27 37 

Gardner Pinnacle 5 0 1 0 1 

Laysan Island 1015 1 22 11 34 

Lisianski Island 381 0 15 5 20 

Pearl and Hermes Atoll 80 0 15 10 25 

Midway Atoll1 1540 0 14 249 263 

Kure Atoll1 212 0 12 36 49 

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Endangered and Threatened Species 

Twenty-three species of plants and animals known to occur in the NWHI are listed under the 

Endangered Species Act (table 1.4). Specific threats and recovery actions related to these 

species are discussed in section 1.4, and in individual action plans presented in section 3. 

 

Table 1.4 Species Observed in the NWHI Listed as Threatened or Endangered Under the Endangered Species 

Act1 

Marine Mammals 

Hawaiian monk seal Monachus schauinslandi E 

Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae E 

Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus E 

Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus E 

Fin whale B. physalus E 

Sei whale B. borealis E 

North Pacific right whale Eubalaena japonica E 

Marine Turtles 

Olive Ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea T/E 

Leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea E 

Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta T 

Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata E 

Green turtle Chelonia mydas T 

Terrestrial Birds 

Laysan duck Anas laysanensis E 

Laysan finch Telespyza cantans E 

Nihoa millerbird Acrocephalus familiarus kingi E 

Nihoa finch Telespyza ultima E 

Seabirds 

Short-tailed albatross Phoebastria albatrus E 

Plants 

No common name Amaranthus brownii E 

Kamanomano Cenchrus agrimoniodes var laysanensis E 

No common name Mariscus pennatiformis ssp bryanii E 

Loulu Pritchardia remota E 

No common name Schiedea verticillata E 

‘Ōhai Sesbania tomentosa E 

1 - Under the Endangered Species Act of 1972, endangered species are those in danger of extinction. Threatened 

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The Monument was established for its unique combination of natural and cultural resources, 

including Native Hawaiian and post-Western-contact historic resources. It is composed of 

terrestrial and marine areas that have special national and international significance in terms of 

conservation, ecology, history, science, education, culture, archaeology, and aesthetics. The 

establishment of the Monument also provides the framework for coordinated and comprehensive 

management of the area. 

Native Hawaiian Cultural Foundation and Significance 

Kū pākū ka pali o Nihoa i ka makani 

The cliff of Nihoa stands as resistance against the wind 

―Said of one who stands bravely in the face of misfortune (Pukui 1983: 1924) 

Polynesian navigators began voyaging across the vast Pacific Ocean, unaided by Western 

instrumentations, about 300 B.C. or earlier. Over the next 1,300 years, these skilled and 

visionary wayfinders would leave their mark on a more than 10-million-square-mile area of the 

Pacific that has become known as the Polynesian triangle, its defining points being made by 

settlements on Aotearoa (New Zealand) in the West, on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the East, and 

on the Hawaiian archipelago in the North (Polynesian Voyaging Society 2007). A unique 

spirituality binds the multitude of Polynesian societies who today inhabit the hundreds of islands 

contained within this region. These Polynesian societies share many of the same cosmologies, 

genealogies, and oral histories, the origins of which can be traced either back to the wayfinders 

who first ventured through the Pacific or from subsequent voyagers who traveled across this 

massive water continent. 

Canoes filled with those who would become Native Hawaiians first arrived in the waters of the 

remote Hawaiian Archipelago, most likely from Hiva or the Marquesas Islands, around 

1,600 years ago or earlier (PVS 2007). Upon finding abundant natural resources, they decided to 

remain; living in harmony with nature to survive on such a remote island chain. They developed 

complex resource management systems and specialized skill sets to ensure the fertile soils and 

rich reef environments they found could be sustained for future generations. These included 

agricultural terraces; extensive water paddies for their staple food, kalo (taro); and incredibly 

productive fishponds, many of them acres in size, that sprawled over shallow coastal waters. 

The ocean serves as a central source of physical and spiritual sustenance for Native Hawaiians 

on a daily basis. Poetically referred to as Ke kai pōpolohua mea a Kāne (the deep dark ocean of 

Kāne), the ocean was divided into numerous smaller divisions and categories, from the nearshore 

to the deeper pelagic waters (Malo 1951). Likewise, channels between islands were also given 

names and served as connections between islands, as well as a reminder of their larger oceanic 

history and identity. 

Today, Native Hawaiians continue to maintain their strong cultural ties to the land and sea. This 

concept of interconnectedness transcends geography. Native Hawaiians understand the 

importance of managing the islands and waters as one, as they are inextricably connected to one 

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another (Beckwith 1951; Lili‘uokalani 1978). Despite the fact that the NWHI were not used and 

experienced on a daily basis by most Hawaiians, they have always been seen as an integral part 

of the Hawaiian Archipelago and have been honored as a deeply spiritual location, as evidenced 

by the many wahi kūpuna, or sacred sites, on Nihoa and Mokumanamana. 

Much of the information about the NWHI has been passed down in oral and written histories, 

genealogies, songs, dance, and archaeological resources. Through these cultural resources of 

knowledge, Native Hawaiians have been able to recount the travels of seafaring ancestors 

between the NWHI and the main Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiian language archival resources have 

also played an important role in providing key documentation; a large body of information was 

published in local newspapers, some of it more than a hundred years ago (e.g., Kaunamano 1862; 

Manu 1899; Wise 1924). 

More recent ethnological studies (Maly 2003) support the continuity of Native Hawaiian 

traditional practices and histories in the NWHI, and it is important to note that only a fraction of 

these have been recorded―many more exist in the memories and life histories of kūpuna. 

Nevertheless, the relationship of Native Hawaiians to the NWHI is marked by some irregularity, 

notably upon the arrival of Europeans to the Hawaiian Archipelago in the late 18th century. At 

the point of contact between the West and Hawai‘i, Native Hawaiians were thriving in the 

islands, with a population estimated between 300,000 and one million (for discussion on precontact Native Hawaiian population, see Stannard 1989). However, foreign diseases introduced 

into Hawai‘i over the next century would cause the Native Hawaiian population to fall into a 

steep decline. Thus, the sacred path traveled to the islands northwest of Kaua‘i saw few Native 

Hawaiians for a period of time, and this trend lasted through the early 19th century. 

A renewed interest in the NWHI grew as successive Hawaiian monarchs focused on reuniting the 

entire Hawaiian Archipelago by formally incorporating the NWHI into the territory of the 

Kingdom of Hawai‘i. Throughout the 1800s, title to the islands and waters of the region was 

vested in the Kingdom of Hawai‘i (Mackenzie and Kaiama 2003). This came to pass due to the 

actions of Hawaiian monarchs, which included the following highlights: 

• In 1822, Queen Ka‘ahumanu organized and participated in an expedition to locate and 

claim Nihoa under the Kamehameha Monarchy. 

• Nihoa was reaffirmed as part of the existing territory of Hawai‘i in 1856 by authority of 

Alexander Liholiho, Kamehameha IV (March 16, 1856, Circular of the Kingdom of 

Hawai‘i). 

• King Kamehameha IV made a round trip voyage between Honolulu and Nihoa in 1857 

and instructed Captain John Paty of the Manuokawai to annex any lands discovered 

during further exploration of the region. In 1857, the islands of Laysan and Lisianski 

were declared new lands to be included into the domain of the Kingdom (Kingdom of 

Hawai‘i 1857). 

• Lydia Lili‘uokalani, prior to becoming Queen, visited Nihoa with a 200-person party 

aboard the Iwalani. 

• King David Kalākaua annexed Kure Atoll (Ocean Island) and announced formal 

possession of the island in 1886, through Special Commissioner Colonel James Harbottel 

(Harbottel-Boyd 1886). 

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In 1893, Queen Lydia Lili‘uokalani was overthrown by the self-proclaimed Provisional 

Government of Hawai‘i, with the assistance of U.S. Minister John L. Stevens. Five years later, 

in 1898, the archipelago, inclusive of the NWHI, was collectively acquired by the United States 

through a domestic resolution, called the “New Lands Resolution.” 

The ea (sovereignty and life), as well as the kuleana (responsibility), for the entire Hawaiian 

Archipelago continues to exist in the hearts and minds of many present-day Native Hawaiians––

a perspective recognized in law by the Apology Bill (U.S. Public Law 103-150), which is a joint 

resolution of Congress signed by President Clinton in 1993. The Apology Bill acknowledges the 

wrongful role of U.S. officers in the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i and “apologizes to 

Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States” for the unlawful overthrow and 

the “deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination.” It also recognizes that 

“the health and well-being of the Native Hawaiian people is intrinsically tied to their deep 

feelings and attachment to the land.” 

The stage was set for a reawakened relationship between Native Hawaiians and the NWHI in 

2000, when President Clinton signed the Executive Orders creating the NWHI Coral Reef 

Ecosystem Reserve. With new channels of access possible, the cultural protocol group, Nā

Kupu‘eu Paemoku, traveled to Nihoa on the traditional double-hulled voyaging canoe Hōkūle‘a

in 2003 to conduct traditional ceremonies. The following year, in 2004, Hōkūle‘a sailed over 

1,200 miles (1,931 kilometers) to the most distant end of the island chain, visiting Kure Atoll as 

part of a statewide educational initiative called “Navigating Change.” Concurrently, officials of 

the Polynesian Voyaging Society saw that the ancient sailing route between Kaua‘i and Nihoa 

was an appropriate training course for the next generation of Native Hawaiians interested in 

reestablishing the traditional system of wayfinding practiced by their ancestors. In 2005, Nā

Kupu‘eu Paemoku again sailed to the NWHI, this time to Mokumanamana, where they 

conducted protocol ceremonies on the Summer Solstice–the longest day of the year, June 21. On 

June 21, 2007, as a follow-up to the 2005 access, the Edith Kanaka‘ole Foundation ventured to 

Nihoa and Mokumanamana to conduct its own cultural research initiatives and to better 

understand the relationship between the wahi kūpuna (ancestral places) and the northern 

pathway-of-the-sun. 

Native Hawaiians’ longstanding and deeply spiritual relationship with the NWHI over millennia 

reaffirms the importance of positioning the Hawaiian culture as the lens through which the 

significance of the region, as well as the Hawaiian Archipelago as a whole, is viewed. 

Native Hawaiian Cultural Resources 

Most family genealogies of Native Hawaiians begin with the Kumulipo, or creation chant (Malo 

1951). The Kumulipo depicts the history of creation, beginning with the simplest of organisms 

and gradually reaching higher levels of complexity in the natural world, eventually completing 

the cycle of life with humans. As with most oral traditions, different families had variations of 

the creation chant, and different stories evolved as the chant moved closer to the evolution and 

naming of humans. It is through the perpetuation of chants like the Kumulipo—and other 

ancient traditions, practices, and protocols—that Native Hawaiians have passed on their spiritual 

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belief that the people are deeply related to the natural environment, and in fact, all of the natural 

resources are also cultural resources. 

Physical remnants of wahi kūpuna (ancestral places), Hawaiian language archival and oral 

resources, and historical accounts provide evidence of the various past uses of the NWHI and the 

surrounding ocean by Native Hawaiians (Kaunamano 1862 in Hoku a ka Pakipika; Manu 1899 in 

Ka Loea Kalaiaina; Wise 1924 in Nupepa Kuokoa). Evidence indicates that the area served as a 

home and a place of worship for centuries. It is posited that the first Native Hawaiians to inhabit 

the archipelago frequented Nihoa and Mokumanamana for at least a 500- to 700-year period 

(Emory 1928; Cleghorn 1988; Irwin 1992). They brought many of the skills necessary to survive 

with them from their voyaging journeys throughout Polynesia. Over time, they developed 

complex resource management systems and additional specialized skill sets to survive on these 

remote islands with limited resources (Cleghorn 1988). 

The impressions left by ancient Hawaiians can be seen through the distinctive archaeology of 

Nihoa and Mokumanamana. The ceremonial terraces and platform foundations with upright 

stones found on both Nihoa and Mokumanamana are not only amazing examples of unique 

traditional Hawaiian architectural forms of stone masonry work, but they also show similarities 

to samples from inland Tahiti (Emory 1928). The structures are some of the best preserved early 

temple designs in Hawai‘i, and have played a critical role in understanding Hawai‘i’s strong 

cultural affiliation with the rest of Polynesia, and the significant role of Native Hawaiians in the 

migratory history and human colonization of the Pacific (Cleghorn 1988). 

It is believed that Mokumanamana played a central role in Hawaiian ceremonial rites and 

practices a thousand years ago because it is directly in line (23° 34.5’ N latitude) with the rising 

and setting of the equinoctial sun along the Tropic of Cancer. In Hawaiian, this path is called 

“ke ala polohiwa a Kāne,” or the “way of the dark clouds of Kāne,” which has been translated to 

mean death or the westward pathway of the ancestral spirits. Because Mokumanamana sits on 

the northernmost limit of the path the sun makes throughout the year, it sits centrally on an axis 

between two spatial and cultural dimensions: pō (darkness, creation, and afterlife) and ao (light, 

existence). On the summer solstice (the longest day of the year), the sun travels slowest across 

the sky on this northern passage, going directly over Mokumanamana. The island has the 

highest concentration of ceremonial sites anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. All of these 

sites are strategically placed and act as physical reminders of the important spiritual role these 

sites play in Hawaiian culture. The sites and structures are channels for the creation of new life, 

and facilitate Native Hawaiians' return to source after death. (Liller 2000). 

Nihoa and Mokumanamana islands are both listed on the National and State of Hawai‘i registers 

of historic places, and there are more than 140 documented archaeological sites on these two 

islands. Though they are quite barren and seemingly inhospitable to humans, the number of 

cultural sites is testimony to the pre-Western-contact occupation and use of these islands. On 

Nihoa, a total of 89 known archaeological sites are known, including residential features, 

agricultural terraces, ceremonial structures, shelters, cairns, and burials. This island also has 

significant soil development for agriculture along with constructed terraces, which suggest 

investment in agricultural food production. On Mokumanamana, a total of 52 archaeological 

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sites have been documented, including 33 ceremonial features, which makes it the highest 

concentration of religious sites found anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. 

While Nihoa and Mokumanamana are thought to have been frequented until about 700 years 

ago, voyages to these islands and others in Papahānaumokuākea for the gathering of turtles, fish, 

bird feathers, and eggs continued into the 20th century, particularly from Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau 

(Tava and Keale 1989; Maly 2003). Cultural practices like these continue to remind and teach 

Native Hawaiians of the connections and relationships their ancestors have passed down from 

generation to generation. 

Maritime Heritage Resources 

“I had just put my hand upon my coat when the ship struck with a fearful crash...I sprang upon 

deck... to find ourselves surrounded with breakers apparently mountain high, and our ship 

careening over upon her broadside...” 

―Thomas Nickerson, on the loss of the ship Two Brothers at French Frigates Shoals, 1823 

(Nantucket Historical Association MS 106 folder 3.5) 

The Monument enjoys a rich maritime history, with ocean vessels from around the world having 

traveled into the NWHI—although not all who came in made it back out. 

Long before Western ships sighted the NWHI, Native Hawaiians and other Polynesians 

journeyed in large double-hulled canoes to these resource-rich islands and atolls as they explored 

the vast Pacific Ocean without aid of western instrumentation. Guided by the stars, currents, and 

weather patterns, the Native Hawaiians set the stage for the intrepid ships and crews who would 

enter the waters of the NWHI beginning in the early part of the 19th century. It is believed that 

Native Hawaiians frequently sailed along the ancient voyaging routes that connect Kaua‘i to the 

settlements on Nihoa and Mokumanamana. 

In addition to the rich Native Hawaiian cultural setting, maritime activities following Western 

contact with the Hawaiian Islands have left behind the historical 

and archaeological traces of a unique past. Currently, more than 

60 ship losses are known among the NWHI, the earliest loss dating 

back to 1818. These, combined with 67 known aircraft crashes, 

amount to more than 120 potential maritime and military heritage 

resources. Many of these resources reflect the distinct phases of 

historical activities in the remote atolls (Van Tilberg 2002). 

As American and British whalers first made passage from Hawai‘i 

to the seas near Japan in 1820, they encountered the low and 

uncharted atolls of the NWHI. Some of these early voyages gave 

rise to the Western names of the islands and atolls as we know 

them today. Pearl and Hermes Atoll is named for the twin wrecks 

of the British whalers Pearl and Hermes, lost in 1822. Midway 

was originally sighted by Captain Daggett of the New Bedford 

whaler Oscar in 1839. Laysan was reportedly discovered by the Anchor from an unidentified 19th century 

whaling ship at Kure Atoll. 

Photo courtesy of James Watt. 

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American whaleship Lyra prior to 1828. Gardner Pinnacles was named by Captain Allen on the 

Nantucket whaler Maro in 1820, the same year the ship encountered, and gave its name to, Maro 

Reef. 

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The history of American whaling is a significant part of our national maritime heritage and is a 

topic that encompasses historic voyages and seafaring traditions set on a global stage, as these 

voyages had political, economic, and cultural impacts. The United States was intimately 

involved in the whaling industry in important and complex ways. Ten whaling shipwrecks are 

known in the NWHI. Three of these have been located (American whaler Parker and British 

whalers Pearl and Hermes), and their archaeological assessment is under way (Van Tilberg and 

Gleason, in prep). Whaling vessel wreck sites from the early 19th century are quite rare, and the 

study and preservation of heritage resources provide a unique glimpse into our maritime past. 

Despite being slowly integrated into navigational charts, the NWHI remained an area of low and 

inconspicuous reefs and atolls for many years, frequented by shipwrecks and castaways. Crews 

were often stranded for many months while they constructed smaller vessels from salvaged 

timbers and set out for rescue. Some vessels were lost with all hands. Russian and French ships 

of discovery transited the NWHI, and sometimes found themselves upon the sharp coral reefs. 

Nineteenth-century Japanese junks of the Tokugawa Shogunate period, drifting away from their 

home islands and into the Pacific, were reportedly washed onto the sands of the atolls. Hawaiian 

schooners and local fishing sampans voyaged into the archipelago, many not to return. Marine 

salvage expeditions based out of the main Hawaiian Islands profited from the area, although 

existing records of their cruising activities are scarce. These types of sites have the potential to 

tell us about early-historic-period voyages in the Pacific and about the seafaring traditions of 

many cultures. 

The strategic geographical location of the NWHI proved early on to be a valuable “commodity.” 

The opening of China and Japan to commerce in the mid-19th century and the transition to steam 

propulsion brought with it the need for Pacific coaling stations. In August 1869, Captain 

William Reynolds of the USS Lackawanna took formal possession of Midway Atoll for the 

United States. Soon after, the USS Saginaw, a Civil-War-era side-wheel gunboat, was assigned 

to support improvement efforts at Midway. However, work to open a channel into the lagoon 

remained incomplete, and the Saginaw, on a return voyage from Midway with the contracting 

party, wrecked on the reef at nearby Kure Atoll on October 29, 1870. The wreck site was 

discovered in 2003, allowing research into the early technology of the “Old Steam Navy” (Van 

Tilberg 2003a). 

From this inauspicious beginning, the strategic location of Midway and the NWHI continued to 

grow in importance for commercial and military planners. The Spanish-American War in 1898 

led to the American colonization of Guam and the Philippines, as well as annexation of the 

Hawaiian Islands. This greatly expanded American colonial presence made transpacific 

communication a priority. By 1903, the first transpacific cable and station were in operation, and 

employees of the Commercial Pacific Cable Company settled at Midway. In the 1930s, Pan 

American Airways’ “flying clippers” (seaplanes) were crossing the ocean, arriving at Midway 

from Honolulu on their 5-day transpacific passages (Cohen 1985). In 1939, the U.S. Navy 

expanded its interest in Midway, and millions of dollars were awarded to the Pacific Naval Air 

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Base Consortium. Construction of the naval air facility at Midway was begun the following 

year. 

Naval activities increased during World War II. French Frigate Shoals was the temporary 

staging site for Japanese seaplanes, as well as a U.S. naval air facility at a later time. The Navy 

built an important submarine advance base at Midway Atoll, dredging the reef to form a channel 

and harbor for submarine refit and repair. The wreck of the USS Macaw, a Navy submarine 

salvage vessel lost in 1944 during the rescue of the submarine Flier, testifies to the dangerous 

nature of Pacific operations at Midway (Van Tilberg 2003a; Van Tilberg 2003b). Eastern Island 

at Midway possessed the main airfield in the early days of the war, while submarine and 

seaplane support operations were concentrated on Sand Island. Together, these areas constituted 

a vital center for undersea, surface fleet, and naval aviation operations. In fact, the Hawaiian Sea 

Frontier forces stationed patrol vessels at most of the islands and atolls. Tern Island, in French 

Frigate Shoals, was expanded after the Battle of Midway through dredging to create a naval air 

facility for staging aircraft from the main Hawaiian Islands and to provide faster resupply of 

Midway. 

In June 1942, the Battle of Midway took place in seas north of Midway Atoll. Four Japanese 

aircraft carriers and one American carrier were sunk, and the Japanese military was forced to 

withdraw from a planned invasion. Although most of the battle took place 100 to 200 miles to 

the north, an intense air fight was waged directly over and around the atoll. Training exercises 

before and after the battle also took their toll. At least 30 naval aircraft, both American and 

Japanese, crashed or were ditched into the nearshore waters of Midway and Kure Atolls, many of 

them combat losses for both American and Japanese navies. Many of these crash sites are war 

graves. This battle proved to be the most decisive U.S. victory and was the turning point of 

World War II in the Pacific (Prange 1982). 

All of these maritime activities have left a scattered material legacy around and on the islands: 

whaling ships, Japanese junks, navy steamers, Hawaiian fishing sampans, Pacific colliers, 

salvage vessels, and navy aircraft (Rauzon 2001). Many of these sites, as defined by State and 

Federal preservation laws (the National Historic Preservation Act, Archaeological Resources 

Protection Act, and the Abandoned Shipwreck Act), are of national and international historical 

significance. Programmatic mandates have been established to ensure their preservation and 

protection. NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program focuses on the discovery and investigation of 

these heritage resources for the benefit of present and future generations. These sites are the 

physical record of past activities in the NWHI, and embody unique aspects of island and Pacific 

maritime history. 

Heritage Resources of Midway Atoll 

“They had no right to win. Yet they did, and in doing so they changed the course of a war...Even 

against the greatest of odds, there is something in the human spirit – a magic blend of skill, faith 

and valor – that can lift men from certain defeat to incredible victory.” 

—Walter Lord 

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Designated as a National Memorial, Midway Atoll preserves the physical remains of the rich 

historic past in the Monument. With its defensive structures and military architecture, both 

residential and industrial, the atoll serves as a memorial to the pivotal Battle of Midway. While 

its role in that battle has earned Midway a prominent place in history, it was the atoll’s strategic 

location that first drew the attention of the world nearly 100 years earlier. Called the 

“Middlebrook Islands” by Captain N.C. Brooks when he landed there in 1859 (Helber Hastert & 

Fee 1995; Paradise of the Pacific 1936), Midway’s location soon proved attractive to 

transpacific commercial traders, triggering a century of development and manipulation of the 

landscape to meet the needs of commerce and the military, as well as occasional shipwreck 

survivors. 

Physical improvements started almost immediately after the United States took possession in 

1869, with a Congressional appropriation for development of the Sand Island entrance channel. 

Though the crew of the USS Saginaw worked on the channel during their 61⁄2-month stay, the 

project stalled when the underlying solid limestone reef was encountered and the estimated costs 

to complete it proved prohibitive. 

Interest in the atoll waned for a period, with its only sporadic inhabitants being the survivors of 

two notable shipwrecks that occurred in the late 1880s. The General Seigel, a schooner on a 

shark-hunting expedition with a crew of eight, wrecked in November 1886. Three crewmen died 

and one, Adolfe Jorgenson, was marooned by the remaining four members when they sailed 

from Midway on June 28, 1887. Seven months later, on February 3, 1888, the Wandering 

Minstrel was wrecked on the coral reef during a similar quest for sharks. The crew of 40, which 

included Captain F.D. Walker and his wife and sons, were surprised to find Adolfe Jorgensen

still alive on Sand Island. After spending 14 months stranded on Midway, the Walker family and 

remaining crew were finally rescued in April 1889. Though none of the structures from this era 

remain, the stories of the survivors, including tales of murders, mutiny, escapes, buried treasure, 

and rescue, inspired Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel “The Wrecker.” 

Interest in Midway was renewed in 1903, when the Commercial Pacific Cable Company chose 

Sand Island for a relay station on its route across the Pacific from San Francisco to the Far East. 

Armed with plans drafted by San Francisco architect Henry Meyers, Superintendent Ben W. 

Colley arrived in April 1903 with a staff and several carpenters to construct the station. The 

innovative reinforced concrete and steel buildings were plumbed and wired for electricity 

supplied by an acetylene generator. The graceful, two-story design offered shaded verandahs, a 

library, and billiard room along with kitchens and bedrooms. An ice-making plant, cold storage 

house, and windmills were also constructed. Superintendent Colley adapted the stark landscape 

to meet the needs of the cable company by importing soil from Honolulu to make a garden for 

growing fresh vegetables and by planting vegetation such as naupaka (Scaevola), grasses, 

ironwood trees, and coconuts to control the white sand that drifted everywhere (Colley n.d.). 

The first round-the-world telegram was issued by President Theodore Roosevelt on July 4, 1903. 

The remains of the cable station and its landscape can still be observed on the atoll. 

In 1935, Pan American Airways began constructing a refueling base at Midway, which consisted 

of a wooden dock and a mooring barge in the lagoon where the seaplanes landed and discharged 

cargo and passengers (Yoklavich 1993). The facilities included a prefabricated hotel with a 

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solar-heated hot water system, lounge, dining room, and 40 guest rooms as well as tennis courts, 

baseball fields, and even a sandy nine-hole golf course that required the use of black golf balls. 

None of these structures survives today, though historic photographs and film footage remain to 

tell the story. 

Military interest in Midway accelerated as World War II started in Europe and war in the Pacific 

appeared inevitable. The strategic importance of an air base at Midway was considered second 

only to Pearl Harbor (Yoklavich 1993), and construction of the Naval Air Base was authorized in 

1939. Architect Albert Kahn of Detroit, Michigan, one of the country’s foremost industrial 

designers, prepared plans for the buildings in 1940 (Woodbury 1946:76 in Yoklavich 1993:24). 

Development of the military station changed the civilian character of Midway, creating a base 

landscape that replaced the individual units or “towns” that had defined the cable station and Pan 

American Airways’ presence. The new base design clearly demonstrated the Navy’s authority 

by placing the officer’s housing in the center of Sand Island and developing a road system that 

linked the military’s buildings. The architectural style of the buildings enhanced the perception 

of military control because of its uniform, simple, and efficient design. 

On December 7, 1941, two Japanese destroyers shelled Sand Island for almost 2 hours 

(Hazelwood n.d. in Yoklavich 1993:26). Marine guns returned fire, but the Japanese ships 

caused extensive damage to several buildings, including the seaplane hangar and power plant. 

First Lieutenant George H. Cannon was fatally wounded in the shelling, and posthumously 

became the first Marine to receive the Medal of Honor in World War II (Heinl 1948:13 in 

Yoklavich 1993:26). 

The capture of Wake Island and Guam by the Japanese, along with their aggressive offensive 

operation in the Pacific, caused military strategists to look more closely at Midway as the key to 

retaining any hope of U.S. success in the Pacific Theater. If Midway fell, it would be a short hop 

from there to Honolulu and other West Coast cities. 

The historic events of the Battle of Midway have been explored in great detail in numerous 

reports, books, and articles, so only a brief synopsis is included here. In spring 1942, Midway 

Atoll was thought to be the target of an imminent Japanese attack. To learn their plans, Fleet 

Admiral Chester William Nimitz sent a command over the secure cable for Midway to broadcast 

a false distress message. The intelligence trap proved successful when a Japanese message was 

decoded 2 days later stating that the target “AF was having trouble with its fresh water 

distillation system” (Cressman et al. 1990). With the Japanese target clearly identified, Admiral 

Nimitz focused on planning for the impending battle. 

Nimitz inspected the islands on May 2, 1942, to spur every effort to fortify the island with men 

and equipment. Nearly every inch of Sand and Eastern islands was covered with men and 

equipment. While most of the new equipment was sent to the European Theater, Nimitz tried to 

find resources for Midway sufficient to repel a Japanese landing. Several groups of Marine and 

Navy air detachments as well as Navy PT (patrol torpedo) boats were sent to the atoll to support 

existing forces. 

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PBY (patrol bomber-Y) Catalina seaplanes, the famous “flying boats” of World War II, were 

housed in the seaplane hangar and used the seaplane ramp in Sand Island harbor to make regular 

patrols. On the morning of June 4, 1942, a Navy PBY pilot radioed a contact report of “the main 

body” at approximately 700 miles away, headed northeast (Cressman et al. 1990). Though the 

pilot had actually seen part of the occupation force rather than the attacking force, the report 

immediately put the U.S. forces on alert. 

All aircraft were already prepared to launch when the radar on Sand Island began picking up the 

incoming enemy flight at about 0630. As 108 Japanese planes zoomed toward Midway, 

25 defending U.S. Marine fighters tried valiantly to slow their progress. Eastern Island’s airfield 

was eerily quiet for the few minutes prior to attack, with all but a few airplanes safely launched. 

Meanwhile, torpedo bombers flew to attack the enemy aircraft carriers. The Japanese military 

strategy was simple–destroy the air base at Midway and clear the way for occupation. 

The attack lasted only 17 minutes, but left the installations on both Sand and Eastern Islands in 

shambles. The seaplane hangar was hit and set ablaze. The fuel oil tanks 500 yards north of the 

seaplane hangar were also hit, sending a thick black column of smoke that could be seen for 

miles. The men on Midway were unable to effectively return fire on such advanced aircraft, 

which could drop bombs well out of reach of the anti-aircraft guns. 

Meanwhile, an epic air battle was unfolding at sea. Against all odds and despite devastating 

losses of aircraft and pilots as well as the sinking of the USS Yorktown, the U.S. forces dealt a 

fatal blow to the Imperial Japanese Navy. Japanese naval commander Admiral Yamamoto had 

lost his entire fast carrier group, with its complement of some 250 planes, most of the pilots, and 

about 2,200 officers and men. On the morning of June 5, he gave the surprising order for a 

general retirement of his fleet, even though he still maintained overwhelming gunfire and 

torpedo superiority. In all its long history, the Japanese Navy had never known defeat (Morison 

1963). This was America’s greatest victory in the Pacific Theater and changed the course of 

history. 

Midway as a military base was closed after World War II, reactivated during the Korean War, 

closed again, and reactivated in 1953. Crucial to the new radar technology tracking system 

during the Cold War, Midway served as a primary base for the "Pacific Barrier" operation, 

providing a radar line from Midway Atoll to Adak Island, some 1,300 miles to the north (NAS 

Barbers Point 1962). Continuous coverage for each 14-hour run necessitated a staggered flight 

schedule, with the radar planes, called “Willy Victors,” leaving Midway every 4 hours (Sheen 

pers. com. 1998). 

During the Vietnam War, Midway was selected as the site for the June 8, 1969, meeting of 

President Thieu of the Republic of Vietnam and U.S. President Richard Nixon. President Thieu, 

fearful of riots if he came to the United States, asked for a remote and safe location for a 

meeting. The base commander's home (Building 414) at Midway was the site of this momentous 

meeting (Denfeld in Yoklavich et al. 1994). 

Since its designation in 2000, FWS has managed Midway Atoll as the National Memorial to the 

Battle of Midway, ensuring that those who fought and died in that battle will always be 

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remembered for their sacrifice. Among Midway’s 63 existing National Register-eligible historic 

properties are 6 defensive structures related to the Battle of Midway that were listed together as a 

National Historic Landmark in 1986. These structures, together with the cable station buildings, 

the Albert Kahn-designed Naval base, and war memorials, provide a tangible link to the past and 

the historic events that have transpired on this small speck of land in the middle of the Pacific. 
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Despite their remote location and largely uninhabited condition, the NWHI are subject to a wide 

range of environmental and anthropogenic stressors. Marine pollution, dredging, invasive 

species, fishing, and vessel groundings are some of the factors that have affected or may cause 

harm to the resources of the NWHI. An understanding of past and present stressors and potential 

future threats provides a backdrop for identifying priority management needs and informing an 

ecosystem-based management approach. In recent years, increased efforts have focused on 

documenting terrestrial and coral reef ecosystem health and the effects of priority environmental 

and anthropogenic stressors identified by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Seabird 

Conservation Plan – Pacific Region (FWS 2005). This section describes the environmental and 

anthropogenic stressors in the NWHI. 

Coastal Development 

A century ago, coastal development in the NWHI consisted of guano mining at Laysan Island 

and the establishment of the Commercial Pacific Cable Company on Midway. Then in 1938, 

Congress authorized the Hepburn Board, a fact-finding group in the Navy, to make a strategic 

study of the need for additional U.S. naval bases. This study resulted in the construction of base 

facilities, airfields, and seadromes during 1939 and 1940 (Hepburn Board Report 1939, Time 

1939). One of these facilities was Midway Naval Air Station. Facility construction included 

dredging a channel and building a seaplane basin and a turning basin. All of this work was 

accomplished through the dynamiting of coral heads by “skindivers” and by draglines and 

dredges mounted on land and barges. Approximately 3 million cubic yards (2.29 million cubic 

meters) of coral and material was removed. An estimated 2,800 feet (853 meters) of sheetpiling 

bulkhead was installed on Sand Island. Dredged material was pumped behind this bulkhead, 

creating new land for a seaplane parking-mat (U.S. Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks 1947). 

After the Battle of Midway, the Navy recognized the need to be able to resupply Midway within 

hours, not the days or weeks required for ships to travel there. In less than 5 months, the Navy 

SeaBees and contractors dredged 660,000 cubic yards (504,600 cubic meters) of coral, enlarging 

Tern Island (at French Frigate Shoals) threefold to create a refueling stop for aircraft between 

O‘ahu and Midway (U.S. Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks 1947). 

The Navy occupied Midway, French Frigate Shoals, and Pearl and Hermes during the first half 

of the 20th century. The U.S. Coast Guard constructed Long-Range Aids to Navigation 

(LORAN) stations after World War II at Kure and French Frigate Shoals and operated them for 

several decades (USCG 1994a). Several Cold War operations were conducted at French Frigate 

Shoals, such as the recently declassified “Corona Project,” the first operational space photo 

reconnaissance satellite system. French Frigate Shoals served as a tracking and recovery station 

for this project in the early 1960s. 

During the Cold War, French Frigate Shoals housed up to 300 personnel at a time in support of 

the different classified and unclassified missions (Bill Wood pers. com. 2001). An additional 

100 people were stationed at French Frigate Shoals to monitor the aboveground nuclear testing at 

Johnston Atoll. The Midway Naval Air Station supported several hundred to several thousand 

soldiers and dependents during the pre- to post-World War II era, before the atoll was transferred 

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to FWS in 1996. Various islands of French Frigate Shoals, Midway, Kure, and Pearl and 

Hermes Atolls were used in military training exercises that included the use of landing craft, 

helicopters, and boats. 

These types of coastal development activities alter current flow, temperature regimes, and 

shoreline configuration, and as a result, may significantly alter coastal erosion patterns. Reef 

disturbances due to storm or human activities are believed to create favorable environments for 

the formation of ciguatera toxin in marine life (Lehane and Lewis 2000, Van Dolah 2000, Ruff 

1989, Kaly and Jones 1994). Operation of housing and other facilities on some islands and the 

creation of dumps contribute to point and nonpoint sources of pollution to the terrestrial and 

marine environments. 

Since the closure of Navy and Coast Guard facilities, coastal development activities have been 

limited to small-scale conversion of abandoned Coast Guard buildings on Tern Island at French 

Frigate Shoals and Green Island at Kure to biological field stations. The only recent coastal 

construction has been the repair of the seawall protecting Tern Island’s small runway and 

buildings and construction of a small boat ramp at French Frigate Shoals in 2004. This 

construction was needed to halt the erosion of the island and to eliminate the risk of injury and 

death to endangered monk seals, threatened green turtles, and migratory seabirds previously 

trapped in eroding seawall sheet piling that has now been removed from the island. 

Current human population levels are limited to a few agency staff and volunteers at French 

Frigate Shoals, Laysan Island, Lisianski Island, and Pearl and Hermes and Kure atolls. In 

addition to a small number of agency staff and volunteers at Midway Atoll, approximately 

50 contract employees operate the infrastructure required to maintain Henderson Airfield as an 

emergency landing site for commercial transpacific airliners. 

Marine Pollution 

Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction by humans, whether directly or indirectly, of 

substances or energy to the marine environment, resulting in deleterious effects such as hazards 

to the health of marine life and humans, hindrance of marine activities, and impaired water 

quality. Marine pollution may originate from land-based or sea-based human activities in the 

form of point-source discharges, groundwater discharges, or nonpoint-source runoff. Studies 

conducted by the FWS, Coast Guard, Navy, and the University of Hawai‘i have documented 

contamination in soil, sediment, and biota at French Frigate Shoals, Kure, and Midway. Direct 

impacts to black-footed albatrosses, in the form of reduced hatching success, have been linked to 

high organochlorine levels (Ludwig et al., 1997). Finkelstein et al. (2007) found a correlation 

between levels of organochlorines and elevated levels of mercury and impaired immune function 

in black-footed albatrosses. 

Marine debris, such as derelict fishing gear and discarded plastics, is a global problem. The 

increase in reliance on plastic materials that float and are persistent in the environment, as well 

as improper disposal, has led to an abundance of these materials in our oceans. Marine debris 

degrades the aesthetic value of the coastal environment, creates navigational hazards, and has 

negative ecological impacts. There are documented cases of maritime disasters resulting in loss 

of human life due to vessel entanglement with marine debris (Cho 2004), and loss of marine 

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animals due to entanglement and drowning in derelict fishing gear (Henderson 1990, 2001). In 

addition, hazardous waste has washed ashore; for example, at Laysan Island a diverse 

complement of hazardous materials has been found, including compressed gas cylinders, 

phosphorus flares, petroleum, and a 55-gallon drum marked “Toluene Diisocyanate.” A 

container of the pesticide carbofuran is suspected to have washed ashore at Laysan Island, and 

the area dubbed “The Dead Zone” remained a hazard on the island from 1987 until it was 

remediated by FWS in 2002. 

Impacts of marine debris upon the ecological health of the NWHI have not been fully 

documented due to the large size and remoteness of the region, as well as the historical and 

ongoing nature of the problem. It is known that fishing and cargo nets lost at sea are carried by 

currents to shallow water environments of the NWHI, causing physical damage to corals and 

creating entanglement hazards for monk seals and other marine organisms. Mortality due to 

entanglement in derelict fishing gear, primarily nets, has been documented for several mobile 

marine species in the NWHI, with impact upon the Hawaiian monk seal being of greatest 

concern due to the highly endangered status of this animal (Boland and Donohue 2003). Mean 

annual entanglement rates for monk seals are in a range that is higher than that shown to be 

detrimental to other pinniped populations, and documentation of entanglements is only available 

for those seals that return to shore; thus, it is highly probable that the actual impact is 

underestimated. From 1982 and 2003, 238 Hawaiian monk seal entanglements were documented 

in the NWHI, of which 162 were disentangled and freed, 61 escaped or had freed themselves, 8 

were found dead, and 7 met an unknown fate (Henderson 2006 pers. com.). Other threatened or 

endangered marine animals, such as sea turtles, have been found entangled in marine debris, and 

often the only evidence of their drowning is the remains of their bones or shells still caught in the 

debris. In 2004, the skeleton of a subadult loggerhead sea turtle and the carcass of a small whale 

were found in a large floating net (NMFS 2004b). 

Derelict fishing gear also degrades reef health by abrading, smothering, and dislodging corals 

and other benthic organisms, as well as preventing recruitment on reef surfaces (Donohue and 

Brainard 2001). Estimates of the overall impact of debris on shallow water habitats are difficult 

to quantify and are complicated by the likelihood that debris acts as a vector for alien species and 

introduction and spread of disease. 

In the NWHI, much of the marine debris is in the form of derelict fishing nets, mostly trawl nets, 

from North Pacific fisheries. No trawl net fisheries are active in Hawaiian waters, but active 

domestic and international fisheries use this type of gear in Pacific Rim fisheries. Other types of 

debris include gill nets, seine nets, lobster traps, fishing floats, Fish Aggregation Devices (FADs), 

hazardous materials (e.g., barrels, gas cylinders), and plastics. Because much of the debris comes 

from international fisheries, U.S. activities aimed at prevention are complicated. Debris produced 

from illegal activities, such as the unauthorized deployment of FADs and unlicensed fishing 

throughout the Pacific, makes the problem even more complex and harder to quantify. 

Since 1997, regular marine debris removal efforts have been conducted through a multi-agency 

effort led by NOAA, in collaboration with FWS, the State of Hawai‘i, City and County of 

Honolulu, Honolulu Waste Disposal, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Navy, University of Hawai‘i Sea 

Grant College Fund, Schnitzer Steel Hawai‘i Corporation (formerly Hawai‘i Metals Recycling 

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Company), The Ocean Conservancy, and other local agencies, businesses, and nongovernmental 

partners. Since then, this effort has resulted in the removal of more than 563 tons (502 metric 

tons) of derelict fishing gear and other marine debris from the coral reef ecosystems of the 

NWHI (figure 1.24). Marine debris survey and collection activities have been conducted at Kure 

Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Lisianski Island, Laysan Island, and French 

Frigate Shoals. Removal operations have targeted areas where marine debris has accumulated 

over the past several decades. It is estimated that the accumulation rate is 57 tons (52 metric 

tons) per year. Until substantial efforts are made to significantly reduce the sources of debris and 

until debris can be effectively removed at sea, similar amounts are expected to continue 

accumulating indefinitely in the reef ecosystems of the NWHI. 

Smaller types of marine debris made of plastic, such as disposable lighters, bottle caps, and other 

fragments, are ingested at sea by adult albatrosses, wedge-tailed shearwaters, and other seabirds 

when they feed at sea (Fry et al. 1987). These objects are subsequently fed to chicks in Monument 

colonies and may reduce their survival by causing direct injury to the gut, accumulating and 

reducing the chicks’ ability to swallow full-sized meals, and placing them at greater risk of 

dehydration, a common cause of death in young albatrosses (Sileo et al. 1990; Sievert et al. 1993, 

Fry et al. 1987; Auman et al. 1997). Additionally, this debris may increase the birds’ exposure to 

and ingestion of organochlorine contaminants from plastic surfaces (Carpenter and Smith 1972). 

600

Marine Debris Removal (metric tons/year)

500 Marine Debris Removal (metric tons, cumulative)

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Metric Tons 300

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Year

Figure 1.24 Quantity of Marine Debris Removal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. 

Source: PIFSC-CRED unpublished data. 
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Past uses have left a legacy of modification and contamination throughout NWHI, especially at 

French Frigate Shoals, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll. The NWHI have hosted an array of 

polluting human activities, including guano mining, fishing camps, Coast Guard LORAN 

stations, U.S. Navy airfields and bases, and various military missions. Contamination at all these 

sites includes offshore and onshore contaminated debris such as batteries (lead and mercury), 

transformers with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), capacitors, and barrels. Debris washing 

ashore is another source of contamination on the islands. Birds, such as shorebirds, may ingest 

soil while foraging. Studies have shown that soil can constitute up to 30 percent of the material a 

bird consumes (Hui and Beyer 1998, Beyer et al. 1994). If the consumed soil is contaminated, 

this can result in direct intake of toxic substances by foraging birds. Direct ingestion of sand 

contaminated by carbofuran, a pesticide that washed ashore with marine debris on Laysan Island, 

caused the deaths of endangered Laysan finches until the source was identified and removed by 

the FWS (Campbell et al. 2004, David et al. 2001). 

Uncharacterized, unlined landfills remain on some of these islands. Kure Atoll and French 

Frigate Shoals both have point sources of PCBs due to former LORAN stations. While the Coast 

Guard has mounted cleanup actions at both sites, elevated levels of contamination remain in 

island soils, nearshore sediment, and biota. 

During Coast Guard residency at Tern Island (French Frigate Shoals), an area on the north side 

of the island across from the barracks was used as a general dump and for the burning of garbage 

and trash. Waves, rust, and erosion slowly destroyed the northern seawall, and it was breached 

in late 1980, exposing the dump. Further erosion revealed a great deal of scrap metal, cable, 

wire, batteries, and electronic equipment such as capacitors and transformers. Coast Guard 

investigations removed exposed debris over the course of several years. PCB concentrations in 

the soil ranged from nondetect (<0.033) to 2,300 milligrams/kilogram. In an agreement forged 

by the Coast Guard and signed by the FWS, EPA, and Coast Guard, a cleanup level for soil was 

set at 2 milligrams/kilogram. In 2001, the Coast Guard excavated the landfill (U.S. Coast Guard 

2002). Despite the removal of a large amount of material, the Coast Guard left intact an area of 

approximately 95 by 60 feet (29 by 18.3 meters) that is a jumble of concrete blocks and metal 

debris from which numerous capacitors, batteries, and transformers have been removed over the 

years. PCB concentrations in 10 soil samples collected from this debris pile ranged from 0.14 to 

54 milligrams/kilogram PCBs, with 5 of the 10 samples exceeding the cleanup level of 

2 milligrams/kilogram (U.S. Coast Guard 2003). The most highly contaminated sample 

(54 milligrams/kilogram PCB) is considered hazardous waste. Unfortunately, this area is open to 

the lagoon, so it is washed by tides and storms. It is also frequented by monk seals and turtles. 

During Coast Guard residency at Kure, garbage and scrap metal were disposed of and burned at 

a dump site located at the southwestern edge of the island. Included in the pit were hazardous 

materials such as batteries and PCB-containing capacitors. The Coast Guard reported PCBs in 

the eroding dump to range from nondetect to 393 milligrams/kilogram (U.S. Coast Guard 

1994b). In 1994, the Coast Guard remediated the landfill on Kure, excavating and putting into 

containers soil from the landfill that exhibited a concentration equal to or greater than 25 

milligrams/ kilogram. A total of 36 cubic yards (27.5 cubic meters) of soil was removed from 

the landfill. Scrap metal, cable, nonliquid-containing drums, and remaining soil in the landfill 

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(metal debris and soils with PCB concentrations below 25 milligrams/kilogram) were removed 

from the landfill and re-interred in the “reburial pit.” The depth of the reburial pit was set 15 feet 

below ground surface, which was estimated to be 2 feet above the groundwater (U.S. Coast 

Guard 1994b). Confirmation sampling by the Coast Guard found concentrations of PCBs 

exceeding the cleanup goal and in excess of 100 milligrams/kilogram. 

French Frigate Shoals and Pearl and Hermes Atoll were used for World War II seaplane 

refueling operations. Leaking underground fuel storage tanks at French Frigate Shoals resulted 

in petroleum contamination of soil. 

Midway Atoll was the site of a U.S. Navy airfield. Before control of the atoll was transferred to 

the Department of the Interior in 1996, numerous contaminated sites throughout the atoll were 

identified and cleaned up under the U.S. Department of Defense’s Base Realignment and 

Closure process. Contamination identified and remediated included petroleum in the 

groundwater and nearshore waters; pesticides (e.g., DDT) in the soil; PCBs in soil, groundwater, 

and nearshore sediments and biota; metals, such as lead and arsenic, in soil and nearshore waters; 

and unlined, uncharacterized landfills. While most of the known areas were remediated, several 

areas warrant continued monitoring for potential releases. Since the airfield’s closure, the Navy 

has returned on several occasions to conduct further remediation. 

Midway has several landfills left behind by the Navy. Some of these landfills were created 

during base closure for the disposal of construction rubble and asbestos. Other landfills were 

created during Navy occupancy for disposal of materials associated with operations. One area 

that needs continued monitoring and potentially further remediation is known as the Old Bulky 

Waste Landfill. This site is an uncharacterized landfill that was created by the disposal of scrap 

metal, used equipment, and unconsolidated waste off the south shore of Sand Island to create a 

peninsula approximately 1,200 feet long by 450 feet 

(average) wide by 9 feet high (366 meters long by 

137 meters wide by 2.7 meters high)(Navy 1995). It 

is surrounded on the three seaward sides by an 

approximately 10-foot-thick (3-meter-thick) band of 

concrete and stone rip-rap. Wastes known to have 

been deposited in the landfill are metals (lead, 

cadmium, chromium, and nickel), gasoline, battery 

acid, batteries, mercury, lead-based paint, solvents, 

waste oil, PCBs, dioxins, furans, transmission and 

brake fluids, vehicles, equipment, tires, and 

miscellaneous debris (U.S. Navy 1996). The Old 

Bulky Waste Landfill is subjected to groundwater 

infiltration from the north and seawater infiltration 

from the other three sides. 

39 Erosion of the Bulky Waste Landfill on Sand Island, 

Midway Atoll. 

The Technical Memorandum for Evaluation of Remedial Alternatives (U.S. Navy 1995) stated 

that all remedial alternatives considered for the Old Bulky Waste Landfill would require 

groundwater monitoring. Alternatives considered were (1) containment, by constructing a 

multilayer cap in place and providing a lateral barrier extending below the lagoon floor along the 
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landfill periphery; (2) removal, by excavating the landfill and disposing of nonhazardous wastes 

further inland; (3) covering, by constructing a multilayer cap in place; and (4) no action. 

Ultimately, the Old Bulky Waste Landfill was covered in approximately 2 to 2.5 feet (0.6 to 0.8 

meters) of soil. Currently the landfill is eroding, and the soil placed on top is sifting into the 

debris, causing large holes to open up around the edge and in the center of the landfill. 

Additionally, burrowing birds are bringing up buried soil and nesting below the cover. Over 500 

bird burrows have been counted in the landfill. 

Pollution generated by past and present human activities, from sea-based and land-based sources, 

continues to stress the NWHI ecosystem. Emergency response mechanisms and ongoing 

cleanup and restoration activities will be maintained and enhanced to address these issues. In the 

case of marine debris, the NWHI is the recipient, not the source of this type of marine pollution. 

This provides the Monument with an important opportunity, as well as a challenge, to facilitate 

global and Pacific regional cooperation to help solve this problem. 

Climate Change 

Central patch reef, Kure Atoll, September 2002. 

Bleached Pocillopora meandrina with initial 

overgrowth by turf algae. Photo: Jean Kenyon 

Recent decades have brought increased awareness of the changing global environment and the 

implications this change may have on ecological processes. The increase in average global 

temperatures, sea level rise, and change in chemical concentrations in the world’s oceans are 

typically cited as the results of global climate change. Changes in the global climate are being 

brought about by three factors: increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and other gasses in 

the atmosphere, commonly referred to as the greenhouse effect; alterations in the 

biogeochemistry of the global nitrogen cycle; and 

ongoing land use and land cover change. Change in 

land use is considered the single most important 

component of global change affecting ecological 

systems (Vitousek 1994). While there is some 

debate regarding the extent of the impact these 

changes will have on Earth’s environment, several 

trends have been well documented. The four areas 

of impact linked to global climate change that may 

have the greatest potential effect on the Monument 

are weather changes, coral bleaching, sea level rise, 

and oceanic chemical composition change. 

According to findings of the Intergovernmental 

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), scientific 

understanding of anthropogenic warming and cooling influences on climate has improved in the 

last few years, leading to very high confidence that the global average net effect of human 

activities since 1750 has been one of warming. The IPCC also concluded that global 

atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased 

markedly as a result of human activities (IPCC 2007). 

Regional predictions for the North Central Pacific Gyre area within the life of the Monument 

Management Plan are for surface temperature increases of 0.9 to 1.8° F (0.5 to 1.0 °C), which is 

a smaller increase than that predicted for the Arctic and Northern hemisphere continental areas. 

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Projected precipitation maps indicate a decrease of 10 to 20 percent of average precipitation by 

2090 in the Monument area. It is likely that future tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) 

will become more intense, with higher peak wind speeds and heavier precipitation associated 

with ongoing increases of tropical sea surface temperatures. Extratropical storm tracks will 

likely move poleward and be associated with changes in wind, precipitation, and temperature 

patterns. Projection of the magnitude of sea level rise by 2090 from thermal expansion of water 

and the melting of land-based ice sheets is less certain, but the estimate ranges from 0.6 to 

1.9 feet (0.18 to 0.59 meters) (IPCC 2007). A rise of that magnitude (1.6 feet or 0.48 meters) is 

predicted to cause the loss of 3 to 65 percent of the terrestrial habitat in the Monument (Baker, et 

al. 2006). Evidence also suggests that the world’s oceans are regionally divisible with regard to 

historic fluctuations in sea level. Localized variations in subsidence and emergence of the sea 

floor and plate-tectonics activity prevent extrapolations in sea level fluctuations and trends 

between different regions. Thus, it may not be possible to discuss uniform changes in sea level 

on a global scale, nor the magnitude of greenhouse-gas-forced changes, as these changes may 

vary regionally (Michener et al. 1997). As an example, tide gauge records on the Atlantic coast 

indicate a sea level rise of 0.06 to 0.16 inches/year (0.89 to 0.99 centimeters/year) over the past 

century, whereas they have indicated a 0.35 to 0.39 inches/year (0.15 to 0.4 centimeters/year) 

increase along the Gulf Coast of the United States (Michener et al. 1997). More recent modeling 

indicates that melting could occur faster than the IPCC has predicted (Overpeck et al., 2006). 

Increases in sea level may also affect low-lying equatorial islands and atolls. Shoreline erosion 

and saltwater intrusion into subsurface freshwater aquifers have been noted throughout the 

Pacific (Shea et al. 2001). 

Weather Changes 

Weather changes, such as reductions in the amount of precipitation and changes in soil moisture 

and temperature, will affect vegetation communities by changing species compositions, 

seasonalities, and biomass. This is turn may affect the reproductive capabilities of insects and 

land birds that depend on this vegetation. Increased storm frequency and intensity will have 

impacts on coral health by direct damage due to breakage and smothering as sand moves around, 

and on terrestrial systems due to overwashing of islands. 

Coral Bleaching 

Coral bleaching occurs when zooxanthellae, symbiotic algae that live in coral tissue, leave the 

coral as a result of thermal and other types of stress. Corals can die or become diseased without 

their energy-producing zooxanthellae and can be subsequently colonized by turf algae and sessile 

invertebrates. Above-normal mean sea-surface temperatures have been shown to cause 

bleaching and mortality in corals, both in nature and in the laboratory, with bleaching generally 

occurring in shallower waters (Floros et al. 2004). Other variables have also been implicated in 

bleaching and mortality events, including extended periods of high temperatures, low wind 

velocity, clear skies, calm seas, low rainfall, high rainfall, salinity changes, high turbidity, or 

acute pollution. Smith and Buddemeier (1992) state, “Reef damage from anthropogenic 

environmental degradation (nutrient runoff, siltation, overexploitation) is widespread, represents 

a much greater threat than climate change in the near future, and can reinforce the negative 

effects of climate change.” Floros et al. (2004) goes on to note, “The causes of coral bleaching 

are debatable, but widely thought to be the result of a variety of stresses, both natural and 

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human-induced, that cause the degeneration and the loss of the colored zooxanthellae from the 

coral tissues.” 

Sea surface temperature anomalies resulting from regional and global-scale climatic 

phenomenon are believed to cause bleaching in the NWHI. Mass coral bleaching in the NWHI 

occurred during late summer 2002 (Aeby et al. 2003; Kenyon and Brainard 2006), the first time 

it was recorded or known to exist in the NWHI. Coral bleaching occurred again at high levels in 

2004, but was only detected at low rates in 2006 (Kenyon et al., 2006). Furthermore, the NWHI 

were believed to be less susceptible to bleaching due to their high latitude location. Bleaching 

was most severe, however, at the three northernmost atolls (Pearl and Hermes, Midway, and 

Kure), which experience both higher and lower sea water temperatures than the other reef areas 

of the NWHI. Bleaching occurred but was less severe at Lisianski Island and farther south in the 

NWHI. 

Oceanic Chemical Concentration Change 

Glacial and interglacial periods in the Earth’s history cycle have been associated, respectively, 

with low and high concentrations of carbon dioxide, as measured from deep Antarctic ice cores. 

However, recent increases fall outside the range of peak prehistoric carbon dioxide levels. The 

rate of increase is also 5 to 10 times more rapid than any of the sustained changes in the ice-core 

record (Vitousek 1994). Carbon dioxide levels have increased from 280 to 355 μL/L (microliters 

per liter) since 1800, a level of increase otherwise never reported during the past 160,000 years. 

Data suggest this increase is linked to fossil fuel combustion and not deforestation (Vitousek 

1994). As a result of anthropogenic release of carbon dioxide since 1750, the acidity of the 

ocean has increased (IPCC, 2007.) Change in carbon dioxide levels will increase the partial 

pressure of carbon dioxide in seawater, thus reducing the oversaturation of aragonite, a form of 

calcium carbonate that is the major building block for coral reefs (Vitousek 1994). Additionally, 

changes in ocean pH are predicted to create the dissolution of coral substrate as waters become 

more acidic (Fine and Tchernov 2007). The comprehensive result of the predicted change in 

ocean chemistry is uncertain, but it is thought that it will reduce the rate at which corals can 

deposit calcium carbonate and, additionally, decalcify existing coral skeletons, thus reducing the 

rate or capability of coral reefs to keep up with any increases in sea-level elevations. Moreover, 

increased ocean acidity can similarly affect the carbonate-based island atolls. 

Chemical composition changes in the atmosphere may also affect terrestrial ecosystems. For 

instance, the quantity of nitrogen available to organisms affects species composition and 

productivity. Increase in nitrogen can alter species composition by favoring those plant species 

that respond to nitrogen increases (Vitousek 1994). Increased carbon dioxide can also influence 

photosynthetic rates in plants, change plant species composition, lower nutrient levels, and lower 

weight gain by herbivores. 

Diseases 

The incidence of diseases affecting marine organisms is increasing globally; however, the factors 

contributing to disease outbreaks are poorly known and hampered due to a lack of information 

on normal disease levels in the ocean (Harvell et al. 1999). The incidence of coral disease is 

lower in the NWHI (Aeby 2006). The NWHI provide unique opportunities to document baseline 

levels of disease in coral reefs in the absence of a resident human population (Aeby 2006). 

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Recent studies in the NWHI have begun to document baseline levels of coral disease (Work et al. 

2004; Aeby 2006). Tumors, as well as lesions associated with parasites, ciliates, bacteria, and 

fungi have been found on a number of coral species. The overall average prevalence of disease 

(number of diseased colonies/total number of colonies) was found to be very low in the NWHI, 

estimated at 0.5 percent (ranging from 0 to 7.1 percent) (Aeby 2006), compared to the average 

prevalence of disease of 0.95 percent in the main Hawaiian Islands (Friedlander et al. 2005). 

The prevalence of disease varies among different genera of coral (figure 1.25), with the highest 

prevalence in species of the genera Acropora and Montipora. A protocol for characterizing coral 

disease has now been incorporated into regular coral surveys and monitoring of the NWHI. 

Figure 1.25 Overall prevalence of disease in the four major coral genera in the NWHI. Seventy-three sites 

were surveyed in July 2003. Prevalence (all surveys combined) is calculated as the number of diseased 

colonies per genera/total number of colonies per genera x 100. Source: Aeby 2006. 

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The threatened Hawai‘i population of the green turtle is affected by fibropapillomatosis (FP), a 

disease that causes tumors in turtles. The prevalence of FP in the Hawaiian green turtle 

population was estimated at 40 to 60 percent, with the majority of cases found among juvenile 

turtles (Balazs and Pooley 1991). The herpes virus has been suggested as the possible cause or 

as a cofactor of FP (Herbst 1995). The majority of recent turtle strandings are by juvenile turtles 

with FP (Work et al. 2004). As a result, FP may pose a major threat to the long-term survival of 

the species (Quackenbush et al. 2001). 

Marine Alien Species 

Marine alien species can be defined as aquatic organisms that have been intentionally or 

unintentionally introduced into new ecosystems, resulting in negative ecological, economic, or 

human health impacts. A total of 12 marine alien invertebrate, fish, and algal species have been 

recorded in the NWHI (table 1.5). Alien species may be introduced unintentionally by vessels, 

marine debris, or aquaculture, or intentionally, as in the case of some species of groupers and 

snappers and algal species. 

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Table 1.5 Marine Alien Species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands1

Species Taxa Native Range Present Status in Mechanism of Introduction NWHI2

Fouling on ship hulls Acanthophora spicifera Algae Indo-Pacific Established (MID) (hypothesized) 

Hypnea musciformis Algae Unknown; 

Cosmopolitan 

Not Established; in drift Intentional introduction to Main 

only (MAR) Hawaiian Islands (documented) 

Diadumene lineata Anemone Asia Unknown; on derelict net Derelict fishing net debris 

only (PHR) (documented) 

Pennaria disticha Hydroid Unknown; 

Cosmopolitan 

Established (PHR, LAY, Fouling on ship hulls 

LIS, KUR, MID) (hypothesized) 

Balanus reticulatus Barnacle Atlantic Fouling on ship hulls Established (FFS) (hypothesized) 

Balanus venustus Barnacle Atlantic and 

Caribbean 

Not Established; on vessel Fouling on ship hulls 

hull only (MID) (documented) 

Chthamalus proteus Barnacle Caribbean Fouling on ship hulls Established (MID) (hypothesized) 

Amathia distans Bryozoan Unknown; 

Cosmopolitan 

Fouling on ship hulls Established (MID) (hypothesized) 

Schizoporella errata Bryozoan Unknown; 

Cosmopolitan 

Fouling on ship hulls Established (MID) (hypothesized) 

Lutjanus kasmira Fish 

Established (NIH, NEC, 

Indo-Pacific FFS, MAR, LAY, and Intentional introduction to Main 

Hawaiian Islands (documented) MID) 

Cephalopholis argus Fish Indo-Pacific Established (NIH, NEC, Intentional introduction to Main 

FFS) Hawaiian Islands (documented) 

Lutjanus fulvus Fish Indo-Pacific Intentional introduction to Main Established (NIH and FFS) Hawaiian Islands (documented) 

Notes: 

1 Zabin et al. 2003, Godwin 2002, DeFelice et al. 2002, Godwin 2000, DeFelice et al. 1998, McDermid (pers. com.)

2 NIH=Nihoa, NEC=Necker, FFS=French Frigate Shoals, MAR=Maro, PHR=Pearl and Hermes, LAY=Laysan 

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Recent compilations of marine alien species in Hawai‘i (Eldredge and Carlton 2002) include 

some 343 species: 287 invertebrates, 24 algae, 20 fish, and 12 flowering plants. Information 

concerning marine aquatic invasive species in the NWHI is more recent and judgments as to 

whether organisms are invasive or native are based on knowledge of marine aquatic alien species 

that has been gained in the main Hawaiian Islands over the last decade. This is due both to the 

lack of taxonomic information for many invertebrate groups and the minimal historical sampling 

effort in the NWHI. The status of the taxonomy of many non coral marine invertebrate groups 

and algae is not fully developed for the NWHI and comprehensive species inventories have yet 

to be produced, although efforts to correct this are presently underway (Godwin et al., 2006). 

The known data concerning marine aquatic alien species in the NWHI was collected from a 

single focused marine invasive species survey by the Bishop Museum at Midway Atoll in 2000 

and subsequent multi agency RAMP cruises in 2002 and 2003. The results of these efforts have 

recorded a total of 11 aquatic invasive marine fish, invertebrate, and algae species in the NWHI. 

Table 1.5 shows the species, the native range of each, their present status in the NWHI, and the 

hypothesized or documented mechanism of introduction. 

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Eleven species of shallow-water snappers (Lutjanidae) and groupers (Serranidae) were purposely 

introduced to one or more of the main islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago in the late 1950s and 

early 1960s. Two snappers, the bluestripe snapper (taape, Lutjanus kasmira) and the blacktail 

snapper (Lutjanus fulvus), and one grouper, the peacock grouper (Cephalopholis argus), are well 

established and have histories of colonization along the island chain that are reasonably well 

documented (Randall 1987). Bluestripe snappers have been by far the most successful fish 

introduction to the Hawaiian coral reef ecosystem. Approximately 3,200 individuals were 

introduced on the island of O‘ahu in the 1950s. The population has expanded its range by 

1,491 miles (2,400 kilometers), until it has now been reported as far north as Midway in the NWHI 

(figure 1.26). These records suggest a dispersal rate of about 18-70 nautical miles (33-

130 kilometers) per year. The other two species have only been recorded as far north as French 

Frigate Shoals and are present in much lower numbers than bluestripe snappers. 

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Figure 1.26 Spread of Bluestripe Snapper Throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago after Introduction to O‘ahu 

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The magnitude of the problem of aquatic alien species is far greater in the main Hawaiian Islands 

than the NWHI. Efforts to control the accelerated introduction of alien species in the NWHI will 

focus on transport mechanisms, such as marine debris, ship hulls, and discharge of bilge water 

from vessels originating from Hawaiian Island and other ports, to effectively reduce new 

introductions. Existing Monument regulations and permitting requirements greatly reduce the 

chance of new introductions. Monitoring is needed as an early warning system for response 

actions to be effective. Natural transport mechanisms, such as larval transport in currents, also 

play a role in the spread of aquatic invasive species. 

Terrestrial Alien Species 

Human occupation at Midway Atoll has continued uninterrupted since the Commercial Pacific 

Cable Company took up residence there in 1903. The cable company attempted to make the 

settlement as self-sufficient as possible through the cultivation of gardens and small livestock. 

Initial garden attempts failed due to the lack of organic soil on the islands. To remedy this, barge 

loads of soil were brought from O‘ahu and Guam, and contained not only the organic matter that 

made gardening possible, but also all the associated soil organisms such as ants, centipedes, 

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fungi, etc. In addition to the introduction of vegetables, trees and ornamentals were also planted, 

such as ironwoods, eucalyptus, and acacia. So successful were these introductions that, by 1922, 

an estimated two-thirds of Sand Island was covered with imported vegetation. Livestock and 

poultry were also raised. While the black rat (Rattus rattus) was successfully exterminated on 

Midway in 1997, mice (Mus musculus), along with various species of ants, wasps, ticks, and 

mosquitoes continue to plague the wildlife and humans. Mosquitoes are of special concern as 

they are potential vectors for diseases such as West Nile virus, avian malaria, and avian pox. 

Laysan Island was the site of another attempt at colonization. In 1890, Captains Freeth and 

Spencer initiated the mining of guano, resulting in the removal of thousands of tons of guano and 

the disturbance of hundreds of acres of habitat. The most devastating action on Laysan was the 

introduction of domestic rabbits, Belgium and European hares, and guinea pigs by Max 

Schlemmer in 1903. Schlemmer, known as the “King of Laysan,” introduced these animals 

partly to amuse his many children and as potential livestock for a meat-canning business. 

Schlemmer’s activities, which included feather exporting, were outlawed with the establishment 

of the Hawaiian Islands Reservation; however, by then, the rapidly reproducing rabbits had 

extirpated most of the vegetation on Laysan. The U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey sent an 

expedition on the Thetis in the winter of 1912-13 to exterminate them but ran out of ammunition 

after 5,000 rabbits were killed; this still left several thousand, which continued to destroy the 

vegetation (Ely and Clapp 1973, Rauzon 2001). The rabbits were finally exterminated in 1923 

by the Tanager Expedition, which was a joint expedition by the U.S. Bureau of Biological 

Survey, the Bishop Museum, and the U.S. Navy (Rauzon 2001). In only a few years, the rabbits 

destroyed almost all of the vegetation and associated insects of the island, causing the extinction 

of three species of birds: the Laysan honeycreeper (Himantione sanguinea freethii), the Laysan 

rail (Porzana palmeri), and the Laysan millerbird (Acrocephalus familiaris familiaris). 

The number of alien land plants in the NWHI varies from only 3 introduced at Nihoa to 249 

introduced at Midway Atoll. The level of threat from introduced plants also varies between 

species. For example, the invasive plant golden crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides) displaces 

all native vegetation in nesting areas, causing entanglement and heat prostration and killing 

hundreds of albatrosses each year. At Southeast Island, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Verbesina has 

displaced all native plants, and when it dies back each year, the endangered Laysan finches 

(Telespiza cantans) there suffer severe food and cover restrictions. This plant has quickly 

covered nesting habitat on Sand, Eastern, and Spit islands of Midway Atoll, Green Island of 

Kure Atoll, and Southeast Island of Pearl and Hermes Reef. 

Sandbur (Cenchrus echinatus) is an aggressive invasive grass currently occurring at Kure and 

Midway Atolls, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lisianski Island, and French Frigate Shoals. An 

intensive Cenchrus eradication effort at Laysan Island that took 10 years to complete has 

restored that island’s vegetation community. Laysan Island has also been invaded by Indian 

Pluchea (Pluchea indica), Sporobolus pyramidatus, and swine cress (Coronopus didymus). 

Additionally, several species of invasive ants have quickly established and are lethal when they 

swarm on young seabird chicks. 

The invasive gray bird locust (Schistocerca nitens) was first detected at Nihoa Island in 1984, 

and by 2000 was periodically reaching large population levels that were causing damage to the 

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native plant community, including three endemic species listed as endangered. This grasshopper 

species has now also spread to Mokumanamana, French Frigate Shoals, and Lisianski Island. 

To prevent further importation of invasive plants, animals, or insects, mandatory quarantine 

protocols are enforced for any visitors to all the islands in the NWHI, with the exception of 

Midway Atoll and Tern Island. These protocols require the use of brand new or island-specific 

gear at each site and treatments such as cleaning, using insecticide, and freezing to minimize the 

transport of potentially invasive species to the islands. 

Fishing 

Fishing and other resource extractive uses have occurred in varying degrees in the NWHI. 

Native Hawaiians traveled to these areas as early as 500 A.D. During the western exploration 

period (1750 to 1920s), explorers and whalers from France, Russia, Japan, Britain, and the 

United States harvested Hawaiian monk seals, whales, fish, seabirds, and guano from various 

parts of the NWHI. In more recent history (1920s to 1970s), fishing and other resource 

extractive uses were punctuated by the overexploitation of the endemic black-lipped pearl oyster 

(1928 to 1931), the beginning of a Hawai‘i-based fishing fleet (1930s to 1940s), a cessation of 

commercial uses during World War II, a resumption of commercial fishing (1945 to 1960) 

(during which Tern Island was used as a transshipment point for fresh fish flown to Honolulu), 

and a proliferation of foreign fishing vessels from Japan and Russia (1965 to 1977). 

Commercial fishing in the NWHI has, in recent decades, been managed according to Federal 

fishery management plans developed for fisheries for precious corals, bottomfish and seamount 

groundfish, and pelagic, crustacean, and coral reef fisheries. According to the management 

scheme, no precious coral or coral reef species fisheries have been permitted in the NWHI. 

Pelagic longline fishing within 50 nautical miles (92.6 kilometers) of the NWHI has been 

prohibited since 1991, the year the Longline Protected Species Zone was designated to prevent 

interactions with endangered species (50 C.F.R. 665.21 (2007) Subpart C). The crustacean 

(lobster-trap) fishery has not had a harvest guideline set for the NWHI since that time; no 

crustacean fishery has operated in the NWHI since 2000. However, Proclamation 8031 allows 

commercial fishing by federally permitted bottomfish fishery participants who have valid 

permits until mid-2011 (71 FR 36443, June 26, 2006). This amounts to a maximum of eight 

permitted bottomfish vessels that fish within the Monument. 

The only commercial fishery occurring in the Monument is the Federal bottomfish fishery. This 

fishery operates according to the management regime specified in the Fishery Management Plan 

for Bottomfish and Seamount Groundfish Fisheries in the Western Pacific Region. In the 

NWHI, the bottomfish fishery is a hook and line fishery that targets a range of snappers, jacks, 

emperors, and groupers that live on the outer reef slopes, seamounts, and banks at depths of 

approximately 50 to 400 fathoms. The management regime includes several precautionary 

measures that minimize potential effects of this fishery. For instance, the bottomfishery 

participants do not operate in the presence of the monk seals so as to avoid any direct or indirect 

effects of the fishery on the species (50 C.F.R. 665.61(2007) Subpart E). Also, it is known that 

the vessels operations do not negatively impact habitat (Kelley and Ikehara 2006). Finally, the 

annual catch limit in the NWHI is set by regulation at 300,000 lbs. of bottomfish and 180,000 

lbs. of pelagic species (50 CFR Part 404). In practice, bottomfish harvest is below catch limits 

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and is thought not to be the contributing factor to the overfishing status of the bottomfish stocks 

in the archipelago. 

Transportation Hazards and Groundings 

Hazards to shipping and other forms of maritime traffic such as shallow submerged reefs and 

shoals are inherent in the NWHI’s 1,200 miles (1,931 kilometers) of islands and islets. The 

region is exposed to open ocean weather and sea conditions year-round, punctuated by winter 

severe storm and wave events. Vessel groundings and the release of fuel, cargo, and other items 

pose real threats to the NWHI. Likewise, aircraft landing at Midway Atoll or Tern Island pose 

certain risks to wildlife and other resources, including bird strikes, introduction of alien species, 

aircraft crashes, and fuel spills. Certain management practices, such as requiring night landings 

and runway sweeps during albatross season at Midway and alien species inspections can 

minimize these risks. 

The many types of vessels operating in and transiting through the NWHI pose different threats to 

the marine environment based on their size, age, draft, port of origin, frequency of visits, 

activities conducted, navigational protocols, and operations that could disturb or injure wildlife 

or coral reef ecosystems, as well as the volume, type, and location of discharges. The range of 

vessel types include 20- to 60-foot fishing and recreational vessels, 150- to 250-foot research 

vessels, 500- to 700-foot passenger cruise ships and freighters, 700- to 1,000-foot tankers, as 

well as Coast Guard, military, and international ships of all sizes and types. 

Vessel Groundings, Oil and Fuel Spills, and Loss of Cargo Overboard 

In the NWHI, a number of factors have contributed to vessel groundings and cargo loss over the 

years. These factors include human error, lack of appropriate navigational practices, inaccurate 

nautical charts, and treacherous conditions due to low-lying islands, atolls, and shallow pinnacles 

and banks. All vessels pose a risk to the environment. Periodically, accidental loss of cargo 

overboard causes marine debris or hazardous materials to enter sensitive shallow-water 

ecosystems. 

Twelve of the 60 ship losses known to have occurred in the region have been located and include 

whaling vessels, navy frigates, tankers, and modern fishing boats. Additionally, 67 planes are 

known to have been lost in the region, mainly naval aircraft (many from World War II), but only 

2 have been located. Some of these ship and aircraft wreck sites fall into the category of war 

graves associated with major historic events. 

Unexploded ordnance, debris, and modern shipwrecks, such as the fishing vessels Houei Maru 

#5 and Paradise Queen II at Kure Atoll or the tanker Mission San Miguel lost at Maro Reef, are 

not protected as heritage resources and represent a more immediate concern as threats to reef 

ecosystems. Mechanical damage from the initial grounding, subsequent redeposition of wreck 

material by storm surge, fishing gear damage to reef and species, and release of fuel or hazardous 

substances are all issues to be considered in protecting the integrity of the environment. 

Dissolved iron serves as a limiting nutrient in many tropical marine areas and tends to fuel 

cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) growth when the iron begins to dissolve (corrode). This is 

especially a problem on atolls and low coral islands where basalt or volcanic rock is absent in the 

photic zone and natural dissolved sources of iron in seawater are even lower. Therefore, any 

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ships left in place would be an iron source that could contribute to potential cyanobacterial 

blooms. It has been demonstrated that not removing nonhistoric steel vessels can have long-term 

detrimental effects, that in most cases, can be worse than any short-term damage to the 

environment caused by the removal action. 

In 1998, the Paradise Queen II ran aground at Kure Atoll, spilling 11,000 gallons of diesel fuel 

and 500 gallons of hydraulic fluids and oil. The vessel also lost 3,000 pounds of frozen lobster 

tails, 4,000 pounds of bait, 11 miles of lobster pot mainline, and 1,040 lead-weighted plastic 

lobster traps. Traps rolling around in the surf broke coral and coralline algal structures. Two 

years later, researchers found broken coral and 600 lobster traps among piles of nets surrounding 

the decaying wheelhouse (Maragos and Gulko 2002). 

When the 85-foot longliner Swordman I, carrying more than 6,000 gallons of diesel fuel and 

hydraulic oil, ran aground at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 2000, vessel monitoring system 

technology allowed agents to track the disaster and quickly send out equipment for a cleanup that 

cost upward of $300,000, a cost that the government had to sue to recover. 

By comparison, the grounded chartered marine debris cleanup vessel Casitas caused less 

environmental damage. Following the removal of 33,000 gallons of fuel and oil, the 145-foot 

motor vessel Casitas was successfully extracted from the reef at Pearl and Hermes Atoll and 

entombed northwest of the atoll in approximately 7,200 feet (2,195 meters) of water. However, 

the crew fleeing the sinking vessel was forced to camp on a quarantine island without “clean 

gear.” It has yet to be determined whether any invasive species came ashore with the 

shipwecked crew. The ship was conducting marine debris cleanup operations under a NOAA 

charter when it ran aground on July 2, 2005. Unified Command representatives from the Coast 

Guard, State of Hawai‘i, and Northwind Inc. (owner of the Casitas), in cooperation with the 

Federal trustees FWS and NOAA, oversaw the operation to prevent further damage to the coral 

reef ecosystem and islands. 

On June 1, 2007, a grounded vessel named Grendel was discovered inside Kure Atoll’s lagoon 

on the northeast reef. Metal debris from the vessel was found on the reef extending along a 500’ 

path from the vessel northeast to the emergent reef, indicating that the vessel entered the lagoon 

over the northeast reef. The level of fouling on the steel hulled sloop suggested that the vessel 

wrecked approximately 3-4 months earlier in February or March. The vessels sails, sheets and 

lines were tangled around the mast, stays, and railings creating a wildlife entanglement hazard. 

Approximately 275 pounds of entanglement hazards were removed using snorkeling gear. A 

battery, 300 pounds of chain, three anchors, and several broken pieces of metal were also 

removed from the site. The MMB is coordinating with Army, Navy, and Coast Guard officials 

to remove the wreck in the spring of 2008. 

Waste Discharge 

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 1973/78) is 

the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by 

ships from operational or accidental causes. It addresses potential sources of pollution, such as 

oil, chemicals, harmful substances in packaged form, garbage, sewage, and air pollution. (The 

United States is not a signatory to those parts of the Convention addressing the last two sources.) 

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The Convention’s regulations are aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from both 

accidental events and routine operations. 

Vessel waste generally consists of solid waste, sewage, gray water, and bilge water. Solid waste 

may consist of food, cans, glass, wood, cardboard, paper, and plastic. Sewage discharge can 

contain bacteria or viruses, or medical wastes that can cause disease in humans and wildlife or 

affect the ecosystem by increasing nutrient load. Gray water is wastewater from sinks, showers, 

laundry, and galleys. It may contain a number of pollutants such as suspended solids, ammonia, 

nitrogen, phosphates, heavy metals, and detergents. Bilge water can contain fuel, oil, and 

wastewater from engines and machinery that collects in the bottom of the ship’s hull as a result 

of routine operations, spills, and leaks. Discharge in the Monument is tightly regulated by the 

Proclamation and permit requirements. Monument staff are investigating the potential impacts 

of various types of discharges and will continue to update permit requirements as need to 

safeguard the marine resources. 

Ballast Water Exchange 

Ballast water discharged from ships is one of the primary pathways for the introduction and 

spread of aquatic nuisance species. In response to national concern regarding these species, the 

National Invasive Species Act of 1996 was enacted, which reauthorized and amended the 

Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990. In addition to the 

Monument discharge regulations, ballast water exchange in the Monument is regulated by Coast 

Guard regulations establishing a national mandatory ballast water management program for all 

vessels equipped with ballast water tanks that enter or operate within U.S. waters. These 

regulations also require vessels to maintain a ballast water management plan that is specific for 

that vessel and that assigns responsibility to the master or an appropriate official to understand 

and execute the ballast water management strategy for that vessel. 

Introduction of Alien Species 

Introduction of marine alien species, including pathogens, is of great concern. The prohibitions 

on ballast discharge in the Proclamation and the actions outlined in the Alien Species Action 

Plan (section 3.3.2) aim to prevent the introduction of alien species to the marine environment. 

The Alien Species Action Plan addresses prevention, monitoring of alien species, and education 

of Monument users and the public about the need to prevent alien species introductions. 

Anchor Damage to Reefs 

Vessel anchoring has the potential to affect the ecosystem depending upon many factors, such as 

the size of the ship and anchor system, weather conditions, and the location and vicinity of the 

anchorage relative to sensitive ecosystems, such as coral reefs. Because of the potential for 

impacts to the ecosystem, anchoring on or having a vessel anchored on any living or dead coral 

with an anchor, anchor chain, or anchor rope is prohibited. Anchoring on all other substrates is 

strictly regulated. 

Anchors and chains can destroy coral and live rock, directly affecting fishes and benthic 

organisms and their habitat. To prevent this type of damage, mooring buoys are sometimes used 

in places where frequent or extended anchoring is necessary. Depending on site conditions and 

mooring type, such buoys can reduce impacts to the ecosystem. The National Marine Sanctuary 

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Program has successfully used mooring buoys to mitigate ecosystem damage in high-use areas in 

the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Similarly, in Hawai‘i, the State Department of 

Land and Natural Resources minimized coral reef and benthic habitat damage at Molokini Islet’s 

popular anchorage with mooring buoys. Data are available to study potential mooring buoy 

locations using anchor logs from ships that currently operate, or have done so historically, in the 

Monument. 

Light and Noise Impacts 

Light and noise generated by people in the marine environment have been the subject of 

attention in recent years because of concerns that they may negatively affect a variety of species. 

In the NWHI, seabirds are attracted to and become disoriented by ship lights at night. With 

emergent land areas in the NWHI providing breeding and nesting area for millions of seabirds, 

ships’ nightlights attract birds, which can strike the vessel and become injured. The extent of the 

impact of lights on the seabirds is affected by many factors, including the amount of light, the 

size of the vessel, the vessel location relative to nesting areas, the season, and the type of birds in 

the vicinity. Shearwaters, petrels, and juvenile birds are especially vulnerable to nightlights and 

deck injuries. Lights from vessels can also attract green turtle hatchlings, making them more 

vulnerable to predators. Lights and lighted structures on land contribute to seabird mortality by 

causing collisions and disoriention. Light sources in the vicinity of turtle nest-sites may disorient 

hatching marine turtles so they travel inland and perish. 

Anthropogenic noise may also affect some species in the NWHI environment. Sound is a 

common element of the marine and terrestrial environment, originating from a variety of natural 

sources such as wind, waves, earthquakes, and marine organisms. Humans introduce sound 

incidentally into the environment through activities such as low-flying aircraft, shipping, fishing 

and other vessel use. People also introduce sound intentionally using sonar for research or 

military applications, seismic arrays, fish finders, and other tools that help people “see” 

underwater, and to better understand or exploit the marine environment. The amount and 

intensity of sound in the ocean is increasing as human activities expand. 

Underwater sounds of both human and natural origin may affect the behavior and, in some cases, 

the survival and productivity of individual marine mammals. The nature and significance of 

effects depend on a number of factors involving the intensity, duration, and frequency of the 

sound, as well as particular aspects of the habitat and the animal it may affect. Of particular 

concern is midfrequency tactical sonar used by military vessels. This type of sonar has been 

implicated as the cause of several recent marine mammal stranding events (Marine Mammal 

Commission 2005). Deep-diving species, such as beaked whales, appear to be particularly at 

risk from these sound sources. Beaked whales occur throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago, 

including within the Monument (Barlow 2003). 

Little is currently known about noise levels and sources in the Monument. Future assessment of 

the anthropogenic noise in the NWHI will be conducted in close coordination with the Marine 

Mammal Commission, NOAA Fisheries, and other partners. The Marine Mammal Commission 

maintains a Sound Program and Advisory Committee on Acoustic Impacts on Marine Mammals to 

address the effects of anthropogenic sound on marine mammals. 

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The following information summarizes the main types of vessels operating in the Monument. 

All vessels carry with them some degree of risk associated with groundings, discharge, alien 

species introductions, and wildlife interactions and other potential threats, which are addressed in 

different sections throughout this plan or directly though prohibitions or permit requirements. 

Fishing Vessels 

Eight commercial fishing permits are eligible for use in the Monument until June 2011. The 

fishermen average 2 to 10 trips per year per vessel, with duration ranging from 3 to 22 days per 

trip. For the most part, these vessels bottomfish around the atolls and banks at the 100-fathom 

depth, and troll in deep water and across banks as they transit between islands. Annual catch 

limit is set by the Proclamation and codified by regulation (50 CFR Part 404). Crew size ranges 

from one to four people. The Proclamation prohibits further commercial bottomfish and 

associated pelagic fishing after June 15, 2011. 

Vessels Conducting Research and Management Activities 

Several vessels are engaged in research or management activities in the Monument. These 

include NOAA’s Oscar Elton Sette, Hi‘ialakai, Ka‘imimoana, and the University of Hawai‘i’s 

R/V Kilo Moana and R/V Kaimikai-O-Kanaloa, as well as chartered vessels for marine debris 

removal and for FWS management activities. These vessels are most active in the NWHI during 

the months of April through November. They average 200 feet in length; weigh 2,300 tons; and 

carry 50 crew, researchers, and other staff. The Coast Guard sends a buoy tender to the NWHI 

once a year. This mission also serves as a law enforcement patrol. In addition, the Coast Guard 

may occasionally send other ships to the area as needed (Havlik 2005 pers. com.). 

Cruise Ships 

A small number of cruise ships visit the Midway Atoll Special Management Area each year. 

The Seven Seas Voyager visited Midway once, and the Pacific Princess visited twice in 2004. In 

2005, 2006, and 2007, one cruise ship visited the atoll each year (Maxfield 2005 pers. com.). 

Due to their size and the narrow width of the entrance channel at Midway, as well as port 

security requirements, cruise ships offload passengers 3 to 4 miles outside the lagoon and 

transport them ashore in small boats. 

Worldwide, cruise ships constitute a large and growing industry, and like other ships, present a 

potential environmental threat to the Monument. Large cruise ships can carry thousands of 

passengers and crew, producing hundreds of thousands of gallons of wastewater and tons of 

garbage each day. The cruise industry has attracted a lot of attention regarding the treatment of 

waste at sea, and the Monument closely monitors scientific and regulatory developments that 

may influence management decisions associated with these ships. 

Merchant Vessels 

U.S. flag and international merchant vessels, including container ships, bulk carriers, and 

tankers, transit the waters surrounding the NWHI regularly. Data on routes and volume of 

shipping traffic are in the process of being compiled. Vessel traffic passes to the north of the 

island chain, following great circle routes to and from ports on the west coast of North America 

and East Asia. Vessels also pass through the Monument. Vessels have been observed using the 

pass between Pearl and Hermes Atoll and Lisianski Island because it allows vessels to maintain 

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an east-west heading while transiting through the island chain (Tosatto 2005 pers. com.). 

Periodically, accidental loss of cargo overboard causes marine debris or hazardous materials to 

enter sensitive shallow water ecosystems. 

Native Hawaiian Practices and Education 

Between 2003 and 2007, several trips for Native Hawaiian cultural practices, education, and 

documentary film and photography projects were conducted on vessels in the Monument. Vessel 

size varied, as did anchoring and waste discharge practices. Some of the trips, such as the Hōkūle‘a

voyage to Kure in 2004 as part of the “Navigating Change” program, included both FWS and 

NOAA personnel. 
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The Monument is important both nationally and globally, as it contains one of the world’s most 

significant marine and terrestrial ecosystems, areas of cultural significance, and the world’s 

largest fully protected marine area. It serves as an example of ongoing geological processes, 

biological evolution, and the effects humans have had on the natural environment. These 

volcanic rocks, large atolls of sand and coral, and islets surrounded by reefs and waters provide 

unique habitats for endemic and rare species of animals and plants, with outstanding and 

universal value from scientific, conservation, and aesthetic perspectives. This relatively pristine 

region contrasts sharply with most insular and marine ecosystems, which are more severely 

affected by human activities and populations around the world. 

More recently, the recognition of the uniqueness of the NWHI has led the State of Hawai‘i, on 

behalf of the Co-Trustees, to work with the National Park Service International Programs Office 

to work toward nomination of the Monument as a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and 

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Mixed Site for its natural and cultural values, 

and as part of the world heritage of mankind. The U.S. submitted a new World Heritage 

tentative list to UNESCO in January 2008, which included the Monument as one of the sites for 

consideration in the United States World Heritage portfolio because the NWHI: 

• Are an outstanding example representing a major stage of the earth’s evolutionary 

history; 

• Are an outstanding example representing significant ongoing geological processes, 

biological evolution, and man’s interaction with his natural environment; 

• Contain unique rare and superlative natural formations and features and areas of 

exceptional natural beauty; and 

• Provide habitats where populations of rare and endangered species of plants and animals 

still survive. 

UNESCO rules require a minimum 1-year delay between the time a Nation submits its tentative 

list and the time it makes an actual nomination to designate a site from that list as a World 

Heritage Site. The U.S. submitted its new Tentative List to UNESCO on January 24, 2008. 

Conserving the NWHI contributes to international community efforts aimed at conserving 

biodiversity and ecosystem integrity around the world. These efforts include work by 

organizations such as the World Conservation Union, the world’s largest environmental 

knowledge network; the Convention on Biological Diversity; the South Pacific Regional 

Environment Program; and UNESCO. Conservation and management of Monument resources 

contributes to the reduction in the current rate of loss of biological diversity at the global, 

national, and regional levels, for the benefit of all life on earth. 

Remote, uninhabited, and relatively pristine in comparison to other marine ecosystems in the 

world, the Monument serves as one of the few modern sentinels for monitoring and deciphering 

short-term and long-term responses to local, regional, and global environmental and 

anthropogenic stressors. The Monument is one of the few regions on Earth where monitoring 

and research activities can be conducted in virtual absence of local human habitation. In 

comparison, most reef systems in the coastal regions of the world are adjacent to human 

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population centers, where vessel traffic, overharvesting, sedimentation, habitat destruction, and 

other human actions have altered the terrestrial and adjacent marine environments. Ongoing 

research, monitoring, habitat restoration, and conservation management of the insular and marine 

ecosystems in the NWHI will continue to provide significant insights that will benefit 

management interventions not only for the NWHI, but for insular and marine ecosystems around 

the world. 

On July 13, 2007, the Monument was designated "in principle" as a Particularly Sensitive Sea 

Area (PSSA) by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a Specialized Agency of the 

United Nations. The U.S. proposal for PSSA designation was submitted in April 2007 for 

consideration by the IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee at its July meeting. 

PSSA designation has been granted to only 10 marine areas globally, including the marine areas 

around the Florida Keys, the Great Barrier Reef, and the Galapagos. The proposed area of the 

PSSA is coterminous with the Marine National Monument. 

PSSA designation will augment domestic protective measures by alerting international mariners 

to exercise extreme caution when navigating through the area. Additionally, as part of the PSSA 

designation process, on October 8, 2007, the IMO’s Maritime Safety Committee adopted the U.S 

proposals for the associated protective measures (APMs) of: (1) the expansion and amendment 

of the six existing recommendatory Areas to be Avoided (ATBAs) in the area, which would 

enlarge the class of vessels to which they apply and augment the geographic scope of these areas 

as well as add new ATBAs around Kure and Midway atolls; and (2) the establishment of a ship 

reporting system for vessels transiting the Monument, which is mandatory for ships 300 gross 

tons or greater entering or departing a U.S. port or place and recommendatory for other ships. 

These APMs will be implemented in May 2008. The PSSA received final designation by the 

Marine Environment Protection Committee in April 2008. 

Nevertheless, the Monument is not immune from local, regional, and global-scale influences. 

The millions of pounds of marine debris that have accumulated in the NWHI illustrate the impact 

people have on faraway, uninhabited ecosystems at an international scale. Therefore, the CoTrustees are committed to preserving and protecting the cultural, historic, and natural resources 

of the NWHI by developing and implementing this Monument Management Plan to care for and 

manage these unique insular and marine ecosystems. 
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Management Framework 

2.1 Legal Framework for the Monument 

2.2 Policy Framework 

2.3 Initial Management 

2.4 Monument Management: The Vision, Mission, 

Guiding Principles, and Goals 

2.5 Management Action Plans 

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Management of the Monument is carried out by the Co-Trustees in accordance with legal 

mandates, authorities, and policies of several Federal and State agencies, and Monument-specific 

policies and implementing regulations. In their day-to-day management, the Co-Trustees 

through the Monument Management Board will ensure the coordinated planning and execution 

of activities so that they are consistent with the legal and policy structure of the Monument. 

Management of the Monument focuses on managing activities for the benefit of the ecosystem's 

health. In establishing the Monument, President George W. Bush recognized the importance of 

an ecosystem approach to management. This approach is mindful of the interconnectedness of 

the Monument resources and requires a holistic approach to managing activities so as to preserve 

ecosystem structure, function, and key processes and recover resources where necessary. 

The management framework supporting an ecosystem approach to management of the 

Monument includes the following key elements: 

 

(1) A legal and policy foundation for cooperative ecosystem-based management; 

(2) Institutional arrangements to promote and enhance collaboration with jurisdictional 

partner agencies and other stakeholders; 

(3) Monument regulations that incorporate multiple management tools including 

prohibitions, zoning, and regulated activities; 

(4) Established Monument vision, mission, guiding principles, and goals; 

(5) Operational goals; 

(6) Desired outcomes, strategies, and activities that implement the Monumentwide 

goals and are set forth in action plans specific to management subject areas; and 

(7) An iterative and adaptive approach. 

Together, these elements provide the framework for managing the Monument ecosystem. 

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President George W. Bush issued Presidential Proclamation 8031 (Establishment of the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument, June 15, 2006), which created the 

Monument under the authority of the Antiquities Act of 1906, as amended (16 U.S.C. 431-433) . 

Federal partners—NOAA and FWS—promulgated joint implementing regulations on August 19, 

2006 (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument, 50 CFR Part 404). 

Specifically, these regulations codify the scope and purpose, boundary, definitions, prohibitions, 

and regulated activities of the Monument. Furthermore, Proclamation 8031 was amended on 

March 6, 2007, to declare the Hawaiian name for the Monument, Papahānaumokuākea, and 

clarify some definitions (Presidential Proclamation 8112, Establishment of the 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, March 6, 2007). 

The Monument includes areas and management authorities that are under the jurisdiction of one 

or multiple Federal agencies or the State of Hawai‘i. For example, the Monument, an area of 

approximately 139,793 square miles (362,062 square kilometers), includes the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, managed by NOAA’s National Ocean Service 

through the National Marine Sanctuary Program; Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge/Battle 

of Midway National Memorial, both managed by FWS; Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife 

Refuge, managed by FWS; Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine Refuge, managed by the 

State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR); and State Seabird 

Sanctuary at Kure Atoll managed by Hawai‘i DLNR. Additionally, NOAA’s National Marine 

Fisheries Service continues its management of fishing and specific protected species 

conservation programs, FWS oversees activities under its Endangered Species Act and Migratory 

Bird Treat Act authorities, and the State of Hawai‘i Historic Preservation Division, with the 

assistance of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, ensures perpetuation of Native Hawaiian cultural 

rights and practices. The legal relationships among the three Co-Trustees and others (including 

the U.S. Department of Defense) have a long history with respect to natural resource 

management of the NWHI beginning in 1903 and continuing to modern-day directives that 

promote the comprehensive and coordinated ecosystem-based management of resources by 

NOAA, FWS, and the State of Hawai‘i. 

Each agency, as laid out in the Proclamation establishing the Monument, retains their spheres of 

jurisdiction, responsibility, and expertise. They bring different knowledge and strengths to this 

process. They work together on many aspects of the management process which can benefit 

from the synergies of cooperative action. Throughout this process however, each partner will 

continue carrying out their statutory responsibilities. Even where one of the MMB members has 

primary responsibility, input from the other board members can often be helpful and is presumed 

as part of the plan. 

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To achieve a coordinated management scheme, the Proclamation ordered a new level of 

collaboration that would result in coordinated management of the entire Monument. To that end, 

the Co-Trustees developed and agreed to operate according to terms and institutional 

relationships set in a memorandum of agreement (MOA) (State of Hawai‘i et al, 2006). The 

signatories of that MOA are the Co-Trustees, who operate with personnel devoted to the 

development and implementation of coordinated management. The three Co-Trustees are the 

State of Hawai‘i, the Department of the Interior, and the Department of Commerce. To provide 

context for the current management framework, this section briefly summarizes the involvement 

of each Co-Trustee in the pre-Monument institutional arrangement, which influences, and in 

some instances carries over to, the collaborative Co-Trustee management.

Institutional Arrangements for Management 

The MOA established the institutional arrangements for management of the Monument. The 

approach demands coordination by the Co-Trustees as well as collaboration with stakeholders to 

effectively manage under an ecosystem approach. The institutional arrangements for Monument 

management are described below. These consist of a Senior Executive Board providing policy 

guidance and a Monument Management Board, which consists of field staff who conduct the 

day-to-day management activities of the Monument. 

Senior Executive Board

Pursuant to the MOA, a Senior Executive Board (SEB) provides policy guidance to their 

respective agency staff assigned to carry out Monument management activities. The SEB 

membership includes a senior-level designee from the U.S. Department of the Interior, the U.S. 

Department of Commerce, and the State of Hawai‘i. The SEB oversees the implementation of 

the following management actions by the Monument Management Board: 

• Develop a management plan; 

• Provide access and support for enforcement purposes; 

• Coordinate resource and monitoring efforts; 

• Develop a mechanism to access scientific and resource data; 

• Provide support to identify locations of cultural and religious significance; 

• Manage recreational, educational, and commercial activities; 

• Identify and facilitate coordination and partnership opportunities with stakeholders; 

• Facilitate opportunities to participate and collaborate on education activities; 

• Develop interagency agreements, grants, and other instruments; 

• Ensure appropriate monitoring of activities within the Monument; and 

• Enhance coordination by jointly issuing permits. 

Monument Management Board 

Pursuant to the MOA, the Monument Management Board (MMB) promotes coordinated 

management of the Monument at the field level. The MMB includes a broader range of 

representatives from the Co-Trustees, specifically: 

• State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic 

Resources; 

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• State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Forestry 

and Wildlife; 

• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hawaiian and Pacific Islands National Wildlife 

Refuge Complex; 

• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office; 

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuary 

Program; 

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries 

Service; and the 

• Office of Hawaiian Affairs. 

This group meets on a regular basis to implement the day-to-day management of the Monument. 

Papahānaumokuākea Interagency Coordinating Committee 

The Co-Trustees established the Papahānaumokuākea Interagency Coordinating Committee 

(ICC) to assist in implementation of Monument management. The ICC includes representatives 

from the Co-Trustees and other agencies including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

U.S. Coast Guard 14th District Prevention and Response, U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. 

Department of Defense. This group is not fixed, and Federal and State agency partners may 

participate according to the relevancy of their activities and/or mandates related to the 

Monument. 

The Co-Trustees

The Department of Commerce: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Two NOAA line offices have mandates that apply to activities in the Monument: the National 

Ocean Service and NOAA Fisheries (National Marine Fisheries Service). In 2000, the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve (Reserve) was established via 

Executive Order 13178 (as amended by Executive Order 13196) to preserve and protect coral 

reef ecosystems of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). Responsibility for managing 

the Reserve was assigned to NOAA's National Ocean Service through the National Marine 

Sanctuary Program (NMSP) under the authority of the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (16 

U.S.C 1431 et seq.) and the National Marine Sanctuaries Amendments Act of 2000, Public Law 

106-513 and other applicable statutes. Executive Order 13178 directed NOAA, in consultation 

with Federal and State partners, to initiate a process to designate the Reserve as a national marine 

sanctuary pursuant to sections 303 and 304 of the National Marine Sanctuaries Act of 2000. 

In January 2001, NOAA declared the Reserve an active candidate for Sanctuary designation 

(5509 FR 66). A Reserve Advisory Council (RAC) was established to provide advice and 

recommendations on the designation and management of any sanctuary and to develop a Reserve 

Operations Plan for managing the Reserve. Throughout this process, the public and other 

stakeholders were engaged to seek input and gather information toward developing a unified 

plan for Reserve Operations and the proposed sanctuary. A series of 10 public scoping meetings 

were hosted in Hawai‘i and Washington, D C., with over 13,000 comments received during the 

initial scoping period. Throughout the designation process, additional input was collected from 

the public, stakeholder groups, and interagency partners via science workshops (Gittings et al. 

2004), focus group discussions (SRG 2004b), and RAC and associated subcommittees meetings. 

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In total, over 100 meetings were held and close to 52,000 public comments received that guided 

the direction and development of a draft sanctuary management plan to direct management of the 

anticipated sanctuary upon its designation. Simultaneously, a Reserve Operations Plan (ROP) 

was drafted and finalized with extensive consultation with partner agencies and the RAC 

(NOAA 2005a). The ROP guides the management of the Reserve and served as the primary 

foundation from which the draft sanctuary management plan was developed. In addition, a State 

of the Reserve Report was developed to provide a comprehensive summary of 5 years of Reserve 

operations (NOAA 2006). 

The draft sanctuary management plan has several companion documents packaged into the draft 

designation proposal, including a draft environmental impact statement and draft implementing 

regulations. When the Monument was designated in 2006 by Presidential Proclamation, the 

processing of these documents was halted. However, the Proclamation recognized the extensive 

public input and the relevancy of the NMSP public processes and resulting draft Sanctuary 

documents, and directed the Co-Trustees to modify as appropriate the draft sanctuary 

management plan in developing a plan to manage the Monument (Presidential Proclamation 

8031, 36443 FR 71). 

The NOAA line office National Marine Fisheries Service executes mandates and exercises 

authority under several statutes that are relevant to natural resource management in the 

Monument. Among others, these include the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act, Endangered Species Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Fish and Wildlife 

Coordination Act, Coral Reef Conservation Act, Global Change Research Act, Lacey Act 

Amendments, Fish and Wildlife Improvement Act of 1978, as well as various executive orders, 

proclamations. Since the 1970s the national and regional management by NOAA Fisheries 

(under NOAA Fisheries’ Southwest Region) has included management activities such as 

conservation, research, and emergency response, and fisheries management in the NWHI. Since 

its establishment in 2003, the Pacific Islands Regional Office and the Pacific Islands Fisheries 

Science Center have worked together to build upon these programs and fulfill NOAA Fisheries’ 

functions in the Pacific Region, including the area that is within the Monument. All NOAA 

Fisheries programs, Habitat Conservation, Sustainable Fisheries, and Protected Resources are 

relevant to NOAA Fisheries’ contribution to the Monument complement of programs. 

NOAA’s line offices collaborate to fulfill NOAA’s Co-Trustee responsibilities under the 

Monument management arrangement. The Monument office of NOAA’s NMSP and NOAA 

Fisheries Pacific Islands Region, both headquartered in Honolulu, Hawai‘i, represent NOAA at 

the field level and coordinate with the NOAA headquarters to ensure unified representation in 

the Co-Trustee arrangement. 

The Department of the Interior: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is a bureau of the Department of the Interior who works with 

others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, and plants and their habitats for the 

continuing benefit of the American people. Two program offices of FWS, Endangered Species 

and the National Wildlife Refuge System, have statutory authority for Monument resources and 

program representatives are members on the MMB. Both coordinate with FWS and DOI 

headquarters to ensure unified representation in the Co-Trustee arrangement. 

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The FWS Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office shares the responsibility for administration of 

the Endangered Species Act with NOAA Fisheries and has conservation oversight for all 

terrestrial species including seabirds. This office also administers coastal conservation and 

conservation partnerships programs through its habitat conservation division, and provides 

assistance with invasive species issues and emergency response throughout the Pacific islands. 

The FWS also administers the 97-million acre National Wildlife Refuge System, including 

548 Refuges throughout the United States and its territories. The Hawaiian Islands and Midway 

Atoll National Wildlife Refuges, located within the Monument, are managed from Honolulu 

through the FWS Pacific Regional Office, Regional Refuge Chief, headquartered in Portland, 

Oregon. 

Key concepts and guidance for managing the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll National 

Wildlife Refuges are derived from the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 

1966, as amended (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee); the Refuge Recreation Act of 1962 (16 U.S.C. 

460k-460k-4), as amended; 50 CFR (Wildlife and Fisheries); and the Fish and Wildlife Service 

Manual (administrative policy). Of all the laws governing the activities on National Wildlife 

Refuges, the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act (Improvement Act) (Public 

Law 105-57, October 9, 1997) exerts the greatest influence. The Improvement Act amended the 

National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 by including a unifying mission 

for all National Wildlife Refuges to be managed as a System, a new process for determining 

compatible uses on Refuges, and requiring that each Refuge will be managed under a 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan, developed in an open public process. 

The Improvement Act states that the Secretary of the Interior shall provide for the conservation 

of fish, wildlife, and plants, and their habitats within the Refuge System as well as ensure that the 

biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health of the Refuge System are maintained. 

House Report 105-106, accompanying the Improvement Act, states, “the fundamental mission of 

our System is wildlife conservation: wildlife and wildlife conservation must come first.” 

Biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health are critical components of fish and 

wildlife conservation. The FWS Biological Integrity, Diversity, and Environmental Health 

Policy states that “the highest measure of biological integrity, diversity, and environmental 

health is viewed as those intact and self-sustaining habitats and wildlife populations that existed 

during historic conditions “(601 FW 310). 

The purpose for which a Refuge was established or acquired is of key importance to Refuge 

planning. Refuge purpose(s) and the Refuge System’s mission form the foundation for 

management decisions. The purposes of a Refuge are specified or derived from the law, 

proclamation, Executive order, agreement, public land order, donation document, or 

administrative memorandum that establishes, authorizes, or expands a Refuge. 

The legal authority that established the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge (HINWR)—

Executive Order 1019, signed by President Theodore Roosevelt on February 3, 1909—set aside 

the islands and reefs extending from Nihoa to Kure, excepting Midway Atoll, “...for use...as a 

preserve and breeding ground for native birds.” The main reason that President Roosevelt 

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established the Refuge was to protect seabirds that were being slaughtered for the millinery 

trade. Since that time, the authorities, mandates, and policies that govern the activities of the 

FWS have resulted in the conservation of island, atoll, and nearshore habitats within the 

HINWR. 

The HINWR has been closed to the public since its establishment and will remain closed to the 

public under the Monument Management Plan. Access to HINWR prior to Monument 

establishment was regulated by FWS Refuge Special Use Permit regulations. These permits 

were only issued to conduct research, education, or to film documentaries to promote public 

understanding of Refuge resources and improve Refuge management. In addition, the Secretary 

of the Interior and the President of the United States in 1974 considered all of the Refuge’s 

emergent lands except Tern Island to be ecologically appropriate for inclusion into the National 

Wilderness Preservation System, as outlined in the Wilderness Act of 1964 (16 U.S.C 1132-

1136). While this wilderness proposal has not been acted upon by Congress, by policy and 

consistent with Federal court decisions, FWS has managed the Refuge to maintain its wilderness 

characteristics. This ensures that potential legislative action by the U.S. Congress is not 

compromised. 

Several compliance requirements are associated with properly managing proposed wilderness 

under the Wilderness Act, Department of the Interior regulation, and FWS policy. The first is 

completion of a minimum requirement analysis process to aid in making management decisions 

that will maintain wilderness character. This evaluation of existing and proposed activities and 

uses has been completed, as further discussed in Appendix E. In addition, FWS policy requires 

that a wilderness review of the planning area be conducted. A significant portion of wilderness 

character is tied to habitat quality, and so the Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan 

(section 3.2.3) includes a strategy and activity to fulfill the remaining wilderness compliance 

requirements. 

The FWS has also been assisting the U.S. Navy with wildlife management issues for almost 

50 years at Midway Atoll. A cooperative management plan developed by the Navy and FWS in 

the early 1980s further defined responsibilities and led to the establishment of an “overlay” 

National Wildlife Refuge on Midway in 1988. On October 31, 1996, President William Clinton 

signed Executive Order 13022, directing the Secretary of the Interior, through FWS, to 

administer Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. The purposes of the refuge, as defined in 

the Executive Order, are to maintain natural biological diversity; conserve fish and wildlife and 

their habitats; fulfill international wildlife treaty obligations; provide for research, education, and 

compatible wildlife-dependent recreation; and recognize and maintain the atoll’s historic 

significance. In addition, in accordance with language in the Fiscal Year 2000 Interior 

Appropriations Act, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt signed Secretary’s Order 3217, 

designating the lands and waters of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge as the Battle of 

Midway National Memorial. 

The State of Hawai‘i 

In 1893, the Kingdom of Hawai‘i was illegally overthrown by a group of American and 

European sugar planters, missionary descendents, and financiers with the aid of the U.S. military. 

This group went on to create a provisional government and then the Republic of Hawai‘i, which 

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assumed control of 1.8 million acres of crown, government, and public lands of the Kingdom of 

Hawai‘i. Upon its annexation, the Republic ceded these lands to the U.S. in 1900. A majority of 

these lands were again ceded, this time to the State of Hawai‘i, upon statehood in 1959. In 

accordance with the Hawaii Organic Act of April 30, 1900, c 339, 31 Stat 141 Section 2, and the 

Hawaii Admission Act of March 18, 1959, Pub L 86-3, 73 Stat 4 Section 2, the islands of the 

Hawaiian Archipelago, with the exception of Midway Atoll, were part of the Territory of 

Hawai‘i and are now part of the State of Hawai‘i, including all emergent, submerged, and marine 

resources. Ceded lands are currently held in trust by the State of Hawai‘i as part of the public 

land trust and continue to hold a considerable amount of legal, historical, and sentimental 

significance to Native Hawaiians. According to Section 5(f) of the Hawai‘i Admission Act, one 

of the purposes of the ceded lands is to better the conditions of Native Hawaiians. Proclamation 

8031, designating the Monument, specifically states, “Nothing in this proclamation shall be 

deemed to diminish or enlarge the jurisdiction of the State of Hawaii.” 

The State of Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) has stewardship 

responsibility for managing, administering, and exercising control over the public trust and 

submerged lands, ocean waters, and marine resources, all of which are ceded lands, around each 

of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands except at Midway Atoll via Title 12, Section 171.3 Hawaii 

Revised Statutes. In 2005, Hawai‘i Governor Linda Lingle established the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands Marine Refuge (0-3nm around all emergent lands, except Midway Atoll) under 

Sections 187A-5 and 188-53(a) ( Hawaii Administrative Rules ch. 60.5). Unless otherwise 

authorized by law, it is unlawful for any person to enter the refuge without a permit except for 

freedom of navigation, innocent passage, interstate commerce, and activities related to national 

defense or enforcement, foreign affairs, and in response to emergencies. 

The State of Hawai‘i also has primary responsibility for the management of Kure Atoll. DLNR’s 

Division of Forestry and Wildlife manages the emergent lands of, and the Hawai‘i State Seabird 

Sanctuary at, Kure Atoll. The State Historic Preservation Division and the State Historic 

Preservation Officer oversee cultural and historic resources statewide. DLNR’s Division of 

Conservation and Resource Enforcement maintains full police powers, including the power of 

arrest, within all lands and waters within the State’s jurisdiction. The State is represented on the 

MMB by DLNR’s Divisions of Aquatic Resources and Forestry and Wildlife. 

Established by a 1978 amendment to the Constitution of the State of Hawai‘i, the Office of 

Hawaiian Affairs (OHA) serves as the principal agency working for Native Hawaiians. OHA 

was created to satisfy the ceded land purpose of bettering the conditions of Native Hawaiians. 

To this end, OHA manages a property and monetary trust, creating its fiduciary duty to Native 

Hawaiians. The OHA trust is funded in part by a pro rata share of income derived from the 

ceded lands portion of the public land trust. 

Under the direction of nine publicly elected trustees, OHA operates as a semi-autonomous, selfgoverning body independent of the State’s executive branch. It fulfills its constitutional and 

statutory mandates to better the conditions of Native Hawaiians through State, Federal and 

international advocacy, the disbursal of grants, and the administration of a variety of programs. 

In addition, State agencies are statutorily required to consult with OHA on issues that affect 

Native Hawaiians, in accordance with Chapter 10-1(b), Hawaii Revised Statutes. In part because 

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of this, OHA serves as a member of the MMB and, along with the Native Hawaiian Cultural 

Working Group, represents the voice of the Native Hawaiian community on Monument matters. 

Public Involvement 

Stakeholder and community involvement is an integral component to achieving the goals of the 

Monument. Creating an informed and engaged constituency will further the successful 

protection of the ecosystems and resources of the NWHI. Monument staff currently conduct 

diverse constituency building and outreach activities related to the Monument. We will continue 

to cultivate an informed, involved constituency that supports and enhances conservation of the 

natural, cultural, and historic resources of the Monument. Strategies and activities to further 

public involvement in Monument management activities are found throughout the Monument 

Management Plan. 
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Regulations Implementing the Proclamation 

The initial Monument regulations were issued to implement the provisions in Presidential 

Proclamation 8031, and rulemaking was completed jointly by the FWS and NOAA on 

August 29, 2006 (71 FR 51134). Monument regulations, codified under 50 CFR Part 404, 

establish the scope and purpose, boundary, definitions, prohibitions, marine zones, and regulated 

activities for managing the Monument. 

Monument regulations: (For a full text, see Appendix G.) 

• Prohibit unauthorized access to the Monument; 

• Provide for carefully regulated educational and scientific activities; 

• Preserve access for Native Hawaiian cultural activities; 

• Establish marine zones to manage human activities; 

• Provide for visitation in a special area around Midway Atoll; 

• Phase out commercial fishing over a 5-year period; 

• Ban exploring for, developing, or producing oil, gas, or minerals and using or 

attempting to use poisons, electrical charges, or explosives in the collection or harvest 

of Monument resources; 

• Prohibit introducing alien species from within or into the Monument; and 

• Prohibit anchoring on corals. 

As the prohibitions of the Proclamation were effective upon issuance, there was a pressing need 

to resolve the permitting scheme as directed by the Proclamation. Thus, the Co-Trustees have 

collaborated to develop a joint permit system, essentially streamlining all discrete permitting 

processes into one Monument permit according to the six permit categories iterated in the 

Proclamation: 

1. Research 

2. Education 

3. Conservation and management 

4. Native Hawaiian practices 

5. Special ocean use 

6. Recreational activities within Midway Atoll 

Management Zones 

Monument regulations define three types of marine zones to manage activities. The zones are: 

Special Preservation Areas, Ecological Reserves, and the Midway Atoll Special Management 

Area (SMA) (Figure 2.1). Each zone addresses protection of habitat and foraging areas of 

threatened and endangered species; inclusion of a representative range of the diverse array of 

marine habitats, including shallow coral reef environments, as well as deepwater slopes, banks, 

and seamounts; and minimization of risks associated with specific activities such as fishing and 

recreational activities. Zones also protect the ecological linkages between habitats. The location 

and description of activities prohibited and allowed in each zone are defined in the Monument 

regulations (see Appendix G).

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1 2 3 Figure 2.1 Map of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and Zones. 

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Zoning provides protection to highly sensitive habitats, particularly shallow coral reefs. 

Discrete, biologically important areas of the Monument are designated as Special Preservation 

Areas, and resource harvest and almost all forms of discharge are prohibited. Other areas 

designated as Ecological Reserves consist of contiguous, diverse habitats that provide natural 

spawning, nursery, and permanent residence areas. Resource extraction is highly restricted 

within Ecological Reserves. In the Midway Atoll SMA and other National Wildlife Refuge 

areas, proposed activities are subject to findings of appropriateness (603 FW 1) and compatibility 

determinations (16 U.S.C. 668dd-668ee and 603 FW 2) by the FWS to ensure the activities meet 

the purposes for establishing the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuges 

and the mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System (see Appendix D). Recreational 

activities in the Monument are restricted to the Midway Atoll SMA. 

Toward Ecosystem-Based Management 

An ecosystem approach to management for the NWHI requires that multiple steps be 

implemented in a comprehensive and coordinated way. The Monument approach is unique in 

that it includes: 

• Ecosystem level planning; 

• Cross-jurisdictional management goals; 

• Comanagement; 

• Adaptive management; 

• Marine zoning; 

• Habitat restoration; and 

• Long-term ocean and coastal observing, monitoring, and research. 

Ecosystems, Ecosystem-Based Management, and Ecological Integrity 

Over the last decade, considerable scientific discussion and debate has been devoted to 

developing an understanding of concepts and terms used to describe an ecosystem, ecosystembased management, and ecological integrity. For the purposes of this plan, an ecosystem is 

defined as a dynamic and interrelating complex of plant and animal communities and their 

associated nonliving environment with humans as an integral part of the system. Ecosystems are 

organized structurally into populations, species, and communities of organisms that interact with 

each other and with abiotic features of the environment and, functionally, into production and 

consumption components that process energy and materials (Limburg et al. 1986). Ecosystems 

vary in size, often with smaller systems embedded within larger ones. Ecosystems have been 

described as moving targets, with multiple potential futures that are uncertain and unpredictable 

(Walters 1986). The scale of ecosystems depends on the spatial extent of the system dynamics 

that are to be studied and influenced by management (Sissenwine and Murawski 2004). 

Ecosystem-based management is an approach that recognizes the relationships and 

interconnectedness among living and nonliving ecosystem components which are affected by a 

number of natural and anthropogenic factors that vary over space and time. The goal of 

ecosystem-based management is to maintain ecosystems in a healthy, productive, and resilient 

condition for their intrinsic value as well as to provide for needed ecosystem services. 

Ecosystem-based management: 

• Provides protection of marine and terrestrial ecosystem structure and function; 

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• Is place-based, focusing on a specific ecosystem and the range of activities affecting it; 

• Explicitly accounts for the interconnectedness within systems, recognizing the 

importance of interactions between key species or services; and 

• Integrates ecological, social, economic, and institutional perspectives, recognizing their 

strong interdependencies. 

This approach requires managers to have access to extensive information and data including 

baseline conditions, the interactions among the components of the ecosystem, and the 

consequences of natural influences and individual and cumulative human activities. The 

availability of scientific information together with Native Hawaiian traditional ecological 

knowledge is essential for ecosystem-based management of the Monument. 

Maintaining ecological integrity is often cited as the primary goal of ecosystem-based 

management. Ecological integrity is the capability to support and maintain a balanced, 

integrated, adaptive community of organisms having species composition, diversity, and 

functional organization comparable to that of natural habitats of the region (Karr and Dudley 

1981). A system will retain its integrity if it preserves all its components, as well as the 

functional relationships among those components (De Leo and Levin 1997). Kay (1991) 

described ecological integrity as the ability to maintain ecosystem function and structure in the 

face of changing environmental conditions, where “environment” refers to the biotic and external 

abiotic components that impact upon it, including humans. Considering the dynamic nature of 

ecosystems, the goal of ecosystem-based management should not be to eliminate all forms of 

disturbance, but rather to maintain processes within limits or ranges of variation that may be 

considered natural, historic, or acceptable (Noss 1995). Such an approach must be flexible, 

adaptive, and experimental at scales compatible with the scales of critical ecosystem functions 

(Walters 1986). 

Ecological integrity is defined for the Monument as “a condition determined to be characteristic 

of an ecosystem that has the ability to maintain the function, structure, and abundance of natural 

biological communities, including rates of change in response to natural environmental 

variation” (50 CFR 404.3). This definition builds on this extensive body of research on 

ecosystem form and function and the Co-Trustee agencies’ experience and mandates. 

Adaptive Management 

The Monument offers an unprecedented opportunity to take incremental and informed steps 

toward ecosystem-based management at a large scale. To progress consistently toward an 

ecosystem approach to management, new information and data will be used to inform and refine 

management strategies and activities, consistent with Monument goals and desired outcomes. 

Adaptive management is a continuous learning cycle designed to inform management actions 

and decisionmaking based on implementation of management strategies and actions, conducting 

monitoring and evaluation, and providing feedback to management on the success of meeting the 

desired outcomes and strategies. The Monument’s adaptive management process includes the 

following elements: management plan development and review, implementation and 

enforcement, monitoring and evaluation, integration of ecosystem science and traditional 

knowledge, scientific research, information management, and education and public outreach. 

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Management 

Plan 

Development and 

Review 

Implementation 

and 

Enforcement 

Monitoring 

and 

Evaluation 

Information 

Management 

Ecosystem 

Science 

and 

Traditional 

Knowledge 

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT PROCESS 

Education 

and Public 

Outreach 

Figure 2.2 Adaptive management cycle to inform management 

and decisionmaking.

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Ecosystem science and traditional knowledge are inputs to the learning process together with the 

results of monitoring and evaluation. A comprehensive information management system 

facilitates the compilation of information and data from research, monitoring, plan review, 

education, and public outreach and also helps to inform research and management priorities. An 

effective adaptive management process provides managers with timely feedback and 

information. If the desired outcomes and goals are achieved, then this approach confirms we are 

on the right course. If the results are not achieved, then feedback into the management 

framework can help identify whether it is a specific action or group of strategies or activities that 

may need to change. Periodic updates of the Monument Management Plan will incorporate 

feedback from our adaptive management process and result in refined and sometimes new 

management strategies and activities to meet our overall Monument goals and desired outcomes.

Incorporation of Traditional Knowledge 

Ua lehulehu a manomano ka ‘ikena a ka Hawai‘i. 

Great and numerous is the knowledge of the Hawaiians. 

—Pukui (1983)

There are many similarities between an ecosystem-based management approach for the NWHI 

and the traditional ecological knowledge and practices implemented by Native Hawaiians to 

manage their natural resources. Both approaches share the view of nature as a holistic and 

dynamic system of interrelated parts and emphasize the need for long-term sustainability and 

health of our natural resources. 

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The Native Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge and worldview is valued for its rich base 

of empirical knowledge and practical methods of resource management, developed over 

hundreds of years of living and interacting with the lands and ocean waters of Hawai‘i (Titcomb 

and Pukui 1952; Kikuchi 1976; Titcomb et. al. 1978; Poepoe et. al 2003; Kikiloi 2003). 

Traditional management practices take advantage of understanding seasonal patterns in weather, 

patterns of biological species, and the designation of ecological zones (Handy et al. 1972; Kelly 

1989; Gon 2003; Department of Land and Natural Resources 2003b). 

Through detailed observations of the oceanic environment, its interrelation to the terrestrial 

environment, seasonal and lunar patterns, and species life cycles, species of the ocean and land 

realms were taxonomically partnered, and systems for resource management developed 

(Kamakau 1976; Malo 1951; Beckwith 1951). Kapu, or restrictions, on resource extraction 

were implemented based on these ecological understandings (Pukui and Handy 1950; Handy et 

al. 1972). Other traditional strategies were set up to naturally enhance marine resources through 

increased protection, growth, and reproduction (Kikiloi 2003). Understanding the Native 

Hawaiian worldview of ecosystems and relationships, along with traditional approaches to 

resource management, aids in moving toward an ecosystem-based management approach for the 

NWHI. These core principles include viewing ecosystems holistically, recognizing variations in 

space and time, and continuously building a knowledge base to inform management and 

successfully care for the environment. The perspective that Native Hawaiian traditional 

knowledge and resource management approaches bring to the Monument can provide insight 

into ecosystems and relationships. 
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Guiding Principles, and Goals for Managing Papahānaumokuākea 

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The Monument vision, mission, and guiding principles establish the overarching policy direction 

and guidance for Monument management (figure 2.2 and table 2.1). The vision describes the 

long-term management desire of the Monument to 

maintain the health and diversity of the NWHI 

ecosystem in perpetuity. The mission establishes 

the need for integrated management in order to 

achieve the long-term protection of NWHI 

ecosystems and the perpetuation of Native 

Hawaiian practices and heritage resources. The 

guiding principles provide directions for making 

informed decisions about human activities 

consistent with the vision and mission for the 

Monument. The Monument goals are the unifying 

elements of successful monument management. 

They identify and focus management priorities, 

resolve issues, and link to the public interest in 

preserving and caring for the historic and scientific objects within the Monument. 

Vision 

Mission 

Guiding Principles 

Goals 

Figure 2.3 Monument Management Policy 

Framework. 

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Table 2.1 Monument Vision, Mission, Guiding Principles, and Goals 

Vision 

That the health, diversity, and resources of the vast NWHI ecosystems and the wildlife they 

support – unique in the world – be protected forever.

Mission 

Carry out seamless integrated management to achieve strong, long-term protection and perpetuation of NWHI 

ecosystems, Native Hawaiian traditional and customary cultural and religious practices, and heritage resources for 

current and future generations.

Guiding Principles 

The Monument shall be managed in a manner that— 

• Is consistent with the Vision and Mission; 

• Recognizes that the resources of the NWHI are administrated by the Co-Trustees for the benefit of present 

and future generations; 

• Affirms that the NWHI and its wildlife are important, unique, and irreplaceable; 

• Honors the significance of the region for Native Hawaiians; 

• Honors the historic importance of the region; 

• Incorporates best practices, scientific principles, traditional knowledge, and an adaptive management 

approach; 

• Errs on the side of resource protection when there is uncertainty in available information on the impacts 

of an activity; 

• Enhances public appreciation of the unique character and environment of the NWHI; 

• Authorizes only uses consistent with Presidential Proclamation 8031 and applicable laws; 

• Coordinates with federal, state, and local governments, Native Hawaiians, relevant organizations, and the 

public; and 

• Carries out effective outreach, monitoring, and enforcement to promote compliance. 

Monument Goals 

Goal 1: Protect, preserve, maintain, and where appropriate restore the natural biological communities and their associated 

biodiversity, habitats, populations, native species, and ecological processes. 

Goal 2: Support, promote, and coordinate research, ecosystem characterization, and monitoring that increases understanding of the 

NWHI and improves management decisionmaking. 

Goal 3: Manage human activities to maintain ecosystem integrity and prevent or minimize negative impacts. 

Goal 4: Provide for cooperative conservation including community involvement that achieves effective Monument operations and 

ecosystem-based management. 

Goal 5: Enhance public understanding, appreciation, and support for protection of the natural, cultural, and historic resources. 

Goal 6: Support Native Hawaiian practices consistent with long-term conservation and protection. 

Goal 7: Identify, interpret, and protect Monument historic and cultural resources. 

Goal 8: Offer visitor opportunities at Midway Atoll to discover and appreciate the wildlife and beauty of the NWHI, enhance 

conservation, and honor its unique human history. 
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Action plans are composed of specific strategies to address six priority management needs. Each 

action plan is guided by a desired outcome, a specific need for action, and strategies and 

associated activities designed to achieve that need. Strategies and activities implement 

Monument regulations, research and educational partnerships, habitat management and 

restoration conservation targets, threatened and endangered species recovery, historic 

preservation, Native Hawaiian cultural practices, and appropriate public uses programmed over a 

15-year period, with 5-year reviews. 

Monument Management Plan Development and Review 

The management plan will be reviewed every 5 years. The review represents an essential 

element of the adaptive management process and includes public involvement, characterization 

of issues, and review and evaluation of action plans. 

This Monument Management Plan was developed based on the current state of knowledge on the 

most appropriate management measures. These management measures consist of regulations 

and action plans to govern the first 5 years of Monument management, and project activities over 

a 15-year timeframe where appropriate. Action plans will be implemented, and where 

regulations apply, enforced, through interagency collaborative mechanisms based on the 

jurisdiction of each government agency. After 5 years, the Monument Management Plan will be 

reviewed, incorporating lessons learned and new data and information from monitoring, 

ecosystem science, and traditional knowledge, and a comprehensive evaluation to develop or 

refine management strategies and actions. 

Six Priority Action Plan Groupings 

The core of the Monument Management Plan is contained in 22 Action Plans, organized under 

six priority management needs. Priority management needs were identified considering legal 

mandates and inputs from numerous public scoping meetings and workshops, as well as the 

status of Monument resources based upon the multiple temporal and spatial scales of 

management issues, and meetings conducted with managers, scientists, and other stakeholders. 

Priority management needs address multiple Monument goals by defining specific areas for 

focused action, including improving our understanding of the NWHI, conserving wildlife and 

habitats, reducing threats to the ecosystem, managing human uses, facilitating collaboration and 

partnerships, and achieving effective 

Monument operations. Note to Readers Regarding Terminology and FWS Refuge 

Comprehensive Conservation Program Requirements 

The Proclamation stated that, “to manage the Monument, the Secretary of 

Commerce, in consultation with the Secretary of the Interior and the State 

of Hawaii, shall modify, as appropriate, the plan developed by NOAA's 

National Marine Sanctuary Program through the public sanctuary 

designation process, and will provide for public review of that plan.” 

Sanctuary management plans are structured differently than National 

Wildlife Refuge management plans. As a result, this plan includes desired 

outcome statements, strategies, and activities as a part of the action plans 

that direct Monument management actions. For those familiar with Refuge 

management plans, these statements, strategies, and activities are 

equivalent to goals, objectives, and strategies respectively. 

Action plans describe specific 

strategies to address the six priority 

management needs for the Monument. 

Each action plan is guided by a desired 

outcome and provides the context and 

history of the particular issue or 

management activity. Action plans also 

highlight a specific need for action and 

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identify strategies and associated activities designed to address that need. Ultimately, all 

strategies and activities are designed to help achieve the desired outcome of the action plan 

(figure 2.3).

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI 

The NWHI represent a unique opportunity to advance our 

understanding of ecosystem science through research, 

monitoring, and the incorporation of traditional 

knowledge. In turn, coordinated research and long-term 

monitoring is needed to deepen our understanding of the 

composition, structure, and function of NWHI ecosystems 

and to provide the predictive tools to make informed 

management decisions consistent with the conservation 

and protection of the region. The continued development 

of a long-term monitoring program is needed to provide 

vital data and information necessary to monitor changes in 

ecosystem status over time and to evaluate the 

effectiveness of management measures in protecting and 

restoring ecosystem integrity. Additionally, the 

incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge into 

management practices will enrich and inform the MMB’s 

approach to long-term planning. The further 

characterization of Native Hawaiian cultural relationships 

to the NWHI through the study of oral histories, place 

names, and practices associated with the region will 

enhance the physical record of activities in the NWHI. 

The unique aspects of island and Pacific maritime history, 

as well as historical and archaeological resources, 

collectively can provide a basis for developing effective 

management of resources. 

Mission 

Vision 

Guiding Principles 

Goals PRIORITY MANAGEMENT NEED 

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats

The Presidential Proclamation establishing the Monument 

highlights that it is in the public interest to preserve marine 

and terrestrial areas in the NWHI through active 

conservation and management of wildlife and their 

habitats. “This diverse ecosystem is home to many species 

of coral, fish, birds, marine mammals, and other flora and fauna including the endangered 

Hawaiian monk seal, the threatened green sea turtle, and the endangered leatherback and 

hawksbill sea turtles” (Presidential Proclamation 8031, 2006). Action plans to address this 

priority management need contain strategies to maintain the biological integrity, diversity, and 

environmental health of the Monument and identify activities to assist in the recovery of 

threatened and endangered species; manage migratory bird populations; and conserve, manage, 

and where appropriate, restore the habitats of the Monument’s native flora and fauna. 

ACTION PLAN 

Strategies 

Activities 

Desired Outcome

Current Status & Background 

Need for Action 

Figure 2.4 Organization of Action Plan by 

Priority Management Need. 

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Reducing Threats to the Ecosystem 

Despite their remote location, marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the NWHI are at risk from a 

range of threats from human activities within and outside the Monument. Natural and 

anthropogenic threats to the Monument include habitat alteration or damage from marine debris, 

the changing climate including increased storm intensity and frequency, introduction of alien 

species, potential vessel and aircraft impacts, release of hazardous materials from landfills, vessel 

grounding, and past human impacts. Development and implementation of threat reduction 

protocols and monitoring are needed to protect, preserve, maintain and, where appropriate, restore 

natural communities, including habitats, populations, native species, and ecological processes as a 

public trust for current and future generations. In addition to threat reduction, emergency response 

in the Monument will be coordinated under a series of plans and systems. 

Managing Human Activities 

The NWHI has experienced a long history of human use, with periods of overexploitation, that 

have contributed to the current endangered status of some species, including land birds, several 

plants, sea turtles, and the Hawaiian monk seal. Although the extent of resource exploitation has 

been limited in recent years, human activities and the use of Monument resources will be 

carefully managed considering historical uses and new threats. Action plans for managing 

human activities address the need for permitting, enforcement, and managing specific human 

uses, including Native Hawaiian cultural practices and visitors at Midway Atoll. 

Coordinating Conservation and Management Efforts 

Comprehensive and coordinated conservation and management of the Monument can only be 

achieved through effective interagency coordination and partnerships with a broad range of 

stakeholders. Coordination between the MMB members and other stakeholders is needed to 

maintain existing resource protection measures, increase the efficiency and effectiveness of 

management and enforcement, and reduce conflicts and duplication of Monument management 

activities. Education and outreach efforts will require coordination among government agencies, 

nongovernmental organizations, and other stakeholder groups. Coordination with stakeholders 

and the public will provide a forum for advice and input on Monument management and improve 

awareness and understanding of the ecological, Native Hawaiian cultural significance, and 

historic significance of the NWHI. Coordination with international initiatives is needed to 

address Pacific regional and global management issues affecting the Monument. 

Achieving Effective Monument Operations 

Monument operations include central and field operations, information management, and overall 

program evaluation. Central and field operations are essential to support action plans to address 

all other priority management needs. Central operations are located in the main Hawaiian 

Islands and include support offices, interpretive facilities, and information management facilities. 

Field operations include shipboard and research diving operations, as well as land-based 

operations in the NWHI. Monument staff and facilities provide essential operational capacity for 

effective collaboration between the MMB and other stakeholders. Operational effectiveness will 

be evaluated and improved through an adaptive management process that captures lessons 

learned and transforms them into action. 
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Action Plans to Address Priority Management 

Needs 

3.1 Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI 

3.2 Conserving Wildlife and Habitats 

3.3 Reducing Threats to Monument Resources 

3.4 Managing Human Uses 

3.5 Coordinating Conservation and Management Activities 

3.6 Achieving Effective Monument Operations 

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The Monument Management Plan contains 22 Action Plans organized under six priority 

management needs. Each action plan is guided by a desired outcome, a specific need for action, 

and strategies and associated activities designed to achieve that need over a 15-year period with 

5-year reviews. 

The strategies and activities described in each Action Plan were developed based on the current 

state of knowledge on the most appropriate management measures. Estimated costs to 

implement the Monument Management Plan are provided in Table 3.1 by Action Plan. The cost 

of administration and planning, field, and infrastructure development activities was estimated 

and combined for all agencies responsible for management of the Monument. 

The total estimated cost to implement the Monument Management Plan over the next 15 years is 

$355,218,480. Roughly one-quarter of this amount are costs identified in section 3.6.3, 

Coordinated Field Operations. Most of the Coordinated Field Operations costs would be 

allocated to one time infrastructure development activities designed to replace or enhance 

supporting infrastructure at existing field stations, rehabilitation of historic buildings at Midway, 

and increase transportation and enforcement assets Monumentwide. 

This Monument Management Plan provides long-term guidance for management decisions over 

a 15-year horizon and sets forth desired outcomes, with strategies and activities to reach those 

outcomes, including the agencies’ best estimate of future needs. These are sometimes 

substantially above current budget allocations and are included primarily for agency strategic 

planning and program prioritization purposes. Neither this draft nor the subsequent final plan 

constitutes a commitment of funds, or a commitment to request funds, by Federal or State 

agencies. All funding for current and possible future Monument activities is subject to the 

budgeting and appropriations processes of the Federal and State governments. 

After 5 years, the Monument Management Plan will be reviewed, incorporating lessons learned 

and new data and information from monitoring, ecosystem science, and traditional knowledge, 

and a comprehensive evaluation to develop or refine management strategies and actions. 

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Volume I: Draft Mo

This Monument Management Plan provides long-term guidance for management decisions over a 15-year horizon and sets forth desirestrategies and activities to reach those outcomes, including the agencies’ best estimate of future needs. These are sometimes substantiaallocations and are included primarily for agency strategic planning and program prioritization purposes. Neither this draft nor the subs

constitutes a commitment of funds, or a commitment to request funds, by Federal or State agencies. All funding for current and possibl

activities is subject to the budgeting and appropriations processes of the Federal and State governments. April 2008 102 3.0 Action Plans to Addres

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Table 3.1 Total Estimated Cost to Fully Implement Actions Plan by Year

Priority Estimated Annual Cost 

Management 

Need 

Action Plan

Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4 Yr 5 Yrs 6-10 Yr 11

3.1.1 - Marine Conservation Science 

$12,212,725 $7,176,000 $7,571,102 $7,715,012 $8,037,820 $9,085,989 $10,221

3.1.2 - Native Hawaiian Culture and History 

$392,244 $590,261 $556,599 $603,914 $613,188 $733,277 $873,8

3.1.3 - Historic Resources 

$692,285 $736,296 $787,952 $827,326 $867,493 $2,106,913 $1,556,

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI 

3.1.4 - Maritime Heritage 

$364,011 $383,035 $412,626 $430,122 $480,403 $583,894 $773,0

3.2.1 - Threatened and Endangered Species 

$5,907,989 $5,662,799 $5,793,855 $6,176,022 $6,564,815 $7,690,332 $8,651,

3.2.2 - Migratory Bird 

$1,876,886 $1,943,362 $2,012,385 $2,211,292 $2,381,961 $2,960,635 $3,246,

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats 

3.2.3 - Habitat Management and Conservation 

$1,309,598 $1,359,670 $1,407,011 $1,650,612 $2,037,429 $2,374,730 $2,671,
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This Monument Management Plan provides long-term guidance for management decisions over a 15-year horizon and sets forth desirestrategies and activities to reach those outcomes, including the agencies’ best estimate of future needs. These are sometimes substantiaallocations and are included primarily for agency strategic planning and program prioritization purposes. Neither this draft nor the subs

constitutes a commitment of funds, or a commitment to request funds, by Federal or State agencies. All funding for current and possibl

activities is subject to the budgeting and appropriations processes of the Federal and State governments. April 2008 103 3.0 Action Plans to AddresTable 3.1 Total Estimated Cost to Fully Implement Actions Plan by Year

Priority Estimated Annual Cost 

Management 

Need 

Action Plan

Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4 Yr 5 Yrs 6-10 Yr 11

3.3.1 - Marine Debris $1,606,097 $1,480,770 $1,862,218 $1,808,975 $2,158,530 $2,471,537 $2,780,3.3.2 - Alien Species $1,637,103 $1,538,700 $1,754,562 $2,191,818 $2,296,067 $8,193,403 $3,067,3.3.3 - Maritime Transportation and Aviation 

Reducing $297,324 $296,285 $265,592 $290,264 $281,121 $316,261 $355,7Threats to the Ecosystem 3.3.4 - 

Emergency Response and Natural Resource Damage Assessment 

$532,898 $531,087 $561,755 $582,483 $606,759 $692,931 $779,5

3.4.1 - Permitting $843,611 $788,642 $750,839 $766,012 $815,317 $917,232 $1,031,3.4.2 - Enforcement Managing $1,230,450 $1,223,874 $1,658,350 $1,681,637 $1,715,887 $1,930,373 $2,171,

Human Uses 3.4.3 - 

Midway Atoll Visitor Services 

$868,395 $1,090,763 $1,140,574 $1,291,051 $1,305,934 $1,586,386 $1,784,

Coordinating Conservation and 

3.5.1 - Agency Coordination 

$578,029 $608,845 $669,756 $597,727 $600,966 $676,086 $760,5
Volume I: Draft Mo

This Monument Management Plan provides long-term guidance for management decisions over a 15-year horizon and sets forth desirestrategies and activities to reach those outcomes, including the agencies’ best estimate of future needs. These are sometimes substantiaallocations and are included primarily for agency strategic planning and program prioritization purposes. Neither this draft nor the subs

constitutes a commitment of funds, or a commitment to request funds, by Federal or State agencies. All funding for current and possibl

activities is subject to the budgeting and appropriations processes of the Federal and State governments. April 2008 104 3.0 Action Plans to AddresTable 3.1 Total Estimated Cost to Fully Implement Actions Plan by Year

Priority Estimated Annual Cost 

Management 

Need 

Action Plan

Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4 Yr 5 Yrs 6-10 Yr 11

3.5.2 - Constituency Building and Outreach 

$1,163,068 $1,527,334 $1,448,710 $1,359,120 $1,431,473 $1,658,847 $1,865,

3.5.3 - Native Hawaiian Community Involvement 

$272,800 $282,856 $311,319 $322,790 $354,005 $419,976 $496,9

Management Activities 

3.5.4 - Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

$1,037,593 $1,045,054 $1,241,202 $1,278,892 $1,271,596 $1,560,868 $1,853,

3.6.1 - Central Operations 

$933,000 $976,260 $1,365,116 $1,211,354 $1,374,602 $1,611,589 $1,886,

3.6.2 - Information Management 

$843,350 $985,745 $1,089,193 $1,106,350 $1,153,712 $1,297,926 $1,460,

3.6.3 - Coordinated Field Operations 

$2,746,185 $6,876,156 $15,832,853 $5,734,067 $10,850,138 $28,038,706 $16,454

Achieving Effective Monument Operations 

3.6.4 - Evaluation $259,800 $319,016 $328,586 $347,396 $760,700 $740,053 $832,5

Total Annual Cost $37,605,441 $37,422,809 $48,822,157 $40,184,236 $47,959,916 $77,647,945 $65,575

Total 15-Year Estimated 
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3.1 Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI 

3.1.1 Marine Conservation Science Action Plan 

3.1.2 Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan 

3.1.3 Historic Resources Action Plan 

3.1.4 Maritime Heritage Action Plan 

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Resource managers and policymakers need comprehensive information about the ocean and its 

natural and social environments to make wise decisions. The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy 

(2005) and the President’s Ocean Action Plan have identified a number of areas of scientific 

inquiry fundamental to management. These topics include climate change, coral reefs, marine 

biodiversity, regional ecosystem dynamics, and social and economic research. Many of these 

apply directly to the NWHI. The Monument Management Plan reflects these nationally 

recognized natural and social science needs for ecosystem-based management. 

The NWHI consist of a complex assemblage of ecological, cultural, and historic resources in 

relatively undisturbed condition compared to the main Hawaiian Islands and many other marinebased ecosystems in the world (Freidlander et al. 2005). The Monument represents a unique 

opportunity to improve management decisionmaking, to advance ecosystem science through 

research on ecosystem components and processes, and to develop models and other tools to 

predict ecosystem responses to natural and anthropogenic perturbations, such as climate 

variability and change. In addition to the Native Hawaiian cultural significance of the region, 

submerged maritime heritage resources, such as shipwrecks and sunken aircraft, and other 

historic and archaeological sites provide insight into the NWHI’s rich past. 

Agencies responsible for caring for this extraordinary place include the State of Hawai‘i, the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

Establishment of the Monument provides a management framework that encourages and 

facilitates coordinated management, research, education, and planning with other partners. 

Universities and other research organizations are also integral to building knowledge about the 

NWHI. As our understanding of the NWHI’s ecological, cultural, and historic resources 

improves, so will our capacity to achieve effective and long-term protection of this special place. 

A more complete understanding of the NWHI can also provide insights for improved 

management throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago. 

Action plans to understand and interpret the NWHI focus on characterizing and monitoring the 

region from multiple perspectives. They also emphasize sharing information with partners and 

the public in relevant ways. 

Each action plan consists of a set of strategies to address a desired outcome. Over the next 

15 years, these desired outcomes are: 

• Marine Conservation Science: Increase understanding of the distributions, abundances, 

and functional linkages of organisms and their habitats in space and time to improve 

ecosystem-based management decisions in the Monument. 

• Native Hawaiian Culture and History: Increase understanding and appreciation of 

Native Hawaiian histories and cultural practices related to Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument and effectively manage cultural resources for their cultural, 

educational, and scientific values.

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• Historic Resources: Identify, document, preserve, protect, stabilize, and where 

appropriate, reuse, recover, and interpret historic resources associated with Midway Atoll 

and other historic resources within Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

• Maritime Heritage: Identify, interpret, and protect maritime heritage resources in 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

Action plans described in this section will be implemented in close coordination with other 

partners and in conjunction with other priority management needs. 
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Desired Outcome Links to other Action Plans 

 

 3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species 

 3.2.2 Migratory Birds 

 3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation

 3.3.1 Marine Debris 

 3.3.2 Alien Species 

 3.5.1 Agency Coordination 

 3.6.2 Information Management 

 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations 

Increase understanding of the distributions, 

abundances and functional linkages of marine 

organisms and their habitats in space and time 

to improve ecosystem-based management 

decisions in the Monument. 

Current Status and Background 

Links to goals 

Goal 2 

Goal 4 

Goal 6

Goal 7

Scientific endeavors in the NWHI were 

motivated in part by conservation goals as early as 1920 when the 

Tanager Expedition included people engaged in not only collection 

of specimens but eradication of invasive species and restoration of 

habitats damaged by introduced herbivores at Laysan Island. The 

Pacific Ocean Biological Survey project carried out by the 

Smithsonian Institution, while not explicitly designed for conservation purposes, laid the 

foundation of our knowledge of seabird populations and movements at sea. The Tripartite 

agreement among the State of Hawai‘i, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and NOAA Fisheries 

provided a framework for extensive ecological research in the NWHI beginning in 1976. 

Interwoven with these large institutional efforts are numerous independent research projects that 

continue to contribute to the body of knowledge available for science-based resource 

conservation. 

Multiagency efforts continued when the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reef Assessment and 

Monitoring Program (NWHIRAMP, historically known as NOWRAMP), was initiated in 2000 

to characterize and monitor the coral reefs of the NWHI using a consistent set of sampling 

protocols to establish a baseline for future data gathering and monitoring change over time. 

NWHIRAMP is a collaborative partnership of agencies and institutions consisting of quantitative 

diver surveys of fish, coral, algae, and invertebrate communities, supplemented by towed diver 

surveys of large fish and substrate type, oceanographic data collection, and sediment 

contaminant studies (Maragos and Gulko, eds., 2002). 

Annual multi-agency efforts are supported by a variety of agencies and institutions, including the 

University of Hawai‘i‘s Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology (HIMB). This research partnership 

focuses on conservation science and has produced many key findings that have management 

implications not just within the Hawaiian archipelago, but also for the maintenance of healthy 

coral reef ecosystems around the world. HIMB's ongoing research on genetic connectivity, 

tagging studies, disease outbreaks, coral health, threat assessments and climate change will be 

used to inform managers’ understanding of the NWHI as a "natural laboratory" and as a sentinel 

site for other coral reef sites around the world. 

NOAA led a significant mapping effort using satellite imagery, multi-beam sonar, and other 

remote sensing methods to provide detailed maps of the shallow-water seabed features of the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, including the Draft Atlas of the Shallow-Water Benthic Habitats 

of the NWHI (NOAA 2003b) and the Bathymetric Atlas of the NWHI (Miller et al. 2004). These 

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documents begin to describe the marine habitats and bathymetry of the NWHI and establish 

important baseline information for resource managers. Efforts are underway to expand the 

coverage of the bathymetry data, interpret the multibeam backscatter imagery, develop a 

groundtruthing database, and verify remotely sensed information to further refine and complete 

these characterizations. 

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In May 2003, NOAA, through a multiagency partnership, convened a workshop with NWHI 

resource managers and researchers from the scientific community to identify information and 

science needs and resources for effective conservation and management of the NWHI. The 

results from this workshop were analyzed and summarized in a report titled Information Needs 

for Conservation Science and Management of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Gittings et al. 

2004). Workshop results are incorporated into planning and coordination efforts of science and 

management activities in the NWHI, and research gaps identified by the workshop informed the 

drafting of the archipelago wide, multiagency Hawaiian Archipelago Marine Ecosystem 

Research Plan (HAMER). In November 2004, the NWHI Third Scientific Symposium was held 

in Honolulu, Hawai‘i, and provided further syntheses of the current state of knowledge and 

management of the NWHI (Macintyre 2006). 

Building on these earlier planning efforts, and due to the complexity and depth of conservation 

science needs in the Monument, the MMB expanded the development of a stand-alone Natural 

Resources Science Plan to further identify priorities, assess and identify standard protocols, and 

formalize collaborative monitoring. A scoping meeting for the draft Natural Resources Science 

Plan was held in November 2007 to solicit input on five broad thematic research categories. The 

five thematic areas adapted from the HAMER Plan and identified in the draft Natural Resources 

Science Plan are: 

• Research on ecological processes and connectivity 

• Research on biodiversity and habitats 

• Research on human impacts 

• Research on ecosystem change, indicators, and 

monitoring 

• Modeling and forecasting ecosystem change 

Need for Action 

Effective stewardship of the Monument should be based on 

reliable information on the biological characteristics of the 

organisms, their ecological relationships, an understanding 

of the natural temporal variations, and anthropogenic 

impacts that characterize their ecosystems. 

Recognizing the value of and need for greater u

of marine habitats, continued characterization

monitoring of marine habitats and species are described 

within this Action Plan. Due to the continuity between

marine and terrestrial habitats, additional specific 

management-related surveys, research, and monit

priorities are also found in separate Action Plans within this MMP, in particular Threatened and 

Biologists survey algae and coral species 

throughout the NWHI to monitor ecosystem 

health. Photo: Jean Kenyon 

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Endangered Species, Migratory Bird, Habitat Management and Conservation, Marine Debr

and Alien Species Action Plans. With coral reefs, seabird colonies, and tropical ecosystems in 

general around the world in decline, the NWHI present a unique opportunity to characterize 

intact ecosystem and begin to understand the degree of natural variability in an ecosystem 

relatively free of local anthropogenic influences. Studying these remote areas may also make

important contribution toward understanding the impacts of global climate change on coral re

ecosystems. The NWHI are still relatively unexplored, and fundamental information on the 

species, habitats, and their status is needed. Functional relationships between the species

habitats, ecosystems, and oceanographic and other physical processes of the NWHI marine 

environments are also not well understood. Evaluation tools, such as models, are needed to 

describe complex ecosystem functions and provide resource managers with the capability to 

assess the risks of management decisions. 

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Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

There are three strategies designed to achieve the desired outcome of increasing understanding of 

the Monument to improve ecosystem-based decisionmaking. Systematic characterization, 

monitoring, and research are means to acquire this information. Strategy MCS-1 and its 

associated activities are specific to the marine environment, while strategies MCS-2 and MCS-3 

apply to all research and monitoring activities in the Monument. The strategies and activities are 

coded by the acronym for the action plan title, Marine Conservation Science (MCS). A summary 

of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.1.1 at the end of this action plan. 

• MCS-1: Continue and expand research, characterization and monitoring of marine 

ecosystems for the life of the plan. 

• MCS-2: Assess and prioritize research and monitoring activities over the life of the plan. 

• MCS-3: Communicate results of research and monitoring over the life of the plan. 

Strategy MCS-1: Continue and expand research, characterization and monitoring of 

marine ecosystems for the life of the plan. 

This strategy is focused on continuing marine research, characterization, and monitoring 

designed to support an ecosystem-based approach to management. These activities are 

implemented through a variety of partnerships and collaborations, including those with the 

University of Hawai‘i’s Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology, Hawai‘i Undersea Research Lab 

(HURL), School of Ocean and Earth Science Technology, and others. Findings will be 

synthesized and made available for managers to inform decisionmaking. Additional marine 

research and monitoring activities are found in the Threatened and Endangered Species, 

Migratory Bird, Habitat Management and Conservation, Marine Debris, and Alien Species 

Action Plans. 

As ecosystem characterization assessments are moving ahead, analysis of data from regular 

monitoring surveys can be used to evaluate change over time in a given ecosystem. Monitoring 

data can help scientists understand the causes of change and be used to build ecosystem models. 

Producing high level ecosystem functional models can only be achieved through broad-based 

collaborations among agencies and institutions with varying capacities. It is critical that 

monitoring protocols be established in collaboration with partner agencies so that they may yield 

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reliable, useful information over time. To the extent possible, relevant datasets will be integrated 

with the national Integrated Ocean Observing System efforts. 

Activity MCS-1.1: Continue to characterize types and spatial distributions of shallow-water 

marine habitats. 

The MMB will continue working with partners to conduct fieldwork to validate and update 

existing habitat maps and bathymetry. This work will build upon remote sensing data originally 

collected in the development of the Draft Atlas of the Shallow-Water Benthic Habitats of the 

NWHI and the Bathymetric Atlas of the NWHI, Draft. The updated dataset, maps, and images 

will provide a framework for the biogeographic assessment in Activity MCS-2.3 described 

below. Shallow-water habitats are defined as those less than 16 fathoms (30 m). 

Activity MCS-1.2: Continue monitoring of shallow-water coral reef ecosystems. 

Monitor shallow water habitats using sampling protocols developed through interagency 

collaborative efforts. Sites selected should be representative of broad habitat types. Quantitative 

surveys of coral, algae, fish, and invertebrates will be conducted annually using methods 

comparable to or intercalibrated with those of existing historical data sets. This monitoring will 

be conducted in collaboration with partners. The suitability of these methods, data sets, and 

analyses to meet management needs will be periodically assessed with partners as described in 

Activity MCS-2.2, and are subject to change based on the outcomes of that activity. 

Activity MCS-1.3: Map and characterize deep-water habitat. 

Working with partners, the MMB will use data collected with the multibeam sonar systems on 

Hi‘ialakai and other vessels to acquire both bathymetric and backscatter data and produce 

deep-water benthic habitat maps. Habitat maps will be ground-truthed using remote cameras, 

submersibles, and other technology as appropriate. Continue to develop baseline inventory of 

the biological resources and biodiversity of deep reefs, seamounts, and banks using all available 

technologies, including submersibles, remotely operated vehicles, aerial unmanned vehicle, and 

technical diving. Deep-water habitats are defined as those greater than 16 fathoms (30 m). 

Research investigations will be continued on the deep coral reef, deep slope, seamount, pelagic, 

and abyssal ecosystems of the NWHI. 

Activity MCS-1.4: Establish and implement monitoring program for deep-water ecosystems. 

Using the shallow-water ecosystem monitoring protocols as a model, protocols will also be 

developed for deep-water ecosystems. In collaboration with research partners, the Monument 

will determine management information needs, and establish data collection protocols, statistical 

sampling design, and site selection criteria for monitoring of deep-water ecosystems, as well as 

implement monitoring of deep-water reefs, banks, and associated communities. All appropriate 

technologies and methods will be utilized, including submersibles, ROVs, AUVs, bait station 

drop cameras, and technical diving. Monitoring of key indicator species will be implemented if 

determined to be a key monitoring tool. 

Activity MCS-1.5: Collect, analyze, and input research, monitoring, and bathymetric data into 

appropriate databases to inform management decisions. 

Information management is critical for managing large volumes of published and unpublished 

manuscripts, research findings, selected books, data (including both physical and biological data 

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sets) collected every field season, and other research information. Because of the complexity of 

information management from multiple sources, it is imperative that such an endeavor be 

conducted in close collaboration with interagency and research partners (see section 3.6.2 

Information Management Action Plan, Activity IM-1.2). Such collaborations necessitate the 

flow of information to and from other established agency databases, such as NOAA’s Coral Reef 

Watch Program, NOAA’s Coral Reef Information System (CoRIS), DLNR’s seabird and dolphin 

database and the multiagency online Oceanographic Atlas of the Pacific. The Monument 

Information Management System, as well as other databases, will be updated on a regular basis 

to manage, analyze, summarize, and interpret research data collected from the NWHI. Products, 

such as maps and reports on the status and trends of important resources in the NWHI, will be 

generated from these databases for researchers and managers. 

Strategy MCS-2: Assess and prioritize research and monitoring activities over the life of 

the plan. 

A management-driven Natural Resources Science Plan will be developed and assessed on a 

regular basis to ensure that marine and terrestrial research and monitoring conducted in the 

NWHI is appropriate, relevant, and necessary to ensure effective management, improve 

management decisionmaking, and advance ecosystem science. The plan will build on existing 

regional science and research planning efforts. Consistency with HAMER and links to similar 

research in the main Hawaiian Islands will be maintained so that science conducted in this portion 

of the archipelago can be used across the archipelago. An interdisciplinary range of investigations 

designed to meet management needs will be included in the plan. 

Activity MCS-2.1: Develop a prioritized Natural Resources Science Plan within 1 year. 

Working collaboratively, the MMB will develop a prioritized, interdisciplinary NWHI 

Monument Natural Resources Science Plan (NRSP). The NRSP will serve as a more detailed 

implementation plan that supports the management and research strategies contained within this 

Action Plan, as well as specific management-related surveys, research, and monitoring priorities 

found in other Action Plans, in particular the Threatened and Endangered Species, Migratory 

Bird, Habitat Management and Conservation, Marine Debris, and Alien Species Action Plans. It 

will align management priorities among agencies to facilitate resource and information sharing 

and will address both baseline information needs and management-driven needs. The NRSP will 

be a stand-alone document separate from that of the Monument Management Plan, with its own 

Federal and State environmental review. Each agency or research partner will use the plan as a 

guide for conducting and authorizing research activities. Information needs and gaps will be 

reevaluated on a regular basis with input from the MMB, ICC, technical groups, and research 

partners. 

Examples of activities to be included in the NRSP under the five thematic areas are: 

Research on ecological processes and connectivity 

Understanding the mechanisms that link NWHI populations (and where applicable to the 

main Hawaiian Islands) at various scales, such as oceanographic processes, recruitment 

variability, larval and adult behavior, bird migratory and foraging patterns and drivers, the 

effect of isolation on the genetic structure of terrestrial flora and fauna, and other life history 

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characteristics, will reveal the connectivity and interrelationships of the ecosystems within 

the NWHI. 

Research on biodiversity and habitats 

Documenting, maintaining, and restoring diversity includes the discovery and description of 

new species, identifying the spatial distributions of habitats critical for the survival of native 

species, and maintaining diversity by affecting the recovery of protected species. This may 

include the study of methods for the restoration of native habitats, plants, and animals; 

research on terrestrial arthropods and avian components of the biological community; 

research on circulation patterns, residence times of water, wave climatology, and other 

physical drivers that structure habitats and result in biological zonation of the marine and 

terrestrial environments. 

Research on human impacts 

Understanding the impacts of human activities on the ecosystems of the NWHI may include 

research on the cumulative impacts of both local (e.g., fishing, research, and other permitted 

activities) and distant activities (marine debris, climate change) as well as the impact of 

invasive species on the marine and terrestrial biodiversity of the NWHI. Comparative studies 

between the main Hawaiian Islands and NWHI provide a unique opportunity to examine the 

effects of anthropogenic activities on coral reef ecosystems. 

 

Research on ecosystem change, indicators, and monitoring 

Establishing baselines on the abundance and health of Monument biota is the first step 

toward understanding the range of natural variability that characterizes these ecosystems. 

Research will address marine and terrestrial biodiversity and communities. Coral bleaching 

follow-up surveys and assessments will be continued with regional research partners to 

assess the impacts of major bleaching events in 2002 and 2004. Research to define and 

understand factors contributing to resilience and recovery from these perturbations will assist 

managers in responding to future bleaching events. The use of indicator species as a 

monitoring tool will be evaluated. 

Modeling and forecasting ecosystem change 

Developing functional ecosystem models that reflect the complexity and dynamic nature of 

the ecosystems of the NWHI is a long-term goal of the Monument’s research program. A 

related goal is to design models that reflect ecological connectivity of the NWHI to the main 

Hawaiian Islands and other regions of the Pacific. Descriptive and predictive models will be 

used by managers to better understand ecosystem function, and to evaluate the impacts of 

proposed activities. 

Activity MCS-2.2: Assess monitoring program protocols. 

Consistency in data collection protocols over time is of primary importance in any monitoring 

program in order to enable statistically valid comparisons between time periods. As 

management needs evolve and our understanding of ecosystem variability improves, monitoring 

protocols, sampling design, and sampling intervals will be evaluated for their effectiveness in 

meeting management needs and accurately reflecting change in the environment. An overall 

goal of these periodic assessments will be to ensure that the sampling and site selection protocols 

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adequately represent the range of habitats in the NWHI, and that the methods provide adequate 

statistical power to detect differences between sites or changes between time periods. These 

evaluations will be conducted on a cycle consistent with 5-year management plan reviews with 

the interagency technical group on research. 

Activity MCS-2.3: Formalize collaborative regional monitoring programs for the NWHI. 

Several independent monitoring initiatives are being conducted in the NWHI and new initiatives 

planned, such as monitoring for invasive species, seabird colonies, the effectiveness of 

Monument management zones, and water quality. Monitoring programs will need to include data 

on the organisms in the NWHI in a wide range of habitats as well as oceanographic and 

climatological parameters. Monument zones, which are spread across a broad distance and 

include a range of habitats, will require the design of an efficient yet effective monitoring 

program. The Monument will facilitate the development of formal monitoring programs that are 

closely linked to the needs of NWHI resource managers. Partnerships with collaborating 

agencies and organizations will be established in which responsibilities, obligations, 

deliverables, and timelines for a regional monitoring program are clearly articulated. 

Activity MCS-2.4: Implement research priorities identified in the Monument Natural 

Resources Science Plan. 

Once the Monument Natural Resources Science Plan is finalized, priorities identified in the plan 

will guide research and monitoring activities for both marine and terrestrial environments. These 

priorities will be reassessed on a regular basis based on the outcome of research and monitoring 

activities, outcome of evaluation assessments, the 5-year reviews of the Monument Management 

Plan and regular reviews of the Science Plan. Research and monitoring priorities will be 

implemented through a variety of partnerships and collaborations. 

Activity MCS-2.5: Coordinate research update meetings. 

Regular meetings among managers, staff, and researchers will be conducted to facilitate the 

exchange of information and ensure Monument research objectives identified in the Natural 

Resource Science Plan are being met. 

Strategy MCS-3: Communicate results of research and monitoring over the life of the plan. 

Research is an exciting way to promote ecosystem literacy and caring for the NWHI. Ecosystem 

research-related education and outreach present an ideal opportunity to “bring the place to the 

people and not the people to the place.” This strategy serves a dual purpose of presenting the 

science to a general audience and promoting the research necessary to manage the Monument. 

In addition, research and modeling discoveries can be shared with the public and incorporated 

into classroom curricula. Activities contained within this strategy apply to terrestrial and marine 

research and monitoring activities in the Monument. 

Activity MCS-3.1: Coordinate an annual meeting to present current research in the NWHI. 

Annual meetings provide an important forum for the NWHI multidisciplinary research 

community, managers, and interested public to keep abreast of current research initiatives and 

recent findings. This meeting will seek to incorporate recent findings from research, including 

but not limited to ecosystem, Native Hawaiian, maritime heritage, and socioeconomic studies. 

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Activity MCS-3.2: Identify and prioritize research, monitoring, and modeling projects for 

education and outreach. 

Translating NWHI research findings to the public and incorporating it into classroom curricula is 

a high priority for the Monument. Working with partner agencies, research, monitoring, and 

modeling projects will be identified and prioritized for dissemination. 

Activity MCS-3.3: Include an educational component in marine research expeditions.

Past NOWRAMP/NWHIRAMP expeditions have included educational components that have 

been highly successful for education and outreach. Components included live web sites with 

updates from the research vessel, imagery, and video. Using this model and other innovative 

ideas, marine research and monitoring expeditions aboard NOAA research vessels will include 

educational and outreach components. 

Activity MCS-3.4: Use materials gathered and created through research to develop or enhance 

education and outreach products. 

Many of the materials developed during previous marine research expeditions have been 

incorporated into other outreach products, specifically displays at the Mokupāpapa Discovery 

Center, slideshows, and educational curricula. Similarly, educational materials have been 

associated with satellite tracking of albatross and migration of golden plovers. Education and 

outreach products will continue to be developed based on research conducted in the Monument. 

(See section 3.5.4, Ocean Ecosystems Literacy Action Plan). 

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Table 3.1.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Marine Conservation 

Science

Strategies and Activities Agency 

Lead 

Strategy MCS-1: Continue and expand research, characterization and monitoring of 

marine ecosystems for the life of the plan. 

Activity MCS-1.1: Continue to characterize types and spatial distributions of shallow-water 

marine habitats. 

NOAA 

Activity MCS-1.2: Continue monitoring of shallow-water coral reef ecosystems. NOAA 

Activity MCS-1.3: Map and characterize deep-water habitat. NOAA 

Activity MCS-1.4: Establish and implement monitoring program for deep-water 

ecosystems. 

NOAA 

Activity MCS-1.5: Collect, analyze, and input research, monitoring, and bathymetric data 

into appropriate databases to inform management decisions. 

NOAA 

Strategy MCS-2: Assess and prioritize research and monitoring activities over the life 

of the plan. 

Activity MCS-2.1: Develop a prioritized Natural Resources Science Plan within 1 year. NOAA 

Activity MCS-2.2: Assess monitoring program protocols. NOAA 

Activity MCS-2.3: Formalize collaborative regional monitoring programs for the NWHI. NOAA 

Activity MCS-2.4: Implement research priorities identified in the Monument Natural 

Resources Science Plan. 

NOAA 

Activity MCS-2.5: Coordinate research update meetings. NOAA 

Strategy MCS-3: Communicate results of research and monitoring over the life of the 

plan. 

Activity MCS-3.1: Coordinate an annual meeting to present current research in the NWHI. NOAA 

Activity MCS-3.2: Identify and prioritize research, monitoring, and modeling projects for 

education and outreach. 

NOAA 

Activity MCS-3.3: Include an educational component in marine research expeditions. NOAA 

Activity MCS-3.4: Use materials gathered and created through research to develop or 

enhance education and outreach products. 

NOAA 

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Links to other Action Plans Desired Outcome 

Increase understanding and appreciation of Native 

Hawaiian histories and cultural practices related 

to Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument and effectively manage cultural 

resources for their cultural, educational, and 

scientific values. 

 3.1.1 Marine Conservation Science 

 3.1.3 Historic Resources 

 3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach 

 3.1.4 Maritime Heritage 

 3.5.3 Native Hawaiian Community Involvement 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

 3.6.2 Information Management 

Links to goals Current Status and Background 

Since the early visioning process in 2000 on how best to protect the NWHI, 

the need to understand and document the cultural significance of 

Goal 4 

Goal 5 

Goal 6 

Goal 7 the Monument and its integral relationship with the rest of the archipelago 

has been growing, leading to an increased effort to research and compile 

known cultural information about this important region. This research effort has produced a 

substantial amount of cultural information and theories pertaining to the traditions and practices 

of Native Hawaiians in the NWHI (Kikiloi in prep.). These include archival research (Tava and 

Keale 1989; Mackenzie and Kaiama 2003), ethnographic studies (Maly 2003), and 

archaeological research (Emory 1928; Cleghorn 1988; Liller 2000; and Graves and Kikiloi in 

prep). 

While more cultural research needs to be conducted, 

several steps have been taken toward integrating this 

cultural information into educational and outreach efforts. 

One of these efforts is “Navigating Change,” an 

education and outreach partnership created in 2001 

among NOAA, FWS, the State of Hawai‘i, the 

Polynesian Voyaging Society, Bishop Museum, and 

many other groups. This initiative, which includes 

classroom curricula and multimedia materials, utilizes 

Native Hawaiian voyaging traditions and cultural values 

to engage students and the public in learning about and 

caring for the NWHI as well as the main Hawaiian 

Islands. Together, the Polynesian Voyaging Society, 

FWS, NOAA, and the State coordinated voyages by 

Hōkūle‘a, a traditional Hawaiian double-hulled voyaging 

canoe, to and through the NWHI, as well as the 

associated educational outreach efforts for the voyages. 

Cultural sites at Mokumanamana indicate the use of the 

NWHI and surrounding oceans by Native Hawaiians in 

precontact Hawai‘i. Photo: Andy Collins 

To effectively engage both English and ‘ōlelo Hawai‘i 

(Hawaiian language) speakers, and to explicitly 

recognize the Native Hawaiian history and continued 

relationship with Papahānaumokuākea, all interpretive signs at Mokupāpapa Discovery Center in 

Hilo and similar education centers are in both English and ‘ōlelo Hawai‘i. Native Hawaiian 

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values and histories are integrated into the displays, and Hawaiian-speaking volunteers have 

been recruited to act as docents at Mokupāpapa. 

The Reserve, in collaboration with the Kamakakūokalani Center for Hawaiian Studies at the 

University of Hawai‘i, conducted cultural research on the NWHI. This research and synthesis has 

yielded a university-level course on the NWHI and an informational video that portrays the NWHI 

from an indigenous perspective. In August 2004, the Kamakakūokalani Center held a 2-day 

workshop to discuss Native Hawaiian issues and concerns about the NWHI (see also section 3.5.3, 

the Native Hawaiian Community Involvement Action Plan). 

Also under contract with the Reserve, the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum developed an online 

“Annotated Bibliography of Cultural Resources for the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.” The 

database contents primarily include holdings available in the Bishop Museum’s Library and 

Archives, the libraries at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, and the State of Hawai‘i Archives 

that may be valuable to researchers and others learning about the NWHI. The database is 

accessible to the public on the Internet (www2.bishopmuseum.org/noaanwhi/index.asp). 

To strengthen the agencies’ cultural resource management capability, internal capacity and a 

liaison program will be developed. Under such a program, liaisons with the Hawaiian 

community would conduct projects and initiatives to support cultural education, research, and 

access. The liaisons would work with the Native Hawaiian community, plan and organize 

cultural working group meetings, and coordinate cultural research and outreach for the 

Monument (see also section 3.4.3, the Native Hawaiian Community Involvement Action Plan). 

Through a Native Hawaiian cultural perspective, we can learn more about the NWHI’s 

ecosystems and histories and develop better ways of managing the area. 

Need for Action 

Both the Executive order that established the Reserve and Proclamation 8031, which established 

the Monument, recognize and address the significance of the NWHI to Native Hawaiians. 

Understanding the NWHI from a Native Hawaiian perspective benefits the Monument in many 

ways. Because Native Hawaiians’ resource management practices were and are mainly guided by 

their traditional beliefs and familial connections to their natural environment and the imperative to 

manage the islands and oceans as inextricably linked, Native Hawaiian research contributes to an 

ecosystem-based approach to management and complements other types of research. Education of 

and by, and outreach to, the Native Hawaiian community can elicit greater involvement by Native 

Hawaiians in Monument management. Utilizing cultural information in education and outreach 

will engage the broader public in learning about and caring for the Monument and Native 

Hawaiian culture. This action plan presents strategies and activities for research, education, and 

outreach aimed at accomplishing that desired outcome. 

More research and documentation about Native Hawaiian traditions, practices, and histories of 

the NWHI need to be done, particularly before the histories held only in the oral tradition are lost 

with the kūpuna who hold that knowledge. Some of this work can be accomplished through 

literature searches and other historic, Hawaiian language, and archival research. Other 

information will require access to the NWHI to conduct new cultural research by both academics 

and practitioners. As information is gathered and compiled information regarding the location, 

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character, or ownership of certain cultural resources may be withheld from public disclosure, 

consistent with applicable law such as the National Historic Preservation Act 

The Monument offers a vast, sacred, and protected classroom, which cannot be recreated or 

modeled anywhere else, for Native Hawaiians or the rest of the world. For example, the 

experiential learning of traditional wayfinding and cultural protocols by crewmembers of the 

Hōkūle‘a and other Polynesian voyaging wa‘a (canoes) cannot be learned in a museum or from 

books. Equally, the historic sites of Nihoa and Mokumanamana represent the most pristine and 

extensive collection of cultural sites within the Hawaiian archipelago, and are being used as a 

training ground for cultural practitioners who wish to continue to practice such cultural protocols 

as can only be rediscovered in Papahānaumokuākea. Native Hawaiian cultural tradition is 

primarily transmitted orally, and current educational studies have shown that Native Hawaiian 

learning continues to be most productive when done experientially (Tibbetts 2006). 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Five strategies have been identified to increase understanding and documentation of Native 

Hawaiian culture and history related to the Monument. The strategies and activities are coded by 

the acronym for the action plan title, “Native Hawaiian Culture and History” (NHCH). A 

summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.1.2 at the end of this action plan. 

• NHCH-1: Identify and prioritize scientific and Native Hawaiian cultural research needs 

within 18 months. 

• NHCH-2: Conduct, support, and facilitate Native Hawaiian cultural and historical 

research of the NWHI over the life of the plan. 

• NHCH-3: Increase cultural resource management capacity across MMB agencies over 

the life of the plan. 

• NHCH-4: Plan, develop, and implement a Monument Cultural Resources Program over 

the life of the plan. 

• NHCH-5: Provide cultural outreach and educational opportunities to the Native Hawaiian 

community and the general public over the life of the plan. 

Strategy NHCH-1: Identify and prioritize scientific and Native Hawaiian cultural research 

needs within 18 months. 

Identification and prioritization of research needs will be achieved through consultation with the 

Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group and other Native Hawaiian institutions and 

organizations, and by assessing and identifying gaps in the information assembled in the past in 

consultation with what was then the Reserve Advisory Council’s Native Hawaiian Cultural 

Working Group and other cultural experts. Potential research topics include (1) understanding 

the historical relationship Native Hawaiians have had with the NWHI; (2) understanding cultural 

practices of this region, such as navigation and voyaging, traditional religious worship, place 

names and geography, mele (song) and hula (dance), mo‘olelo (legendary histories, mythologies, 

and stories), and fishing techniques; (3) determining culturally and ecologically appropriate 

methods of following the Hawaiian protocol of giving ho‘okupu (offerings); (4) acquiring and 

implementing traditional Hawaiian ecological knowledge; (5) increasing research to support and 

identify sites for protective status; and (6) clarifying how Hawaiian concepts of restoration and 

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preservation of natural and cultural resources fit into current regulatory constraints. Research on 

these topics will give insight into the appropriateness of certain activities and practices that occur 

in the area. 

Activity NHCH-1.1: Identify research needs that can be accomplished through 

anthropological, archaeological, historical, and Hawaiian cultural methods. 

Such research could be conducted through ethnographic interviews, researching oral traditions 

and archival historical information written in the English and Hawaiian languages, 

archaeological survey and analyses, and cultural field experience. Research needs will be 

developed within 12 months and consistently updated via such venues as the annual cultural 

resources research conference (see section 3.4.3, the Native Hawaiian Community Involvement 

Action Plan). 

Activity NHCH-1.2: Develop cultural research priorities alongside associated management 

challenges and opportunities. 

Once research needs have been identified, priorities will be established that are directly linked to 

key management challenges and available opportunities to conduct such research. These needs 

and priorities will be assembled in a report that will be completed within 18 months. 

Strategy NHCH-2: Conduct, support, and facilitate Native Hawaiian cultural and historical 

research of the NWHI over the life of the plan. 

Ongoing research and documentation about Native Hawaiian traditions, practices, and histories 

of Papahānaumokuākea are as important as ongoing scientific research in helping us ensure 

successful management of the Monument. Thus, working closely with partners, we will continue 

to conduct and support cultural and historical research and seek ways to facilitate access to the 

NWHI for such purposes. The MMB will also work to support complementary Western science 

and traditional ecological knowledge investigations, management, and outreach strategies. This 

will be done in cooperation with partners, both organizations and individual researchers. 

Additionally, research findings may help clarify appropriate cultural activities for an area and aid 

in gaining appropriate additional protections for cultural resources. 

Research findings would be integrated and presented as part of an annual meeting to present 

current research being conducted in the NWHI (see section 3.1.1, the Marine Conservation 

Science Action Plan). This annual meeting provides an important forum for the NWHI 

multidisciplinary research community, managers, and interested public to keep abreast of current 

research initiatives and recent findings. 

Activity NHCH-2.1: Continue to compile information and conduct new cultural and historical 

research about the NWHI. 

Limited cultural and historical research about the NWHI has already been directly conducted by 

NOAA and the FWS in conjunction with partner organizations such as the Office of Hawaiian 

Affairs and the Bishop Museum. Monument staff will continue to compile existing information 

about the region and initiate new research based on the priorities developed under strategy 

NHCH-1. 

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1 Activity NHCH-2.2: Continue to provide direct financial and logistical support. 

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Research on the issues identified through the process described in strategy NHCH-1 may be 

supported by the MMB through grants, logistical support, berthing space aboard research vessels 

(see section 3.6.3, the Coordinated Field Operations Action Plan), and other in-kind resources. 

Such support has already begun prior to Monument establishment and will be continued. 

Activity NHCH-2.3: Facilitate field research and cultural education opportunities annually 

during the field season. 

Consistent with activities that have already begun in the Monument, the MMB will continue to 

facilitate research and education opportunities in the field for students, teachers, and cultural 

specialists during every field season. Such support includes providing berthing space aboard 

research vessels, logistical support, and putting researchers and educators in touch with others 

doing similar work. 

Activity NHCH-2.4: Convene a Native Hawaiian nomenclature working group. 

Within a year, the Monument will convene a variety of experts on the history and meaning of 

Hawaiian names for known and yet-to-be-discovered regions, islands, geographical and oceanic 

features, sites, and plant and animal species. These names and their histories and meanings will 

be included and updated regularly in the forthcoming Monument Information Management 

System (see below) to ensure that such names continue to reflect Hawaiian knowledge and 

experience. 

Activity NHCH-2.5: Incorporate cultural resources information into the Monument 

Information Management System. 

As cultural information is compiled and generated, in collaboration and cooperation with Native 

Hawaiian organizations and institutions that are also creating databases of such information 

(such as OHA’s Wahi Pana Database), it will be incorporated into the Monument Information 

Management System (see section 3.6.2, the Information Management Action Plan). This system 

will incorporate a security layer for the protection of proprietary cultural information. 

Activity NHCH-2.6: Support Native Hawaiian cultural accesses to assure cultural research 

needs are met. 

Once priorities have been developed, access needs to meet these priority requirements will be 

considered and established as opportunities arise to create additional partnership contracts, 

grants, or formal agreements with Native Hawaiian organizations. Such access needs may 

include, but not be limited to (1) consistent access to Mokumanamana for Hawaiian religious 

practices, and (2) regular access for Polynesian voyaging canoes for wayfinding, navigational, 

and cultural protocol training. The former will allow for lessons to be learned at specific sites for 

specific purposes and to determine significant astronomical relationships to this sacred island’s 

features. The latter allows for voyaging training in a voyaging route of Native Hawaiians’ 

kūpuna. It provides the traditional navigational apprenticeship in an ancient art, which 

Hawaiians conceive as learning to pull an island out of the sea from beyond the horizon using 

only observation and knowledge of the natural environment. 

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Activity NHCH-2.7: Establish agreements with local universities and museums to address 

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To provide proper stewardship of cultural resources and artifacts, necessary agreements will be 

established in concert with the Cultural Resources Program Plan (see strategy NHCH-4). The 

agreements will be developed as the need arises. 

Strategy NHCH 3: Increase cultural resource management capacity across MMB agencies 

over the life of the plan. 

To effectively carry out the strategies and activities outlined within this action plan, the MMB 

agencies will increase their collective capacity to effectively understand, manage, and protect the 

Native Hawaiian cultural resources of the Monument and fulfill Federal and State mandates and 

requirements. 

Activity NHCH-3.1: Assess Monument cultural resource capacity. 

Limited staff capacity currently exists among the Monument management agencies in the area of 

cultural resource management. Agencies will identify staff needs and work toward building staff 

capacity to carry out the strategies and activities contained within this plan. Staffing needs will 

be identified and included in the development of the Monument Cultural Resources Program 

Plan (see Activity NHCH-4.1). 

Activity NHCH-3.2: Engage Native Hawaiian practitioners and cultural experts and the 

Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group in the development and implementation of the 

Monument’s management activities. 

The Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group and other Native Hawaiian cultural practitioners 

and experts will be consistently consulted and integrated into the creation and implementation of 

programs (see section 3.4.3, the Native Hawaiian Community Involvement Action Plan). 

Examples of their participation may include the following: (1) providing cultural briefings to 

every person preparing to enter the Monument, as a condition of their being permitted access; 

(2) when feasible, accompanying permittees accessing the Monument in order to experience, 

practice, and learn from the Monument resources while educating others; and (3) including 

Native Hawaiians, particularly the younger generations, as part of cultural and scientific research 

teams when feasible. 

Activity NHCH-3.3: Increase knowledge base of Native Hawaiian values and cultural 

information through “in-reach” programs for resource managers.

Efforts will be made to increase the knowledge base of Native Hawaiian cultural significance 

by Monument resource managers. This will be accomplished by having Monument resource 

managers and staff and MMB members, as appropriate, participate in informal and formal 

briefings, cultural workshops, and cultural exchanges in cooperation with other marine 

protected area sites that integrate traditional ecological knowledge into their management. 

Activity NHCH-3.4: Identify and integrate Native Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge 

and management concepts into Monument management. 

In the past, traditional resource management involved recognizing local variations, observing 

patterns, periodically applying kapu (restrictions on resource extraction and other activities) by 

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konohiki (local managers), and maintaining a deep respect for, and intimate knowledge of, the 

environment. The MMB will work with the Native Hawaiian community and other cultural 

experts to identify how traditional ecological knowledge and associated practices may be 

integrated into Monument management and research activities. A report on traditional 

ecological knowledge and management practices, including recommendations for integrating 

these perspectives into management of the NWHI, will be developed to guide implementation. 

Strategy NHCH-4: Plan, develop, and implement a Monument Cultural Resources 

Program over the life of the plan. 

All cultural resources in the NWHI are under the jurisdiction of the Monument, and therefore the 

MMB will support efforts to protect these important elements, including archaeological sites and 

the sacred resources of the NWHI, according to the parameters and conditions included within 

Sections 106 and 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act. This may include documenting 

and evaluating the NWHI as a Traditional Cultural Property and development of a Cultural 

Resources Program to fully integrate cultural resource protection into Monument management 

(see Activity HR-3.2, in section 3.1.3, the Historic Resources Action Plan). The first step in this 

process will be a Section 106 consultation under the National Historic Preservation Act. This 

consultation will result in the signing of a Programmatic Agreement among the Co-Trustees, the 

State of Hawai‘i Historic Preservation Officer, and the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation. The second step in this process is the development of a formal Cultural Resources 

Program Plan. 

Activity NHCH-4.1: Prepare a Cultural Resources Program Plan. 

Within 18 months, the MMB will initiate the development of a Cultural Resources Program Plan, 

in partnership with the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group, cultural practitioners and 

experts, and others. As part of the plan development, the program partners will identify cultural 

resources, sites, and other locations within the Monument that are appropriate for use in 

contemporary Native Hawaiian protocols. In addition, the plan will include policies and 

procedures on the collection, curation, and disposition of archaeological materials, other 

artifacts, and human remains. The MMB and partners will complete the plan within 2 years of 

initiation. 

Activity NHCH-4.2: Develop and implement specific preservation plans, as appropriate, to 

protect cultural sites and collections at Nihoa and Mokumanamana.

Both Nihoa and Mokumanamana are recognized as culturally significant and are listed on the 

National Register of Historic Places and protected by the FWS in accordance with the National 

Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, as amended, and the National Historic 

Preservation Act of 1966. To further protect these sites, preservation plans for both islands will 

be developed and implemented, as will plans for other cultural elements and yet-to-be discovered 

sites within the Monument. These preservation plans will address the monitoring and 

stabilization of cultural sites and curatorship or return/repatriation agreement with museums and 

institutions that house the artifact collections. These preservation plans will be initiated within 

18 months. 

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Within 6 months of completion of the Cultural Resources Program Plan, the MMB will initiate 

the strategies and activities contained within the plan. 

Strategy NHCH-5: Provide cultural outreach and educational opportunities to the Native 

Hawaiian community and the general public over the life of the plan. 

Native Hawaiian values and cultural information will be used to guide outreach and education 

programs targeted to both Native Hawaiians and the general public. Native Hawaiian values and 

resource management practices can be relevant to multiple audiences and help to provide a more 

complete understanding of the NWHI and the need to protect its ecosystems and other cultural 

resources. Permittee education and outreach programs will target Monument users. 

Staff will strive to provide more outreach to the Native Hawaiian community so that the cultural 

information compiled and incorporated into Monument materials reaches Native Hawaiians, many 

of whom otherwise may not have access to such information. Developing culturally relevant 

materials can also make information more accessible and engaging to Native Hawaiians. For 

example, making Hawaiian language tours available at Mokupāpapa Discovery Center would 

increase the center’s value and accessibility to Hawaiian language immersion school groups as a 

culturally relevant learning tool. 

The Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group, Native Hawaiian community leaders, cultural 

experts, and others will be consulted for cultural accuracy and appropriateness and for input on 

how information is used and shared.

Activity NHCH-5.1: Integrate Native Hawaiian values and cultural information into general 

outreach and education programs. 

Cultural information and traditional Native Hawaiian values will be infused into education and 

outreach materials aimed at the general public. The “Navigating Change” program, school 

curricula, promotion of Hawaiian place names in Monument materials, videos, articles, and the 

lecture series at Mokupāpapa are some of the ways the MMB will accomplish this (see sections 

3.5.2 and 3.5.4, the Constituency Building and Outreach and Ocean Ecosystems Literacy action 

plans). 

Activity NHCH-5.2: Develop a culturally based strategy for education and outreach to the 

Native Hawaiian community. 

This strategy, to be developed within 3 years, includes making information relevant, attractive, 

and accessible to Native Hawaiians. Outreach and education targeting Native Hawaiians will 

be accomplished through special events, cultural groups, schools (K-12), and colleges. 

Products that may be developed include videos and public television programs, publications, 

and school curricula. Traditional products will be encouraged, such as hula, mele, and oli. The 

MMB will continue to utilize ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i in outreach and education materials and programs 

as appropriate (see sections 3.5.2 and 3.5.4, Constituency Building and Outreach and Ocean 

Ecosystems Literacy Action Plans). 

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Activity NHCH-5.3: Integrate Native Hawaiian values and cultural information into the 

Monument permittee education and outreach program. 

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Within 2 years, the MMB will provide appropriate cultural information and guidelines to all 

Monument users and will help in fostering a deeper respect for the NWHI through better 

understanding of, and respect for, Hawaiian values and the cultural significance of the place (see 

section 3.4.1, Permitting Action Plan). This includes, but is not limited to, the cultural briefing 

required prior to any permitted access to the Monument; the creation of a nonmandatory course for 

permit applicants that would engage in experiential approaches to maximize learning through 

various modalities; the development of a cultural observer program; and the creation of 

comprehensive research sources, such as willing cultural experts, libraries, and electronic databases 

of cultural and historic information with security layers for confidential information, which will 

assist applicants in appropriately completing permit applications. 

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Table 3.1.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Native Hawaiian Culture 

and History

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy NHCH-1: Identify and prioritize scientific and Native Hawaiian 

cultural research needs within 18 months. 

Activity NHCH-1.1: Identify research needs that can be accomplished through 

anthropological, archaeological, historical, and Hawaiian cultural methods. 

OHA 

Activity NHCH-1.2: Develop cultural research priorities alongside associated 

management challenges and opportunities. 

OHA 

Strategy NHCH-2: Conduct, support, and facilitate Native Hawaiian cultural 

and historical research of the NWHI over the life of the plan. 

Activity NHCH-2.1: Continue to compile information and conduct new cultural 

and historical research about the NWHI. 

OHA 

Activity NHCH-2.2: Continue to provide direct financial and logistical support. NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity NHCH-2.3: Facilitate field research and cultural education opportunities 

annually during the field season. 

OHA 

Activity NHCH-2.4: Convene a Native Hawaiian nomenclature working group. OHA 

Activity NHCH-2.5: Incorporate cultural resources information into the Monument 

Information Management System. 

NOAA 

Activity NHCH-2.6: Support Native Hawaiian cultural accesses to assure cultural 

research needs are met. 

OHA 

Activity NHCH-2.7: Establish agreements with local universities and museums to 

address possible curation, research, use, return, and repatriation of collections. 

FWS 

Strategy NHCH-3: Increase cultural resource management capacity across 

MMB agencies over the life of the plan. 

Activity NHCH-3.1: Assess Monument cultural resource capacity. NOAA 

Activity NHCH-3.2: Engage Native Hawaiian practitioners and cultural experts 

and the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group in the development and 

implementation of the Monument’s management activities. 

OHA 

Activity NHCH-3.3: Increase knowledge base of Native Hawaiian values and 

cultural information through “in-reach” programs for resource managers. 

OHA 

Activity NHCH-3.4: Identify and integrate Native Hawaiian traditional ecological 

knowledge and management concepts into Monument management. 

OHA 

Strategy NHCH-4: Plan, develop, and implement a Monument Cultural 

Resources Program over the life of the plan. 

Activity NHCH-4.1: Prepare a Cultural Resources Program Plan. FWS 

Activity NHCH-4.2: Develop and implement specific preservation plans, as 

appropriate, to protect cultural sites and collections at Nihoa and Mokumanamana. 

FWS 

Activity NHCH-4.3: Initiate implementation of the Monument Cultural Resources 

Program. 

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy NHCH-5: Provide cultural outreach and educational opportunities to 

the Native Hawaiian community and the general public over the life of the 

plan.

Activity NHCH-5.1: Integrate Native Hawaiian values and cultural information 

into general outreach and education programs. 

NOAA 

Activity NHCH-5.2: Develop a culturally based strategy for education and outreach 

to the Native Hawaiian community. 

NOAA 

Activity NHCH-5.3: Integrate Native Hawaiian values and cultural information 

into the Monument permittee education and outreach program. 

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Desired Outcome 

Identify, document, preserve, protect, stabilize, and 

where appropriate, reuse, recover, and interpret historic 

resources associated with Midway Atoll and other 

historic resources within Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument. 

Links to other Action Plans 

 3.1.2 Native Hawaiian Culture and History 

 3.1.4 Maritime Heritage 

 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations

Links to goals Current Status and Background 

Goal 5 

Goal 7 

Goal 8 

NOAA and FWS comply with the Federal Archaeological Program, a 

collection of laws and regulations that pertain to the protection of historical 

and archaeological properties on Federal and federally managed lands. The 

National Historic Preservation Act directs all Federal agencies to develop 

programs to protect historical and archaeological resources. Section 106 requires agencies to 

consider the potential impacts of their actions, including the review of permit applications for 

projects that may allow the disturbance of Federal lands where archaeological remains may lie. 

Section 110 requires agencies to actively search for archaeological resources and to assess them 

for their significance and eligibility for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. The 

locations of cultural and historic resources are considered sensitive data and are not openly 

released even through the Freedom of Information Act. State agencies comply with similar State 

laws for protection of historic and cultural resources. 

For the purposes of the Monument Management Plan, historic resources are the nonmarine sites, 

structures, artifacts, culture and places in the Monument associated with the historic period (after 

first Western contact with Native Hawaiians in 1778). Historic resources in the Monument fall 

into two broad categories: Midway Atoll historic period resources, and those elsewhere in the 

Monument. 

At Midway Atoll, historic period cultural resources include 63 structures and buildings eligible 

for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. These historic properties are mostly 

associated with World War II, the Battle of Midway National Historic Landmark and Memorial, 

and the early 20th-century Commercial Pacific Cable Company. Section 1.3 describes the history 

and context of the historic properties that remain on Midway Atoll. FWS currently manages the 

historic properties at Midway Atoll according to a Programmatic Agreement (Programmatic 

Agreement1996) and Historic Preservation Plan (Speulda et al. 1999). 

Jurisdiction and control of Midway Atoll were transferred from the Navy to the FWS in 1996 by 

Executive Order 13022. In preparation for the transfer, the Navy identified, evaluated, and 

mitigated effects on the 63 historic properties. The Navy conducted this effort in consultation 

with the Pacific Division of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command, FWS, Advisory Council 

on Historic Preservation, National Park Service, State Historic Preservation Officer of the State 

of Hawai‘i, Sixth Defense Battalion of the U.S. Marine Corps, Defenders of Midway Islands 

Reunion Association, and International Midway Memorial Foundation. The consultation 

resulted in a Programmatic Agreement for the treatment of the 63 historic properties 

(Programmatic Agreement 1996). One of the stipulations in the Programmatic Agreement 

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directed the FWS to prepare a Historic Preservation Plan for the long-term management of the 

63 historic properties. FWS completed the plan in 1999 (Speulda et al. 1999). 

The Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan focuses on long-term management and treatment 

for each of the 63 historic properties. It also identifies procedures for treating new discoveries 

and caring for museum collections, and includes recommendations for interpretation, education, 

and public outreach.

The Programmatic Agreement and Historic Preservation Plan prescribe one of six different 

treatment categories to each of the 63 historic properties. The treatment categories are (1) reuse, 

(2) secure, (3) leave as-is, (4) fill in, (5) demolish, or (6) relocate. Many factors were used to 

determine the treatment category to which a historic property was assigned, including historic 

importance, interpretive value, overall setting, association with key historic themes, and 

structural integrity. The determinations were made in consideration of recommendations from 

interest groups, specialists, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.

In the treatment category assignments, 23 buildings and structures were identified for reuse, 

including the Officers’ housing; carpentry, machine, and transportation shop buildings; the 

refrigeration plant; the recreation facility; the seaplane hangar and ramp; and water reservoirs. 

Thirteen buildings were slated for securing and stabilization in place, including the command 

post, radar buildings, power plant, and the cable station buildings. Twenty structures were 

placed in the “leave as-is” category and will deteriorate in place under natural environmental 

conditions. These properties include the Eastern Island gun, runways, and revetments, and the 

Sand Island cemetery, Japanese gravestones, two 5-inch guns, and gun batteries. Four properties 

were filled with sand, including a pillbox and an underground bunker. Fifteen properties were 

slated for demolition, including the N.O.B. armory, the submarine base buildings, the general 

storehouse and air terminal building, two barracks, and the blackout hangar and associated shops. 

Three objects were identified for removal to a secure location including a torpedo, a pillbox 

turret, and submarine netting. 

Beyond the abundant, significant, and dramatic historic resources at Midway Atoll, few other 

significant historic resources within the Monument are presently known. As outlined in 

section 1.3, the postcontact history of the Monument archipelago beyond Midway is rich and 

varied. However, the present record of tangible nonmarine sites that relate to this history is small. 

This is because historians and archaeologists simply have not spent much time researching 

locations on the islands and atolls of the Monument for evidence of postcontact historical events 

such as shipwreck survivor camps, bird and other resource extraction camps, or World War II 

facilities. 

Need for Action

Although the Midway Atoll Programmatic Agreement and Historic Preservation Plan are still in 

force, they need to be updated. Since the time the plan was written, in 1999, a visitor services 

plan has been adopted, lead-based paint abatement has become an important priority, and the 

Monument has been created. Furthermore, the Sixth Defense Battalion of the U.S. Marine Corps 

and Defenders of Midway Islands Reunion Association, and the International Midway Memorial 

Foundation continue to maintain strong interest in the preservation and interpretation of historic 

resources at Midway Atoll. The historic properties require continual repair and maintenance 

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according to the terms of the Historic Preservation Plan and the Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. The effects of weathering and erosion by 

saltwater, salt spray, salty soils, precipitation, plant growth, solar radiation, and wind continue to 

threaten the integrity of the historic properties at Midway Atoll. 

Among the islands that compose the Monument beyond Midway Atoll, surveys are needed to 

identify and evaluate historic resources that relate to shipwreck survivor camps, bird and other 

resource extraction camps, and World War II facilities. Beyond the historic resources of 

Midway Atoll, the other atolls and islands of the Monument have histories and associated 

historic resources that relate to the postcontact history of exploration, commerce, war, and 

conservation of the Monument. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

The strategies and associated activities in this action plan constitute a historic resource program 

of identification, documentation, protection, preservation, reuse, and interpretation of the varied 

historic resources in the Monument. The Monument Management Plan calls for the 

implementation of a range of activities that preserve, stabilize, reuse, rehabilitate, and interpret 

the historic structures and the stories and artifacts associated with them. 

Seven strategies have been developed for achieving the desired outcome of identifying, 

interpreting, and protecting historic resources in the NWHI. The strategies and activities are 

coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Historic Resources” (HR). A summary of 

strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.1.3 at the end of this action plan. 

• HR-1: Update the Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan to meet the present needs of 

the Refuge and Monument within 1 year. 

• HR-2: Implement, supervise, and monitor the historic preservation treatments identified 

in the Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan at two historic properties each year. 

• HR-3: Prepare an updated Battle of Midway National Historic Landmark nomination 

within 4 years. 

• HR-4: Improve the function and capacity of the Midway museum within 8 years. 

• HR-5: Document and inventory historic resources beyond Midway Atoll NWR within 

15 years. 

• HR-6: Conduct archaeological and historical research on the historical events and 

structures at Midway Atoll NWR within 15 years. 

Strategy HR-1: Update the Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan to meet the present 

needs of the Refuge and Monument within 1 year. 

The Midway Historic Preservation Plan was written in 1999. Since then a visitor services plan 

has been adopted, lead-based paint abatement has become an important priority, and the 

Monument has been designated. The historic properties require continual repair and maintenance 

according to the terms of the Historic Preservation Plan and the Secretary of the Interior’s 

Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. The effects of weathering and erosion by 

saltwater, salt spray, salty soils, precipitation, plant growth, solar radiation, and wind continue to 

threaten the integrity of the historic properties at Midway Atoll NWR. Within 1 year of 

Monument Management Plan approval, the Monument partners will update the Historic 

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Preservation Plan and reconcile it with the existing Midway Visitor Services Plan and the leadbased paint removal plan. 

Activity HR-1.1: Reconcile the Historic Preservation Plan with the Midway Visitor Service 

Plan, lead-based paint abatement plan, and other facilities maintenance and use plans. 

This activity will require consultation and coordination among refuge program specialists and the 

MMB to align priorities and needs among these plans. The needs of the Historic Preservation 

Plan will be balanced with the priorities of lead-based paint removal, visitor services, habitat 

management, and management infrastructure. 

Activity HR-1.2: Submit the updated Historic Preservation Plan for approval to the Advisory 

Council on Historic Preservation and Monument partners.

The updated Historic Preservation Plan will require execution of an agreement document 

between the Monument Co-Trustees and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. 

 

Strategy HR-2: Implement, supervise, and monitor the historic preservation treatments 

identified in the Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan at two historic properties each 

year. 

The Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan (Speulda et al. 1999) and its enabling authorities 

(National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and the Programmatic Agreement for Treatment of 

Historic Properties at Midway) have prescribed specific historic preservation treatments for the 

63 historic properties at Midway Atoll NWR. Implementing this prescription requires a program 

that identifies needs and procedures, and supervises the conduct of preservation treatments at the 

properties. This strategy will be coordinated with the facilities operation plan and the lead-based 

paint abatement priorities. An important activity in this strategy is to adaptively reuse historic 

buildings and structures at Midway Atoll NWR. Many of Midway’s historic properties can serve 

the need for administrative and public space as Monument activities grow. 

Activity HR-2.1: Within 3 years, create dedicated capacity to implement the updated Historic 

Preservation Plan.

Limited staff and funds currently exist at the Midway Atoll NWR or among the Monument 

management agencies for historic preservation and cultural and historic resources management. 

Agencies will identify staff needs and work toward building staff capacity to carry out the 

strategies and activities contained within this and related action plans. Staffing needs will be 

identified and included in the development of the Monument Cultural Resources Program plan 

(see section 3.1.2, the Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan). 

Activity HR-2.2: Annually train Monument staff and the Midway contractors on the content of 

the Historic Preservation Plan and implementation of appropriate treatments. 

All Midway personnel who are involved in maintaining Midway Atoll infrastructure need to be 

aware of the historic preservation responsibilities and procedures on the atoll. This will ensure 

that the use and maintenance of the historic properties occurs according to the treatment 

identified in the Historic Preservation Plan. Training media will be produced so that all new and 

visiting personnel and all regular permanent personnel stay current on historic preservation 

priorities on an annual basis. 

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Activity HR-2.3: Incorporate into the Midway Atoll visitor services program semiannual 

opportunities and events for visitors or volunteers to implement historic preservation 

treatments. 

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This activity will resurrect and refine the previous Refuge program to recruit volunteers to help 

maintain historic properties including painting, window restoration, and landscape maintenance. 

Strategy HR-3: HR-3: Prepare an updated Battle of Midway National Historic Landmark 

nomination within 4 years.

The American victory at the Battle of Midway changed the course of World War II in the Pacific. 

The Battle of Midway National Historic Landmark was created in 1986 to honor this great 

achievement and the sacrifices of those involved. The National Historic Landmark (NHL) 

focuses on the remains of nine defensive positions on Midway’s Sand Island that are directly 

associated with this historic battle. These include six magazines, a pillbox, a 3-inch gun 

emplacement at Battery D and 5-inch gun emplacements at Battery C. We now have a better 

understanding of historic features at Midway that played an important role in the battle. As a 

result, it is appropriate to update this important ensemble of National Historic Landmark features. 

Additional structures to consider for inclusion in the National Historic Landmark include Battery 

A, which had not been located when the National Historic Landmark was drafted; the 

underground bunker on south beach; and the south beach pillbox (S-6). The Eastern Island 

runways will also be considered for inclusion in the National Historic Landmark. 

Activity HR-3.1: Identify, collect, and review publications, data sets, and documents on the 

National Historic Landmark within 2 years of Monument Management Plan adoption. 

Archival research is the first step to identify resources that may be appropriate to include in the 

National Historic Landmark. 

Activity HR-3.2: Plan and conduct a field survey and documentation of selected National 

Historic Landmark sites and features within 2 years. 

Standard historical archaeological practice will be exercised in this activity. 

Activity HR-3.3: Consult with interested parties and update the National Historic Landmark

nomination within 4 years. 

This activity includes evaluation of the findings, preparation of a report, an updated National 

Historic Landmark nomination, and consultation with the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation, the National Park Service National Historic Landmark staff, the Hawai‘i State 

Historic Preservation Office, and interested and knowledgeable parties such as the Sixth Defense 

Battalion of the U.S. Marine Corps and Defenders of Midway Islands Reunion Association, and 

the International Midway Memorial Foundation. 

Activity HR-3.4: Implement repair and maintenance treatments at National Historic 

Landmark features within 6 years. 

The National Historic Landmark features require periodic repair and maintenance. Depending on 

the treatment, some of the repair and maintenance can be accomplished by volunteers or other 

unskilled labor, while other repair work will require the involvement of specially trained historic 

preservation architects and engineers. 

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The Midway museum should be a general repository containing written material, photographs, 

artifacts, oral histories, and personal memorabilia relating to Midway’s history. The museum 

should include a climate-controlled storage area, as well as research desks and tape recording 

and listening booths. The Midway museum should be a unique repository for records and 

materials useful for interpreting the history and natural history of Midway Atoll. 

Activity HR-4.1: Prepare a Scope of Collections Statement within 5 years. 

The Scope of Collections Statement document will help define the scope and types of documents, 

artifacts, and other historic materials that may be donated, or otherwise acquired by Monument 

staff for proper museum curation. 

Activity HR-4.2: Remodel the Midway museum space within 7 years. 

This activity will remodel the Midway museum space to meet the needs of the Scope of 

Collections Statement and the visiting public, and to preserve the artifacts and historical 

materials according to the museum curation standards set forth by the Department of the Interior 

Manual 411 DM (Department of the Interior 1997). 

Activity HR-4.3: Organize and curate collections within 8 years. 

Organize and curate Midway Museum collections according the museum curation standards set 

forth by the Department of the Interior (411 DM). 

Strategy HR-5: Document and inventory historic resources beyond Midway Atoll NWR 

within 15 years. 

Studying and protecting historic resources beyond Midway Atoll begins with basic documentary 

research and field site surveys. These activities are similar to those involved with ecosystem 

research. Both involve consolidation of past research and archival data, and field inventory of 

nonmarine areas within the Monument. Historic resource surveys are compatible with planned 

multitasking missions, interagency cooperation, and operational efficiency.

Activity HR-5.1: Identify, collect, and review publications, data sets, and documents within 

12 years.

Archival research is the first step to identify historic resources that may occur on other islands 

and atolls in the archipelago beyond Midway. 

Activity HR-5.2: Plan, conduct, and report on field surveys and documentation of selected sites

within 15 years.

Standard historical archaeological practice will be exercised in this activity. 

Strategy HR-6: Conduct archaeological and historical research on the historical events and 

structures at Midway Atoll NWR within 15 years. 

Much has been written and documented about the history and historic properties at Midway 

Atoll, particularly with respect to its role in World War II. However, Midway’s history is rich 

and varied. Many nontraditional perspectives and sources of information have yet to be 

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investigated. A healthy and responsible historic preservation program at Midway will conduct 

new research. 

Activity HR-6.1: Begin a long-term annual program to compile, collect, curate, and publish 

oral histories of life on Midway Atoll within 3 years.

From the Commercial Pacific Cable Station era to World War II and through the Cold War, 

many people have lived on or visited Midway Atoll. Their stories provide a perspective on 

Midway, commerce, and war that is rarely captured in standard histories and official documents. 

Some of these personal oral histories have been recorded; many others need to be collected. This 

activity will ensure that alternative perspectives on the unique history of Midway Atoll will not 

be lost to the passing of the ages. 

Activity HR-6.2: Conduct archaeological investigation of the Commercial Pacific Cable 

Station site within 10 years. 

The Commercial Pacific Cable Station era was a unique chapter in the history of Midway Atoll. 

Archaeological and historical research, including excavation, will shed light on the lifestyle and 

struggles of Midway’s earliest permanent residents. 

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Table 3.1.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Historic Resources 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy HR-1: Update the Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan to meet 

the present needs of the Refuge and Monument within 1 year. 

Activity HR-1.1: Reconcile the Historic Preservation Plan with the Midway Visitor 

Service Plan, lead-based paint abatement plan, and other facilities maintenance and 

use plans. 

FWS 

Activity HR-1.2: Submit the updated Historic Preservation Plan for approval to the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation and Monument partners. 

FWS 

Strategy HR-2: Implement, supervise, and monitor the historic preservation 

treatments identified in the Midway Atoll Historic Preservation Plan at two 

historic properties each year. 

Activity HR-2.1: Within 3 years, create dedicated capacity to implement the 

updated Historic Preservation Plan. 

FWS 

Activity HR-2.2: Annually train Monument staff and the Midway contractors on 

the content of the Historic Preservation Plan and implementation of appropriate 

treatments. 

FWS 

Activity HR-2.3: Incorporate into the Midway Atoll visitor services program 

semiannual opportunities and events for visitors or volunteers to implement historic 

preservation treatments. 

FWS 

Strategy HR-3: HR-3: Prepare an updated Battle of Midway National Historic 

Landmark nomination within 4 years. 

Activity HR-3.1: Identify, collect, and review publications, data sets, and 

documents on the National Historic Landmark within 2 years of Monument 

Management Plan adoption. 

FWS 

Activity HR-3.2: Plan and conduct a field survey and documentation of selected 

National Historic Landmark sites and features within 2 years.

FWS 

Activity HR-3.3: Consult with interested parties and update the National Historic 

Landmark nomination within 4 years

FWS 

Activity HR-3.4: Implement repair and maintenance treatments at National Historic 

Landmark features within 6 years. 

FWS 

Strategy HR-4: Improve the function and capacity of the Midway museum 

within 8 years. 

Activity HR-4.1: Prepare a Scope of Collections Statement within 5 years. FWS 

Activity HR-4.2: Remodel the Midway museum space within 7 years. FWS 

Activity HR-4.3: Organize and curate collections within 8 years. FWS 

Strategy HR-5: Document and inventory historic resources beyond Midway 

Atoll NWR within 15 years. 

Activity HR-5.1: Identify, collect, and review publications, data sets, and 

documents within 12 years. 

FWS 

Activity HR-5.2: Plan, conduct, and report on field surveys and documentation of 

selected sites within 15 years. 

FWS 

Strategy HR-6: Conduct archaeological and historical research on the 

historical events and structures at Midway Atoll NWR within 15 years. 

Activity HR-6.1: Begin a long-term annual program to compile, collect, curate, and 

publish oral histories of life on Midway Atoll within 3 years. 

FWS 

Activity HR-6.2: Conduct archaeological investigation of the Commercial Pacific 

Cable Station site within 10 years. 

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1 3.1.4 Maritime Heritage Action Plan 

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Links to other Action Plans Desired Outcome 

Identify, interpret, and protect maritime 

heritage resources in Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument. 

 3.1.2 Native Hawaiian Culture and History 

 3.1.3 Historic Resources Action Plan 

3.3.4 Emergency Response and Natural Resource 

Damage Assessment 

 3.4.1 Permitting 

Current Status and Background 3.5.3 Native Hawaiian Community Involvement 

The maritime heritage of the NWHI began 

hundreds, if not thousands, of years ago with Polynesian and Native Hawaiian 

voyages across the Hawaiian archipelago and beyond. This history, the 

lessons this history provides, and the need to further the understanding of this 

heritage are critical and are dealt with in other areas of this Monument 

Management Plan (see section 3.1.2, the Native Hawaiian Culture and History 

Action Plan, and section 3.5.3, the Native Hawaiian Community Involvement 

Action Plan). 

Links to goals 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Goal 5 

Goal 7 

Preliminary survey of the maritime heritage resource base was begun during the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program research expedition in 2002 and 

continued opportunistically in 2003 and 2005-2006. Initial investigations in the NWHI led to the 

discovery of the naval steamer USS Saginaw, wrecked in 1870, the submarine rescue vessel USS 

Macaw, lost in 1944, the sailing ship Carrollton, lost in 1906, and the whale ship Parker, lost in 

1842. In 2004, NOAA divers located the remains of the British whaling ships Pearl and

Hermes, lost in 1822. These two archaeological sites provide a unique material record of historic 

activities, being the oldest wrecks yet found in the Hawaiian Islands and the only known whalers 

of the British South Seas Company in the world. Applying heritage practices to maritime 

resources challenges society to value what has only too often been considered out of sight and 

out of mind. 

Best practices in the maritime heritage field, at both the national and international levels, 

highlight similarities between heritage preservation and natural resources conservation. These 

best practices aim to value maritime heritage resources in a manner that complements, rather 

than conflicts with, ecosystem management. While excavation may be appropriate in certain 

circumstances, in situ management is considered the first or preferred alternative in the overall 

research design. In situ management does not preclude recovery, but does set forth a 

“precautionary” approach in terms of the artifacts and their environment. Proposed heritage 

work in the NWHI region emphasizes a low-impact approach, to an extent consistent with the 

Monument’s conservation goals and guiding principles. The coordinated management of 

heritage and natural resources is achieved through a unified permitting process. 

Need for Action 

For the purposes of this Monument Management Plan, the definition of maritime heritage 

resources includes submerged and beached shipwrecks, aircraft, and other sites of historical, 

cultural, and archaeological significance. These resources have not been adequately inventoried 

or protected within the NWHI. The main Hawaiian Islands have experienced the illegal removal 

of historic artifacts, as well as the potential destruction of historic material from nearshore 

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construction and dredging projects. By comparison, NWHI maritime heritage resources are 

relatively intact and undisturbed. NOAA, the State of Hawai‘i, and FWS have the statutory 

responsibility to inventory, evaluate, and interpret these heritage resources, and together increase 

maritime heritage preservation in the Monument and awareness of these unique resources 

throughout the State. 

NOAA, the State of Hawai‘i, and FWS share similar goals of heritage resource preservation in 

the Monument. Protection and management of sites that meet established heritage criteria are 

mandated by State and Federal preservation laws. 

Maritime heritage resources, when properly studied and 

interpreted, add an important dimension to our 

understanding and appreciation of our nation’s rich 

maritime legacy, and make us more aware of the critical 

need to be wise stewards of our ocean planet. 

NOAA diver surveys the USS Macaw remains 

off Midway Atoll . Photo: James Watt 

NOAA and FWS comply with the Federal 

Archaeological Program, a collection of laws and 

regulations that pertain to the protection of historical 

and archaeological properties on Federal and Federally 

managed lands. The National Historic Preservation Act 

directs all Federal agencies to develop programs to 

protect historical and archaeological resources. Section 

106 requires agencies to consider the potential impacts 

of their actions, including the review of permit 

applications for projects that may allow the disturbance 

of the seabed, where archaeological remains may lie. 

Section 110 requires agencies to actively search for 

archaeological resources and to assess them for their 

significance and eligibility for inclusion in the National 

Register of Historic Places. This action plan presents 

strategies and activities for addressing maritime 

heritage resource management and protection needs in 

the Monument. To this end, each program or agency may contribute its own particular expertise: 

the Maritime Heritage Program, under NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program, features 

field survey skills in underwater archaeology; FWS manages its comprehensive cultural 

resources program; and the State of Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources 

provides the context of the State inventory. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

The strategies and associated activities in this action plan are designed to increase our 

understanding of maritime heritage resources and foster effective and protective management in 

the Monument. These strategies will be carried out in collaboration with maritime heritage staff 

of the National Marine Sanctuary Program, Pacific Islands Region; the Historic Preservation 

Division of the State Department of Land and Natural Resources; and the FWS Cultural 

Resources Team. 

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Three strategies have been developed for achieving the desired outcome of identifying, 

interpreting, and protecting maritime heritage resources in the NWHI. The strategies and 

activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Maritime Heritage” (MH). A 

summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.1.4 at the end of this action plan. 

• MH-1: Document and inventory maritime heritage resources throughout the life of the 

plan. 

• MH-2: Incorporate maritime heritage into public education and outreach throughout the 

life of the plan. 

• MH-3: Coordinate interagency efforts to protect maritime heritage resources for the life 

of the plan. 

Strategy MH-1: Document and inventory maritime heritage resources throughout the life 

of the plan. 

Studying and protecting maritime heritage resources begin with basic documentary research and 

field site surveys. These activities are similar to those involved with ecosystem research. Both 

involve consolidation of past research and archival data, scientific SCUBA diving operations, 

and bathymetric mapping and remote sensing surveys. Maritime heritage surveys are compatible 

with planned multitasking missions, interagency cooperation, and operational efficiency. 

Activity MH-1.1: Identify, collect, and review publications, data sets, and documents annually. 

Archival research and review of existing documents are the first steps in creating and confirming 

the maritime heritage resource inventory in the NWHI, as well as in formulating an effective 

field survey plan. Documents from five maritime heritage sites will be added to the site database 

per year. 

Activity MH-1.2: Plan and carry out coordinated field mapping surveys of selected sites 

annually. 

Conducting field mapping surveys is the next step in understanding and interpreting heritage sites. 

Techniques can include shoreline terrestrial survey and inventory; marine remote sensing using 

magnetometer and side-scan sonar to locate potential heritage targets; and noninvasive diving 

surveys to assess and inventory sites (Dean 1992). These phases generally take place during 

multidisciplinary research cruises and are the result of coordinated interagency planning. Results 

are incorporated into a comprehensive Monument maritime heritage resource inventory maintained 

by NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program. As an ongoing annual activity, maritime 

heritage field surveys will be conducted and progress reports will be completed annually. 

Activity MH-1.3: Complete a status report on potential environmental hazards within 1 year, 

and update it annually. 

Wreck sites and other debris can represent potential environmental hazards that may be 

identified through field survey work. The MMB will be informed of any discovered potential 

hazards in order to assess the need for response or remediation (see 3.3.4, Emergency Response 

and Natural Resource Damage Assessment Action Plan). A status report on potential 

environmental hazards from wreck sites, disposal, etc. will be compiled by year 1 and updated 

annually. 

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Activity MH-1.4: Develop status report on maritime heritage artifact recovery operations 

within 2 years, and recover and conserve maritime heritage artifacts as appropriate. 

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When excavation and analysis of material remains are appropriate for site interpretation, and 

when these tasks can be done in a manner that respects the integrity of the ecosystem and the 

environmental goals of the Monument, recovery of selected artifacts is a way of bringing the data 

to the public, rather than taking more visitors to the NWHI site. Such recovery will be carried 

out through the established permitting processes of the Monument (see section 3.4.1, Permitting 

Action Plan and Appendix A). A status report on potential/completed maritime heritage 

recovery operations will be completed by year 2 and updated annually. 

Activity MH-1.5: Develop and implement an internal maritime heritage resource database 

within 5 years. 

An internal database of known maritime heritage resources will be established and maintained by 

the Monument maritime archaeologist for the prioritization of targets, to be completed by year 5. 

Strategy MH-2: Incorporate maritime heritage into public education and outreach 

throughout the life of the plan. 

Raising public awareness of the maritime heritage field is essential to better valuing and 

protecting the resource. Protection comes through understanding the nature of heritage resources 

and what we can learn from them, as well as familiarity with established preservation laws. 

Education and outreach efforts for maritime sites emphasize “bringing the place to the people, 

not the people to the place” in a responsible manner. 

Activity MH-2.1: Incorporate maritime heritage materials into Monument education and 

outreach projects annually. 

Resources and opportunities for collaboration for education and outreach are available through 

the MMB agencies and other entities. Monument maritime archaeologists will coordinate and 

participate in public outreach regarding Monument heritage resources and maritime history. 

Outreach efforts may include presentations, displays, still and video projects, and website 

materials. This activity includes potential support for the promotion of Native Hawaiian cultural 

outreach and education via section 3.1.2, the Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan. 

Activity MH-2.2: Develop and deliver public maritime heritage educational materials at selected 

presentations, conferences, and events. 

Shipwreck topics often appeal to large audiences at local, national, and international levels, and 

offer a chance to not only highlight the relatively new field of maritime heritage, but also to 

emphasize the unique nature of the NWHI, the need for conservation and ecosystem 

management, and the overall stewardship of all ocean resources. A minimum of two maritime 

heritage presentations will be given at professional conferences or public events each year. 

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Strategy MH-3: Coordinate interagency efforts to protect maritime heritage resources for 

the life of the plan. 

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Because of NOAA's previous maritime heritage work in the region, efforts to inventory, 

evaluate, interpret, and preserve maritime heritage resources in the NWHI will be coordinated by 

a staff maritime archaeologist through the NMSP, and conducted in close collaboration and 

coordination with the MMB. Each program or agency provides expertise in related fields: 

maritime archaeology field survey (NOAA); museum program, terrestrial archaeology, and 

National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) implementation (FWS); and State survey, inventory 

and preservation (Department of Land and Natural Resources). 

Activity MH-3.1: Coordinate interagency maritime heritage resources management annually. 

Communication by the MMB with heritage preservation efforts on a larger scale is essential. This 

involves sharing research and preservation efforts in the Monument with the related professional 

fields of archaeology and cultural resource management, among others. Coordination of field 

activities is also necessary for the more effective use of facilities and equipment. Efforts to 

collaborate and coordinate will occur annually for the duration of the plan. 

Activity MH-3.2: Enhance protective measures for selected sites within the NWHI through the 

National Register nomination process within 2 years. 

Protection of specific heritage sites will be enhanced by Federal recognition under the National 

Heritage Preservation Act and the National Register of Historic Places (Delgado 1985). 

Additionally, preservation measures of the Department of Land and Natural Resources will be 

implemented for resources on State submerged lands (up to 3 nautical miles from emergent 

lands) via the State Historic Preservation Division. Protective status for specific sites will be 

sought as needed using measures described above. This activity includes potential support for 

the protection and preservation of Native Hawaiian cultural resources discussed in the Native 

Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan (section 3.1.2). The National Register nomination 

process for maritime heritage sites will begin by year 2. 

Activity MH-3.3: Develop and implement a Monument Maritime Heritage Research Plan 

within 2 years.

The Monument Maritime Heritage Resource Research Plan will be completed within 2 years. 

Working collaboratively with partner and local agencies, universities, and experts in the field, the 

MMB will develop a research plan that outlines maritime heritage priorities for the NWHI. This 

effort will be coordinated by the Monument maritime archaeologist. 

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Table 3.1.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Maritime Heritage

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy MH-1: Document and inventory maritime heritage resources 

throughout the life of the plan. 

Activity MH-1.1: Identify, collect, and review publications, data sets, and 

documents annually. 

NOAA 

Activity MH-1.2: Plan and carry out coordinated field mapping surveys of selected 

sites annually. 

NOAA 

Activity MH-1.3: Complete a status report on potential environmental hazards 

within 1 year, and update it annually. 

NOAA 

Activity MH-1.4: Develop status report on maritime heritage artifact recovery 

operations within 2 years, and recover and conserve maritime heritage artifacts as 

appropriate. 

NOAA 

Activity MH-1.5: Develop and implement an internal maritime heritage resource 

database within 5 years. 

NOAA 

Strategy MH-2: Incorporate maritime heritage into public education and 

outreach throughout the life of the plan. 

Activity MH-2.1: Incorporate maritime heritage materials into Monument 

education and outreach projects annually. 

NOAA 

Activity MH-2.2: Develop and deliver public maritime heritage educational 

materials at selected presentations, conferences, and events.

NOAA 

Strategy MH-3: Coordinate interagency efforts to protect maritime heritage 

resources for the life of the plan. 

Activity MH-3.1: Coordinate interagency maritime heritage resources management 

annually. 

NOAA 

Activity MH-3.2: Enhance protective measures for selected sites within the NWHI 

through the National Register nomination process within 2 years.

NOAA 

Activity MH-3.3: Develop and implement a Monument Maritime Heritage 

Research Plan within 2 years. 

NOAA 

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3.2 Conserving Wildlife and Habitats 

3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan 

3.2.2 Migratory Birds Action Plan 

3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan 

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Coastal development in the main Hawaiian Islands has resulted in the destruction of natural 

habitats for many protected species, giving rise to the NWHI’s function as a wildlife haven 

relatively undisturbed by human presence. A significant number of species found in the NWHI 

are at risk of extinction and depend upon the unique habitat found there for their survival. 

Ninety percent of green turtles nest in the NWHI, and the majority of Hawaiian monk seals pup 

there. The NWHI also host one of the largest and most important assemblages of seabirds in the 

world. 

Past human activities in the NWHI have left lasting habitat impacts in the form of sunken and 

grounded vessels, dilapidated buildings and structures, military sites, and introduced species that 

have become invasive. The remnants of these activities can sometimes pose a threat to wildlife 

and their natural habitat. To address these impacts, the FWS maintains a full-time presence at 

French Frigate Shoals, Laysan Island, and Midway Atoll to monitor wildlife, eliminate noxious 

weeds, restore native vegetation, prevent the extinction of native species, and clean up 

contaminated sites. NOAA maintains seasonal field camps at several islands to monitor 

Hawaiian monk seal populations, as well as working with FWS at seasonal sea turtle camps. The 

State also maintains a part-time presence at Kure Atoll to undertake similar activities. 

Action plans to take care of threatened and endangered species, migratory birds, and the habitats 

upon which they depend focus on undertaking on-the-ground conservation and management 

strategies. These strategies and activities focus on population enhancement through the 

maintenance and improvement of key ecosystem components. 

Each action plan consists of a set of strategies to address a desired outcome. Over the next 

15 years, these desired outcomes are: 

• Threatened and Endangered Species: Protect marine mammals and aid in the recovery 

of threatened and endangered plants and animals in the Monument. 

• Migratory Birds: Conserve migratory bird populations and habitats in the Monument. 

• Habitat Management and Conservation: Protect and maintain all the native 

ecosystems and biological diversity of the Monument. 

Action plans described in this section will be implemented in close coordination with 

jurisdictional agency partners and in conjunction with other priority management needs. 

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Desired Outcome 

Links to goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Links to other Action Plans 

Protect marine mammals and aid in the recovery of 

threatened and endangered plants and animals 

within Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument. 

 3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation 

 3.3.1 Marine Debris 

 3.3.2 Alien Species 

 3.4.1 Permitting Action Plan 

 3.5.1 Agency Coordination 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy Current Status and Background 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations

Two Federal acts, as well as multiple State statutes, 

protect specific species in the NWHI. The Federal acts are the Endangered 

Species Act (ESA) and the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA). The 

Endangered Species Act of 1973 provides for the conservation of species at 

risk of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range, and the 

conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend. The Act also gives the states authority for 

managing endangered species programs. The MMPA provides protection and conservation of all 

marine mammals whether or not listed under the ESA. Due to the overlap of protections, this 

Action Plan activities are directed at both ESA listed and non-ESA listed marine mammals. The 

State of Hawai‘i has additional protections in its version of the ESA, codified chapter 195D, 

HRS, which also affords other indigenous species treatment as threatened or endangered if 

criteria are met (section 195D-4, HRS) as well as chapter 183D, HRS Wildlife, and chapter 125, 

Wildlife Sanctuaries, Hawai‘i Administrative Rules Title 13. Most of the strategies and 

activities presented in this plan come directly from or are adapted from the most recent versions 

of existing recovery plans for each of these species protected by the Endangered Species Act. 

Hawaiian Monk Seal: The Hawaiian monk seal is in crisis. The population is in a decline that 

has lasted 20 years, and only about 1,200 monk seals remain. Modeling predicts that the species’ 

population will fall below 1,000 animals by the year 2012. Actions to date have not been 

sufficient to result in a recovering population. Most of the entire world population of Hawaiian 

monk seals breeds and forages inside the Monument. A recent revision of the recovery plan for 

the Hawaiian monk seal provides guidance for the lead agency in this recovery program, NOAA 

Fisheries. The action plan details the ways in which the MMB can facilitate and support those 

efforts (NOAA Fisheries 2007). 

Cetaceans: In the NWHI, sighting and acoustic recordings of baleen whales as well as toothed 

whales and dolphins have been documented. Five species of baleen whales listed as 

“endangered” under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and as “depleted” under the Marine 

Mammal Protection Act of 1972 have been sighted or heard in the Monument area. In addition 

to these five, the endangered sperm whale and at least 18 other non-ESA listed species are found 

in the Monument. It has now been documented that humpback whales are calving in the eastern 

portion of the Monument (Johnston et al. 2007). Recovery actions for this listed species are 

summarized in the final recovery plan for the humpback whale, Megapera novaeangliae (NOAA 

Fisheries 1991). Draft recovery plans are available for the fin whale and sperm whale (NOAA 

Fisheries 2006a, 2006b), and a final plan is available for the recovery of the blue whale (NOAA 

Fisheries 1998). 

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Marine Turtles: Marine turtles that are known to occur in the Monument are the Hawaiian 

population of the green turtle and hawksbill, loggerhead, and leatherback turtles. While there are 

no records of the endangered olive ridley within Monument waters, their wide distribution 

throughout the tropical Pacific makes it likely that they do sometimes occur there. Green and 

loggerhead sea turtles are listed as threatened species; the hawksbill and leatherback turtles are 

classified as endangered species. Recovery plans are in place for each of these species in the 

Pacific and 5-year reviews were jointly published in 2007 (NOAA Fisheries and FWS 1998a; 

1998b; 1998c; 1998d; 1998e, 2007). Sea turtle population declines have occurred across the 

Pacific due to nesting habitat loss, harvesting of eggs and turtles for commercial and subsistence 

purposes, and fishery interactions. About 90 percent of the green turtles in the Hawaiian Islands 

nest in the NWHI, the majority on a few islets at French Frigate Shoals (Balazs and Chaloupka 

2003). 

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Birds: Five critically endangered bird species in the NWHI are afforded protection under the 

Endangered Species Act. Three species are passerines: the Laysan finch, found on Laysan Island 

and Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and the Nihoa finch and the Nihoa millerbird, which are endemic to 

Nihoa Island. Research, recovery, and management of these species takes into consideration the 

recommendations of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Passerines Recovery Plan (FWS 1984) 

and ongoing input from species experts. Numerous sites were evaluated and ranked for 

translocation of these species to establish additional populations; this information and some 

recommendations for proceeding with translocation were provided recently by Morin and Conant 

(2007). 

The Laysan duck has the most restricted range of any duck species and is especially vulnerable 

to extinction because of its small population size (fewer than 800 individuals) and extremely 

limited range. In 2004 and 2005, approximately 50 Laysan ducks were translocated to Midway 

Atoll NWR, where to date they are flourishing. Additional activities are described in the Draft 

Revised Recovery Plan for the Laysan Duck (Anas laysanensis) (FWS 2004). 

The short-tailed albatross breeds on Torishima, an island owned and administered by Japan. The 

short-tailed albatross was first observed at Midway Atoll between 1936 and 1941. Since then, 

one to three individuals have been observed every year in the NWHI. The Short-tailed Albatross 

Draft Recovery Plan (FWS 2005) provides suggestions for ways in which Monument staff can 

facilitate recovery of this species. 

Plants: Six plant species known historically from the NWHI are listed as endangered. Three 

plant taxa have probably always been rare and restricted to Nihoa Island, although one species, 

the loulu or fan palm, also occurred on Laysan Island. Mariscus pennatiformis ssp. bryanii is 

known only from Laysan Island. Cenchrus agrimonioides var. laysanensis was historically 

known from Laysan Island and Midway and Kure Atolls, but has not been seen there since about 

1980 (O'Connor 1999; HBMP database 2007). A recovery plan for three species found only at 

Nihoa (Nihoa fan palm, Schiedea verticillata, and Amaranthus brownii) was finalized in 1998 

(FWS 1998). Recovery actions for the other three species (Cenchrus agrimonioides, Mariscus 

pennatiformis, and Sesbania tomentosa or ‘ohai) are described in the Recovery Plan for the 

Multi-Island Plants (FWS 1999). 

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A coordinated and comprehensive approach is required to protect and recover these 

23 endangered or threatened species. Cooperation among the MMB agencies is crucial to ensure 

that management actions conducted in the Monument are effective in protecting and enhancing 

populations of these endangered species and marine mammals. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

The strategies and associated activities in this action plan are designed to increase populations of 

threatened and endangered species and foster effective and protective management in the 

Monument. These strategies will be carried out in collaboration with and coordination by the 

Co-Trustees and other entities. The proposed activities in this Action Plan are characterized by 

more urgency and perhaps in some cases more controversy than those in some of the other 

Action Plans. Extra consideration is needed during prioritization of activities and in permitting 

in light of the high cost of failure. A great effort to coordinate with key stakeholder groups 

and the Native Hawaiian community will ensure that all interests have been identified. 

Eight strategies have been developed for achieving the desired outcome of protecting marine 

mammals and aiding in the recovery of threatened and endangered plants and animals in the 

Monument. The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, 

“Threatened and Endangered Species” (TES). A summary of strategies and activities is provided 

in Table 3.2.1 at the end of this action plan. 

• TES-1: Support activities that advance recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal for the life of 

the plan. 

• TES-2: Determine the status of cetacean populations and verify and manage potential 

threats over the life of the plan. 

• TES-3: Ensure that nesting populations of green turtles at source beaches are stable or 

increasing for the life of the plan. 

• TES-4: Work with the international recovery team for short-tailed albatrosses to facilitate 

an increase in the total breeding population of this species to at least 25 breeding pairs 

occurring on sites other than Torishima and Senkaku islands for the life of the plan. 

• TES-5: Conduct activities to increase Laysan duck populations in the Monument over the 

life of the plan. 

• TES-6: Maintain stable populations of the Laysan finch, Nihoa finch, and Nihoa 

millerbird in the Monument over the life of the plan. 

• TES-7: Establish populations of each listed plant species on one to three additional 

Monument islands and ensure genetic material is also protected in approved repositories 

for the life of the plan. 

• TES-8: Ensure protection of threatened and endangered species by facilitating 

Endangered Species Act consultations for Monument activities throughout the life of the 

plan. 

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Strategy TES-1: Support activities that advance recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal for 

the life of the plan. 

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For the past 2 decades, a concerted effort has been made to save the Hawaiian monk seal. The 

U.S. Government, the State of Hawai‘i, nongovernment organizations, private sector entities, and 

countless individuals in local communities across Hawai‘i have worked to recover the species. 

These efforts have not been sufficient to prevent a continued decline in the species. However, 

without these efforts, the situation would likely be much worse. 

As recommended by the 2007 Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian Monk Seal, several key actions 

are required to address current and potential threats to the monk seal in attempts to alter the 

trajectory of the Hawaiian monk seal population and to move the species toward recovery. The 

most critical activities described in the plan that are applicable to the monk seal population in the 

Monument are to (1) investigate food limitations and take actions to increase female juvenile 

survival, (2) prevent entanglement of seals in marine debris, (3) reduce shark predation on seals, 

(4) reduce exposure to and spread of infectious disease, (5) continue population monitoring and 

research, (6) reduce impacts from grounded vessels, (7) reduce the impact of human interactions, 

and (8) conserve monk seal habitat. 

To advance efforts on these key actions to address threats to monk seal survival and recovery, 

the MMB will pursue several key strategies in support of monk seal recovery efforts. These 

efforts will advance the objective of reversing the population decline of monk seal populations in 

the Monument and achieving a positive growth rate during the life of this plan. 

Activity TES-1.1: Support marine debris removal activities to promote recovery. 

Hawaiian monk seals have one of the highest documented entanglement rates of any pinniped 

species, and marine debris and derelict fishing gear are chronic forms of pollution affecting the 

NWHI. The incidence of entangled monk seals at the breeding sites of the NWHI has been well 

documented and field staff actively disentangle seals. Monument staff will support efforts to 

reduce marine debris as detailed in the strategies and activities in the Marine Debris Action Plan. 

These efforts, particularly in key monk seal habitat, will decrease the number of injuries and 

mortalities due to entanglement (see section 3.3.1, Marine Debris Action Plan). 

Activity TES-1.2: Support and facilitate emergency response for monk seals. 

The ability to respond to situations in the Monument that threaten monks seals, such as ship 

groundings, oil spills, and disease outbreak, requires a well-coordinated interagency effort and is 

constrained by limited transportation and logistical capabilities. Several agencies have response 

protocols, but further coordination and collaboration among the agencies will help minimize the 

effects during these events. Agreed-upon and standardized protocols will be put into place to 

ensure that a rapid and well-organized response, including assessment, proper collection of 

evidence, and continued monitoring, occurs during and after an event. The Monument can 

facilitate these types of responses through coordination, permitting, and transportation and 

logistical support. 

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1 Activity TES-1.3: Conserve Hawaiian monk seal habitat. 

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Consideration should be given to evaluating the loss of habitat due to erosion and other factors 

(e.g., sea level rise) that have contributed to the loss of critical habitat for seals. Predicted 

increases in sea level this century and beyond may severely reduce the amount of habitat for 

seals to rest, breed, and rear their pups. Feasibility of restoration will be evaluated to consider 

rebuilding habitat essential for the reproduction of monk seals and other protected species (e.g., 

turtles and sea birds) at several alternative sites that could lead to rebuilding preferred, stable 

pupping habitat (i.e., accessibility, long shoreline, stable beach). 

Activity TES-1.4: Reduce the likelihood and impact of human interactions on monk seals. 

Efforts will be made to ensure that all users of the NWHI are aware of the impacts of disturbing 

monk seals on breeding beaches and in nearshore waters. Any proposed activity in the 

Monument that may increase seal disturbance or threaten survival (such as nearshore ship traffic, 

beach use, noise, unnecessary research, or any other impact that could negatively affect the 

marine or terrestrial habitat of the monk seal) should be scrutinized carefully during the permit 

review process to ensure recovery of the monk seal population is not hampered by the activity. 

Activity TES-1.5: Support outreach and education on Hawaiian monk seals. 

Increased outreach and education activities focused on the Hawaiian monk seal are now being 

conducted. Continuation of these activities will provide the public and interest groups with 

information to understand the critical status of the Hawaiian monk seal population and the urgent 

action that is needed to prevent extinction. 

Strategy TES-2: Determine the status of cetacean populations and verify and manage 

potential threats over the life of the plan. 

Management actions and efforts to reduce the impacts to cetaceans in the NWHI have been 

limited, based on the sparse species information available. 

Activity TES-2.1: Census cetacean populations.

In order to best develop management strategies for cetaceans in the Monument, surveys and 

observations will be pursued to gain information on species presence and abundance estimates. 

Activity TES-2.2: Conduct annual spinner dolphin mark and recapture photo identification 

surveys. 

Annual spinner dolphin mark/recapture photo identification surveys will be continued at 

Midway, Kure, and Pearl and Hermes Atolls in order to maintain the only long-term data set 

(1998-2007) in the NWHI. 

Activity TES-2.3: Monitor, characterize, and address the effects of marine debris on cetaceans 

in the Monument. 

Monument staff will reduce the potential for cetaceans to be adversely affected by marine debris. 

The long term solution is ultimately a decrease in the amount of debris entering the ocean; 

strategies to address this are included in section 3.3.1, the Marine Debris Action Plan. 

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Activity TES-2.4: Respond to any suspected disease and unusual mortality incidents affecting 

cetaceans.

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To date, no cases of a NWHI cetacean with an infectious disease have been documented. Should 

an ill cetacean be sighted, the animal will be examined and sampled for a broad spectrum of 

possible diseases, treated appropriately, and monitored for recovery. Performing timely and 

complete necropsies with cetaceans will facilitate disease surveillance and monitoring in the 

NWHI. Contingency response plans will be developed to respond to disease outbreaks, and 

necessary human and material resources will be identified to initiate an appropriate response. 

Activity TES-2.5: Prevent human interactions with cetaceans.

Efforts will be made to prevent negative human-cetacean interactions that may occur as a result 

of visitor programs or research activities through design controls on both. The controls will aim 

to prevent disturbance to cetaceans resting in Monument lagoons or nearshore areas and prevent 

geological research using sound levels known to be dangerous to marine mammals. 

Strategy TES-3: Ensure that nesting populations of green turtles at source beaches are 

stable or increasing over the life of the plan. 

The Hawaiian green turtle population is a discrete genetic stock of Chelonia mydas that is 

endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago. This population of threatened green turtles has been 

monitored since the 1970s and is one of the few populations in the Pacific that is increasing in 

numbers. The principal rookery for the Hawaiian green turtle stock is located on sand islands at 

French Frigate Shoals. More than 90 percent of all green turtle nesting in the Hawaiian 

Archipelago occurs here. The main rookery island at French Frigate Shoals is East Island, where 

at least 50 percent of the nesting occurs, and approximately 200-500 females nest each year. 

Other atolls within the NWHI that support green turtle nesting include Laysan Island, Lisianski 

Island, and Pearl and Hermes Atoll. Individual nests have been documented for the first time at 

Midway Atoll in 2006 and 2007. 

Green turtles were listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1978 because of overexploitation 

for commercial and other purposes, the lack of adequate regulatory mechanisms and effective 

enforcement, evidence of declining numbers, and habitat loss and degradation. The protections 

of the Endangered Species Act have been effective at restoring Hawaiian green turtle population 

abundance as evidenced by a long-term, steady increase in the number of nesting females at the 

principal Hawaiian green turtle rookery at French Frigate Shoals. 

Activity TES-3.1: Collect biological information on nesting turtle populations. 

Research has been conducted on the green turtle nesting population in the NWHI since 1973 and 

comprises one of the longest time series of nesting abundance data for any sea turtle population 

around the globe. Information on abundance of nesting turtles is critical for making intelligent 

management decisions, understanding the status of the Hawaiian green turtle population, and 

evaluating the success of management programs. Maintenance of standardized and consistent 

monitoring protocols is crucial to understanding population trends, leading to effective 

management (See section 3.1.1, Marine Conservation Science Action Plan). In addition to 

maintaining current nesting monitoring at East Island, distribution of nesting activity throughout 

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the Monument will be periodically reassessed. As the population increases, new sites may be 

used for nesting. 

Activity TES-3.2: Protect and manage nesting habitat. 

Green turtle nesting habitat, including basking beaches, will be protected by use of best 

management practices to prevent the introduction of mammalian predators on eggs and 

hatchings, reduce artificial lighting near nesting beaches, prohibit undesirable habitat alteration, 

and control human access. Limited entry policies will be continued, and human activities will be 

strictly regulated at islands and reefs used by green turtles. 

Rises in sea level as a result of climate change are predicted to reduce the availability of green 

turtle nesting habitat at French Frigate Shoals, and changes in nest-site temperature regimes may 

affect population ecology by modifying sex ratios of hatchling populations. Management actions 

may need to be undertaken to delay habitat loss as a result of rising sea level. Awareness of 

these impacts will improve our ability to reduce impacts and manage habitat for sea turtle 

populations. 

Activity TES-3.3: Protect and manage marine habitat, including foraging areas and migration 

routes. 

Areas of high turtle foraging activity in the Monument will be identified and mapped, along with 

high-use corridors used by turtles migrating between their breeding sites and foraging areas 

outside the Monument. Activities in the Monument, such as anchoring and vessel transit, will be 

managed to minimize disturbance to foraging areas; reduce discharge and introduction of 

contaminants, silt, and oil; and minimize vessel hazards to turtles transiting the open water areas 

of the Monument. 

Strategy TES-4: Work with the international recovery team for short-tailed albatrosses to 

facilitate an increase in the total breeding population of this species to at least 25 breeding 

pairs occurring on sites other than Torishima and Senkaku islands. 

The short-tailed albatross was listed as federally endangered in the United States in 2000. The 

foraging range of the short-tailed albatross overlaps with that of the black-footed and Laysan 

albatrosses and covers most of the Northwestern and Northeastern Pacific Ocean. The shorttailed population dropped dramatically due to feather hunters in the late nineteenth century. The 

world population of short-tailed albatross is currently estimated at fewer than 2,000 birds, with 

85 percent of individuals breeding at a single colony on Torishima Island in Japan and the 

remaining individuals breeding on Senkaku Island, just to the southwest of Torishima. 

Activity TES-4.1: Work cooperatively with the Japanese government to establish one or more 

breeding populations on islands free from threats such as active volcanoes and introduced 

mammals. 

While most of the recovery actions for short-tailed albatrosses will necessarily be carried out by 

the Japanese government, activities such as providing use of surrogate species for development 

of translocation techniques and technical assistance will contribute to the recovery of this 

species. In 2006, 10 Laysan albatross chicks from Midway Atoll were translocated to Kīlauea 

Point National Wildlife Refuge on Kaua‘i, where Japanese ornithologists raised them to learn 

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appropriate nurturing techniques. With this knowledge, it may be possible to translocate shorttailed albatross from Torishima to safer habitats. FWS staff also help Japanese biologists with 

satellite tagging projects studying feeding patterns, how weather systems and winds influence 

short-tailed albatross movements, and how ocean productivity and seafloor bathymetry affect 

their distribution. 

This activity also includes attempts to attract birds to Midway Atoll using decoys and recorded 

colony sounds, and monitoring and maintaining any new breeding colony sites established at 

Midway Atoll. In recent years, one to three short-tailed albatross have been attracted to Midway, 

and two birds were practicing their mating dance on Eastern Island at Midway this year. 

Activity TES-4.2: Conduct studies to examine the correlation between reproductive success 

and contaminant loads. 

Analysis of the feathers, eggs, and dead chicks of black-footed albatrosses at Midway Atoll will 

determine the levels of persistent environmental contaminants. This data will be used as a 

surrogate for estimating contaminant body-burdens in short-tailed albatrosses. 

Activity TES-4.3: Create and disseminate information on fisheries bycatch and bycatch 

reduction to all fisheries occurring outside the Monument. 

Materials will be created for public outreach and attendance at domestic and international 

meetings to carry out government-to-government communication on fisheries mitigation 

measures that can reduce bycatch during commercial fishing operations. 

Strategy TES-5: Conduct activities to increase Laysan duck populations in the Monument 

over the life of the plan. 

The Laysan duck, endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, was federally listed as endangered in 1967. 

Prior to 2004, only a single population of the species remained, on Laysan Island. Since 2004, a 

second population of Laysan ducks has been established at Midway Atoll, through two 

translocations of subadults from Laysan Island. Current population estimates at both Midway 

and Laysan indicate a population size of fewer than 800 individuals. Within 15 years, the target, 

based on interim downlisting criteria in the Draft Revised Recovery Plan for the Laysan Duck 

(FWS 2004), is to ensure that at least five stable populations occur in predator-free or predatorcontrolled sites throughout the Monument and main Hawaiian Islands, and that the population at 

Laysan is stable or increasing. The plan also calls for island-specific management plans for each 

population that identify habitat improvement, predator control, and population supplementation 

as needed.

Activity TES-5.1: Continue population monitoring on Laysan Island and Midway Atoll.

Activities include population size estimation through mark-recapture, and monitoring of 

reproductive success and survival for population modeling; disease screening and prevention to 

avoid translocation of unhealthy individuals; and genetics research to prevent loss of genetic 

diversity during population translocations. 

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1 Activity TES-5.2: Carry out translocations to other sites in the Monument. 

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Required activities include restoring or creating habitat necessary to support Laysan duck 

populations; transporting juveniles from established populations to additional islands; and 

conducting postrelease monitoring to assess foraging behavior, body condition, survival, and 

reproductive success of translocated birds as identified in the Draft Revised Recovery Plan for 

the Laysan Duck (FWS 2004). 

Strategy TES-6: Maintain stable populations of the Laysan finch, Nihoa finch and Nihoa 

millerbird in the Monument over the life of the plan. 

The Laysan finch, Nihoa finch, and Nihoa millerbird are endemic passerines in the NWHI that 

have extremely limited distributions within relatively sensitive biological systems. Because of 

the inherently small population sizes of these species due to extremely limited habitat 

availability, all three of these passerine species in the Monument have been listed as federally 

endangered. The most recent population estimates indicate a total population size of 

approximately 10,000 Laysan finches, which occur only on Laysan Island and at Pearl and 

Hermes Atoll (a result of translocations conducted in 1967); fewer than 5,000 Nihoa finches, 

which occur only on Nihoa Island; and fewer than 600 Nihoa millerbirds, also endemic to Nihoa 

Island. 

Activity TES-6.1: Continue to conduct annual censuses of populations of each passerine 

species and monitor their food and habitat requirements. 

In particular, these monitoring activities allow for detection of changes in population and habitat 

availability by monitoring the status of native plant and terrestrial invertebrate populations. 

Monitoring methods will be assessed and altered as necessary to improve trend detection and 

develop knowledge of habitat requirements for these species. 

Activity TES-6.2: Implement translocations of each species and site restoration as needed by 

developing appropriate techniques for capture, translocation, and release. 

Capture, translocation, and restoration are critical steps in establishing additional populations. 

These potential translocations will provide a buffer against catastrophic declines of current 

natural populations.

Strategy TES-7: Establish populations of each listed plant species on one to three 

additional Monument islands and ensure genetic material is also protected in approved 

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Amaranthus brownii, Schiedea verticillata, and Pritchardia remota are believed to be endemic to 

the island of Nihoa. A. brownii, an herbaceous annual, is the rarest native plant species on 

Nihoa; when last seen in 1983, only 35 plants were located. S. verticillata, a perennial 

herbaceous species, is confined to approximately 10 colonies totaling fewer than 400 individuals 

on Nihoa. P. remota, a long-lived perennial fan palm, has fewer than 1,500 individuals and 

occurs in four valleys on Nihoa. Due to the small number of existing individuals and their 

extremely limited distributions, these species are subject to an increased likelihood of extinction 

from random events. Cenchrus agrimonioides var. laysanesis was known historically only from 

the NWHI at Laysan Island, Kure Atoll, and Midway Atoll. Although C. agrimonioides var. 

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agrimonioides currently occurs on O‘ahu and Maui, the laysanensis variety has not been 

observed since 1973. Mariscus pennatiformis spp. bryanii, a member of the sedge family, is 

known only from Laysan Island, and comprises only 1 to 200 individuals annually. 

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Activity TES-7.1: Ensure all endangered plant species from Nihoa and Laysan Islands are 

fully represented in an ex situ collection such as a nursery or arboretum. 

For these extremely rare taxa, it is critical to ensure that these plants are maintained in off-site 

locations to protect them from extinction should these in situ populations or their critical habitat 

experience a catastrophic event. Using guidelines for collection described in an authorized 

Endangered Species Permit, seeds of all listed plants will be collected and sent to seed banks 

such as the Lyon Arboretum and National Tropical Botanical Garden. 

Activity TES-7.2: Increase numbers and locations of Amaranthus brownii and Schiedea 

verticillata on Nihoa by 2018. 

Existing colonies will be augmented via outplanting, and factors restricting colony expansion 

(e.g., competition from alien species) will be eliminated. Attempts will be made to establish new 

colonies within the historic range of these species by identifying key environmental factors 

associated with plant growth and reproduction, preparing the sites, propagation, outplanting, and 

postplanting maintenance. 

Activity TES-7.3: Establish a self-sustaining Pritchardia remota population on Laysan Island 

by 2012. 

In accordance with the Draft Laysan Island Restoration Plan (Morin and Conant 1998), sites will 

continue to be prepared for planting and elimination of immediate threats, such as alien plants. 

Pureness of seed stocks will be ensured by using standard operating procedures for maintaining 

the plants in the field. Frequent monitoring will be conducted to improve outplanting methods 

and protect the site from alien species invasion, and plant vigor data will be collected to guide 

future outplanting strategies and techniques. 

Activity TES-7.4: Continue greenhouse operations on Laysan Island to propagate and 

outplant rare plant taxa. 

The plant propagation facility at Laysan Island is described in the Draft Laysan Island 

Restoration Plan (Morin and Conant 1998). Pritchardia remota seeds are collected at Nihoa and 

Mariscus pennatiformis seeds are collected following collection guidelines, including taking no 

more than 15 percent of seeds from any source plant. For Pritchardia remota, the surface of the 

seeds is sterilized before transporting them to Laysan Island to ensure that they are free of pests, 

diseases, and pathogens. The plants are germinated in shade houses and outplanted after they 

reach the optimal size for subsequent survival in the wild. A plant restoration database for 

Laysan is maintained to document variations in handling and treatment protocols and success 

after outplanting. All monitoring, collection, propagation, and outplanting follow guidelines 

from the Hawai‘i Rare Plant Restoration Group, including Instructions and Methods, Collecting 

and Handling Protocols, and General Reintroduction/Outplanting Guidelines. 

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Activity TES-7.5: Evaluate the potential to establish one to three colonies of Amaranthus 

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To protect the taxa from catastrophic events and achieve recovery objectives, it may be 

necessary to establish colonies of each taxa on other islands outside their historic range. Impacts 

on native flora and fauna at transplant sites will need to be assessed, and the potential for 

hybridization with closely related species will also have to be considered. Factors to consider 

include avoiding impacts to native species at establishment sites, finding suitable habitat, and 

choosing areas accessible enough to allow for planting and monitoring of introduced 

populations. Mokumanamana, Laysan Island, Kure Atoll, and Eastern and Sand Islands at 

Midway Atoll should all be considered as potential sites. 

Strategy TES-8: Ensure protection of threatened and endangered species by facilitating 

Endangered Species Act consultations for Monument activities throughout the life of the 

plan. 

Since threatened and endangered species occur within the Monument, actions proposed by 

Federal agencies frequently require consultation with NOAA Fisheries or FWS. Section 7(a)(2) 

of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) requires Federal agencies to consult with NOAA Fisheries 

for marine species and FWS for terrestrial species on actions they take or authorize that may 

affect threatened or endangered species or designated critical habitat to ensure the action will not 

jeopardize listed species or destroy or adversely modify critical habitat. 

This strategy undertakes the activities required to increase the capacity of the consultation 

actions under the ESA, promote streamlining among the action agencies and consulting agencies, 

and produce current baseline assessments of key species and designated critical habitat. These 

activities will help to improve the consultation process for all involved and result in protection 

and recovery of listed species and habitat. 

Activity TES-8.1: Increase the capacity of NOAA Fisheries and FWS to address ESA 

consultations for activities within the Monument. 

This activity will seek to build the capacity of the consulting agencies to conduct consultations 

and coordinate with the action agencies and Monument staff. This activity will implement 

programs to improve the consulting personnel’s knowledge about the species, habitat, and 

agency consultation procedures and laws. Such a program will include, among other elements, 

appropriate education, training, and regular interaction with species and habitat experts that can 

provide valuable input and review. 

Additional staffing will most likely be needed by the agencies to carry out Federal consultation 

requirements; staff will have expertise in ESA regulatory requirements, work to complete 

consultations in a timely fashion, coordinate between agencies and the Monument staff, 

appropriately integrate relevant biological information on the subject listed species and/or critical 

habitat, and develop and/or deliver section 7 workshops for action agencies. 

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Activity TES-8.2: Develop baseline assessments for listed species and critical habitat and 

streamline the Monument consultation process to facilitate ESA consultations. 

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This activity will assist Monument managers, consulting agencies, and action agencies by 

producing ecological baselines of listed species and critical habitat, description of sensitive areas, 

and other information that can be considered early in any planning process relevant to the 

Monument. This information will be made available to action agencies to assist them in 

determining whether their activities may affect listed species and, if so, improve their biological 

assessments for consultations. It also will assist NOAA Fisheries and FWS staff in evaluating 

proposed actions and developing their biological opinions. Also, ESA and other consultation 

procedures will be reviewed and streamlined and benefit from the preparation of current 

descriptions. 

Activity TES-8.3: Work with Federal agencies proposing activities in the Monument to 

increase their knowledge about the ESA and listed species and critical habitat in the 

Monument. 

An action agency must be knowledgeable about the species, habitat, and laws directing 

consultation. When an action agency makes a determination regarding whether or not to consult 

and how to consult, the determination should be based on sound science and according to the 

criteria set forth in the regulatory regime implementing the ESA. To help action agencies 

recognize when their activities may affect listed species or critical habitat and the character of 

the effects, NOAA Fisheries and the FWS will coordinate with its partners to build capacity 

within the action agencies. 

Capacity building activities in this activity include the development and delivery by NOAA 

Fisheries and FWS of targeted workshops that provide information on the requirements for ESA 

consultations and on the Monument listed species and critical habitat and working with partners 

to develop a cache of “best practices” and other operations protocols to avoid any impacts to 

listed species and habitat. These workshops and other like information exchanges will help to 

reduce and avoid any detrimental effects to listed species and critical habitat, improve the overall 

relationship with action agencies, and streamline consultations. 

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Table 3.2.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Threatened and 

Endangered Species

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy TES-1: Support activities that advance recovery of the Hawaiian 

monk seal for the life of the plan. 

Activity TES-1.1: Support marine debris removal activities to promote recovery. NOAA 

Activity TES-1.2: Support and facilitate emergency response for monk seals. NOAA 

Activity TES-1.3: Conserve Hawaiian monk seal habitat. NOAA 

Activity TES-1.4: Reduce the likelihood and impact of human interactions on 

monk seals. 

NOAA 

Activity TES-1.5: Support outreach and education on Hawaiian monk seals. NOAA 

Strategy TES-2: Determine the status of cetacean populations and verify and 

manage potential threats over the life of the plan. 

Activity TES-2.1: Census cetacean populations. NOAA 

Activity TES-2.2: Conduct annual spinner dolphin mark and recapture photo 

identification surveys.

NOAA 

Activity TES-2.3: Monitor, characterize, and address the effects of marine debris 

on cetaceans in the Monument. 

NOAA 

Activity TES-2.4: Respond to any suspected disease and unusual mortality 

incidents affecting cetaceans. 

NOAA 

Activity TES-2.5 Prevent human interactions with cetaceans. NOAA 

Strategy TES-3: Ensure that nesting populations of green turtles at source 

beaches are stable or increasing over the life of the plan. 

Activity TES-3.1: Collect biological information on nesting turtle populations. FWS 

Activity TES-3.2: Protect and manage nesting habitat. FWS 

Activity TES-3.3: Protect and manage marine habitat, including foraging areas and 

migration routes.

NOAA 

Strategy TES-4: Work with the international recovery team for short-tailed 

albatrosses to facilitate an increase in the total breeding population of this 

species to at least 25 breeding pairs occurring on sites other than Torishima 

and Senkaku islands.

Activity TES-4.1: Work cooperatively with the Japanese government to establish 

one or more breeding populations on islands free from threats such as active 

volcanoes and introduced mammals.

FWS 

Activity TES-4.2: Conduct studies to examine the correlation between 

reproductive success and contaminant loads.

FWS 

Activity TES-4.3: Create and disseminate information on fisheries bycatch and 

bycatch reduction to all fisheries occurring outside the Monument.

NOAA 

Strategy TES-5: Conduct activities to increase Laysan duck populations in the 

Monument over the life of the plan.

Activity TES-5.1: Continue population monitoring on Laysan Island and Midway 

Atoll.

FWS 

Activity TES-5.2: Carry out translocations to other sites in the Monument. FWS

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy TES-6: Maintain stable populations of the Laysan finch, Nihoa finch, 

and Nihoa millerbird in the Monument over the life of this plan.

Activity TES-6.1: Continue to conduct annual censuses of populations of each 

passerine species and monitor their food and habitat requirements.

FWS

Activity TES-6.2: Implement translocations of each species and site restoration as 

needed by developing appropriate techniques for capture, translocation, and 

release.

FWS

Strategy TES-7: Establish populations of each listed plant species on one to 

three additional Monument islands and ensure genetic material is also 

protected in approved repositories.

Activity TES-7.1: Ensure all endangered plant species from Nihoa and Laysan 

Islands are fully represented in an ex situ collection such as a nursery or arboretum.

FWS

Activity TES-7.2: Increase numbers and locations of Amaranthus brownii and 

Schiedea verticillata on Nihoa by 2018.

FWS

Activity TES-7.3: Establish a self-sustaining Pritchardia remota population on 

Laysan Island by 2012.

FWS

Activity TES-7.4: Continue greenhouse operations on Laysan Island to propagate 

and outplant rare plant taxa. 

FWS

Activity TES-7.5: Evaluate the potential to establish one to three colonies of 

Amaranthus brownii, Schiedea verticillata, and Pritchardia remota outside of their 

historic ranges. 

FWS

Strategy TES-8: Ensure protection of threatened and endangered species by 

facilitating Endangered Species Act consultations for Monument activities 

throughout the life of the plan.

Activity TES-8.1: Increase the capacity of NOAA Fisheries and FWS to address 

ESA consultations for activities within the Monument. 

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Activity TES-8.2: Develop baseline assessments for listed species and critical 

habitat and streamline the Monument consultation process to facilitate ESA 

consultations. 

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FWS

Activity TES-8.3: Work with Federal agencies proposing activities in the 

Monument to increase their knowledge about the ESA and listed species and 

critical habitat in the Monument. 

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Links to goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Goal 5 

Links to other Action Plans Desired Outcome 

Conserve migratory bird populations and habitats 

within Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument. 

 3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation 

 3.3.2 Alien Species 

 3.3.4 Emergency Response 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations

Current Status and Background 

In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt placed Midway under the jurisdiction 

and control of the Navy to stop the “wanton destruction of birds that breed on 

Midway.” In 1909, he ordered that “the following islets and reefs, namely: 

Cure Island, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lysianski or Pell Island, Laysan Island, 

Mary Reef, Dowsetts Reef, Gardiner Island, Two Brothers Reef, French 

Frigate Shoal, Necker Island, Frost Shoal and Bird Island ....are hereby 

reserved and set apart, subject to valid existing rights, for the use of the Department of 

Agriculture as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds.” Thus, native birds were the first 

wildlife species for which the Monument area was managed for conservation purposes by the 

U.S. Government. Early protection was important in ensuring the large, diverse seabird and 

shorebird populations present today in the Monument. Seabird colonies in the NWHI constitute 

one of the largest and most important assemblages of tropical seabirds in the world, with 

approximately 14 million birds (6 million breeding annually), representing 21 species. Greater 

than 95 percent of the world’s Laysan and black-footed albatrosses nest here. For several other 

species, such as the Bonin petrel, Christmas shearwater, Tristram’s storm-petrel, and graybacked tern, the NWHI supports colonies of global significance. For the species of boreally 

breeding shorebirds that overwinter in the tropical Central Pacific, the NWHI are an essential 

stopover or wintering site. In particular, the bristle-thighed curlew relies on the mammal-free 

islands of the Monument because it goes through a flightless period during molt and is very 

vulnerable to predation. 

Need for Action 

The majority of all tropical seabirds in Hawai‘i nest in the Monument, and those breeders plus an 

equal number of species of nonbreeding seabirds transit through or forage in the waters of the 

Monument. While the breeding colonies are secure from future development and disturbance, a 

variety of threats still face seabirds in the Monument, including contaminants left from former 

activities in the area and contaminants, including oil, arriving from the sea; habitat loss to sea 

level rise; other ecosystem effects attributed to climate change; marine debris; invasive species; 

fisheries interactions outside the Monument boundary; and wildlife diseases. Migratory 

shorebirds rely on the terrestrial parts of the Monument for valuable wintering habitat free of 

mammalian predators. 

Statute and policy at several levels mandate the protection and management of migratory bird 

populations in the Monument. These directives from international treaties, domestic legislation, 

Executive orders, State law, and FWS policy require the protection, monitoring, and assessment 

of migratory nongame birds; determination of the effects of environmental changes and human 

activities on migratory birds; and active protection of colonies, roosts, loafing sites, and adjacent 

waters for seabirds. 

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Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Four strategies have been identified for achieving the desired outcomes of protecting and 

enhancing migratory bird populations in the Monument. The strategies and activities are coded 

by the acronym for the action plan title, “Migratory Birds” (MB). A summary of strategies and 

activities is provided in Table 3.2.2 at the end of this action plan. 

• MB-1: Protect and enhance habitats for terrestrial and marine migratory birds throughout 

the life of the plan. 

• MB-2: Minimize the impact of threats to migratory birds such as habitat destruction by 

invasive species, disease, contaminants (including oil), and fisheries interactions for the 

life of the plan. 

• MB-3: Monitor populations and habitats of migratory birds at a level sufficient to 

ascertain natural variation and then to detect changes in excess of that variation that 

might be attributed to human activities. 

• MB-4: As threats are removed, restore seabird species at sites where they have been 

extirpated. 

Strategy MB-1: Protect and enhance habitats for terrestrial and marine migratory birds 

for the life of the plan. 

Safe habitats for breeding and foraging are essential for all of the migratory birds using the 

Monument. While most seabirds and shorebirds exhibit some flexibility in their habitat 

requirements, features of the plant community (species and structural characteristics) favor or 

limit populations. 

Activity MB-1.1: Control or eradicate nonnative species at all sites where they have a negative 

impact on the survivorship or reproductive performance of migratory birds. 

Invasive species affect survival and reproduction of migratory birds by causing direct mortality 

due to predation or parasitism, or by modifying the habitat to make it less suitable for survival or 

reproduction. Invasive species that have been shown to diminish the quality of migratory bird 

habitat in the Monument include several plants such as sandbur (Cenchrus echinatus), ironwood 

(Casuarina equisetifolia), and golden crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides), and introduced scale 

insects and associated ants that damage vegetation providing appropriate habitat for migratory 

birds. (See section 3.3.2, Alien Species Action Plan.) 

Activity MB-1.2: Restore components of the native vegetation communities that are important 

to seabird nesting. 

Opportunities for restoring native habitats for seabirds exist wherever nonnative species have 

been eradicated or controlled or human activities limiting migratory bird species have ceased.

Translocation, propagation, and outplanting of native plants (Eragrostis variabilis, Sesbania 

tomentosa, Sida fallax, Scaevola sericea, etc.) to improve habitat for migratory bird nesting and 

foraging is ongoing at Laysan Island and Midway and Kure Atolls and planned for other sites in 

the Monument (Rehkemper et al. 2005). 

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Strategy MB-2: Minimize the impact of threats to migratory birds such as habitat 

destruction by invasive species, disease, contaminants (including oil), and fisheries 

interactions for the life of the plan. 

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The original motivation for the protection of the area by the Federal Government was to 

eliminate illegal harvest of breeding seabirds. Minimizing threats to migratory bird populations 

remains a primary concern. 

Activity MB-2.1: Conduct surveillance for evidence of avian disease outbreaks, and follow 

existing response plan if disease is detected. 

The MMB participates with other National Wildlife Refuges and agencies as partners in the 

Hawai‘i–Pacific Islands Working Group on Avian Influenza Surveillance to guard against 

wildlife diseases such as Asian H5N1 Avian Influenza. Staff report all instances of unusual 

mortality and collects samples using approved safety protocols and protective gear. If avian 

influenza is detected, Monument staff will use the Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) 

Disease Contingency Plans in place for the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge and 

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. 

Activity MB-2.2: Monitor contaminant levels in birds and their habitats, and respond if the 

potential exists to cause immediately lethal or sublethal effects. 

Bird health and contaminant levels in areas of contamination that have already been identified 

will be monitored, and unexplained health problems in other areas will be evaluated for possible 

links to contaminants. 

Activity MB-2.3: Ensure that all spill response plans have adequate coverage of actions 

necessary to minimize mortality to migratory birds. 

Monument staff will coordinate with and provide technical contributions regarding migratory 

birds to multiagency spill prevention and prespill activities as well as actual response actions and 

Natural Resource Damage Assessments. (Also see section 3.3.4, Emergency Response Plan.) 

Staff will contribute to keeping seabird and shorebird information current for the Area 

Contingency Plan and maintain a list of restoration activities for the Co-Trustees. 

Activity MB-2.4: Maintain rigorous quarantine protocols to prevent the introduction of alien 

species that may prove hazardous specifically to migratory birds. 

Alien species are one of the greatest threats to migratory birds, either directly in the case of 

pathogens or predators, or indirectly in the case of invasive plants or animals that damage 

habitat. Rigorous quarantine protocols must be maintained to ensure new alien species are not 

introduced or transmitted from one island to another. (See section 3.3.2, Alien Species Action 

Plan) 

Activity MB-2.5: Work with partners to reduce the impact of commercial and sport fisheries 

outside the Monument on migratory bird populations. 

Sport and commercial fishing was eliminated, or is being phased out, within the Monument. 

However, such activities outside the Monument can adversely impact Monument resources. 

FWS established national policy in 2001 that identified the bycatch of migratory birds in 

fisheries as a serious conservation problem and a violation of the underlying tenets of the 

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Migratory Bird Treaty Act. FWS and the Department of State worked with NOAA Fisheries to 

draft a National Plan of Action for addressing the problem of seabird bycatch to comply with the 

Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization 

of the United Nations. This group of agencies and representatives of the Regional Fisheries 

Management Councils work with industry and conservation organizations to guide 

implementation of the National Plan of Action to reduce fishing impacts. Laysan albatrosses and 

black-footed albatrosses, two of the species most affected by bycatch mortality in the northern 

hemisphere, nest almost exclusively in the Monument, so the responsibility to provide data on 

seabird population status and biological expertise regarding the problem falls to Monument staff. 

Staff provide additional assistance by teaching seabird identification skills to fishers and fisheries 

observers, and by assisting with the development of mitigation techniques. Implementation of 

many of the actions identified in the FWS Migratory Bird Draft Conservation Action Plan for 

Black-footed Albatross (Phoebastria nigripes) and Laysan Albatross (P. immutabilis) will 

involve Monument staff. 

Activity MB-2.6: Research mite impacts on black-footed albatross chicks on Kure Atoll. 

Investigate mites (including the native mite Womersia midwayensis) causing mortality and 

morbidity on black-footed albatross (P. nigripes) chicks on Kure Atoll. This activity is necessary 

to determine the preferred habitat of mites and assess the potential to alter habitat or discourage 

albatross nesting. 

Strategy MB-3: Monitor populations and habitats of migratory birds to ascertain natural 

variation and to detect changes in excess of that variation that might be attributed to 

human activities. 

Monitoring migratory bird populations and habitats is necessary to detect changes in excess of 

natural variation that might be attributed to human activities. Monitoring must include 

statistically valid sample sizes and time spans for response to threats and evaluation of response 

to management actions in a timely fashion. 

Activity MB-3.1: Using standard methods devised for tropical seabirds, monitor a suite of 

15 focal seabird species at specific sites in the Monument to track changes in population size 

and understand underlying causes of that change. 

A coordinated program to assess the status and trends of seabird populations is essential to 

provide scientific information necessary to make management decisions and to evaluate the 

efficacy of management actions. The Regional Seabird Conservation Plan (FWS Pacific Region 

2005) recommends inventories of all seabird colonies at long-term intervals, such as every 

10 years, and intensive quantitative monitoring of specific parameters, such as survival or 

population size of a select group of species at selected localities, on an annual basis. The 

15 focal species were identified during a review of seabird monitoring in the NWHI by the 

U.S. Geological Survey and FWS and were chosen because they are Birds of Conservation 

Concern, stewardship species of the NWHI, or representative of specific foraging or breeding 

guilds. A recently completed assessment of seabird monitoring for Hawai‘i and the Pacific 

(Citta, Reynolds, and Seavy 2006) will be used to develop a standardized seabird monitoring 

plan for the Monument as well as other areas in the U.S. Central Tropical Pacific. 

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Activity MB-3.2: Monitor changes in habitat quality by measuring reproductive performance 

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Parameters such as hatching success, fledging success, and diet composition provide a more 

immediate indication of ocean conditions and prey abundance and availability than does longterm population monitoring. This is because seabirds take many years to mature to recruitment 

into the breeding population, and actual fluctuations in the number of breeders may reflect 

conditions that occurred 5 to 10 years previously. As a result, a variety of biological measures is 

required to understand the status of these populations. 

Activity MB-3.3: Develop and use standardized methods to accurately assess the population 

size and trends of over-wintering and migrating Pacific golden plovers, bristle-thighed 

curlews, wandering tattlers, and ruddy turnstones. 

Repeatable surveys at reference sites where we can predict continuity of measurement in the 

future will allow us to evaluate long-term changes in transient and winter resident shorebirds in 

the Monument and contribute to international monitoring of these wide-ranging species. 

Strategy MB-4: As threats are removed, restore seabird species at sites where they have 

been extirpated. 

Many examples of extremely successful conservation programs are based on the principle that 

populations can be restored to an area if a limiting threat is removed. Seabird and landbird 

populations that formerly occurred at various sites in the Monument have the potential to be 

restored by using behavioral manipulation techniques such as colony attraction through sound 

and visual stimuli or the provision of artificial nest structures. 

Activity MB-4.1: Use social attraction techniques to encourage recolonization at Midway and 

Kure Atolls by Bulwer’s petrels and Tristram’s storm-petrels. 

The introduction of Polynesian rats to Kure sometime before 1912 and black rats to Midway in 

1943 resulted in the extirpation of these two small petrels. Both rat species have now been 

eradicated. Petrel species are typically very conservative about dispersing and starting new 

colonies, but successful restoration of petrels using social attractants such as the playing of 

recorded calls has been documented in several studies (Podolsky and Kress 1987), and the 

provision of nest boxes has been shown to enhance reproductive success and thus accelerate the 

recolonization process (Bolton et al. 2004). 

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Table 3.2.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Migratory Bird

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy MB-1: Protect and enhance habitats for terrestrial and marine 

migratory birds throughout the life of the plan. 

Activity MB-1.1: Control or eradicate nonnative species at all sites where they 

have a negative impact on the survivorship or reproductive performance of 

migratory birds. 

FWS 

Activity MB-1.2: Restore components of the native vegetation communities that 

are important to seabird nesting. 

FWS 

Strategy MB-2: Minimize the impact of threats to migratory birds such as 

habitat destruction by invasive species, disease, contaminants (including oil), 

and fisheries interactions for the life of the plan.

Activity MB-2.1: Conduct surveillance for evidence of avian disease outbreaks, 

and follow existing response plan if disease is detected. 

FWS 

Activity MB-2.2: Monitor contaminant levels in birds and their habitats, and 

respond if the potential exists to cause immediately lethal or sublethal effects. 

FWS 

Activity MB-2.3: Ensure that all spill response plans have adequate coverage of 

actions necessary to minimize mortality to migratory birds. 

FWS 

Activity MB-2.4: Maintain rigorous quarantine protocols to prevent the 

introduction of alien species that may prove hazardous specifically to migratory 

birds. 

FWS 

Activity MB-2.5: Work with partners to reduce the impact of commercial and sport 

fisheries outside the Monument on migratory bird populations.

FWS 

Activity MB-2.6: Research mite impacts on black-footed albatross chicks on Kure 

Atoll. 

State of Hawai‘i 

Strategy MB-3: Monitor populations and habitats of migratory birds to 

ascertain natural variation.

Activity MB-3.1: Using standard methods devised for tropical seabirds, monitor a 

suite of 15 focal seabird species at specific sites in the Monument to track changes 

in population size and understand underlying causes of that change. 

FWS 

Activity MB-3.2: Monitor changes in habitat quality by measuring reproductive 

performance and diet composition in selected seabird species. 

FWS 

Activity MB-3.3: Develop and use standardized methods to accurately assess the 

population size and trends of over-wintering and migrating Pacific golden plovers, 

bristle-thighed curlews, wandering tattlers, and ruddy turnstones. 

FWS 

Strategy MB-4: As threats are removed, restore seabird species at sites where 

they have been extirpated. 

Activity MB-4.1: Use social attraction techniques to encourage recolonization at 

Midway and Kure Atolls by Bulwer’s petrels and Tristram’s storm-petrels. 

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Desired Outcome 

Protect and maintain all the native ecosystems and 

biological diversity of Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument. 

Links to Other Action Plans 

 3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species 

 3.2.2 Migratory Birds 

 3.3.2 Alien Species Current Status and Background 3.5.1 Agency Coordination 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations 

Links to Goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3

Goal 4

Presidential Proclamation 8031 prescribes ecosystembased management for the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands, and the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, 

as amended, also requires such management for all National Wildlife Refuges. 

This requires protections of ecosystem structure and function; conservation of 

fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats; and ensuring the biological integrity, 

diversity, and environmental health of the Monument. Section 1.1 of this 

Monument Management Plan describes habitats in the NWHI, ranging from abyssal benthic 

areas to the high cliff faces of Nihoa and Mokumanamana (Necker), and section 1.2 elaborates 

on the historic and current status of those habitats as well as describing resources of concern in 

the Monument. The Environmental and Anthropogenic Stressors section (1.3) describes known 

threats to biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health of the Monument. Habitat 

management activities included in this Action Plan include inventory of Monument resources, 

characterizing habitat health, investigating problems, manipulating vegetation communities to 

meet ecosystem goals, removing contaminants, preserving wilderness character, and engaging in 

ecological restoration of native habitats. 

Need for Action 

While the Monument remains one of the most remote and undisturbed archipelagos in the world, 

it still requires active habitat management on the part of managers to fulfill the mandate of 

protecting, maintaining, and restoring its wide range of native habitats. Furthermore, FWS has a 

mandate to conserve and restore, where appropriate, wildlife and habitats on National Wildlife 

Refuges. In accordance with Refuge System laws and policies, management must “maintain 

existing levels of biological integrity, diversity, and environmental health at the Refuge scale. 

Following that, [managers] will restore lost or degraded elements of biological integrity, 

diversity, and environmental health at all landscape scales where it is feasible and supports 

fulfillment of refuge purposes” (601 FW 3). In accordance with FWS policy (6 Refuge Manual 

8) in compliance with Department of the Interior regulation 43 CFR 19.6, management must also 

preserve wilderness character within the proposed Hawaiian Islands Wilderness area until such 

time as Congress takes action upon the wilderness proposal or the President amends the 

proposal. This action plan will provide guidance for management of Monument lands and 

waters, rationale for the activities listed, and a framework for continuity and consistency in 

habitat management decisions for the life of the plan. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Strategies for conservation and management in the varied habitats of the Monument have been 

identified to achieve the desired outcome of protecting native ecosystems and biological 

diversity. The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Habitat 

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Management and Conservation” (HMC). A summary of strategies and activities is provided in 

Table 3.2.3 at the end of this action plan. 

 

• HMC-1: Within 15 years, develop and implement a strategy for restoring the health and 

biological diversity of the shallow reefs and shoals where anthropogenic disturbances are 

known to have changed the ecosystem. 

• HMC-2: Within 10 years, investigate and inventory sources of known contamination 

from historic human uses of the NWHI and, where appropriate, coordinate with 

responsible parties to develop plans and complete cleanup actions. 

• HMC-3: Protect and restore beach strand and crest habitats over the life of the plan. 

• HMC-4: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and shrubs on all 

the coralline islands and atolls of the Monument using best available historical 

information about the original indigenous ecosystem. 

• HMC-5: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and shrublands on 

basalt islands in the Monument. 

• HMC-6: Maintain and better understand the Monument’s wetland and mudflat habitats to 

benefit migratory shorebirds and waterfowl for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-7: Maintain, enhance, and, where appropriate, develop freshwater seeps, 

intermittent streams, and freshwater ponds as necessary for the benefit of native species 

for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-8: Maintain no more than 150 acres of ironwood woodlands on Sand Island, 

Midway Atoll, to provide seabird nesting and roosting habitat for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-9: Protect and maintain 120 acres of vertical rocky cliff-face habitat at Nihoa 

Island and Mokumanamana for nesting seabirds for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-10: Fulfill wilderness stewardship responsibilities in the Monument within 5 years. 

Strategy HMC-1: Within 15 years, develop and implement a strategy for restoring the 

health and biological diversity of the shallow reefs and shoals where anthropogenic 

disturbances are known to have changed the ecosystem.

The shallow reef (0 – 100 feet, 0 – 30 meters) areas of the Monument have been affected by a 

variety of human activities through the years including overharvesting of some species, dredging 

and filling, and anchor damage from vessels stopping in the area. The extent and relative 

severity of these impacts are poorly understood. 

Activity HMC-1.1: Identify and prioritize restoration needs in shallow water reef habitats 

impacted by anthropogenic disturbances within 5 years. 

For more than 100 years, human activities in the NWHI have created disturbance in natural 

systems. Many such actions affecting marine and terrestrial wildlife are known, but the impacts 

of disturbance in the marine environment in particular, opportunities for restoration, and 

priorities for undertaking restoration actions are not thoroughly analyzed. One example of 

anthropogenic disturbance that is known is the black- lipped pearl oyster (Pinctada 

margaritifera), which has not recovered since being intensely harvested in the 1920s (Galtsoff 

1933; Keenan et al. 2006). Additional opportunities for restoring species will be identified and 

prioritized. 

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Activity HMC-1.2: Analyze historic and present impacts on reef growth at Midway Atoll and 

determine factors limiting nearshore patch reef growth to facilitate restoration of natural reef 

building. 

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Midway Atoll has been the site of the most dramatic modification of reef circulation and the 

most prolific source of anthropogenic inputs to nearshore reefs in the NWHI. Evaluating these 

pressures and their effects on reefs will provide useful information for restoration projects there 

and at other sites with similar threats to nearshore reef habitats. 

Activity HMC-1.3: Where feasible, implement appropriate restoration activities. 

As follow-up to identifying restoration priorities (HMC-1.1), appropriate restoration activities 

will be assessed (HMC-1.2), actions developed, and where feasible implemented. 

Strategy HMC-2: Within 10 years, investigate and inventory sources of known 

contamination from historic human uses of the NWHI and, where appropriate, coordinate 

with responsible parties to develop plans and complete cleanup actions. 

Human occupation and activity in the NWHI has resulted in numerous impacts, some of which 

can be categorized as contaminants that disrupt native ecosystems in various ways. These 

contaminants are found in both terrestrial and marine environments of the Monument and 

include but are not limited to heavy metals, iron, PCBs, and other organochlorines. Other 

materials that have come into the Monument by way of the ocean include pesticides, oil from 

undocumented spills at sea, and plastic marine debris (see section 3.3.1, Marine Debris Action 

Plan). These contaminants occur both in known dumping sites and in areas less well 

characterized or not yet discovered. 

Activity HMC-2.1: Evaluate effects of contamination in terrestrial and nearshore areas from 

shoreline dumps at French Frigate Shoals and at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes atolls 

and prioritize cleanup action based on risk assessments. 

Various dumps left behind from military activities during World War II and the Cold War are 

disintegrating quickly. Runoff, erosion, and seepage from all of these dumps have contaminated 

nearshore habitats. The extent of the effects of this contamination to birds nesting on the dumps 

and marine organisms in adjacent waters will be investigated. 

Activity HMC-2.2: Work with partners and responsible parties to verify the integrity of known 

landfills and dumps and to conduct additional remediation if necessary. 

Landfills and dumping sites at Midway Atoll, such as the Old Bulky Waste Landfill, which was 

designated as a contaminated site during the Navy’s Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) 

program assessment at Midway, and “Rusty Bucket” on Sand Island at Midway, which was not 

designated contaminated in the BRAC assessment, need to be evaluated every 5 years for 

integrity, containment effectiveness, and hazard potential. Monument staff will work with the 

EPA and the Navy to ensure best practices for preventing the contained contaminants at these 

sites from migrating out of the dump areas at Midway. In collaboration with the Coast Guard, 

EPA, and Hawai‘i Department of Health, the Co-Trustees will work to investigate washing and 

leaching of PCBs from known dumps at Kure Atoll and to finish the removal of the dump at 

Tern Island, French Frigate Shoals, to achieve agreed-upon levels of PCBs there. 

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Activity HMC-2.3: Locate historic disposal sites at Tern Island (French Frigate Shoals) and at 

Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes atolls, and investigate them for contamination. 

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There is a need to search for documented but not yet located landfills at Tern and East Islands, 

French Frigate Shoals, and Southeast Island, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and for underground 

storage tanks at Eastern Island, Midway Atoll. It is also important to investigate the 1993 

unlined landfill created by the Coast Guard on Green Island, Kure Atoll, during remediation of 

the LORAN (Long Range Aids to Navigation) station to confirm that the PCBs placed in the 

unlined landfill are not leaching to groundwater and that the documented surface hotspots have 

been removed. In addition, the 25 milligram/kilogram cleanup level for PCBs should be 

evaluated to ensure that it is adequately protective of wildlife. 

Activity HMC-2.4: Evaluate costs to ecosystem function and benefits of removing 

anthropogenic iron sources such as metal from shipwrecks and discarded debris from reefs 

throughout the Monument. 

Increasing the available iron in tropical oceanic waters often results in an overgrowth of certain 

cyanobacteria that are naturally rare in the iron-limited environments of the tropical Pacific away 

from volcanic islands. The MMB will develop a catalog of all anthropogenic iron sources and 

the factors associated with each site that would enable prioritization for removal and a costbenefit analysis. 

Activity HMC-2-5: Continue collection and fingerprinting of oil found washed ashore and on 

wildlife from mystery spills to determine its provenance, and build an oil sample archive for 

possible use as evidence in liability assignment. 

The occurrence of oil on nesting seabirds and washed up on beaches in the Monument that 

cannot be attributed to a known spill is a regularly recorded event at all the staffed sites in the 

NWHI. Due to the enormous foraging range of tropical seabirds and to the large number of 

vessels transiting the North Pacific, these spills are rarely attributed to any responsible party. 

Samples collected in the Monument can be used to compare with banks of petroleum signatures 

and may help in understanding more about the primary sources of this pollution. 

Activity HMC-2-6: Continue monitoring the area at Laysan Island that was contaminated by 

the insecticide carbofuran. 

In 1988, biologists first detected unexplained mortality of carrion flies and ghost crabs at a beach 

crest site on Laysan Island. These scavengers were coming in to feed on dead albatross chicks, 

commonly seen in summer months at Laysan. Upon entering the area later referred to as the 

“Dead Zone” they would abruptly die. The cause was finally identified by FWS as the pesticide 

Carbofuran, and the area was cleaned by removing and treating on-site contaminated sand in 

2002. Continued vigilance is needed to make sure that such effects do not flare up again in that 

area due to an overlooked hotspot. 

Activity HMC-2.7: Conduct ecological risk assessment to determine allowable lead levels in 

soils at Midway and remove lead from buildings and soils to nonrisk levels. 

Lead in the soils around many of the buildings at Midway is adversely affecting the birds nesting 

and burrowing in these areas by causing droop-wing and other lethal and sublethal effects. 

Before the lead can be effectively removed from the soil, an ecological risk assessment will be 

performed to determine the cleanup level necessary to ensure the protection of human and 

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wildlife health. The lead-based paint flaking from the buildings at Midway will be removed to 

eliminate this contamination. 

Strategy HMC-3: Protect and restore beach strand and crest habitats over the life of the 

plan. 

Beach strand and beach crest habitats on French Frigate Shoals, Laysan Island, Lisianski Island, 

Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll provide important habitat for a variety of 

native organisms, several of them listed as threatened or endangered. Anthropogenic threats 

including previous manipulation of shorelines and additions of structures and the suite of effects 

to shoreline habitats associated with global climate change make it necessary to actively manage 

these habitats in the Monument. 

Activity HMC-3.1: Evaluate loss of beach strand and crest due to erosion and sea level rise to 

aid in formulating a restoration plan that will stop as much net loss of beach strand and beach 

crest habitat as is possible. 

Projected sea level rise, increased storm frequency, changes in current patterns, and large wave 

events pose a particular danger to the low-lying terrestrial habitats of the Monument. In addition 

to sea level rise, invasive species threaten the dune stability, particularly golden crownbeard 

(Verbesina enceliodes) and ironwood (Casurina equisetifolia) on Kure and Midway atolls. 

Monument staff will evaluate the loss of beach strand and crest in order to formulate a 

restoration plan. 

Activity HMC-3.2: Inventory manmade structures and changes in natural beach and reef state 

that may influence erosion and depositional processes at all of the beach strand units of the 

Monument. 

Human modification of shorelines and channels may be affecting ecosystem function in the 

NWHI. These features will be evaluated, their effects analyzed, and their restoration considered. 

Strategy HMC-4: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and shrubs 

on all the coralline islands and atolls of the Monument using best available historical 

information about the original indigenous ecosystem. 

Coastal mixed grass and shrub habitats cover the majority of the Monument’s terrestrial area and 

are important habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, land birds, and terrestrial invertebrates. Careful 

review of historical botanical accounts and studies of pollen preserved in the anaerobic 

sediments of Laysan Lake (Athens, et al. 2007) provide a template for restoration of the plant 

communities of the coastal grass and shrublands. 

Activity HMC-4.1: Propagate and outplant native species chosen on the basis of historical 

records at Midway and historical and pollen records from Laysan Island in 250 acres of 

vegetated area at Midway Atoll, focusing on the original footprint of the island and then 

moving to the dredge spoils section. 

Using seed sources deemed most appropriate by botanical experts, including bunchgrass

(Eragrostis variabilis), naupaka (Scaevola sericea), morning glory (Ipomoea pes caprae, I. 

indica), Solanum nelsonii, Capparus sandwichiana, Chenopodium oahuense, and Lepidium 

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bidentatum, and treated to maintain quarantine standards, Monument staff will propagate seeds 

in the greenhouse on Sand Island and outplant them in selected areas of the entire atoll. 

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Activity HMC-4.2: Implement the Draft Laysan Island Restoration Plan by removing invasive 

plants, and propagating and outplanting all extant species identified in the pollen record or 

historical documents as formerly having occurred at Laysan. 

The Draft Laysan Island Restoration Plan (Morin and Conant 1998) details the biological history 

of the island’s habitats and lays out a plan for ecological restoration of habitat structure and 

function. This includes plans for restoration of plants, terrestrial arthropods, and avian 

components of the biological community that occurred at Laysan Island prior to human contact 

and the resultant loss of many of the island’s species. 

Activity HMC-4.3: At Laysan Island, replace 60 acres of the introduced shrub Indian pluchea 

with native species. 

The need to provide appropriate nesting habitat and maintain elements of ecosystem function 

while restoring native species requires management of the timing of vegetation replacement.

Reestablishment of the native shrub community (including Sida fallax, Chenopodium oahuense, 

and Capparis sandwicensis) will precede the removal of the alien plant Pluchea indica in order 

to maintain the ecosystem function of providing nesting substrate for red-footed boobies, great 

frigatebirds, and black noddies. 

Activity HMC-4.4: Formulate and implement a restoration plan for Lisianski Island using 

guidelines established for neighboring Laysan Island. 

Our current and historical knowledge of the vegetation community at Lisianski Island is less well 

developed than that of its neighbor Laysan Island. Lisianski may provide good opportunities for 

ecological restoration following appropriate investigation of its botanical history. Sediments at 

the lowest part of the island will be sampled for ancient pollen to aid in reconstructing the 

composition and structure of the plant community prior to human visitation. Fossil pollen 

scientists believe that the soil of Lisianski may have characteristics amenable to the preservation 

of ancient pollen in the low-lying center of the island. 

Activity HMC-4.5: Propagate and outplant native vegetation on 34-acre Southeast Island at 

Pearl and Hermes Atoll to replace native plant community extirpated by invasion of the alien 

plant golden crownbeard. 

As golden crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides) is removed, native habitats will be restored on 

Southeast Island at Pearl and Hermes Atoll. This restoration is of great importance for the 

survival of several native plant populations, especially Eragrostis variabilis, Solanum nelsonii, 

Tribulus cistoides, Lepidium bidentatum, and Boerhavia repens at the northern end of the 

archipelago, and for a small translocated population of the endangered Laysan finch (Telespyza

cantans). Propagules from the same species still extant on several of the other islets in the atoll 

will be used. 

Activity HMC- 4.6: Implement coordinated ecosystem restoration activities on Kure Atoll. 

In 2007, the State of Hawai‘i began drafting a Management Plan for Kure Atoll. This plan 

includes prioritizing and eliminating ecosystem threats caused by past anthropogenic 

disturbances. Ongoing efforts to restore ecosystem function include removing invasive species 

and increasing the range of and the reintroduction of native plant species. These activities are 

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designed to improve nesting, foraging, and loafing habitat for migratory birds. Kure has been 

identified as a site for potential translocation of the endangered Laysan finch and Laysan duck. 

Assessment regarding the feasibility of these activities has begun. 

Activity HMC-4.7: Monitor changes in the species composition and structure of mixed grass 

and shrub plant communities at each site. 

An understanding of the range of natural variability due to weather in these simple but dynamic 

vegetation communities allows managers to better evaluate the effectiveness of various 

management actions. 

Strategy HMC-5: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and 

shrublands on basalt islands in the Monument. 

The coastal mixed grass and shrubland habitat of the basalt islands in the Monument (Nihoa and 

Mokumanamana islands, La Perouse Pinnacle, and Gardner Pinnacles) are remarkably intact 

with respect to their species composition and vegetation structure. They represent a window to 

the past in that they probably closely resemble the dryland coastal plant communities that have 

been lost in the main Hawaiian Islands. 

Activity HMC-5.1: Inventory and document life histories of endemic terrestrial invertebrates at 

Nihoa and Mokumanamana. 

The vegetation communities of Nihoa and Mokumananamana are the most intact native coastal 

plant assemblages in the State. They do suffer from the introduction of a number of alien insects 

species. Understanding the ecology of these new terrestrial arthropods will aid in identifying 

which species pose the greatest threat to the native coastal mixed grass and shrubland habitat, 

including the five endangered plant species there, and native terrestrial invertebrates of these 

basalt islands. 

Activity HMC-5.2: Monitor changes in species composition and structure of the coastal shrub 

and mixed grass communities on basalt islands throughout the life of the plan. 

Surveys and mapping of the plant community will help document losses of native species and 

provide a template for restoration of any that are lost due to invasive species competition, 

herbivory, or other means. 

Strategy HMC-6: Maintain and better understand the Monument’s wetland and mudflat 

habitats to benefit migratory shorebirds and waterfowl for the life of the plan. 

The vast oceanic areas that many boreal shorebirds and waterfowl must cross during their annual 

migration provide few resting places other than these small natural wetlands at Midway Atoll, 

Kure Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and most importantly Laysan Island. While they are a small 

part of the total Monument area, they may provide a temporary habitat for migrant birds that 

determines their survival. 

Activity HMC-6.1: Monitor water level, salinity, and other water quality parameters of Laysan 

Lake, and document any loss of lake area. 

The hypersaline lake and associated mudflats at Laysan Island, and to a lesser extent, the 

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Island in Midway Atoll, serve as an important habitat for migratory waterfowl and shorebirds. 

Historically, during times of low vegetative cover due to overbrowsing by rabbits or long periods 

of drought, the dunes have drifted into the lake. 

Activity HMC-6.2: As needed, restore dune habitat on Laysan Island to stabilize movement if 

lake loss starts to occur. 

Dune habitat can be effectively restored through vegetation protection or drift fences to minimize 

sand movement. Measures to slow sand movement may protect the wetland habitat at these sites. 

Strategy HMC-7: Maintain, enhance, and, where appropriate, develop freshwater seeps, 

intermittent streams, and freshwater ponds as necessary for the benefit of native species for 

the life of the plan. 

The vast majority of all the species of animals in the Monument can survive without access to 

any fresh water, but a few invertebrates and land birds at certain life stages (particularly the 

Laysan Duck) require water with low salinity, and periodic access to these sources is essential. 

Freshwater sources are found at Nihoa, Mokumanamana, and Laysan islands, and Midway and 

Kure atolls. 

Activity HMC-7.1: Monitor salinity, parasites, contaminants, and native arthropods associated 

with freshwater seeps, ponds, and streams. 

The endemic passerines (particularly Nihoa finch and Laysan finch), the Laysan duck, and 

certainly a number of the native invertebrates, freshwater algae, and terrestrial arthropods rely on 

fresh water, particularly during their reproductive seasons. Water quality and abundance are 

important factors in the reproduction of many of these species. 

Activity HMC-7.2: Evaluate potential for development and create as needed additional 

freshwater sources at potential translocation sites of the Laysan duck, Nihoa finch, Laysan 

finch, and Nihoa millerbird. 

Some potential translocation sites for endangered endemic birds in the NWHI may contain all 

important habitat features for survival except for fresh water. Evaluation of the potential for 

water development at these locations will allow evaluation of overall translocation site 

suitability. 

Strategy HMC-8: Maintain no more than 150 acres of ironwood woodlands on Sand Island, 

Midway Atoll, to provide seabird nesting and roosting habitat for the life of the plan. 

The ironwood (Casuarina) forests at Sand Island provide nesting and roosting habitat for very 

large populations of white terns and the only breeding population of black noddies in the 

northern end of the Monument. While this is an invasive nonnative species, it does support these 

large seabird populations and will be replaced with adequate native alternatives before removing 

it completely. 

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Activity HMC-8.1: Remove ironwood on Sand Island from 50 acres outside designated 

woodland and control young ironwood in areas managed for grass and shrubs. 

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Ironwood is a fast-spreading species that will displace other vegetation types if not restrained.

Forested infestations can be treated with heavy machinery or cutting and application of Garlon®. 

Young Casuarina can be controlled by hand-pulling and cutting and herbicide treatment. 

Activity HMC-8.2: Devise and implement methods for monitoring population size and 

reproductive success in tree-nesting seabird species.

Better census techniques for tree-nesting seabirds such as white terns and black noddies are 

needed to assist decisionmaking about vegetation management and ultimate replacement of 

introduced species with natives. These studies will enable evaluation of whether certain age 

classes or forest types are more productive than others for these seabirds. 

Strategy HMC-9: Protect and maintain 120 acres of vertical rocky cliff-face habitat at 

Nihoa Island and Mokumanamana for nesting seabirds for the life of the plan. 

Throughout Hawai‘i, vertical cliff habitats provide a safe haven for native birds, insects, and 

plants that can survive in the exposed inaccessible sites. Nihoa and Mokumanamana support 

colonies of cliff-nesting seabirds (white terns, black noddies, brown boobies, and white-tailed 

and red-tailed tropicbirds) and an unknown suite of other species on their dramatic rocky faces. 

Activity HMC-9.1: Educate other Federal and State agencies about overflight rules and 

promote compliance regarding overflights and close approaches. 

Overflight restrictions are indicated on flight sectional charts, and the Federal Aviation 

Administration encourages pilots to maintain a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet above national 

wildlife refuges and national monuments. The Department of Defense requires a minimum 

altitude of 3,000 feet over noise sensitive areas such as national monuments. In addition, 

50 CFR 27.34 prohibits the operation of aircraft at altitudes resulting in the harassment of 

wildlife. Aircraft approaches to the cliff habitats cause disturbance and possible loss of seabird 

eggs and chicks. Rapid turnover of personnel engaging in flights over the Monument has 

resulted in periodic overflights at too low an altitude. New staff (e.g., U.S. Coast Guard and 

Department of Defense) will be made aware of the implications for wildlife disturbance. 

Activity HMC-9.2: Develop and implement techniques for monitoring plant and animal 

populations on cliff habitats in the Monument within 10 years. 

The cliff habitats of Nihoa and Mokumanamana are virtually inaccessible due to their height (up 

to 900 feet), windward location, and fragile rock type, which precludes safe climbing or 

rappelling. These cliffs provide habitat for significant proportions of seabirds including white 

terns, black noddies, gray-backed terns, brown boobies, and red-tailed tropicbirds that nest on 

these islands. Monument staff will investigate culturally appropriate and innovative remote and 

direct methods as possible options for monitoring cliff habitats. 

Strategy HMC-10: Fulfill wilderness stewardship responsibilities in the Monument within 

5 years. 

The Wilderness Act of 1964 recognized the importance of wild places to the human spirit and 

directed that certain lands be set aside for their wilderness character and values. A major quality 

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of wilderness character is naturalness, which means exhibiting the native species composition, 

structures, and functions of ecological systems without the planned intervention or the 

unintended effects of modern civilization. A total of 1,742 acres of the Hawaiian Islands NWR 

was proposed for designation as wilderness in 1974 (June 13, 1974, transmittal from the 

President to Congress), and will be managed to maintain its wilderness character in accordance 

with FWS policy (6 RM 8) in compliance with 43 CFR 19.6 until such time as Congress takes 

action upon the wilderness proposal or the President amends the proposal. 

FWS policy (602 FW 3.4(1)(c)) is to conduct a full three-phase wilderness review in conjunction 

with its Comprehensive Conservation Planning process. The FWS Director temporarily deferred 

this requirement for this Monument Management Plan, but required the FWS Regional Office to 

conduct a wilderness review of at least the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll NWRs in no 

more than 5 years. The wilderness review will consider the existing proposed Hawaiian Islands 

Wilderness and make a recommendation to the FWS Director and Secretary of the Interior 

whether other portions of the Hawaiian Islands NWR or Midway Atoll NWR contain sufficient 

wilderness character to justify their designation as wilderness. The current proposal could be 

modified during this process. Refuge areas identified with wilderness values are designated by 

the agency as a Wilderness Study Area. Once the agency completes its recommendations, a 

wilderness proposal may be submitted from the FWS Director, through the Interior Secretary to 

the President. Such a proposal must include detailed analysis of alternatives, be accompanied by 

the appropriate NEPA document, and include public involvement. Any Refuge areas 

recommended for designation as wilderness will then be managed so as to maintain their 

wilderness character until such time as Congress takes action on a proposal to designate 

wilderness. 

Activity HMC-10.1: Conduct a wilderness review of the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll 

NWRs within 5 years. 

A wilderness review is the process that Federal agencies are required to use to determine if 

Refuge areas should be recommended to Congress for wilderness designation. This process 

consists of three phases: inventory, study, and recommendation. The inventory is a broad look at 

the refuges to identify areas that meet the minimum criteria for wilderness. The study evaluates 

all values (ecological, recreational, cultural), resources (e.g., wildlife, water, vegetation, 

minerals, soils), and uses (management and public) within the wilderness study area. The 

findings of the study determine whether the area will be recommended for designation as 

wilderness. (From 602 FW 1.6X.) The FWS, in consultation with the Co-Trustees and in 

accordance with policy and regulation, will lead and complete a wilderness review of the 

Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll NWRs within 5 years. 

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Table 3.2.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Habitat Management and 

Conservation 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy HMC-1: Within 15 years, develop and implement a strategy for 

restoring the health and biological diversity of the shallow reefs and shoals 

where anthropogenic disturbances are known to have changed the ecosystem. 

Activity HMC-1.1: Identify and prioritize restoration needs in shallow water reef 

habitats impacted by anthropogenic disturbances within 5 years. 

NOAA 

Activity HMC-1.2: Analyze historic and present impacts on reef growth at Midway 

Atoll and determine factors limiting nearshore patch reef growth to facilitate 

restoration of natural reef building. 

NOAA 

Activity HMC-1.3: Where feasible, implement appropriate restoration activities. FWS 

Strategy HMC-2: Within 10 years, investigate and inventory sources of known 

contamination from historic human uses of the NWHI and, where 

appropriate, coordinate with responsible parties to develop plans and 

complete cleanup actions. 

Activity HMC-2.1: Evaluate effects of contamination in terrestrial and nearshore 

areas from shoreline dumps at French Frigate Shoals and at Kure, Midway, and 

Pearl and Hermes atolls and prioritize cleanup action based on risk assessments. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-2.2: Work with partners and responsible parties to verify the 

integrity of known landfills and dumps and to conduct additional remediation if 

necessary. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-2.3: Locate historic disposal sites at Tern Island (French Frigate 

Shoals) and at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes atolls, and investigate them 

for contamination. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-2.4: Evaluate costs to ecosystem function and benefits of removing 

anthropogenic iron sources such as metal from shipwrecks and discarded debris 

from reefs throughout the Monument. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-2-5: Continue collection and fingerprinting of oil found washed 

ashore and on wildlife from mystery spills to determine its provenance, and build 

an oil sample archive for possible use as evidence in liability assignment.

FWS 

Activity HMC-2-6: Continue monitoring the area at Laysan Island that was 

contaminated by the insecticide carbofuran. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-2.7: Conduct ecological risk assessment to determine allowable lead 

levels in soils at Midway and remove lead from buildings and soils to nonrisk 

levels. 

FWS 

Strategy HMC-3: Protect and restore beach strand and crest habitats over the 

life of the plan. 

Activity HMC-3.1: Evaluate loss of beach strand and crest due to erosion and sea 

level rise to aid in formulating a restoration plan that will stop as much net loss of 

beach strand and beach crest habitat as is possible. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-3.2: Inventory manmade structures and changes in natural beach 

and reef state that may influence erosion and depositional processes at all of the 

beach strand units of the Monument. 

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy HMC-4: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses 

and shrubs on all the coralline islands and atolls of the Monument using best 

available historical information about the original indigenous ecosystem. 

Activity HMC-4.1: Propagate and outplant native species chosen on the basis of 

historical records at Midway and historical and pollen records from Laysan Island 

in 250 acres of vegetated area at Midway Atoll, focusing on the original footprint 

of the island and then moving to the dredge spoils section. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-4.2: Implement the Draft Laysan Island Restoration Plan by 

removing invasive plants, and propagating and outplanting all extant species 

identified in the pollen record or historical documents as formerly having occurred 

at Laysan. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-4.3: At Laysan Island, replace 60 acres of the introduced shrub 

Indian pluchea with native species. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-4.4: Formulate and implement a restoration plan for Lisianski Island 

using guidelines established for neighboring Laysan Island. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-4.5: Propagate and outplant native vegetation on 34-acre Southeast 

Island at Pearl and Hermes Atoll to replace native plant community extirpated by 

invasion of the alien plant golden crownbeard. 

FWS 

Activity HMC- 4.6: Implement coordinated ecosystem restoration activities on 

Kure Atoll. 

State of Hawai‘i 

Activity HMC-4.7: Monitor changes in the species composition and structure of 

mixed grass and shrub plant communities at each site. 

FWS 

Strategy HMC-5: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses 

and shrublands on basalt islands in the Monument. 

Activity HMC-5.1: Inventory and document life histories of endemic terrestrial 

invertebrates at Nihoa and Mokumanamana. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-5.2: Monitor changes in species composition and structure of the 

coastal shrub and mixed grass communities on basalt islands throughout the life of 

the plan. 

FWS 

Strategy HMC-6: Maintain and better understand the Monument’s wetland 

and mudflat habitats to benefit migratory shorebirds and waterfowl for the 

life of the plan. 

Activity HMC-6.1: Monitor water level, salinity, and other water quality 

parameters of Laysan Lake, and document any loss of lake area. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-6.2: As needed, restore dune habitat on Laysan Island to stabilize 

movement if lake loss starts to occur. 

FWS 

Strategy HMC-7: Maintain, enhance, and, where appropriate, develop 

freshwater seeps, intermittent streams, and freshwater ponds as necessary for 

the benefit of native species for the life of the plan. 

Activity HMC-7.1: Monitor salinity, parasites, contaminants, and native arthropods 

associated with freshwater seeps, ponds, and streams. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-7.2 Evaluate potential for development and create as needed 

additional freshwater sources at potential translocation sites of the Laysan duck, 

Nihoa finch, Laysan finch, and Nihoa millerbird. 

FWS 

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy HMC-8: Maintain no more than 150 acres of ironwood woodlands on 

Sand Island, Midway Atoll, to provide seabird nesting and roosting habitat for 

the life of the plan. 

Activity HMC-8.1: Remove ironwood on Sand Island from 50 acres outside 

designated woodland and control young ironwood in areas managed for grass and 

shrubs. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-8.2: Devise and implement methods for monitoring population size 

and reproductive success in tree-nesting seabird species. 

FWS 

Strategy HMC-9: Protect and maintain 120 acres of vertical rocky cliff-face 

habitat at Nihoa Island and Mokumanamana for nesting seabirds for the life 

of the plan. 

Activity HMC-9.1: Educate other Federal and State agencies about overflight rules 

and promote compliance regarding overflights and close approaches. 

FWS 

Activity HMC-9.2: Develop and implement techniques for monitoring plant and 

animal populations on cliff habitats in the Monument within 10 years. 

FWS 

Strategy HMC-10: Fulfill wilderness stewardship responsibilities in the 

Monument within 5 years. 

Activity HMC-10.1: Conduct a wilderness review of the Hawaiian Islands and 

Midway Atoll NWRs within 5 years. 

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3.3 Reducing Threats to Monument Resources 

3.3.1 Marine Debris Action Plan 

3.3.2 Alien Species Action Plan 

3.3.3 Maritime Transportation and Aviation Action Plan 

3.3.4 Emergency Response and Natural Resource Damage 

Assessment Action Plan 

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Situated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, at the fulcrum of the North Pacific gyre and the midpoint between the economic giants of the east and west, the NWHI are subject to the full range of 

environmental and anthropogenic stressors despite their remote location and the absence of 

human population. Many threats originate far outside the NWHI. Marine debris, largely 

consisting of discarded or lost fishing nets from distant fleets and plastic trash, threatens and 

damages coral reef and coastal habitats, entangles and chokes marine life, and aids in the 

transport of contaminants. 

The introduction of alien species to the islands has led to the establishment of invasive species 

that crowd out native species, altering habitat and food webs. Alien species may arrive on 

vessels or debris of any kind from ports around the world. Discharges from vessels operating in 

or transiting the NWHI can introduce pathogens that contribute to coral disease and could 

threaten marine mammal populations. 

Vessel groundings and cargo spills occur somewhat infrequently in this remote archipelago, and 

response to such emergencies has required exceptional collaborative interagency effort and 

resources to minimize effects to the fragile coral reef and terrestrial ecosystems. 

Through an ecosystem-based approach to management, of which interagency coordination and 

cooperation is central, reducing threats to the ecosystem is achieved through an effective 

regulatory framework, education and outreach, preventative measures to minimize risk, 

emergency response, and natural resource damage assessment and restoration when unforeseen 

events cause injury to natural resources. 

Action plans to reduce threats and prevent impacts to the ecosystem focus on developing and 

implementing risk reduction assessment and protocols, emergency response plans, and alien 

species prevention and eradication, where feasible. Each action plan consists of a set of 

strategies to address a desired outcome. The desired outcomes of these action plans over the 

15-year planning horizon are: 

• Marine Debris: Reduce the adverse effects of marine debris to Papahānaumokuakea 

Marine National Monument resources and reduce the amount of debris entering the North 

Pacific Ocean. 

• Alien Species: Detect, control, eradicate where possible, and prevent the introduction of 

alien species into Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

• Maritime Transportation and Aviation: Investigate, identify, and reduce potential 

threats to Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument from maritime and aviation 

traffic. 

• Emergency Response and Natural Resource Damage Assessment: Minimize damage 

to Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument resources through coordinated 

emergency response and assessment. 

Action plans described in this section will be implemented in close coordination with 

jurisdictional agency partners and in conjunction with other priority management needs. 

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Reduce the adverse effects of marine debris to 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

resources and reduce the amount of debris entering 

the North Pacific Ocean. 

 3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species 

 3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation 

 3.3.2 Alien Species 

 3.3.4 Emergency Response 

 3.5.1 Agency Coordination 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

Pacific Island Fisheries Science Center, Coral Reef Ecosystem Division's 

marine debris removal team at work in the NWHI. Photo: Jake Asher 

 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations

Current Status and Background Links to Goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3 

A multiagency effort launched in 1996 by the University of Hawai‘i’s Sea 

Grant College Program began to address the problem of marine debris, a 

problem that was much larger than any agency alone might resolve. An 

estimated 750 to 1,000 tons of marine debris were on reefs and beaches in the 

NWHI. NOAA, in collaboration with 14 other partners including the Coast 

Guard, Schnitzer Steel Hawai‘i Corporation (formerly Hawai‘i Metals Recycling Company), the 

Sea Grant College Program, U.S. Navy, FWS, the City and County of Honolulu, the State of 

Hawai‘i, The Ocean Conservancy, Hawai‘i Wildlife Fund, Matson Navigation Company, and 

others removed 66 tons of marine debris and derelict fishing gear from 1996 to 2000. 

In 2001, the multiagency cleanup effort 

was extended, and yields grew from 

approximately 25 tons per year in 1999 

and 2000 to 68 tons in 2001, 107 tons 

in 2002, 118 tons in 2003, 126 tons in 

2004, 57 tons in 2005, 21 tons in 2006, 

and 19 tons in 2007. The total amount 

of marine debris removed from 1996 to 

2007 was 582 tons. The 2006 field 

season marked the first year of the 

maintenance mode effort, in which 

specific study areas called “High 

Entanglement Risk Zones” for 

Hawaiian monk seals are cleaned and 

designated accumulation rate zones are 

studied. Based on a recent study, the 

accumulation of new debris in the 

NWHI is now estimated to be 57 tons 

(or 52 metric tons) annually (Dameron 

et al. 2007). Even if all new input of debris were stopped, existing debris in the ocean would 

continue to accumulate in the NWHI for years to come. 

In 2005, with guidance from Congress, a Marine Debris Program was established under NOAA’s 

Office of Response and Restoration. This program is undertaking a national and international 

effort focused on identifying, removing, reducing, and preventing debris in the marine 

environment. This is a significant step toward addressing the marine debris issue and providing 

much-needed support to projects that address the issue. As one example, a project funded in 

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2005 established a port reception facility and derelict net recycling program in Honolulu for 

proper disposal of derelict fishing gear. Also in 2005, the Marine Debris Program joined the 

multiagency cleanup effort through funding for debris removal field operations. 

On December 22, 2006, the Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act was signed 

into law. The Act makes the Marine Debris Program permanent and directs NOAA to work in 

conjunction with Federal agencies such as EPA and the Coast Guard to identify the origin, 

location, and projected movement of marine debris within navigable waters of the United States 

and the U.S. exclusive economic zone. The Act specifically targets fishing gear as a threat to the 

marine environment and navigation safety, authorizes the research and development of 

alternative types of fishing gear, and allows the use of voluntary incentives to promote recovery 

of lost or discarded gear. The Act also authorizes NOAA to offer grants to academia, nonprofit 

organizations, commercial organizations, and state, local, or tribal governments to identify, 

assess, reduce, and prevent marine debris. 

In recognition of the magnitude of the marine debris problem, NOAA has contributed to 

mitigating the effects of marine debris by providing funding for debris removal efforts and 

participating in the NWHI multiagency partnership. This work will now continue through the 

establishment of the Monument, and the MMB is already working to increase awareness of this 

very serious threat to coral reef ecosystems through national and international documentaries and 

publications, public outreach displays at Mokupāpapa Discovery Center, development of lesson 

plans about marine debris in the Navigating Change Teacher’s Guide, and community 

presentations. 

Need for Action 

Marine debris, especially derelict fishing gear, is a severe chronic threat to the shallow-water 

ecosystems of the NWHI and hinders the recovery of the critically endangered Hawaiian monk 

seal and threatened sea turtles through ingestion of debris and entanglement, which can lead to 

drowning and suffocation (see section 3.2.1, the Threatened and Endangered Species Action 

Plan). Ocean currents carry marine debris, including derelict fishing nets and other gear from 

North Pacific fisheries, plastics, hazardous materials and hazardous waste lost or discarded from 

ships during transit, authorized and unauthorized fish aggregation devices (Donohue 2005), and 

other shore-based debris from Pacific Rim countries, across the greater Pacific Ocean. The 

North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone, located just north of the Hawaiian Archipelago, 

concentrates some of these materials. Under certain conditions, such as during an El Niño event, 

this convergence zone dips southward and straddles the Hawaiian Archipelago, depositing much 

higher volumes of debris on the island chain than in years when these conditions are not in effect 

(Harrison and Craig 1993, Matsumura and Nasu 1997, Ingraham and Ebbersmeyer 2001, 

Donohue and Foley 2007, Morishige et al. 2007). 

Large conglomerations of derelict fishing nets that are carried into shallow waters degrade reef 

health by shading, abrading, smothering, and dislodging fragile corals and other benthic 

organisms and by preventing recruitment on reef surfaces (Donahue and Brainard 2001). Nets 

and line pose deadly entanglement hazards for all marine life. Smaller marine debris, such as 

disposable lighters and plastic bottle caps, are ingested by albatrosses while foraging for food 

and affect survival rates of these birds. Marine debris washes ashore in the NWHI, degrading 

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habitat and the health of the Monument’s ecosystems. Debris in the form of hazardous materials, 

unknown substances, and unexploded ordnance endanger wildlife as well as Monument field 

staff. Marine debris also acts as a vector for the accelerated introduction of alien species into the 

region, and poses a navigational hazard to maritime vessels (see sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.4, the 

Alien Species and Emergency Response and Natural Resource Damage Assessment action 

plans). This action plan presents strategies and activities for addressing marine debris issues in 

the Monument as well as the North Pacific region. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Ultimately, the Monument’s desired outcome is the elimination of marine debris including 

derelict fishing gear from the NWHI. Complete elimination of marine debris in the near future is 

virtually impossible due to the financial cost, the size of the area, and the continual influx of new 

debris. However, removal of existing debris, detection and prevention of incoming debris, and 

education to prevent future generations of debris are the achievable strategies to reduce the 

overall impact of debris. Three strategies have been developed to achieve the desired outcome. 

The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Marine Debris” 

(MD). A summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.3.1 at the end of this action 

plan. 

• MD-1: Remove and prevent marine debris throughout the life of the plan. 

• MD-2: Investigate the sources, types, and accumulation rates of marine debris within 

5 years. 

• MD-3: Develop outreach materials regarding marine debris within 2 years. 

Strategy MD-1: Remove and prevent marine debris throughout the life of the plan. 

Continued support of existing debris removal programs, including the Marine Debris Program, is 

essential. Existing debris, particularly large fishing nets, poses an acute entanglement threat to 

endangered and threatened species. The only way to decrease entanglement rates from existing 

debris is to remove the nets from beaches and the nearshore areas, including those around French 

Frigate Shoals, Maro Reef, Lisianski Island, Laysan Island, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Midway 

Atoll, and Kure Atoll. Nets and other debris also combine into large masses that are moved 

around by wave energy. These masses scour the bottom, abrading and breaking coral colonies, 

preventing colonization, and damaging other benthic resources. Removal of debris, particularly 

large nets that have come into shallow waters, is quite expensive and dangerous. Programs to 

identify, track, and remove nets both within and outside the Monument, combined with incentive 

programs for fishermen to pick up these nets and bring them back to shore for disposal, may be 

more cost effective and would prevent damage to fragile reef ecosystems. The MMB will work 

in partnership with the Coast Guard and other marine debris partners to provide incentives for 

fishing vessels to participate in disposal programs and still comply with Coast Guard policies 

regarding the transport of debris as “cargo-for-hire.” 

Activity MD-1.1: Continue working with partners to remove marine debris in the Monument 

and reduce additional debris entering the Monument.

The MMB will continue to support and participate in the multiagency cleanup effort that has 

been highly effective in removing marine debris from shallow-water areas and beaches. With 

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existing infrastructure, protocols, and experience in executing this demanding and logistically 

intensive task, it is beneficial to all parties to continue participating in the existing effort. Data 

collected and analyzed as part of the multiagency effort will be entered into the 

Papahānaumokuākea Information Management System (PIMS), once it is developed. 

Although cleanup efforts have removed the majority of accumulated large nets in NWHI waters 

less than 30 feet (9 meters) deep, additional debris keeps coming in. NOAA estimates that each 

year, 57 tons (52 metric tons) of derelict fishing gear accumulates on coral reefs and beaches in 

the NWHI (Dameron et al. 2007). Two ways to prevent debris from entering the shallow-water 

reef ecosystem are to retrieve the existing debris at sea and to change existing fishing gear 

disposal practices. Potential changes include designing gear modifications, implementing gear 

loss reporting requirements, requiring permanent identification of fishing gear, requiring 

dockside gear accountability inspections of vessels prior to their departure on fishing trips and 

upon their return, working with the fishery management councils in the United States and similar 

agencies in foreign countries to reduce illegal fishing and destructive fishing practices, and 

pursuing technological means to detect and retrieve gear lost at sea. 

Activity MD-1.2: Catalog, secure, contain, and properly remove hazardous materials that wash 

ashore in the NWHI.

Unidentified chemical containers, unexploded ordnance, oceanographic instruments, loose fish 

aggregating devices, and other unidentified objects regularly wash up on beaches in the 

Monument. The items will be documented, identified, and then secured until appropriate 

removal and disposal by approved contractors can occur. 

Activity MD-1.3: Develop and implement a 5-year marine debris removal and prevention 

strategy for the Monument.

Using recommendations from national and international marine debris conferences and data from 

ongoing marine debris removal efforts, and in coordination with partner agencies and organizations, 

a coordinated strategy for marine debris removal and prevention will be developed for the NWHI. 

Data and information on the types, sources, locations, and impacts of debris obtained from ongoing 

removal efforts and additional studies will be used to develop focused, short-term and long-term 

initiatives geared to achieve the greatest return on investment in terms of ecological protection. The 

MMB will continue to pursue activities that identify, track, and collect large debris at sea, along 

with development of incentive programs for fishing vessels to collect debris at sea and bring it to 

dockside collection facilities. A dockside collection program has been implemented on O‘ahu for 

fishermen to offload derelict fishing gear retrieved at sea. This program illustrates the type of 

coordination among multiple government agencies, community groups, and the private sector 

needed to address this issue. The marine debris removal and prevention strategy will investigate 

this mechanism to provide additional incentive for debris prevention. 

Activity MD-1.4: Work with the U.S. Department of State to gain international cooperation 

and involvement for marine debris issues. 

The MMB will work through the Interagency Marine Debris Coordinating Committee, the U.S. 

Department of State, and other appropriate U.S. agencies to call international attention to marine 

debris problems in the NWHI and to identify approaches to reducing foreign debris sources. 

Approaches may include, but are not limited to, permanent identification of fishing gear, 

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incentive programs for recovered debris, and dockside gear accountability inspections of vessels 

prior to their departure on fishing trips and upon their return. 

Activity MD-1.5: Work with the fishery management councils to address marine debris 

prevention with U.S. fishing fleets. 

The MMB will work with the Western Pacific and North Pacific Fishery Management Councils 

to assess and address fishing practices or domestic fishing gear that contribute to the marine 

debris problem. The MMB will coordinate with the Councils to initiate an accountability 

requirement for all vessels that utilize the type of gear that is contributing to marine debris in the 

NWHI. This could include permanent identification of fishing gear, incentive programs for 

recovered debris, disposal and recycling programs, dockside gear accountability inspections of 

vessels prior to their departure on fishing trips and upon their return, and other approaches. 

Strategy MD-2: Investigate the sources, types, and accumulation rates of marine debris 

within 5 years. 

The MMB, in partnership with other governmental and nongovernmental entities, will conduct 

research into mechanisms to locate, track, and remove debris at sea before it reaches fragile 

Monument ecosystems. This program will attempt to use unmanned aircraft systems to locate 

the debris at sea and may also take advantage of remote sensing systems being researched for 

Monument enforcement purposes to detect large debris conglomerates. Once an area of high 

concentration of debris is located, unmanned aircraft can be launched from vessels to find 

individual conglomerations of debris and target removal efforts. These initiatives will help direct 

the cleanup effort to where it will have the greatest effect, with limited resources. Using satellite 

imagery, NOAA Fisheries is also working with partners to design a statistical survey to census 

marine debris in the north Pacific. This information will provide us with an estimate of the 

magnitude of the marine debris problem in the Pacific. In addition, NOAA Fisheries and its 

partners are working to track debris movement in the Pacific Ocean, including areas within the 

Monument, through the use of satellite-tracked drifter buoys. 

Another project is to address the small plastic debris being fed to young albatrosses. Much of the 

debris being fed to young albatross is picked up at sea by the adults. Monitoring the debris that 

washes up onto the beaches at Midway Atoll will provide a snapshot of what is in the waters 

surrounding the Monument islands, the most economical approach to such identification. This 

study will also allow us to begin to identify sources of the debris and then to develop a strategy 

for use of this information for prevention through education and outreach targeting key 

stakeholders and user-groups that are associated with the behaviors that produce these forms of 

marine debris. 

Activity MD-2.1: Work with partners on marine debris studies. 

The MMB will work with the Marine Debris Program to support studies on the marine debris 

issue, including research to quantify resource impacts and to determine marine debris 

accumulation rates, biological and ecological impacts, efforts to track sources and types of 

debris, and documentation of the cost estimates of damage. One such study currently under 

design will assess net-scar impacts and recovery over time at Midway Atoll reefs. 

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Activity MD-2.2: Develop and standardize monitoring protocols for marine and terrestrial 

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Currently marine debris data is collected by numerous entities using a variety of data collection 

methods. Synthesizing, quantifying and interpreting marine debris data is therefore difficult. 

The MMB will work with all Federal and State partners to standardize protocols to maximize the 

use and utility of data collected by the various programs. Development of a statistically sound 

and biologically relevant marine debris monitoring protocol for Midway Atoll has begun. This 

protocol may serve as the basis for a long-term monitoring program within the Monument. Since 

1984, 22 international marine debris conferences have recommended standardization of data 

collection as one of their top two priorities. This unique project at Midway Atoll, in partnership 

with The Dow Chemical Company, and with additional funding from a National Fish and 

Wildlife Foundation grant, hopes to lay the foundation for a greater understanding of debris 

sources. 

Strategy MD-3: Develop outreach materials regarding marine debris within 2 years. 

To better explain the scope and impacts of marine debris in the NWHI, an outreach strategy will 

be developed with the multiagency partnership, to reach both local and international audiences 

and specific fishing communities.

Activity MD-3.1: Work with partners to continue to develop and implement an outreach 

strategy for marine debris. 

To better explain the scope and impacts of marine debris in the NWHI, an outreach strategy will 

be developed with the multiagency partnership to reach a broad audience and specific fishing 

communities. Such outreach will be coordinated with other efforts as described in the 

Constituency Building and Outreach Action Plan (section 3.5.2) as well as with broader efforts 

of the Marine Debris Program. 

Awareness of the impact of marine debris must be increased. Most people are not aware that 

much of the shore-based marine debris comes from the careless disposal of garbage, such as 

cigarette lighters and other plastics, and that much of the derelict fishing gear comes from losses 

at sea due to bad weather, gear failure, and improper disposal. Educating the public about the 

impacts of this debris in the ocean environment aims to change behaviors and ultimately reduce 

the volume of debris in the ocean. Documentaries and feature stories regarding this issue already 

have led to significant actions by several nations aimed at reducing marine debris. Such 

educational activities will be encouraged by the MMB. In addition, outreach products will be 

developed to reach specific fishing communities and industries. These materials will target 

recreational fishermen and commercial fishing sectors on proper disposal and reporting of gear 

lost at sea. The outreach materials will highlight lost gear to better explain the scope and impacts 

of this type of marine debris. 

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Table 3.3.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Marine Debris

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy MD-1: Remove and prevent marine debris throughout the life of the 

plan. 

Activity MD-1.1: Continue working with partners to remove marine debris in the 

Monument and reduce additional debris entering the Monument. 

NOAA 

Activity MD-1.2: Catalog, secure, contain, and properly remove hazardous 

materials that wash ashore in the NWHI. 

FWS 

Activity MD-1.3: Develop and implement a 5-year marine debris removal and 

prevention strategy for the Monument. 

NOAA 

Activity MD-1.4: Work with the U.S. Department of State to gain international 

cooperation and involvement for marine debris issues. 

NOAA 

Activity MD-1.5: Work with the fishery management councils to address marine 

debris prevention with U.S. fishing fleets. 

NOAA 

Strategy MD-2: Investigate the sources, types, and accumulation rates of 

marine debris within 5 years.

Activity MD-2.1: Work with partners on marine debris studies. NOAA 

Activity MD-2.2: Develop and standardize monitoring protocols for marine and 

terrestrial habitats. 

NOAA 

Strategy MD-3: Develop outreach materials regarding marine debris within 2 

years.

Activity MD-3.1: Work with partners to continue to develop and implement an 

outreach strategy for marine debris. 

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Links to other Action Plans 

Desired Outcome 3.1.1 Marine Conservation Science 

Detect, control, eradicate where possible, and prevent 

the introduction of alien species into 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

 3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species 

 3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation

 3.3.1 Marine Debris 

 3.3.3 Maritime Transportation and Aviation 

 3.4.1 Permitting 

 3.4.2 Enforcement 

Current Status and Background 3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

 3.6.2 Information Management 

 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations 

Links to Goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3 

Goal 4

Goal 5

Despite the extreme remoteness of the Monument, the 

relatively low rate of visitation, and the high amount of 

administrative control over the conditions of any visits, 

alien species have left their mark on natural communities in the Monument. 

Insular ecosystems are often more vulnerable to the effects of introduced 

species than continental areas due to smaller total population sizes, higher 

endemism, and species that have evolved longer in the absence of predators and 

thus are less likely to have developed defenses against them (Blackburn et al. 

2004). An invasive species is defined as a species (1) that is nonnative (or 

alien) to the ecosystem under consideration and (2) whose introduction causes 

or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health (Executive Order 

13112). Invasive species can affect native species by competitive exclusion, niche displacement, 

hybridization, introgression, predation, and ultimately extinction (Mooney and Cleland 2001). 

The known incidence and distribution of alien species in the NWHI is described in section 1.4, 

Environmental and Anthropogenic Stressors. 

The ecosystems of Hawai‘i have changed profoundly and at an accelerating pace since humans 

arrived, accompanied by an array of alien species. The NWHI now have terrestrial invaders in most 

taxa, some of which have caused great disruption to the native ecosystems. In the main Hawaiian 

Islands, alien algae have altered native habitat, and in some areas have overgrown and completely 

smothered extensive areas of coral reef (DLNR 2003a). Other alien species have caused serious 

economic effects. Each year, Maui County spends thousands of dollars to remove over a million 

pounds of the alien algae Hypnea from its beaches (Coloma-Agaran 2003). Snowflake coral 

(Carijoa riisei) has covered significant portions of black coral beds in the main Hawaiian Islands in 

depths greater than 250 feet (75 meters) and is now considered one of the most invasive 

invertebrates on deep-water coral reefs (DLNR 2003a). Hawai‘i’s harbors and bays are the most 

common sites for alien species introductions (Godwin et al. 2006). 

In 2003, the State of Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) and various 

Federal, State, industry, and nonprofit organizations released the State of Hawai‘i Aquatic 

Invasive Species Management Plan (DLNR 2003a). Many of the strategies outlined in that plan 

complement those outlined in this action plan but are much broader in scope as they concern the 

entire archipelago, including the complexities of the highly populated and commercially active 

main Hawaiian Islands. An assessment of the potential threats of nonindigenous marine species 

in the NWHI was completed by Eldredge (2005). A 2006 report by the Hawai‘i Institute of 

Marine Biology addresses issues specific to reducing the potential impacts of invasive marine 

species in the NWHI (Godwin et al. 2006). 

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Early attempts to establish human settlements in the NWHI in the late 1800s and early 1900s, 

especially at Laysan Island and Midway Atoll, resulted in the introduction of many alien 

terrestrial species including plants, insects, and mammals. The number of alien land plants in the 

NWHI varies from only 3 introduced at Nihoa to 249 introduced at Midway Atoll. The level of 

threat from introduced plants also varies between species. For example, the invasive plant 

golden crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides) displaces all native vegetation in nesting areas, 

causing entanglement and heat prostration and killing hundreds of albatrosses each year. The 

invasive gray bird locust (Schistocerca nitens) was first detected at Nihoa Island in 1984 and by 

2000 was periodically reaching population levels large enough to cause damage to the native 

plant community, including three endemic species listed as endangered. This grasshopper 

species has now also spread to Mokumanamana, French Frigate Shoals, and Lisianski Island. To 

prevent further importation of invasive plants, animals, or insects, mandatory quarantine 

protocols are enforced for any visitors to all the islands in the NWHI (with the exception of 

Midway Atoll and Tern Island at French Frigate Shoals). These protocols require the use of 

brand new or island-specific gear at each site and treatments such as cleaning, using insecticide, 

and freezing to minimize the transport of potentially invasive species to the island. 

 

Hypnea musciformis, an alien algae species which is invasive in the main 

Hawaiian Islands, has been documented in the waters surrounding 

Necker Island. Photo W.H. Magruder (Bishop Museum) 

A total of 11 alien marine invertebrate, fish, 

and algal species have been recorded in the 

NWHI (see Table 1.1), with the highest 

concentrations occurring at Midway Atoll. 

Although the remoteness and relative 

inaccessibility of the NWHI has helped to 

prevent the introduction of some alien 

species to the area, these islands are 

vulnerable to introductions through a variety 

of human activities. Maritime vessels are 

recognized as the primary vector for 

transporting marine alien species through 

contaminated vessel equipment, hull fouling, 

ballast water, and ballast sediment. 

Additional vectors include deliberate and 

accidental release, and transport by artificial 

substrates such as fish attractant devices and marine debris. (See section 3.3.1, the Marine Debris 

Action Plan, and also Godwin et al. 2006.) 

Existing Laws, Regulations, and Protocols 

Vessel hull fouling and ballast water discharge have been identified as two major vectors for 

transporting alien species in marine environments (International Maritime Organization 1997, 

2001). Therefore, Monument regulations and permit requirements specifically target these 

pathways. Best management practices for Monument access will continue to use the latest 

information to address both marine and terrestrial alien species introductions, and support the 

requirements developed by FWS to prevent alien species introductions to the Hawaiian Islands 

National Wildlife Refuge (see section 3.4.1, the Permitting Action Plan, and Appendix A). 

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In 2000, the State of Hawai‘i Legislature designated DLNR as the lead agency for preventing the 

introduction of alien aquatic organisms through ballast water and hull fouling. DLNR 

reestablished an interagency task force to discuss and make recommendations to address 

concerns about alien aquatic organism issues related to ballast water and hull fouling, including 

adopting administrative rules and penalties. DLNR has hired a Project Coordinator to address 

issues relating to aquatic invasive species through hull fouling and ballast water. The State of 

Hawai‘i has also been working on developing a comprehensive ballast water and hull fouling 

program since September 2002, with NOAA funds administered by the State Office of Planning, 

Coastal Zone Management Program. 

Federal laws that apply in addressing alien species and invasive species in the NWHI include the 

Lacey Act of 1900, as amended (18 U.S.C. 42, 16 U.S.C. 3371), the Endangered Species Act of 

1973, the Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990 (16 U.S.C. 

4701), the National Invasive Species Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-332), and Executive Order 

13112 on Invasive Species (1999). Executive Order 13112 established the National Invasive 

Species Council and requires the development of a National Management Plan for Invasive 

Species. Under the Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act, NOAA and 

the FWS have responsibility for control and management of invasive aquatic species. 

The U.S. Coast Guard has developed the Mandatory Ballast Water Management Program for 

U.S. Waters. The Coast Guard published regulations on July 28, 2004, establishing a national 

mandatory ballast water management program for all vessels equipped with ballast water tanks 

that enter or operate within U.S. waters. These regulations also require each vessel to maintain 

a ballast water management plan that is specific to that vessel and assigns responsibility to the 

master or another appropriate official to understand and execute the ballast water management 

strategy for that vessel. The International Maritime Organization (1997) has developed ballast 

water exchange guidelines. In Hawai‘i, the Alien Aquatic Organisms Task Force is also 

developing strategies to address the transport of alien species by vessels. The DLNR adopted 

Title 13, chapter 76, Hawai‘i Administrative Rules (Non-indigenous species) on October 12, 

2007, to manage ballast water discharge from vessels operating in Hawai‘i waters (Appendix 

I). They are consistent with and complement the Federal regulations and coincide with the 

national focus to protect U.S. water in which many states have adopted their own rules. 

The MMB incorporated FWS policies aimed primarily at preventing the introduction of 

terrestrial alien species to the islands in the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge 

(Appendix I). These include requiring personnel and other visitors to use new, island-specific 

clothing, shoes, and other gear such as tents and bedding that have been frozen for at least 48 

hours and carefully packed to prevent contamination at all islands except Sand and Eastern at 

Midway Atoll and Tern Island at French Frigate Shoals. In addition, considerable resources and 

staff time are devoted to controlling and eradicating invasive species on the islands. The 

eradication of the introduced grass Cenchrus echinatus at Laysan Island is an example of the 

success the FWS has had in its prevention and eradication programs (Rehkemper and Flint 

2002). The MMB has also taken steps toward preventing marine alien species introductions 

through the development of protocols for reducing the risk of transmission from vessel hulls, 

discharge, and equipment used throughout the Monument (Appendix I). 

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Preventing alien species from entering the NWHI ecosystem is the most important action to take in 

protecting the ecosystem from the impacts of invasive species. It is difficult, if not impossible, to 

predict whether an alien species will become invasive in a given environment. The probability of a 

successful eradication of an alien species in the marine environment is low. Therefore, efforts will 

be made to prevent all alien species from entering NWHI ecosystems. Monument regulations and 

permit requirements (based on best management practices) related to alien species target key 

vectors known for transporting alien species. Monument regulations related to preventing alien 

species introductions include a prohibition of the release or introduction of alien species into the 

Monument, and the State regulates any kind of vessel discharge (see Appendix I: HAR Title 13 

Chapter 76.2). Mandatory hull inspections and cleaning, if needed, is a Monument permit 

requirement for all ships authorized to enter the Monument. In addition, aircraft landing within 

the Monument are subject to inspection, as are all visitors and their luggage. 

In addition to regulations and permit conditions, outreach programs offer tools for enlisting the 

support of Monument permittees in protecting ecosystem integrity. (See also the action plans for 

Permitting, section 3.4.1; Ocean Ecosystems Literacy, section 3.5.4; Constituency Building and 

Outreach, section 3.5.2; and Marine Transportation and Aviation, section 3.3.3.) 

Need for Action 

Worldwide, invasive species are causing negative ecological and economic impacts. While not 

all alien species will become invasive in a given environment, it is difficult, if not impossible, to 

determine which will have harmful impacts. Therefore, a precautionary approach treats all alien 

species as potentially invasive other than a select few that have been cleared for human 

consumption. The need to prevent introductions of both marine and terrestrial alien species to 

the NWHI was raised as an issue of concern during public scoping meetings in 2002 and 

consistently during public scoping and comment periods since that time. Protecting the lands 

and waters of the NWHI from the impacts of alien species is critical to achieving the 

Monument’s primary goal of resource protection. 

While few alien species are established in the waters of the NWHI, global trends suggest that 

others could be introduced to this relatively pristine ecosystem. For example, marine debris 

serves as a vector for invasive species by providing a ride for sessile aliens and a microhabitat 

for other species that may arrive unattached but associated with the debris. By causing 

mechanical damage to reef structures, it may also create favorable habitat for the settling out and 

recruitment of nonnative species. Once established, invasive species can be extremely costly to 

control and would likely be impossible to eradicate. The remoteness of this area compounds the 

challenge. If appropriate prevention and control measures are not taken, alien species could 

continue to spread and may cause substantial damage to the health and integrity of marine 

ecosystems across the Hawaiian Archipelago. This action plan presents strategies and activities 

for addressing alien species needs in the Monument, as well as the NWHI region. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Strategies identified for achieving the desired outcomes range from preventing alien species 

introductions to monitoring, controlling, and eradicating existing alien species in the Monument, 

to detecting new invasive species threats. The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym 

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for the action plan title, “Alien Species” (AS). A summary of strategies and activities is provided 

in Table 3.3.2 at the end of this action plan. 

• AS-1: Conduct planning to prioritize by threat level, invasiveness, and practicality of 

eradication or control all nonnative organisms in the Monument over the life of the 

plan. 

• AS-2: Engage in active surveillance to monitor existing infestations and to detect new 

infestations of alien species over the life of the plan. 

• AS-3: Establish and enforce quarantine procedures appropriate for each site and 

habitat (terrestrial and aquatic) in the Monument to prevent the invasion or 

reinfestation of nonindigenous species over the life of the plan. 

• AS-4: Eradicate the house mouse population on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, within 

15 years. 

• AS-5: Prioritize infestations of alien terrestrial arthropods by species and locations 

and, within 5 years, develop and subsequently implement plans to control and if 

possible eradicate the highest-priority species. 

• AS-6: Control and eventually eradicate the highest-priority invasive plants in the 

terrestrial parts of the Monument within 15 years. 

• AS-7: Investigate methods to eventually eradicate aquatic invasive organisms already 

known to be present in the Monument, and conduct regular surveillance for new 

invasions. 

• AS-8: Conduct and facilitate research designed to answer questions regarding 

invasive species detection; effects on ecosystem; and alien species prevention, 

control, and eradication over the life of the plan. 

• AS-9: Engage Monument users and the public in preventing the introduction and 

spread of alien species. 

• AS-10: Participate in Statewide and Pacific regional alien species efforts. 

Strategy AS-1: Conduct planning to prioritize by threat level, invasiveness, and practicality 

of eradication or control all nonnative organisms in the Monument over the life of the plan. 

The consolidation of efforts and information and the standardization of methods for approaching 

invasive species problems will enable managers to prioritize invasive species projects, maintain 

better readiness to respond to new invasions, and prevent or reduce the probability of additional 

invasions. 

Activity AS-1.1: Complete an Integrated Alien Species Management plan. 

An Integrated Alien Species Management Plan for the Monument will be developed based on 

review of the effectiveness of existing protocols, and a critical geospatial threat analysis of alien 

species found within the NWHI and risks associated with new introductions from maritime 

traffic from the main Hawaiian Islands and interisland travel by aircraft or vessel. The plan will 

enable prioritization of alien species management actions. All necessary pesticide use proposals 

and Section 7 consultations will address terrestrial alien species control, eradication, and 

response to outbreaks within 2 years. The plan will be updated every 5 years. 

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Activity AS-1.2: Develop best management practices to prevent, control, and eradicate alien 

species. 

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The integrated alien species management plan will include a definition of specific protocols and 

requirements for preventing, controlling the spread of, and eradicating alien species, such as hull 

inspections and island quarantine protocols, a description of each partner’s role in alien species 

control, best management practices to prevent the spread of species within the NWHI, and 

priority areas. Species of concern will be identified. One concern the plan will address is the 

need to prevent the spread of alien species within the NWHI, especially from Midway Atoll. 

The plan will incorporate individual Co-Trustee guidelines, as appropriate, for the most effective 

and collaborative efforts possible. Memoranda of Agreement will be developed as necessary to 

adopt and implement agency guidelines. A rapid response plan that details complete areas of 

responsibilities for each managing partner upon the discovery of a new introduction needs to be a 

part of the plan. 

This plan will include strategies for a rapid risk assessment, possible methods for containment 

and eradication, and a provision for quickly accessing funding needed for the control or 

eradication attempt. Additionally, measures to reduce the chances that ships are transporting 

deleterious species should be encouraged even if no ballast water is intentionally discharged in 

the Monument. These measures may include exchange; pre-intake treatments such as filtration, 

ultraviolet treatment, or sonic treatment; postintake extermination of organisms; and regular 

cleaning of ballast tanks. Coordination with existing groups already working on some of these 

alien species issues will be a high priority to build upon the plans already drafted. Examples of 

these are the State of Hawai‘i Aquatic Invasive Species Management Plan (DLNR 2003a), the 

report on Reducing Potential Impact of Invasive Marine Species in the NWHI CRER (Godwin et 

al. 2006), the Assessment of the Potential Threat of Marine Nonindigenous Species in the NWHI 

(Eldredge 2005), the Draft Pacific Islands Rat Spill Contingency Plan (FWS in prep.), and the 

Draft Laysan Island Restoration Plan (Morin and Conant 1998). This activity will be closely 

linked with the field protocols developed in the Coordinated Field Operation Action Plan 

(section 3.6.3) and in the Maritime Transportation and Aviation Action Plan (section 3.3.3). 

Strategy AS-2: Engage in active surveillance to monitor existing infestations and to detect 

new infestations of alien species over the life of the plan. 

The two pressing needs in managing areas affected by invasive species are to identify what new 

species have recently arrived and become established and which alien species exhibit invasive 

characteristics and are, therefore, the most dangerous. Maintaining careful records of the 

distribution of known alien species and actively searching for new arrivals are essential to 

correctly prioritize response and restoration activities. 

Activity AS-2.1: Survey distributions and populations of known alien species at regular 

intervals. 

Closely monitoring existing invasions to determine their rate of spread and distribution relative 

to sensitive native species in the Monument will assist managers in prioritizing response actions. 

Monument staff will incorporate alien species data collection into existing annual ecosystem 

monitoring activities (see section 3.1.1, Marine Conservation Science Action Plan). 

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Activity AS-2.2: Maintain a GIS database of marine and terrestrial alien species. 

Data collected during alien species monitoring will be added to the Monument’s GIS database 

for tracking and analysis purposes (see section 3.6.2, Information Management Action Plan). 

This data will help track the spread of invasive species and the success of control measures 

instituted by Monument managers. 

Activity AS-2.3: Develop and implement monitoring protocols for early detection and 

characterization of new infestations.

In accordance with the Monument’s integrated alien species management plan, protocols will be 

developed and refined as necessary to monitor selected areas for possible alien species 

introduction. Discoveries of new alien species will be immediately reported to managers for 

appropriate response and incorporated into the Monument’s GIS database. 

Strategy AS-3: Establish and enforce quarantine procedures appropriate for each site and 

habitat (terrestrial and aquatic) in the Monument to prevent the invasion or reinfestation 

of nonindigenous species over the life of the plan. 

The benefits of preventing the introduction of a new species far outweigh its cost. Reducing the 

probability of alien species being transported to the Monument by developing effective 

quarantine protocols and enforcing them is tremendously important to maintain the biological 

integrity, diversity, and environmental health of the system. 

Activity AS-3.1: Enforce the use of existing quarantine protocols to prevent the introduction of 

invasive terrestrial species to the Monument.

Strict enforcement of existing policies (see Appendix I) requiring the use of island-specific soft 

gear that is brand new and has been frozen for 48 hours has resulted in a very low incidence of 

new invasive species being reported in the NWHI since the inception of the current program in 

1991 at all high quarantine sites (Nihoa Island, Mokumanamana, Gardner Pinnacles, Laysan 

Island, Lisianski Island, and Pearl and Hermes Atoll). 

Activity AS-3.2: Continue to require hull inspection and cleaning of all vessels, SCUBA gear, 

marine construction material, and instruments deployed in the Monument. 

A majority of recent marine invasive species to Hawai‘i are directly attributed to sessile and 

mobile biofouling organisms associated with hull fouling (Godwin et al. 2006). Therefore, 

prevention efforts will focus on introductions by vessel dispersal. These modes of dispersal 

include hulls and propellers, outboard motors, anchors and chains, fishing equipment, scientific 

dive gear, research floating platforms, and drydocks (Godwin et al. 2005). Inspections are 

mandatory for all permitted vessels prior to entering the Monument. A hull cleaning may be 

required prior to access. 

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Strategy AS-4: Eradicate the house mouse population on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, 

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Subsequent to the eradication of the black rat (Rattus rattus) at Midway Atoll and the Polynesian 

rat (Rattus exulans) at Kure Atoll, the house mouse (Mus musculus) on Sand Island, Midway, 

remains the only nonnative mammal left in the NWHI. Mice can cause high mortality in 

seabirds as large as albatrosses (Wanless et al. 2007.) In addition, Midway now hosts a 

translocated population of endangered Laysan ducks that are likely to be negatively affected by 

high mouse populations. Mice are also a major threat to native plants and terrestrial 

invertebrates. 

Activity AS-4.1: Produce a house mouse eradication plan within 5 years and procure 

appropriate permits for chosen eradication techniques. 

The eradication of introduced rodents from islands is routine, and the successful removal of 

black rats at Midway Atoll in recent years has provided a model for mouse eradication. Mice do 

present additional challenges, however, such as much smaller home range sizes and different 

foraging and reproductive ecology. A careful planning effort that emphasizes the minimization 

of effects to nontarget organisms at the site and the other biological differences that may affect 

the operation is necessary. 

Activity AS-4.2: Implement and complete house mouse eradication. 

All of Sand Island (1,128 acres) will be treated with rodenticide, with active management to 

prevent nontarget impacts to native wildlife. Surveys of the affected ecosystem components 

before and after the operation will provide a valuable demonstration of the effects of introduced 

mice on biological communities. 

Strategy AS-5: Prioritize infestations of alien terrestrial arthropods by species and 

locations and, within 5 years, develop and subsequently implement plans to control and if 

possible eradicate the highest-priority species. 

Introduced insects can have devastating effects on native plant and animal communities, but our 

state of knowledge of the ecology of native terrestrial invertebrates in the Monument and our 

understanding of technologies for controlling and eradicating introduced arthropod species are 

minimal. Planning and prioritization will improve our chances of successfully managing this 

group of invasive species while minimizing negative effects to native species. 

Activity AS-5.1: Within 5 years, formulate a priority list of locations and species and a 

treatment plan to control and eventually eradicate all social Hymenopterans, such as ants and 

wasps, at all islands in the Monument. 

Nineteen different species of ants have been recorded in the NWHI through the years (Nishida 

1998, 2000). All of these are alien, and some have the potential to be exceedingly invasive and 

damaging to native plants and animals. Some species are more dangerous to native species than 

others, and different species of ant may require different approaches to eradication or control in 

terms of toxicant delivery and effectiveness, seasonality, habitat choices, and differences in 

accessibility of the infested islands. Other Hymenopterans such as wasps also threaten 

indigenous species, particularly insects. 

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Activity AS-5.2: Conduct toxicant trials to evaluate their efficacy and document ecological 

effects at selected islands on highest-priority invasive species of ants and wasps. 

Specific toxicants for killing target species of ants and wasps and baits most palatable to the 

target species will be tested for efficacy and attractiveness before full-scale eradication efforts 

begin. 

Activity AS-5.3: Control and if possible eradicate the two introduced mosquito species at 

Midway Atoll within 10 years using methods prescribed in the Integrated Alien Species 

Management Plan. 

Reduction or elimination of mosquitoes (Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus) at 

Midway will benefit humans, nesting seabirds, and the endangered Laysan duck as well as other 

endangered bird species that might be translocated to Midway in the future (see the Threatened 

and Endangered Species Action Plan, section 3.2.1) by eliminating the vector for avian pox, 

which already occurs there, and other arthropod-borne diseases that may arrive in the future. 

Monument staff will continue to kill mosquito larvae in freshwater ponds and manage mosquito 

reproduction while avoiding harm to endangered Laysan ducks and other species of migratory 

waterbirds and shorebirds, using either mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) or bacterial control 

(Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis) depending on the wildlife species using each site. We will 

also eliminate mosquito breeding habitat by getting rid of standing water sources, where possible 

and appropriate, and by limiting access to standing water in pipes and cisterns. 

Activity AS-5.4: Develop and implement a plan to control and if possible eradicate the invasive 

gray bird locust wherever it occurs. 

Gray bird locusts (Schistocerca nitens) have been found on Nihoa Island, Mokumanamana, 

French Frigate Shoals, and Lisianski Island. To better respond to the threat posed by the 

invasive grasshopper Schistocerca nitens, Monument staff will continue to collect climate data 

along with grasshopper abundance measures to develop and continue improving a model for 

predicting outbreaks. Locust outbreaks are triggered by specific combinations of rainfall and 

drought, with egg laying favored by warm and dry conditions and survival of young 

grasshoppers favored by a flush of vegetation caused by rains at the appropriate time. Looking 

for correlations between grasshopper abundance and moisture and temperature conditions will 

allow better predictions of high locust populations. 

Activity AS-5.5: Protect endangered plants threatened by gray bird locust outbreaks at Nihoa 

Island by developing appropriate baits for localized application of toxicants to protect specific 

high-priority plant sites. 

Control of grasshoppers on islands such as Nihoa, with its many endemic species of arthropods, 

requires very careful choices of agents. Lower toxicity to nontarget organisms or specificity of 

delivery to just grasshoppers will be ensured. 

Strategy AS-6: Control and eventually eradicate the highest-priority invasive plants in the 

terrestrial parts of the Monument within 15 years. 

Invasive plants brought to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in the course of human activity 

have caused extensive damage through the years by displacing native plants and by changing the 

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structure and composition of the vegetation community to make it less useful as habitat for other 

native organisms. 

Activity AS-6.1: Control and eventually eradicate golden crownbeard and co-occurring weedy 

shrubs in all areas where they occur. 

Golden crownbeard (Verbesina encelioides) is an invasive annual plant that is a prolific seed 

producer and grows in extremely dense monotypic stands, in which most other plant species are 

excluded. The species is currently found at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes atolls. Control 

and eventual eradication will require breaking the cycle of the plant setting seed and then 

depleting the soil seed bank. This task is made much more difficult because of the high density 

of nesting seabirds, which precludes many mechanized forms of control. Areas to be treated by 

hand-pulling, mowing when appropriate, and treatment with glyphosate to prevent plants from 

setting seed and to exhaust the seed bank include 1,098 acres on Midway Atoll, 75 acres on Kure 

Atoll, and 34 acres on Pearl and Hermes Atoll. Several other invasive weeds are associated with 

Verbesina at Midway Atoll and will respond to the same treatments described above. These 

include Spanish needle or beggartick (Bidens alba and B. pilosa), spiny pigweed (Amaranthus 

spinosus), haole koa (Leucaena leucocephala), castor bean (Ricinus communis), and hairy 

abutilon (Abutilon grandifolium). 

Activity AS 6.2: Control and eventually eradicate the invasive grass sandbur from all areas of 

the Monument where it currently occurs. 

The invasive grass sandbur (Cenchrus echinatus) has been successfully eradicated at Laysan 

Island but currently exists at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes atolls, Lisianski Island, and 

French Frigate Shoals, so replicating the techniques described in Rehkemper and Flint (2002) 

will prevent the habitat degradation and loss of native plants and breeding seabirds at other sites 

in the NWHI where Cenchrus echinatus occurs. It can be eliminated by maintaining a yearround program of hand-pulling and limited spraying of glyphosate, to be scheduled so that no 

plant is ever allowed to go to seed and thus the seed bank is eventually depleted. 

Activity AS-6.3: Control and eventually eradicate Indian pluchea, Sporobolus pyramidatus, 

and swine cress from Laysan Island. 

The introduced shrub Pluchea indica will be eradicated by cutting and painting stumps with 

Garlon® in a gradual manner to make sure seabird nesting habitat provided now by Pluchea is 

replaced with other shrubs being used in the ecological restoration at Laysan, such as ‘ilima 

(Sida fallax). Replacing this invasive shrub with native plants providing the same structure used 

by many nesting birds at Laysan is prescribed by the Draft Laysan Restoration Plan (Morin and 

Conant 1998). Athens, Ward, and Blinn (2007) discovered the pollen of the native shrub Sida 

fallax, previously unknown to Laysan, in the 7,000-year pollen core they studied from Laysan 

Lake. ‘Ilima has a similar growth form to the Pluchea now favored by nesting red-footed 

boobies and great frigatebirds at Laysan Island. The introduced grass Sporobolus pyramidatus

and the herbaceous plant swine cress (Coronopus didymus) are vulnerable to hand-pulling and 

glyphosate treatments and also will be treated often enough to prevent any plant from setting 

seed. 

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Activity AS-6.4: Control and eventually eradicate prioritized alien plant species from Kure 

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A preliminary Draft Kure Atoll Management Plan (2007) prioritizes alien species that need to be 

eradicated. Ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolia) will be eradicated by cutting down trees and 

painting the stumps with Garlon 4®. Beach heliotrope (Tournefortia argentea) will be 

controlled in beach dune areas by selectively removing young trees that have not attained the 

size that seabirds utilize for nesting. Chemical (probably glyphosate) and mechanical methods 

will be used to control and in some cases eradicate Flaveria trinervia, Setaria verticillata, 

Chenopodium murale, Cynodon dactylon, Portulaca oleracea, and Boerhavia coccinea. Native 

plants propagated in Kure’s nursery will be used to replace the nonnative plants that are 

removed. 

Strategy AS-7: Investigate methods to eventually eradicate aquatic invasive organisms 

already known to be present in the Monument, and conduct regular surveillance for new 

invasions. 

Aquatic invasive species present difficulties to resource managers because the technology for 

detection and subsequent control and eradication is not well established in marine environments. 

The spread of these alien species is harder to contain than pests located on islands. These factors 

make locating, characterizing, and eliminating infestations of aquatic invasives a high priority. 

Activity AS-7.1: Map, control, and eventually eradicate invasive red algae where it occurs. 

Monument staff will map current distributions by using SCUBA or remotely operated vehicles 

and concentrate searches in areas where lobster trapping (commercial or research) occurred. 

Searching for the extent of the infestation of Hypnea musciformes should start in areas in the 

NWHI where commercial and research trapping for lobsters has occurred, because it is thought 

that the original transport of the invasive algae may have been made by traps previously 

deployed in the main Hawaiian Islands. 

Activity AS-7.2: Conduct surveillance at appropriate sites for snowflake coral and other 

incipient marine invasives. 

Based on preferred sites already infested by snowflake coral (Carijoa riisei) in other areas and 

on understanding of the species life history and dispersion methods, the MMB will devise a plan 

for surveying sites with the highest probability of invasion by this damaging species. 

Strategy AS-8: Conduct and facilitate research designed to answer questions regarding 

invasive species detection, effects on ecosystem, and alien species prevention, control, and 

eradication over the life of the plan. 

Some of the invasive species problems facing Monument managers are without precedent 

because of the kinds and sizes of habitats being managed, the species involved, and the logistical 

and technical difficulties of working there. Research designed to assist in adapting methods to 

the Monument situation is essential for managing this unique National Monument. 

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Activity AS-8.1: Support and conduct research on alien species detection and the effects of 

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Monument staff, working with subject experts, will determine which methodologies for alien 

species detection and control will be appropriate for use in the NWHI. As appropriate, staff will 

initiate or support research on alien species detection and documentation of their ecological 

effects. Some of this work will be based on previous research done in other places and 

methodologies that have already been developed. Research priorities will be determined through 

updates to the Monument Research and Monitoring Plan (see the Marine Conservation Science 

Action Plan, section 3.1.1). Research results on ecosystem effects will aid in prioritization of 

control and eradication efforts. 

Activity AS-8.2: Support and conduct research on invasive species prevention, control 

methods, and eradication techniques. 

The high level of protection afforded the Monument enables managers to exercise unprecedented 

levels of influence over practices that may prevent movement of invasive species into the area. 

Research to document the effectiveness of these measures will aid those managing other 

wildlands in choosing quarantine methods. Successful invasive species control and eradication 

programs require systematic investigations into the efficacy of techniques chosen and the 

ecological impacts of any methods used. 

Strategy AS-9: Engage Monument users and the public in preventing the introduction and 

spread of alien species. 

The organisms that have caused the greatest ecological disruption in the Monument all arrived as 

accidental introductions by humans. Educating all visitors to the area will go a long way toward 

preventing future harmful species from reaching Papahānaumokuākea and will be knowledge 

applicable wherever they go. 

Activity AS-9.1: Integrate alien species information into the overall outreach program for 

Monument permittees. 

As part of the outreach to all Monument permittees, Monument staff will develop outreach 

materials that include information on regulations, permit requirements, and best management 

practices related to alien species. The outreach program will help people identify alien species 

and understand the importance of, and methods for, preventing alien species introductions. A 

guide to marine and terrestrial alien species with photographs, modes of transport, reporting 

protocols, and best management practices will be used as part of the outreach program. Outreach 

may consist of printed materials, as well as presentations that are part of the permit application 

process and as taxonomy training for staff and volunteers. Such a program could be developed 

in partnership with the University of Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology to develop staff, 

partners, and volunteers with expertise in field identification of various marine taxa. This 

program could include a certification program that demonstrates identification skill sets. (See 

the action plans for Permitting, section 3.4.1; Enforcement, section 3.4.2; Ocean Ecosystems 

Literacy, section 3.5.4; Constituency Building and Outreach, section 3.5.2), and the Midway 

Atoll Visitor Services Plan (Appendix C).) 

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Activity AS-9.2: Integrate alien species information into general Monument outreach 

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Monument staff will integrate messages on alien species into general education and outreach 

materials when appropriate opportunities arise. For example, the “Navigating Change” 

curriculum and video series developed in 2004 contained information on the threat of invasive 

species to native ecosystems (see the Ocean Ecosystems Literacy Action Plan, section 3.5.4). 

Strategy AS-10: Participate in Statewide and Pacific regional alien species efforts. 

Invasive species management is a challenge shared by resource managers worldwide. Exchange 

of technologies, strategies, and case histories of successes and failures are invaluable for all 

ecosystem stewards. 

Activity AS-10.1: Build relationships with other resource managers and invasive species 

experts in the State, Nation, and other countries based on shared challenges concerning 

invasive species. 

Information exchange will maximize the effectiveness of collective resources and keep the MMB 

current on invasive species research, management, and outreach efforts throughout Hawai‘i and 

the Pacific. Because most vessels bound for the NWHI come from the main Hawaiian Islands, it 

is particularly important to support efforts there. Groups addressing invasive species in Hawai‘i 

include the Hawai‘i Invasive Species Council, the Alien Aquatic Organism Task Force, and the 

Coordinating Group on Alien Pest Species, among several others. The Pacific Invasives 

Network is addressing invasive species issues in Pacific islands. The State of Hawai‘i has hired 

an Aquatic Invasive Species Coordinator with funds from the National Aquatic Nuisance Task 

Force and has obtained Hawai‘i Invasive Species Council funds to support the Aquatic Alien 

Species Response Team. Communication with these groups will provide opportunities for 

information and resource sharing, and the implementation of standardized protocols for alien 

species reporting and monitoring species, including support for hull inspections, vessel 

monitorings, and other joint MMB activities. 

Monument staff will participate in public and professional conferences, working group meetings, 

and activities focused on reducing the impacts of alien species Statewide and in the Pacific 

region. 

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Table 3.3.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Alien Species

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy AS-1: Conduct planning to prioritize by threat level, invasiveness, 

and practicality of eradication or control all nonnative organisms in the 

Monument over the life of the plan. 

Activity AS-1.1: Complete an Integrated Alien Species Management Plan. FWS 

Activity AS-1.2: Develop best management practices to prevent, control, and 

eradicate alien species. 

NOAA 

FWS 

Strategy AS-2: Engage in active surveillance to monitor existing infestations 

and to detect new infestations of alien species over the life of the plan.

Activity AS-2.1: Survey distributions and populations of known alien species at 

regular intervals. 

FWS 

Activity AS-2.2: Maintain a GIS database of marine and terrestrial alien species. NOAA 

Activity AS-2.3: Develop and implement monitoring protocols for early detection 

and characterization of new infestations. 

NOAA 

Strategy AS-3: Establish and enforce quarantine procedures appropriate for 

each site and habitat (terrestrial and aquatic) in the Monument to prevent the 

invasion or reinfestation of nonindigenous species over the life of the plan.

Activity AS-3.1: Enforce the use of existing quarantine protocols to prevent the 

introduction of invasive terrestrial species to the Monument. 

FWS 

Activity AS-3.2: Continue to require hull inspection and cleaning of all vessels, 

SCUBA gear, marine construction material, and instruments deployed in the 

Monument. 

NOAA 

Strategy AS-4: Eradicate the house mouse population on Sand Island, Midway 

Atoll, within 15 years.

Activity AS-4.1: Produce a house mouse eradication plan within 5 years and 

procure appropriate permits for chosen eradication techniques. 

FWS 

Activity AS-4.2: Implement and complete house mouse eradication. FWS 

Strategy AS-5: Prioritize infestations of alien terrestrial arthropods by species 

and locations and, within 5 years, develop and subsequently implement plans 

to control and if possible eradicate the highest-priority species.

Activity AS-5.1: Within 5 years, formulate a priority list of locations and species 

and a treatment plan to control and eventually eradicate all social Hymenopterans, 

such as ants and wasps, at all islands in the Monument. 

FWS 

Activity AS-5.2: Conduct toxicant trials to evaluate their efficacy and document 

ecological effects at selected islands on highest-priority invasive species of ants 

and wasps. 

FWS 

Activity AS-5.3: Control and if possible eradicate the two introduced mosquito 

species at Midway Atoll within 10 years using methods prescribed in the Integrated 

Alien Species Management Plan. 

FWS 

Activity AS-5.4: Develop and implement a plan to control and if possible eradicate 

the invasive gray bird locust wherever it occurs. 

FWS 

Activity AS-5.5: Protect endangered plants threatened by gray bird locust 

outbreaks at Nihoa Island by developing appropriate baits for localized application 

of toxicants to protect specific high-priority plant sites. 

FWS 

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy AS-6: Control and eventually eradicate the highest-priority invasive 

plants in the terrestrial parts of the Monument within 15 years.

Activity AS-6.1: Control and eventually eradicate golden crownbeard and cooccurring weedy shrubs in all areas where they occur. FWS 

Activity AS 6.2: Control and eventually eradicate the invasive grass sandbur from 

all areas of the Monument where it currently occurs. 

FWS 

Activity AS-6.3: Control and eventually eradicate Indian pluchea, Sporobolus 

pyramidatus, and swine cress from Laysan Island. 

FWS 

Activity AS-6.4: Control and eventually eradicate prioritized alien plant species 

from Kure Atoll. 

State of Hawai‘i 

Strategy AS-7: Investigate methods to eventually eradicate aquatic invasive 

organisms already known to be present in the Monument, and conduct 

regular surveillance for new invasions.

Activity AS-7.1: Map, control, and eventually eradicate invasive red algae where it 

occurs. 

NOAA 

Activity AS-7.2: Conduct surveillance at appropriate sites for snowflake coral and 

other incipient marine invasives. 

NOAA 

Strategy AS-8: Conduct and facilitate research designed to answer questions 

regarding invasive species detection, effects on ecosystem, and alien species 

prevention, control, and eradication over the life of the plan.

Activity AS-8.1: Support and conduct research on alien species detection and the 

effects of invasive species on native ecosystems. 

NOAA

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS

Activity AS-8.2: Support and conduct research on invasive species prevention, 

control methods, and eradication techniques. 

NOAA

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Strategy AS-9: Engage Monument users and the public in preventing the 

introduction and spread of alien species.

Activity AS-9.1: Integrate alien species information into the overall outreach 

program for Monument permittees. 

NOAA 

Activity AS-9.2: Integrate alien species information into general Monument 

outreach materials. 

NOAA 

FWS 

Strategy AS-10: Participate in Statewide and Pacific regional alien species 

efforts.

Activity AS-10.1: Build relationships with other resource managers and invasive 

species experts in the State, Nation, and other countries based on shared challenges 

concerning invasive species. 

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Desired Outcome Links to other Action Plans 

Investigate, identify, and reduce potential threats to 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument from 

maritime and aviation traffic. 

 3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species

 3.3.2 Alien Species 

 3.3.4 Emergency Response 

 3.4.1 Permitting 

 3.4.2 Enforcement Current Status and Background 3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy With the exception of a few small boats at Midway 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations 

Atoll, French Frigate Shoals, and Kure Atoll, no vessels 

have home ports in the NWHI. Therefore, almost all marine traffic in the 

waters surrounding the NWHI is from transiting merchant vessels, research 

ships, and fishing vessels; with cruise ships, US Coast Guard ships, and 

recreational vessels visiting less frequently. An estimated 50 vessels pass 

through the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone surrounding the NWHI each day 

(Franklin 2008). Vessels in shallow waters are at higher risk of impacting 

resources. 

Links to Goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Goal 8 

A relatively small number of flights are conducted in the Monument. The MMB agencies 

charter on average 27 flights to French Frigate Shoals and 45 flights to Midway Atoll each year 

to transport supplies and personnel. The Coast Guard conducts regular enforcement overflights, 

often landing at Midway Atoll for refueling. A few research and management activities 

associated with remote sensing, mapping, wildlife survey, and marine debris detection may be 

conducted by aircraft each year. The planning associated with ship, small boat, and aircraft 

activities is discussed in the Coordinated Field Operations Action Plan, section 3.6.3. 

Need for Action 

All activities conducted in the Monument 

must meet the requirements articulated in 

Presidential Proclamation 8031, which 

established the Monument. Consistent with 

the spirit of the Proclamation, the MMB will 

investigate, identify, and reduce threats to 

the NWHI ecosystems. This includes 

regularly evaluating the effects ships and 

aircraft may have on the environment during 

the course of normal operations and 

identifying ways in which they can be 

reduced. The MMB is committed to 

minimizing the environmental footprint 

generated through maritime and aviation traffic. 

Ships and aircraft allow human access and make activities possible in the vast and remote NWHI. 

However, they also bring with them the possibility of threats or environmental hazards. Some of 

these are critical in nature and demand immediate response, such as groundings and fuel, chemical, 

or oil spills (see the Emergency Response Action Plan, section 3.3.4). Others are biological in 

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nature, such as the threat of alien species introductions through vessel hull fouling or ballast water 

discharge (see the Alien Species Action Plan, section 3.3.2), or interactions with protected marine 

species (see the Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan, section 3.2.1). This action plan 

establishes a framework to evaluate various activities conducted by ships and aircraft. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Two strategies have been identified for achieving the desired outcome of preventing and 

reducing impacts of vessels and aircraft operating in and transiting the NWHI. Strategies and 

activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Maritime Transportation and 

Aviation” (MTA). A summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.3.3 at the end of 

this action plan. 

• MTA-1: Increase awareness of navigational hazards and ecological sensitivity of the 

Monument. 

• MTA-2: Conduct studies to identify potential aircraft and vessel hazards and adopt 

measures to prevent adverse impacts. 

Strategy MTA-1: Increase awareness of navigational hazards and ecological sensitivity of 

the Monument. 

The banks, atolls, and other reefs of the NWHI support a diverse array of species assemblages 

forming a system that is unique in the world (Friedlander et al. 2005), for which catastrophic 

losses could occur from a major ship grounding or oil spill. The MMB continues to analyze 

threats to the ecosystem from vessel traffic (see activity MTA-2.1, below). The establishment 

of internationally recognized shipping designations will raise awareness about the sensitivity 

and dangers of operating in the Monument, as well as provide information about the incidence 

of unreported international vessels transiting the area.

Activity MTA-1.1: Coordinate implementation of domestic and international shipping 

designations with appropriate entities. 

On April 2, 2008, the Monument was designated as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) 

by the International Maritime Organization, a specialized agency of the United Nations. The 

U.S. proposal for PSSA designation was submitted in April 2007 for consideration by the 

International Maritime Organization's Marine Environment Protection Committee. PSSA 

designation has been granted to only 10 marine areas globally, including the marine areas 

around the Florida Keys, the Great Barrier Reef, and the Galapagos. 

Ship traffic has been identified as one of the primary anthropogenic threats to the vulnerable 

and valuable natural and cultural resources of the area. PSSA designation will augment 

domestic protective measures by alerting international mariners to exercise extreme caution 

when navigating through the area. 

As part of the PSSA designation process, in July 2007 the International Maritime 

Organization's Sub-Committee on Safety of Navigation approved U.S. proposals for associated 

protective measures, which consisted of (1) expanding and amending the six existing 

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recommendatory Areas to be Avoided in the NWHI, to enlarge the class of vessels to which 

they apply and augment their geographic scope, as well as add new Areas to be Avoided 

around Kure and Midway atolls; and (2) establishing a ship reporting system for vessels 

transiting the Monument, which is mandatory for ships entering or departing a U.S. port or 

place and recommendatory for other ships. The associated protective measures were adopted 

by the International Maritime Organization's Maritime Safety Committee in October 2007 and 

implemented in May 2008. The MMB will establish the infrastructure required to maintain an 

international ship reporting system, and to ensure that information regarding the PSSA 

designation will be incorporated into nautical charts and other information sources. 

Activity MTA-1.2: Develop boundary and zoning informational tools. 

Information on the PSSA designation, zones, boundaries, and regulations will be made available 

to Monument users to help them comply with all maritime transportation requirements. Global 

positioning system coordinates will be provided along with nonnavigational reference maps in 

the appropriate public documents. The MMB will work with NOAA’s Office of Coast Survey to 

update NOAA navigational charts as well as to provide appropriate information to mariners in 

the United States Coast Pilot®, a series of nautical reference books. 

Activity MTA-1.3: Provide necessary updates to nautical charts and the Notice to Mariners. 

The MMB will work with the appropriate NOAA and Coast Guard offices to update the 

nautical charts and Notice to Mariners to reflect Monument boundaries, zones, and other 

pertinent designations. The U.S. Notice to Mariners announces updates to National 

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and National Ocean Service charts using information collected 

from many sources, among them the Coast Guard Local Notices. The U.S. Notice to Mariners 

will contain only those chart corrections of interest to ocean-going vessels. 

Bathymetric data collected as part of research and monitoring in the NWHI may be used to 

update nautical charts. However, standards for data used for benthic habitat mapping are less 

rigorous than those applied to hydrographic survey, so most of the data collected to date in the 

NWHI is unlikely to be used for updating charts Monumentwide. Nautical charts can only be 

updated using bathymetric surveys that meet the standards of the International Hydrographic 

Organization. Therefore, when a survey is going to be conducted in an area where chart updates 

would be useful, the survey planners will work with the Hydrographic Surveys division of the 

Office of Coast Survey to determine whether the minimum requirements for International 

Hydrographic Organization standards for chart updates are compatible with the mandated 

research objectives. Often these standards are greater than the scientific survey needs, so if 

collaborative dual-purpose surveying is undertaken cost-sharing agreements will be sought with 

the Office of Coast Survey during survey planning. Nautical chart updates are made based on 

national prioritized needs, and it could be many years after a survey is completed before updates 

occur on all nautical charts in the NWHI. 

Strategy MTA-2: Conduct studies to identify potential aircraft and vessel hazards and 

adopt measures to prevent adverse impacts. 

While many aircraft and vessel hazards are known and can be reduced through regulations and 

permit requirements, more information needs to be gained about potential hazards to minimize 

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human impacts and maximize resource protection. Specific information gained through smallscale studies can strengthen or add specificity to regulations and permit requirements should they 

be needed. 

Activity MTA-2.1: Conduct studies on potential aircraft and vessel hazards and impacts. 

Various studies on potential aircraft and vessel hazards may be conducted based on priority 

threats identified in the comprehensive threat assessment discussed in the Enforcement Action 

Plan (section 3.4.2). This assessment will not only look at enforcement threats, but threats to 

Monument resources posed by aircraft and vessels. These studies may include, but are not 

limited to, the following: an anchoring/mooring location feasibility study; a long-term study on 

mandatory hull inspections and cleaning for all vessels accessing the Monument; studies on alien 

species introductions via aircraft; an assessment of permit reporting requirements for interactions 

with federally protected species and other wildlife; a light and noise study; and a discharge study. 

Activity MTA-2.2: Develop protocols and practices as needed and integrate with existing 

protocols for safe aircraft and vessel operations. 

The MMB will work with the ICC to convene a group of experienced aircraft and vessel 

operators to discuss safety for humans and wildlife during flight and boating operations. 

Existing protocols will be evaluated and other recommendations sought to reduce risks to 

personnel and the environment through pretrip training and standard procedures. New protocols 

and practices will be developed as needed. 

Activity MTA-2.3: Improve existing pre-access information for inclusion on the Monument 

website and in permit application instructions. 

The following information will be incorporated into pretrip training for Monument users and 

vessel operators: information on regulations and compliance, navigational hazards, zoning 

designations including waste discharge location and types, preventing the introduction of alien 

species, preventing and reporting interactions with protected species and other wildlife, 

preventing light and noise pollution, and preventing anchor damage to coral reefs and other 

benthic habitats and organisms. The information will be conveyed as appropriate to all vessel 

operators, captains, crews, and trip participants. The MMB will also incorporate this information 

into written materials to be distributed to potential visitors. (See the action plans for Permitting, 

section 3.4.1; Enforcement, section 3.4.2; Ocean Ecosystems Literacy, section 3.5.4; and 

Constituency Building and Outreach, section 3.5.2.)

Activity MTA-2.4: Conduct activities to improve energy and water conservation measures on 

all vessels operating in the Monument. 

The NOAA ship Hi‘ialakai sets an example for the fleet by increasing shipboard conservation 

measures each year. In 2006, the ship began a recycling program and began installing watersaving devices to reduce impacts to the Monument as well as other parts of the ocean in which 

the ship operates. In 2008, NOAA plans to test the use of biofuels and nonpetroleum-based 

hydraulic fluid on the Hi‘ialakai. The MMB will continue to work with ship managers on these 

measures and encourage similar practices for all vessels that operate in the Monument. 
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Table 3.3.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Maritime Transportation 

and Aviation

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy MTA-1: Increase awareness of navigational hazards and ecological 

sensitivity of the Monument. 

Activity MTA-1.1: Coordinate implementation of domestic and international 

shipping designations with appropriate entities. 

NOAA 

Activity MTA-1.2: Develop boundary and zoning informational tools. NOAA 

Activity MTA-1.3: Provide necessary updates to nautical charts and the Notice to 

Mariners. 

NOAA 

Strategy MTA-2: Conduct studies to identify potential aircraft and vessel 

hazards and adopt measures to prevent adverse impacts.

Activity MTA-2.1: Conduct studies on potential aircraft and vessel hazards and 

impacts. 

NOAA 

Activity MTA-2.2: Develop protocols and practices as needed and integrate with 

existing protocols for safe aircraft and vessel operations. 

NOAA 

Activity MTA-2.3: Improve existing pre-access information for inclusion on the 

Monument website and in permit application instructions. 

NOAA 

Activity MTA-2.4: Conduct activities to improve energy and water conservation 

measures on all vessels operating in the Monument. 

NOAA 

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3.3.4 Emergency Response and Natural Resource Damage Assessment Action 

Plan 

Links to other Action Plans 

 3.3.2 Alien Species 

 3.3.3 Maritime Transportation and Aviation 

 3.4.1 Permitting 

 3.6.2 Information Management 

Houei Maru #5 bow section. Wrecked in 1976 at Kure Atoll. Photo: Dan 

Suthers

Links to Goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3

Goal 4

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Desired Outcome 

Minimize damage to Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument resources through coordinated 

emergency response and assessment. 

Current Status and Background 

The history of shipwrecks and groundings is as old as the history of ships in 

the NWHI. Many islands and atolls are named for ships that went aground. 

This history continues, with four recent vessel groundings. The Paradise 

Queen and Grendel went aground at Kure Atoll in 1998 and 2007, 

respectively, and the Swordman II and Casitas went aground at Pearl and 

Hermes Atoll in 2000 and 2005, respectively. Natural disasters such as 

tropical cyclones and tsunamis, while rare, also threaten Monument natural, 

cultural, and historic resources. The remote locations in the Monument have logistically and 

financially challenged effective response and remediation efforts to date and will continue to be a 

primary factor in future emergency response efforts. 

Emergency response in the NWHI will b

coordinated under a series of plans and

systems, including the National Resp

Plan and the National Incident 

Management System. The National 

Response Plan establishes a 

comprehensive all-hazards approach to 

enhance the ability of the United States t

manage domestic incidents, including oil 

and hazardous chemical spills. This plan

incorporates the National Conti

Plan and its regulations governing how

oil pollution response is conducted by the

Coast Guard, EPA, the affected state, and

resource trustees, including NOAA and 

FWS. The NWHI are also covered by a 

more specific Area Contingency Plan for 

the Hawaiian Islands. 

F

Response Team, which makes response recommendations to the Federal On-Scene Coordinat

The Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources and the Hawai‘i Department of Health 

are the designated State representatives for all marine injury events. The Department of Health 

is the State On-Scene coordinator. These representatives work closely with all parts of FWS, 

NOAA, the State, and the MMB in making recommendations on the use of alternative respons

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technologies, such as dispersants. Unlike the State, NOAA and the Department of the Interior 

can only make consultative recommendations; they do not have a formal vote in that process. 

 

While the Monument and State regulations regulate access, they also provide a general 

exemption for activities necessary to respond to emergencies. The general exemption for 

emergencies allows for individuals responding to emergencies threatening life, property, or the 

environment to conduct necessary activities without the need for a permit. The general 

exemption only applies to the emergency response activity itself and does not apply to ancillary 

activities such as training for emergency response, salvage operations, remediation, or 

restoration. These ancillary actions also require timely response and would be covered under the 

appropriate agency’s conservation and management permit. 

Monument staff have access to resources-at-risk information that is of interest during 

contingency planning and spill response through the Sanctuaries Hazardous Incident Emergency 

Logistics Database System, a web-based decision support tool commonly referred to as 

“SHIELDS.” This tool includes regulatory information, contact lists, Geographic Information 

System (GIS) maps, environmental sensitivity indexes, information on resources at risk, and 

significant terrestrial and submerged historic and cultural resource and hazards data. 

Environmental Sensitivity Indices were last produced by NOAA for this area in 2001. 

Environmental Sensitivity Indices identify resources at risk on a seasonal and location basis and 

facilitate decisions about response options given threats to specific resources at risk. 

In addition, the Monument’s own GIS database of spatial resource data and the FWS Asset 

Maintenance Management System will be used to document this information. As the Monument 

continues to move toward a comprehensive biogeographic, cultural, and historic understanding 

of the NWHI, prevention and emergency response methods will improve (see the Information 

Management Action Plan, section 3.6.2). 

Need for Action 

In light of recent vessel grounding events in the NWHI and devastating natural disasters around 

the world, a clear need exists for the Monument to participate in emergency response efforts to 

address situations that threaten resources in and around the Monument. Grounded vessels and 

their related debris and/or pollution must be removed from the reefs as soon as possible to 

prevent damage to coral reef ecosystems and protected marine mammals, turtles, and seabirds. 

Emergency response for events such as vessel groundings; oil, fuel, or chemical spills; or 

releases of hazardous substances is addressed through the Area Contingency Plan for the 

Hawaiian Islands, which is a local plan under the larger structure of the National Response Plan. 

The Monument Co-Trustees and Interagency Coordinating Committee will seek to address 

NWHI responses as part of the Area Contingency Plan. 

Developing a response capacity for events that fall beyond the scope of the existing response 

structure of the Area Contingency Plan is necessary to support the mission of the Monument and 

the long-term protection of the resources of the NWHI. Events that may require an 

MMB-directed response include vessel groundings that neither pose the threat of hazardous 

release nor navigational hazard, as well as detrimental natural events such as disease outbreaks, 

severe storms, alien species introductions, or coral bleaching events. 

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This action plan describes strategies and activities to plan for and respond to an emergency 

within the established Incident Command System (ICS) for the region, and other unanticipated 

events that fall outside the scope of the Area Contingency Plan for the Hawaiian Islands. The 

MMB will establish a Monument Emergency Response and Assessment Team that will 

determine what types of emergencies are likely within the Monument. For each identified 

possible emergency, the type and scope of necessary response will be determined. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Within the context of the existing Area Contingency Plan and other informational tools, 

including SHIELDS, the MMB seeks to integrate its resources in a way that benefits both 

Monument resources and regional efforts. The MMB can contribute primarily through building 

an internal and interagency capacity to contribute to emergency response efforts and by 

providing relevant and current information regarding NWHI resources so that current data is 

readily available and accessible to the Regional Response Team and any unified command that 

may be established to address an incident. 

To coordinate Monument response to emergencies in a manner that minimizes damage to 

resources and mechanisms to assess damage, the following strategies have been identified. The 

strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Emergency Response 

and Natural Resource Damage Assessment” (ERDA). A summary of strategies and activities is 

provided in Table 3.3.4 at the end of this action plan. 

• ERDA-1: Create a Monument Emergency Response and Assessment Team within 1 year. 

• ERDA-2: Assess response needs for non-Incident Command System emergencies within 

2 years. 

• ERDA-3: Update and create, as necessary, Monument resource protection plans and 

protocols within 3 years. 

Strategy ERDA-1: Create a Monument Emergency Response and Assessment Team within 

1 year. 

An interagency team will be created and integrated with local responders from other Federal and 

State agencies to assess resource damage and respond to emergencies in the Monument. The 

Monument Emergency Response and Assessment Team (ERAT) will interface with the existing 

local area response team within the Incident Command. Whenever possible, the team will 

provide assistance and coordination in an actual response. Following an emergency, the ERAT 

will participate in an injury assessment with other Federal and State of Hawai‘i natural, cultural, 

and historic resource trustees. In the event of a response to and assessment of injury from a nonICS event, such as severe storm damage or coral bleaching, the team will conduct this 

assessment and initiate appropriate monitoring. 

Activity ERDA-1.1: Create a Monument Emergency Response and Assessment Team for ICS 

responses.

An ERAT will be created to interface with the existing local area response team within the 

Incident Command, Regional Response Team, and the Scientific Support Team. The team 

members will include specific species experts, law enforcement, and experts by area and habitat 

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type, and may recruit or consult other such experts as needed. Because this is an interagency 

effort, regular reports on the status of the ERAT will be made to the Interagency Coordinating 

Committee. The team will also assist in identification of primary and compensatory restoration 

options as well as implementation and oversight of restoration and monitoring. They will also 

develop standard operating procedures for onsite incident investigations, resource injury 

determination, asset conditions, emergency detection, assessment, and restoration. 

Activity ERDA-1.2: Acquire and maintain training and certification to complement and 

support the Regional Response Team. 

Under the Area Contingency Plan, the Regional Response Team is charged with preparedness for 

emergencies. This will necessitate training and certifications including ICS, Hazardous Waste 

Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPR), boat safety, flight safety, first responder, 

and first aid. 

Activity ERDA-1.3: Participate in emergency response and preparedness drills and meetings 

throughout the life of the plan. 

The ERAT will attend Regional Response Team meetings, as appropriate, to keep abreast of 

current communication and training and to build working relationships with agency staff that 

make up both the Regional Response Team and the Coast Guard agency staff. Participation in 

emergency response drills and other events will help with preparedness and better integration 

into the response process. One of the main functions of the ERAT is to provide information and 

data to minimize impact on Monument resources by the event or the response. 

Activity ERDA-1.4: Participate in damage assessment programs and training throughout the 

life of the plan. 

Damage assessment is an important component of any emergency response. The ERAT is 

expected to contribute in area and resource knowledge; therefore, training in natural resource 

damage assessment is necessary. The ERAT will work closely with the FWS Environmental 

Contaminants Program and Oil Spill Response Coordinator and the National Marine Sanctuaries 

Program Resource Protection Team in Silver Spring, MD, State On-Scene Coordinator, and State 

Department of Health Office of Hazard Evaluation and Emergency Response, as appropriate, to 

ensure that appropriate response, injury assessment, and restoration activities take place for any 

given case. This may include coordination with the Department of the Interior, FWS, NOAA 

Natural Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Programs, the Department of Justice, 

Coast Guard, and other Federal and State of Hawai‘i resource damage assessment programs to 

assess the extent of injury from a particular emergency event (see section 3.3.2, Alien Species 

Action Plan, activity AS-1.1). 

Strategy ERDA-2: Assess response needs for non-Incident Command System emergencies 

within 2 years. 

Activity ERDA-2.1: In the second year, determine the non-ICS emergencies and the necessary 

type and scope of responses. 

The ERAT will be responsible for determining what types of non-ICS emergencies are likely 

within the Monument. In the event of a needed response to natural events, such as disease 

outbreaks, severe storms, alien species introductions, coral bleaching events, or vessel 

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groundings not releasing oil or hazardous substances, the ERAT will need specialized protocols 

for response. For each identified possible non-ICS emergency, the type and scope of necessary 

response will be determined. 

Activity ERDA-2.2: Designate appropriate Monument personnel for each non-ICS response 

team. 

The team members will include specific species experts and experts by area and habitat type, and 

may recruit or consult other such experts as needed. Because this is an interagency effort, 

regular reports on the status of the response teams will be made to the Papahānaumokuākea 

Interagency Coordinating Committee. Each team member will also assist in the identification of 

primary and compensatory restoration options, if warranted, as well as implementation and 

oversight of restoration and monitoring. They will also develop standard operating procedures 

for injury determination, emergency detection, assessment, and restoration. 

Activity ERDA-2.3: Throughout the life of this plan, ensure that appointed personnel acquire 

and maintain training and certifications. 

Designated response personnel will maintain preparedness for emergencies. This will necessitate 

training and certifications including HAZWOPR, boat safety, flight safety, and first aid. 

Additional training considerations can include the Oil Pollution Act (OPA) and Natural Resource 

Damage Assessment (NRDA) process. 

Strategy ERDA-3: Update and create, as necessary, Monument resource protection plans 

and protocols within 3 years. 

Multiple agency and interagency emergency plans that apply to the Monument currently exist, 

such as continuity of operations plans, oil spill response plans, and aircraft incident plans. To 

ensure efficiency and effectiveness, the MMB agencies will coordinate and update these plans, 

as well as develop new plans or protocols as needed. 

Activity ERDA-3.1: Update and improve upon the Area Contingency Plan and the 

Environmental Sensitivity Indices. 

In concert with partners, MMB staff will update and improve upon the Area Contingency Plan that 

describes a range of potential emergency response actions in the NWHI and defines how the 

ERAT will assess and respond to an emergency. This plan will be presented to the area committee 

for inclusion as appropriate in the Area Contingency Plan. In order to determine and develop 

appropriate response strategies to emergencies in the NWHI, a workshop will be held involving all 

partner agencies, parties that are typically involved in responses, and individuals, organizations, 

and researchers who are active in the region or have a particular specialty area that relates to the 

NWHI. 

Activity ERDA-3.2: Within 3 years, create damage assessment criteria and protocols. 

Following an emergency, the ERAT will participate in an injury assessment with other Federal 

and State of Hawai‘i natural resource trustees. In the event of an MMB response to a non-ICS 

event, the team will conduct the assessment and initiate appropriate monitoring. Therefore, the 

ERAT will develop damage assessment criteria and protocols for the natural, cultural, and 

historic resources in the Monument. 

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Table 3.3.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Emergency Response and 

Natural Resource Damage Assessment

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy ERDA-1: Create a Monument Emergency Response and Assessment 

Team within 1 year. 

Activity ERDA-1.1: Create a Monument Emergency Response and Assessment 

Team for ICS responses. 

NOAA 

Activity ERDA-1.2: Acquire and maintain training and certification to complement 

and support the Regional Response Team. 

NOAA 

Activity ERDA-1.3: Participate in emergency response and preparedness drills and 

meetings throughout the life of the plan. 

NOAA 

Activity ERDA-1.4: Participate in damage assessment programs and training 

throughout the life of the plan. 

NOAA 

Strategy ERDA-2: Assess response needs for non-Incident Command System 

emergencies within 2 years.

Activity ERDA-2.1: In the second year, determine the non-ICS emergencies and 

the necessary type and scope of responses. 

NOAA 

Activity ERDA-2.2: Designate appropriate Monument personnel for each non-ICS 

response team. 

NOAA 

Activity ERDA-2.3: Throughout the life of this plan, ensure that appointed 

personnel acquire and maintain training and certifications. 

NOAA 

Strategy ERDA-3: Update and create, as necessary, Monument resource 

protection plans and protocols within 3 years.

Activity ERDA-3.1: Update and improve upon the Area Contingency Plan and the 

Environmental Sensitivity Indices. 

NOAA 

Activity ERDA-3.2: Within 3 years, create damage assessment criteria and 

protocols. 

NOAA 

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3.4 Managing Human Uses 

3.4.1 Permitting Action Plan 

3.4.2 Enforcement Action Plan 

3.4.3 Midway Atoll Visitors Services Action Plan 
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Globally, pollution, coastal development, resource extraction, climate change, natural hazards, 

and alien species introductions threaten terrestrial and marine ecosystems. As many of these 

threats are associated with human activities, a common element shared among most protected 

areas is the need to regulate human activities to minimize impacts. Indeed, this is the reason 

most protected areas are established. In certain sites, protection is achieved through prohibiting 

all access to a given area. In other areas, education may be the sole tool used to lessen the 

impacts people have on a given environment. Most protected areas utilize an assortment of 

management strategies, including zoning, permit authorization, regulations, and conservation 

plans to manage human activities and their potential impacts. 

As a remote site without a significant resident or visitor population, the Monument has an 

advantage over many other protected areas in that the number of people and overall activity 

occurring is relatively low. Conversely, the Monument’s remote location presents surveillance 

and enforcement challenges for effective management. 

The NWHI have a long history of human activity, including early discovery and use by Native 

Hawaiians; exploitation of terrestrial and marine resources beginning in the late 1800s; commercial 

fishing beginning in the mid-1900s; and military activity during World War II. More recent 

activities in the NWHI include the U.S. Navy’s use of Midway Atoll, the U.S. Coast Guard’s 

stations at Kure Atoll and Tern Island, an ecotourism operation at Midway Atoll, and a commercial 

lobster fishery that closed in 2000. Current activities are limited primarily to management 

activities by jurisdictional agencies, including habitat conservation and management, research, 

education, Native Hawaiian practices, recreation and historic preservation at Midway Atoll, and 

fishing by a small commercial bottomfish and pelagic trolling fleet. 

Human activities in the Monument are managed through a framework of regulations, permitting, 

zoning, and enforcement. The three action plans in this section focus on regulating activities 

through permits and compliance, through enforcement surveillance of activities in the 

Monument, and under a visitor services program at Midway Atoll. Zoning through Special 

Preservation Areas, Ecological Reserves, and the Midway Atoll Special Management Area 

establish spatial restrictions on human activities and are described in more detail in section 2.0. 

The Monument regulations prohibit access except for: passage without interruption; activities 

and exercises of the Armed Forces (including those of the United States Coast Guard); activities 

necessary to respond to emergencies or necessary for law enforcement; and, until June 15, 2011, 

bottomfish fishing conducted pursuant to a valid permit issued by NOAA. Monument permits 

are required for activities conducted in the Monument. Prior to the establishment of the 

Monument, each jurisdictional agency would have considered and issued separate permits for the 

same activity. Development of the Monument permit application process and application 

instructions was completed within a year of the Monument being designated. This process 

produced a single permit application for all applicants and a general permit template used by CoTrustees when issuing permits throughout the Monument. Most of the Co-Trustee agency 

mandates and policies are met by this general template. Those that are not met are addressed by 

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special conditions that are added in addition to the general terms and conditions listed on each 

permit. 

Compliance with regulations, laws, and permit requirements for all activities is enforced using 

surveillance, Vessel Monitoring System tracking, relevant technology, operations plans, and 

penalties. Co-Trustee and interagency cooperation on enforcement will become increasingly 

integrated and coordinated, allowing for greater capacity, effectiveness, and efficiency over time. 

With the establishment of the Monument, Midway Atoll takes on the additional role of providing 

a “window” so that visitors can learn about and enjoy a small portion of the largest fully 

protected marine managed area in the world. The Co-Trustees remain committed to offering a 

high quality, small-scale visitor program at Midway Atoll. By physically experiencing the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, visitors will return home with a personal connection and 

commitment to protecting and conserving the Monument’s unique resources. 

Each action plan consists of a set of strategies to address a desired outcome. The desired 

outcomes of these action plans over the 15-year planning horizon are: 

• Permitting: Implement an effective and integrated permit program for 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument that manages, minimizes, and 

prevents negative human impacts by allowing access only for those activities 

consistent with Presidential Proclamation 8031 and the implementing regulations of 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

• Enforcement: Achieve compliance with all regulations within Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument. 

• Midway Atoll Visitor Services: Offer visitors opportunities to discover, enjoy, 

appreciate, protect, and honor the unique natural, cultural, and historic resources of 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

Action plans described in this section will be implemented in close coordination with Co-Trustee 

partners and in conjunction with other priority management needs.
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Desired Outcome Links to other Action Plans 

Implement an effective and integrated permit program 

for Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

that manages, minimizes, and prevents negative 

human impacts by allowing access only for those 

activities consistent with Presidential Proclamation 

8031 and the implementing regulations of the 

Monument. 

 3.1.1 Marine Conservation Science 

 3.2.1 Threatened and Endangered Species 

 3.2.2 Migratory Birds 

 3.2.3 Habitat Management and Conservation 

 3.4.2 Enforcement 

 3.4.3 Midway Atoll Visitors Services 

 3.5.1 Agency Coordination 

 3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

 3.6.2 Information Management 

Current Status and Background Links to Goals

The Monument permit program is an integral part of a management framework 

based on Monument regulations (see Appendix G), other Federal and State 

regulations, zoning, enforcement, goals, Native Hawaiian cultural values, and 

collaboration within the MMB. This permit program is designed to ensure longterm protection of the NWHI by providing the Co-Trustees with a management 

tool to regulate, monitor, and understand the impacts of permitted activities on 

the ecosystem. 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Goal 5 

Goal 7 

Goal 8 

According to Monument regulations (50 CFR Part 404), access to the Monument for activities, 

with limited exceptions, requires a Monument permit. Prior to Monument designation, many of 

these activities would have required multiple access permits from different agencies. Permits 

authorized for activities conducted within the National Wildlife Refuges, the State’s 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine Refuge, the State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll, or the 

Reserve may have required one or more permits issued by FWS, the State of Hawai‘i, or the 

Reserve, respectively. However, with the advent of the Monument, all proposed activities are 

reviewed and considered jointly by all three Co-Trustees. 

 

Development and implementation of a unified Monument permit application, application 

instructions, and Monument permit template occurred within the first year following Monument 

designation. All permitted activities are authorized under the issuance of a single Monument 

permit signed by designees of the three Co-Trustees. Most of the Co-Trustee agency mandates 

and policies are met by this unified permit. Those that are not met by the permit general terms 

and conditions are added as special conditions. The Co-Trustees issue Monument permits under 

the authority of the implementing regulations for the Monument, as described in 50 CFR 404.11 

and consistent with all other applicable State and Federal laws. 

Previously, the State of Hawai‘i Land Board was the primary public forum for notification of 

Monument permit applications under consideration by Co-Trustees. To ensure the general 

public has access to and is informed of all permit applications under review, a policy on public 

posting was developed and finalized in November 2007 (Appendix A). This policy was 

developed jointly by the MMB to guide public notification of permit applications for all 

proposed activities in the Monument. 

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All activities in the Monument, with limited exceptions, require a permit (see Monument 

regulations, Appendix G). Activities are either prohibited, excluded (no permit is needed), or 

regulated (must be considered through permitting process). Prohibited activities include: 

• exploring for, developing, or producing oil, gas, or minerals within the Monument; 

• using or attempting to use poisons, electrical charges, or explosives in the collection or 

harvest of a Monument resource; 

• introducing or otherwise releasing an introduced species from within or into the 

Monument; and 

• anchoring on or having a vessel anchored on any living or dead coral with an anchor, 

anchor chain, or anchor rope. 

Exempted activities include: 

• response to emergencies threatening life, property, or the environment; 

• law enforcement purposes; 

• activities and exercises of the Armed Forces; and 

• passage without interruption. 

Domestic vessels wishing to pass though the Monument must meet notification requirements, 

including notification by phone or email at least 72 hours prior to entry and within 12 hours of 

leaving the Monument (see Appendix G, Monument Regulations). 

The Proclamation allows the Secretaries of the Interior and Commerce to issue permits for 

sustenance fishing outside of any Special Preservation Area as a term or condition of any permit 

issued, if the activity is conducted in a manner compatible with the Proclamation. Sustenance 

fishing in the Midway Atoll Special Management Area can only permitted if it is determined by 

the Director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (or designee) to be compatible with the 

purposes for which the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge was established. In accordance 

with these specifications, a draft FWS Appropriateness Finding and Compatibility Determination 

for this proposed activity is included in Appendix D. 

The pre-existing federally regulated commercial bottomfishing (permitted under the authority of 

NOAA Fisheries) does not require a Monument permit. However, in addition to compliance 

with the fisheries regulations, these permittees must also comply with the Proclamation and 

Monument regulations. The Proclamation closes the remaining commercial bottomfish fishery 

in June 2011. 

Regulated activities must be considered in the permit process. Under Monument permit criteria, 

access may be permitted for six types of activities. These are: 

• research, 

• education, 

• conservation and management, 

• Native Hawaiian practices, 

• special ocean uses, and 

• recreation. 

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Research 

Research permits are required for activities designed to enhance understanding of Monument 

resources and activities and improve resource management decisionmaking. Priority is given to 

research proposals that help meet the management needs of the Monument and its Co-Trustees, as 

identified in this Monument Management Plan or the Monument Natural Resources Science Plan 

(see section 3.1.1, Marine Conservation Science Action Plan). The types of activities that can be 

conducted under a research permit include but are not limited to biological inventories, 

ecosystem-based research, benthic mapping, habitat characterization, restoration investigations, 

cultural studies, and terrestrial and marine archaeological research. 

In the event sampling is requested, research proposals will be evaluated to ensure proposed 

sample sizes allow for the effective application of statistical techniques while minimizing harm 

to the population or ecosystem under study. Collection of samples must be justified and meet 

Proclamation Findings. 

Education 

Education permits are required for activities that further the educational value of the Monument. 

Educational activities may enhance the understanding of the NWHI ecosystems, improve 

resource management decisionmaking, promote Native Hawaiian knowledge and values, or aid 

in enforcement and compliance efforts. Permits are considered for activities that have clear 

educational or public outreach benefits to understand Monument resources or management, and 

that promote “bringing the place to the people rather than the people to the place.” Some 

examples of potentially eligible projects are teacher-at-sea programs, distance learning projects, 

and university classes. 

Conservation and Management 

Conservation and Management permits are required for general management of the Monument. 

This may include activities associated with resource management, such as field station 

operations, marine debris removal, development and maintenance of infrastructure, species and 

habitat restoration, and long-term resource monitoring programs such as monitoring of 

endangered species and seabird populations, and terrestrial native plant communities (see section 

3.2.3, the Habitat Management and Conservation, section 3.2.2, Migratory Bird, and section 

3.2.1, Threatened and Endangered Species action plans). Conservation and Management permits 

provide a mechanism to respond and follow-up to urgent events in the Monument that may not 

have been anticipated, such as response to vessel groundings, coral bleaching episodes, and 

invasive species detection. 

Native Hawaiian Practices 

Permits are required for Native Hawaiian cultural practices. The Native Hawaiian Cultural 

Working Group, working closely with the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, is currently developing a 

process whereby permit applications will be reviewed by select cultural practitioners or cultural 

resource managers. The findings and criteria in Proclamation 8031 and regulations (see 

Appendices F and G) state that Native Hawaiian Practice permits must be noncommercial, deemed 

appropriate and necessary by traditional standards, benefit the NWHI and Native Hawaiian 

community, perpetuate traditional knowledge, and restrict the consumption of harvested resources 

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from the Monument. Permit conditions and protocols will continue to be developed by the CoTrustees and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs through consultation with the Native Hawaiian 

Cultural Working Group and the Native Hawaiian community, as appropriate. (See section 3.1.2, 

the Native Hawaiian Culture and History and section 3.5.3, Native Hawaiian Community 

Involvement Action Plans.) 

Special Ocean Use 

Special Ocean Use permits are required for projects related to commercial ocean uses, including 

ecotourism and documentary filmmaking that have a net benefit to the Monument. Special Ocean 

Use is defined as any activity or use of the Monument that is engaged in to generate revenue or 

profits for one or more of the persons associated with the activity or use. These permits are not 

restricted to activities in the ocean. 

Special Ocean Use permits must meet the additional findings stated in Monument regulations 

(see Appendix G). These findings include the requirement to provide public notice for any 

activity not previously identified as a Special Ocean Use and all activities being considered as 

Special Ocean Use for locations outside of Midway. In addition, the Co-Trustees will authorize 

the conduct of a Special Ocean Use permit activity only if that activity is compatible with the 

purposes for which the Monument is designated and is consistent with the protection of 

Monument resources. Special Ocean Use permits for activities being permitted for the first time 

will be restricted to pilot projects. Pilot projects will be closely monitored and restricted in 

duration. Only after a pilot project for that category has been determined by the Co-Trustees to 

meet the criteria in Proclamation 8031, can subsequent Special Ocean Use permits be issued for 

the category of activity. Activities that could potentially qualify as another permit type (e.g., 

research or education) but that directly generate revenue or profit for one of the persons involved 

in the activity must be permitted as Special Ocean Use. Furthermore, Special Ocean Use 

proposals involving activity outside of the Midway Atoll Special Management Area must be for 

educational or research purposes that directly benefit the conservation and management of the 

Monument. These activities may not involve the use of a commercial passenger vessel, defined 

in the Monument regulations as “a vessel that carries individuals who have paid for such 

carriage.” 

Recreation 

Recreational permits are required for all recreational activities and are limited to the Midway 

Atoll Special Management Area. In addition to the general findings, recreational activities may 

not be associated with any for-hire operation or involve any extractive use. Examples of 

activities that may be permitted under a recreational activity permit include snorkeling, SCUBA 

diving, wildlife viewing, and kayaking. 

FWS, in close consultation with the MMB, has updated the Interim Visitor Services Plan for the 

Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, the Battle of Midway National Memorial, and the 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument’s Midway Atoll Special Management Area 

(see section 3.4.3, the Midway Atoll Visitor Services Action Plan, and Appendix C). This plan 

details the types of recreational activities permitted within the Midway Atoll Special 

Management Area. This plan also describes the permitting process for recreational activities, the 

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number of annual recreational visitors expected within the Midway Atoll Special Management 

Area, and accommodations on Midway Atoll. 

Findings and Review Criteria 

Monument findings and review criteria must be met by all applicants to demonstrate that their 

proposed activities are consistent with the Proclamation and the goals of the Monument (see 

section 2, Management Framework). The MMB may require applicants to submit additional 

information, apply special conditions, or undergo additional training. To issue a permit, the 

Secretaries must determine the following: 

• The activity can be conducted with adequate safeguards for the resources and ecological 

integrity of the Monument. 

• The activity will be conducted in a manner compatible with the management direction of 

the Proclamation, considering the extent to which the conduct of the activity may 

diminish or enhance Monument resources, qualities, and ecological integrity; any 

indirect, secondary, or cumulative effects of the activity; and the duration of such effects. 

• There is no practicable alternative to conducting the activity within the Monument. 

• The end value of the activity outweighs its adverse impacts on Monument resources, 

qualities, and ecological integrity. 

• The duration of the activity is no longer than necessary to achieve its stated purpose. 

• The applicant is qualified to conduct and complete the activity and mitigate any potential 

impacts resulting from its conduct. 

• The applicant has adequate financial resources available to conduct and complete the 

proposed activity and mitigate any potential impacts resulting from its conduct. 

• The methods and procedures proposed by the applicant are appropriate to achieve the 

proposed activity’s goals in relation to their impacts to Monument resources, qualities, 

and ecological integrity. 

• The applicant’s vessel has been outfitted with a mobile transceiver unit approved by 

NOAA Office of Law Enforcement and complies with the requirements of Proclamation 

8031. 

• There are no other factors that would make the issuance of a permit for the activity 

inappropriate.

Additional findings are required for Native Hawaiian Practices, Special Ocean Use, and 

Recreation applications. See Appendix G for additional findings from regulations. 

Permit applications include requests for information that will assist the Co-Trustees in 

determining how the proposed activities are compatible with conservation and management of all 

of the resources of the Monument: natural, historic and cultural. 

Permit General Terms and Conditions 

Permitted activities are subject to general terms and conditions that satisfy Proclamation 8031 and 

Monument regulations (see Appendices F and G) and comply with MMB agency mandates and 

policies. All authorized permits must meet all applicable Federal and State regulations. As 

previously mentioned, those mandates and policies that are not met within the general permit terms 

and conditions are addressed by special conditions. General terms and conditions in Monument 

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permits address the following categories, as required by Monument regulations, Proclamation 

8031, and other MMB agency mandates and policies: 

• Monthly, annual, and summary reporting 

• Submission of a copy of all data acquired under each respective Monument permit 

• Adherence to all Federal, State, and local laws and regulations 

• Coordination with Monument staff while in the field 

• Prohibition of alcohol possession and consumption in Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife 

Refuge 

• Adherence to hazardous material storage and transport guidelines 

• Requirement to demonstrate proof of insurance, or financial capability to cover 

evacuation in the event of an emergency, medical evacuation, or weather 

• Requirement for permittee(s) to attend a cultural briefing on the significance of 

Monument resources to Native Hawaiians 

• Prohibition against the disturbance of any cultural or historic property 

Additional terms for entering the Monument via vessel: 

• Maintenance of cruise log 

• Notification of entry and exit 

• Requirement to demonstrate proof of vessel hull, tender, gear, ballast water, and rat 

inspections 

• Vessel Monitoring System requirements 

Permit Special Terms and Conditions 

Each permit may contain special terms and conditions that place additional restrictions on the 

permitted activity to minimize or eliminate impacts to Monument resources or qualities. Permits 

may contain terms and conditions addressing sustenance and subsistence fishing reporting 

requirements, permitted activity locations, scientific collection methods, maintenance and retrieval 

of temporary structures in the Monument, or disinfection of gear and collecting equipment between 

permitted activity locations. Special terms and conditions are placed in permits depending on the 

nature of the permitted activity request and the location and duration of activities permitted to take 

place in the Monument. 

Permit Tracking 

The MMB will track and monitor all permitted activities to evaluate potential impacts to 

Monument resources. A multiagency-accessible database that records and tracks information on all 

Monument permits is currently under development. Application and reporting data from all 

permits will provide information on the nature, extent, and location of activities occurring in the 

Monument. This information is essential for managers to make informed decisions about 

evaluating types and locations of activities proposed in the Monument. It also provides 

necessary information to conduct a geospatial assessment of impacts and to assess cumulative 

impacts over time. 

 

Need for Action 

The Monument is a vast protected natural area, largely uninhabited by humans, and rich in 

biodiversity, history, and culture. The NWHI have a history of Native Hawaiian cultural access 

and practices, as well as protections interspersed with periods of commercial exploitation and 

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military use. With the advent of new technology and dedicated resources, there is increased 

awareness and interest in the region. Access to the Monument for all activities, with limited 

exceptions, requires a Monument permit. 

The Monument permit program allows for a comprehensive review of proposed activities and will 

be administered to ensure compliance with Presidential Proclamation 8031, as well as other 

applicable Federal and State laws and regulations. Efforts are ongoing to make the permitting 

process more efficient for applicants, the MMB, and the public while maintaining safeguards for 

the ecosystem. The following strategies and activities are designed to ensure that the permit 

program is refined in accordance with Monument requirements and policies within existing law 

and that permit data are effectively tracked and collected for management purposes. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Three strategies have been identified to achieve the desired outcome to implement an effective 

and integrated Monument permit program that manages, minimizes, and prevents negative 

human impacts by allowing access only for those activities consistent with the purpose of the 

Monument. The strategies and activities are coded with the letter “P,” for “Permitting.” A 

summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.4.1 at the end of this action plan. 

• P-1: Refine, implement, and improve the permit process to integrate all State and Federal 

regulations into a single permitting process on an ongoing basis. 

• P-2: Track and monitor permitted activities and their impacts. 

• P-3: Coordinate information, outreach, and education regarding Monument permits and 

regulations. 

Strategy P-1: Refine, implement, and improve the permit process to integrate all State and 

Federal authorities into a single permitting process on an ongoing basis. 

The strategy of the Monument permitting program is to integrate the previous three 

jurisdictionally based permitting programs into one. A joint permit application, application 

instructions, and permit template were approved and implemented (see Appendix A). The 

permitting program for the Monument allows for a comprehensive review of proposed activities to 

ensure compliance with the regulatory provisions of the Proclamation as well as other applicable 

Federal and State laws and regulations. Efforts are ongoing to make the permitting process more 

efficient for both applicants and MMB while maintaining safeguards for the natural, cultural, and 

historic resources of the Monument. 

Activity P-1.1: Effectively and promptly review permit applications to ensure informed permitrelated decisionmaking across Co-Trustee agencies. 

Monument staff serve as the central portal through which all permit inquiries and applications are 

received and processed. These staff will continue to work together to discuss and coordinate 

permit assessment and review efforts by each Trustee agency. Monument staff will bring all 

permits and permit-related issues before the MMB on a regular basis for discussion and 

decisionmaking. 

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Activity P-1.2: Refine and update the permit application, instructions, and permit template 

through feedback from permittees and other users. 

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The permit application was developed with extensive input from legal counsel and the MMB to 

meet agency requirements. Each year, the permit application, instructions, and template will be 

evaluated and updated based on lessons learned from the previous year. In addition, feedback 

from permittees and applicants will be gathered on an annual basis to maintain the most efficient 

and comprehensible permit program possible. 

Activity P-1.3: Coordinate appropriate environmental review for all permitted 

activities. 

NEPA, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), and 

Chapter 343, Hawai‘i Revised Statues (“Environmental Impact Statements”), are planning tools 

used to integrate environmental concerns into Federal and State actions and programs, using 

environmental quality as the essential component. NEPA requires Federal agencies to consider 

the impacts of their actions on the natural and human environment prior to making final 

management decisions. Hawai‘i requires additional analysis on State agency actions’ potential 

impacts on the State’s resources and Native Hawaiian culture, and traditional and customary 

rights. The issuance of Monument permits requires environmental review compliance in the 

form of one of three documents; Environmental Impact Statements, Environmental Assessments, 

or Categorical Exclusions. When State agency actions are involved in a permit, a Cultural 

Impact Assessment is also required. Currently, the Federal Co-Trustees follow their individual 

agency procedures to ensure appropriate environmental review for all permitted activities. 

However, the Monument staff along with the MMB and other Co-Trustee experts will work to 

develop an efficient integrated process by which all Co-Trustee agencies can continue fulfilling 

their respective environmental review requirements and effectively document compliance for 

every Monument permit. 

Activity P-1.4: Engage outside experts in review of permit applications. 

External reviews of Monument permit applications can provide valuable and unbiased technical 

evaluations of proposed activities. The MMB utilizes technical experts to consult on permit 

applications. This practice will continue by identifying and engaging a pool of experts trained in 

Monument-related subject matter including policy, purpose, and Proclamation Findings. 

Activity P-1.5: Investigate individual and vessel insurance and other avenues to fund mitigation 

of any damages associated with permitted activities. 

Activities conducted throughout the Monument pose varying degrees of risk to the resources of 

the Monument. Medical evacuations, vessel groundings, alien species introductions, and 

hazardous material spills are among the possible scenarios that might be mitigated by some form 

of insurance. The MMB will develop joint criteria for insurance that may be required before a 

permit authorizes activities in the Monument. 

Strategy P-2: Track and monitor permitted activities and their impacts. 

Detailed tracking of all permitted activities assists the Monument Co-Trustees in making 

informed decisions about the types and locations of activities permitted in the Monument. It also 

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provides necessary information to conduct a geospatial assessment of impacts and to assess 

cumulative impacts over time. 

Activity P-2.1: Develop a Geographic Information System (GIS)-based permit tracking system. 

The Monument will develop a GIS-based system to track and monitor NWHI permit data to aid 

enforcement and management decisions. This system and associated data will be established to 

integrate into the Co-Trustee agencies’ individual databases. Each agency will enter and 

document permit data consistent with the individual agency’s requirements. Through datasharing agreements which are consistent with applicable Federal and State laws and 

confidentiality considerations, the GIS-based tracking system will include partner agency 

information to ensure a comprehensive portrayal of activities in the region (see the Information 

Management Action Plan, section 3.6.2). The MMB will also work together to provide input on 

cruise dates and locations and shared resources to prevent redundancy (see the Coordinated Field 

Operations Action Plan, section 3.6.3). 

Activity P-2.2: Analyze permit data to inform management decisionmaking. 

The extent to which current and future levels of activity in the NWHI have the potential to cause 

cumulative impacts on the ecosystem is an active area of investigation. To assist in ecosystembased management decisionmaking, a system will be developed to analyze data generated from 

each permit application and reporting requirements to provide the insight needed to make 

informed management choices about appropriate levels and locations of permitted activities. 

This system will allow Monument Co-Trustees and partners to better understand uses and use 

patterns in the Monument, and to develop methodology for assessing the cumulative impacts 

caused by various activities. Analyses conducted with these data will also be used to modify 

reporting requirements and make them more relevant, as well as aiding enforcement and other 

program area planning efforts. 

Special Ocean Use permits issued as pilot projects will require additional tracking to develop an 

understanding of how often each category of Special Ocean Use activity occurs in the 

Monument, as well as the location of these activities. This information will be used to conduct 

ecological and socioeconomic evaluations to aid in management decisions on authorizing future 

Special Ocean Use permits. 

Activity P-2.3: Analyze permit data for patterns of compliance. 

The MMB will regularly review permit files for patterns of compliance, and compliance will be 

evaluated every 2 years (see the Enforcement Action Plan, section 3.4.2). Specifically, the 

MMB should undertake a technical analysis of the effectiveness and consistency of the permits 

that were issued compared to the permitting criteria. Permit criteria, permits issued, applications 

processed, and patterns of use which will be evaluated. 

Activity P-2.4: Develop and implement a Monument reporting process. 

Permits are issued based on regulatory requirements as well as Proclamation findings and other 

criteria established by the MMB to assist with permit reviews. One of those criteria is the 

submission of reports. An integrated MMB review of the followup process is needed to ensure 

that reports are complete and submitted on time. Additional followup includes logging data, 

ensuring that the results of research are made available, ensuring the systematic reporting of 

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sustenance fishing,and ensuring adherence to regulations and laws. Followup may also require 

compliance visits from enforcement agents. 

Strategy P-3: Coordinate information, outreach, and education regarding Monument 

permits and regulations. 

Information, education, and outreach are important aspects of the Monument permitting 

program. Strategies have been developed to ensure that the public is kept informed of 

Monument regulations and permit requirements. These strategies are geared toward achieving 

the highest degree of user compliance and assistance, while fostering a broader public 

understanding of the NWHI ecosystem and cultural values. Coordination will be conducted 

across partner agencies to ensure that the public is engaged and informed of the Monument 

permitting program. In addition, the MMB has established and will maintain a policy to ensure 

the public is informed of activities proposed to occur in the Monument. 

Activity P-3.1: Develop and implement a permit and regulatory education program. 

Many of the action plans include educational or outreach activities related to permitting or 

regulations, such as the Enforcement (section 3.4.2), Ocean Ecosystems Literacy (section 3.5.4), 

Midway Atoll Visitor Services (section 3.4.3), Native Hawaiian Culture and History (section 3.1.2), 

Alien Species (section 3.3.2), and Maritime Transportation and Aviation (section 3.3.3) action plans. 

Monument staff will work together to ensure that the educational activities proposed in these action 

plans are integrated to provide a consistent and effective message. 

Activity P-3.2: Develop and implement a Native Hawaiian cultural education program for permit 

applicants. 

The MMB will develop and implement an educational program that can be provided online from the 

Monument web page, which will educate prospective applicants about the Native Hawaiian culture. 

Those interested in applying for a Monument permit may complete the educational program before 

submitting their application for review. This educational program will also provide avenues for 

additional knowledge gathering should the applicant wish to delve deeper into the Hawaiian culture 

and develop a greater understanding of the values of the Monument. 

Activity P-3.3: Coordinate permitting outreach. 

Additional information and outreach will aid interagency permitting efforts and better inform the 

public about Monument permitting. Information on the permitting process will be placed on 

Monument websites, including application forms and instructions. This information will reduce 

delay and confusion for applicants, the public, and agencies as they plan for activities in the 

Monument. Outreach materials such as presentations, publications, and DVDs will be designed 

to aid public understanding of agency regulatory and permitting responsibilities. In addition, 

individual MMB agencies will further exchange information on their roles and responsibilities so 

that each may better understand and explain permitting requirements. 

Activity P-3.4: Develop a preaccess training and briefing program.

Preaccess training is an important component of all permitted activities. Preaccess training is 

required for all those planning to enter the Monument for the first time. Several MMB agencies 

have formal and informal training mechanisms already in place. Many activities conducted in 

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the Monument will span multiple agencies; thus, the MMB will work with Monument staff to 

develop a comprehensive preaccess training and briefing program that is appropriate for a variety 

of activities and locations within the Monument. This training will include information on the 

Proclamation regulations, permit terms and conditions, reporting requirements, the significance 

of the NWHI to Native Hawaiians, and ways to best conduct activities to reduce human impacts 

to the natural environment and cultural resources. The training program will build on protocols 

and materials already in place by FWS, the State of Hawai‘i, and NOAA. For those users who 

have already undergone a preaccess training, shorter update briefings will be developed to ensure 

that all users have the most up-to-date information on the Monument rules and policies. 

Activity P-3.5: Regularly update the public on proposed and permitted activities. 

The MMB is committed to keeping the public engaged and informed on a regular basis on all 

proposed and permitted activities that will be conducted in the Monument. To ensure broad 

dissemination to the public, Co-Trustees will share a single URL address that will be designated 

as the Monument website. This site will be the location for the public to access information 

regarding the Monument, including information on the Monument permit program. Information 

such as lists of permitted activities along with associated permit reports, publications, and 

productions will be made available or referenced on the Monument website. It will also serve as 

a primary point of access to notify the public of proposed activities to be conducted in the 

Monument, as both permit summaries and permit applications will be posted (see Appendix A). 

As required by the Federal Privacy Act, the privacy of individual applicants will be protected and 

all sensitive information will be removed from the permit application prior to public posting. 

Additional opportunities for the public to be notified and comment on Monument permit 

applications include: 

• Special Ocean Use permit applications are posted for public notice and comment 30 days 

prior to the issuance of a permit (Monument regulations, 50 CFR Part 404.11). 

• Environmental reviews (e.g., environmental impact statements, environmental 

assessments, and compatibility determinations) related to Monument permit applications 

are posted for public comment. 

• Monument permit applications that include proposed activities within the State’s 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine Refuge are posted to the Board of Land and 

Natural Resources (BLNR) website for 7 days prior to the scheduled BLNR meeting as 

part of the overall Land Board submittal. 

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 Table 3.4.1 Summary of St 1 rategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Permitting

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy P-1: Refine, implement, and improve the permit process to integrate 

all State and Federal authorities into a single permitting process on an 

ongoing basis. 

Activity P-1.1: Effectively and promptly review permit applications to ensure 

informed permit-related decisionmaking across Co-Trustee agencies. 

NOAA 

Activity P-1.2: Refine and update the permit application, instructions, and permit 

template through feedback from permittees and other users. 

NOAA 

Activity P-1.3: Coordinate appropriate environmental review for all permitted 

activities. 

NOAA 

Activity P-1.4: Engage outside experts in review of permit applications. NOAA 

Activity P-1.5: Investigate individual and vessel insurance and other avenues to 

fund mitigation of any damages associated with permitted activities. 

Strategy P-2: Track and monitor permitted activities and their impacts.

Activity P-2.1: Develop a Geographic Information System (GIS)-based permit 

tracking system. 

NOAA 

Activity P-2.2: Analyze permit data to inform management decisionmaking. NOAA 

Activity P-2.3: Analyze permit data for patterns of compliance. NOAA 

Activity P-2.4: Develop and implement a Monument reporting process. NOAA 

Strategy P-3: Coordinate information, outreach, and education regarding 

Monument permits and regulations.

Activity P-3.1: Develop and implement a permit and regulatory education program. NOAA 

Activity P-3.2: Develop and implement a Native Hawaiian cultural education 

program for permit applicants. 

OHA 

Activity P-3.3: Coordinate permitting outreach. NOAA 

Activity P-3.4: Develop a preaccess training and briefing program. NOAA 

Activity P-3.5: Regularly update the public on proposed and permitted activities. NOAA 

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Desired Outcome 3.3.2 Alien Species Achieve compliance with all regulations within 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

 3.4.1 Permitting 

 3.5.1 Agency Coordination 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

 3.6.2 Information Management 

Current Status and Background 

Links to goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2

Goal 3

The three principal entities with responsibility for managing lands and waters 

of the Monument—NOAA, FWS, and the State of Hawai‘i—are working 

cooperatively to administer Monument policies and regulations. This role and 

the relationships among the three Co-Trustees are further described in a revised 

Memorandum of Agreement among the Co-Trustees that provides the general 

terms and conditions under which they will cooperate. Particular to enforcement activities, the 

Memorandum of Agreement directs the cooperating agencies to coordinate research and 

monitoring efforts to better understand and address major threats to Monument resources; to 

provide access and support for enforcement purposes; share enforcement resources and data, as 

appropriate; and develop joint enforcement capabilities as needed to ensure compliance with 

applicable State and Federal laws. It also gives the agencies the ability to develop additional 

interagency agreements, grants, memoranda of understanding, or other appropriate instruments 

that allow for ease in sharing resources, including funds as appropriate, and a sharing of in-kind 

assistance and support—such as the sharing of vessel time, aircraft missions, or other logistical 

support—as a means of facilitating cooperation. 

In addition to the Federal and State laws in place prior to the establishment of the Monument, NOAA 

and FWS promulgated joint regulations (50 CFR Part 404, see Appendix G) that implement the 

provisions of the President’s Proclamation. These regulations were issued under NOAA and FWS 

statutory authorities. 

Need for Action 

The size and remote location of the NWHI present challenges to enforcement. The Monument is 

the largest conservation area under U.S. jurisdiction. An effective law enforcement program is 

needed to protect and conserve Monument resources. The primary aim of the Monument 

enforcement program is for the jurisdictional partners to achieve resource protection by gaining 

compliance with all applicable laws and regulations. Increased law enforcement capacity will 

move agency partners toward more effective enforcement of all Federal and State rules that 

protect the Monument’s resources.

Managers and law enforcement personnel must work together to prioritize and initiate 

appropriate activities that will have the greatest impact. Depending on the complexity and 

breadth of a particular enforcement activity, a single agency may not have the manpower or other 

resources to commit to the effort. Opportunities to efficiently and economically accomplish 

priority enforcement activities in the Monument must be optimized. 

All activities within the Monument, with the limited, specific exceptions discussed in the 

Permitting Action Plan (section 3.4.1), require a permit. In addition, all activities within the 

Monument, including the transit of vessels, present varying degrees of threat to Monument 

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resources and varying potential for noncompliance with Monument rules and regulations. To 

increase voluntary compliance, outreach tailored to address these threats will be emphasized. 

Informing the permitted and potential users, as well as the general public, about the Monument 

resource threats and the regulations in place to protect them is important to ensure responsible 

behavior before resources can be adversely impacted. 

Strategies to Achieve Desired Outcome 

Effective law enforcement is an essential component to fulfill the overall management vision to 

protect Monument resources. The enforcement of regulations in the remote Monument can be 

difficult and time consuming. Natural barriers to law enforcement, such as remoteness and 

distance from operating bases, must be overcome. 

Enforcement capabilities utilized to monitor activity and detect violations within the Monument 

will include traditional strategies such as patrols by vessel and aircraft. However the application of 

emerging technologies will also be necessary to assure the comprehensive coverage of this vast 

area. Though VMS systems are currently being utilized, the potential use of other technological 

capabilities such as satellite based surveillance, remote sensors, or use of unmanned aircraft 

(drones) will need to be researched further to determine if and how they may be used. 

Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) are prevalent in commercial fisheries, and are required to be 

carried by all vessels permitted to operate in the Monument. VMS is useful to monitor the 

locations and travel of vessels so equipped, however to assure viable deterrence and compliance, 

it is important to establish the capacity to intercept and make at sea contact with vessels actively 

engaged in activities that constitute a violation, particularly those not equipped with VMS that 

cannot be tracked or monitored remotely. 

Outreach is an essential part of any law enforcement program. Community Oriented Policing and 

Problem Solving (COPPS), also referred to as “interpretive enforcement,” is a key component to 

the Monument law enforcement strategy. The goal is to inform Monument users and the general 

public about the regulations and allowed activities, as well as educate them about the detrimental 

effects of illegal activities on Monument natural, cultural, and historic resources and the 

surrounding environment. This can be accomplished through focused workgroups with regular 

and potential permit applicants, public forums, printed materials, interpretive signs, displays, and 

public service announcements. 

This action plan contains three management strategies to achieve the desired outcome of 

achieving compliance with all regulations within the Monument. The strategies and activities are 

coded by the abbreviation for the action plan title, “Enforcement” (EN). A summary of strategies 

and activities is provided in Table 3.4.2 at the end of this action plan. 

• EN-1: Increase law enforcement capacity and integration over the life of the plan. 

• EN-2: Implement a threat-based detection and monitoring program within 2 years. 

• EN-3: Develop and implement a multiagency COPPS/interpretive enforcement program 

within 2 years. 

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This strategy undertakes the activities required to increase the capacity (i.e., quantity and quality 

of services) of the law enforcement agencies, promote cooperation among these agencies, and 

build on existing resources to execute an integrated law enforcement program in the Monument. 

Standard operating procedures will increase the efficiency of law enforcement activities and may 

include monitoring responsibilities, coordinating response to intelligence handling of possible 

violations, standardizing communications, and reporting of activities. 

Activity EN-1.1: Charter a Monument law enforcement working group. 

A successful Monument law enforcement program must have active involvement and oversight 

by each of the law enforcement agencies that have responsibilities in the NWHI. The primary 

law enforcement agencies (NOAA Office of Law Enforcement, FWS Office of Law 

Enforcement and National Wildlife Refuge System Law Enforcement, U.S. Coast Guard, 

Hawai‘i State Department of Land and Natural Resources-Division of Conservation and 

Resource Enforcement). Numerous other agencies have enforcement authority and will be 

consulted as appropriate. Staff from these agencies, primarily credentialed law enforcement 

officers, will form the Monument law enforcement group. The group will meet regularly to 

(1) coordinate enforcement-related tasks for each agency in support of this plan, (2) develop 

operating protocols, and (3) assist in evaluating the overall effectiveness of law enforcement 

efforts. 

Activity EN-1.2: Develop necessary interagency agreements. 

Effective law enforcement in the Monument would be enhanced by the establishment of formal 

agreements between law enforcement agencies. At the national level, NOAA and FWS share 

agreements on enforcement. Cooperative agreements at a regional level would allow law 

enforcement officers of partner agencies to enforce the variety of Federal and State statutes that 

apply within the entire Monument. The MMB will discuss opportunities to formalize Coast 

Guard support through a memorandum of agreement or other means. Officers of partner agencies 

can be dedicated to Monument efforts with appropriate funding. For the most effective use of 

scare resources on the part of all agencies, law enforcement officers should seek ways to 

maximize collaboration. 

Activity EN-1.3: Develop an integrated law enforcement training program. 

Training courses will be conducted regularly to ensure that all law enforcement personnel have 

the most up-to-date information, including environmental education and Native Hawaiian 

cultural practices. Enforcement personnel must understand the environmental consequences that 

could occur as a result of violations. In addition, environmental training will enhance the ability 

of these officers to provide outreach. 

Activity EN-1.4: Assess Monument law enforcement capacity and program effectiveness. 

The Monument law enforcement working group will assess the effectiveness of ongoing law 

enforcement activities, including analyzing efforts to determine “hot spots” that require focus. 

On an annual basis, the group will present a formal briefing to the MMB on ongoing and planned 

activities, consider new technologies, and discuss potential opportunities for new personnel and 

sharing law enforcement resources.

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Activity EN-1.5: Increase law enforcement capacity on Midway Atoll within 2 years. 

As a predicted hub of activity for the Monument and site of the only authorized recreational 

activities, Midway Atoll will be a major access point into the Monument. Presence of 

credentialed officers at Midway Atoll is necessary to ensure visitor and staff safety, regulatory 

compliance, and enforcement. Midway is unique in that it is located outside the State of Hawai‘i 

and as such, regulations are in place to direct public civil obedience (50 CFR Part 38). 

Strategy EN-2: Implement a threat-based detection and monitoring program within 

2 years. 

Before surveillance resources can be effectively deployed Monumentwide, law enforcement 

agencies should accurately assess threats. Threats to be assessed include the potential for 

regulatory violations as well as the potential for resource damage from otherwise “lawful” 

activities. Once threats are well described, the law enforcement agencies can orient detection 

and monitoring activities toward the highest priority areas. Traditional surveillance methods 

(aircraft and vessel patrols), electronic sensors (land and satellite-based), and automated 

monitoring (VMS) should be implemented immediately, where possible, to detect violations and 

resource threats. Expanding the program to include high-tech and emerging remote surveillance 

technologies (e.g., unmanned aerial vehicles) may bring long-term cost savings. 

Activity EN-2.1: Conduct a comprehensive threat assessment and draft an enforcement plan.

It is important to analyze the level and types of activities occurring throughout the Monument, 

then assess the potential for violations and threats to Monument resources. Multiple sources of 

information should be accessed to analyze vessel and activity patterns. The MMB has already 

initiated a threat assessment in late 2007 that will continue through 2008 and will include costbenefit analyses of applicable technologies and solutions. The Monument law enforcement 

working group will collaborate on this threat assessment and subsequent enforcement plan. The 

plan will identify effective means of coordination, opportunity for 

further collaboration and efficient use of limited resources. 

Activity EN-2.2: Operate a Vessel Monitoring System for all permitted vessels. 

A mandatory monitoring system for all permitted vessels was identified as one of the most 

critical components of a successful law enforcement program in the NWHI. NOAA OLE will 

maintain and operate a VMS to monitor compliance with Monument regulations (50 CFR Part 

404). 

Activity EN-2.3: Integrate additional automated monitoring systems and ship reporting 

systems for all vessels transiting the Monument. 

Existing automated monitoring / ship reporting systems will be utilized for vessels transiting the 

monument and that are so equipped. Many "larger" vessels are required to carry and utilize 

Automated Identification Systems (AIS). As mandated through the Maritime Transportation 

Security Act (MTSA), the use of Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) is required on all 

commercial vessels greater than 65-feet. As USCG and Naval researchers develop and expand 

the systems to collect, manage (sort) and distribute this information through shore based and 

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satellite technologies, its use will be an effective tool to monitor ship traffic within and around 

the monument. 

Activity EN-2.4: Increase available platforms to support law enforcement. 

On-the-water presence will help to ensure that users of Monument resources are deterred from 

willful or inadvertent violations and will place law enforcement personnel in a better position to 

respond to violations and other resource emergencies. Due to the remoteness of this area, 

increased aerial and ship-based resources, both for surveillance and for response, are needed. 

The Monument law enforcement working group will identify existing platforms that could be 

used to increase enforcement, surveillance, and response; as well as develop proposals to acquire 

new assets. 

Strategy EN-3: Develop and implement a multiagency COPPS/interpretive enforcement 

program within 2 years. 

COPPS and interpretive enforcement are approaches that seek voluntary compliance with 

Monument regulations primarily through education of users about existing regulations, why and 

how they apply, and how users can play a role in protecting Monument resources. The primary 

objectives of interpretive law enforcement are to protect Monument resources by increasing the 

public’s understanding of the importance of Monument regulations and to inform the public 

through educational messages and literature about responsible behavior. Onsite methods will be 

used to reach the public with educational messages. For example, Monument enforcement 

officers will deliver interpretive programs both onsite and in the main Hawaiian Islands, 

targeting specific user groups. Reaching out to the community through educational messages 

and literature is a cost-effective, prevention-oriented measure to reduce the number of violations 

and foster a sense of stewardship among Monument users.

Activity EN-3.1: Integrate regulations briefings into preaccess training required for all 

Monument users.

As part of preaccess briefings for all users of the Monument, training programs will be 

developed to inform users of regulations, permit requirements, and best management practices. 

Working closely with partner agencies and in consultation with the NWHI enforcement team, 

specific information on all applicable laws will be developed for these workshops. Workshop 

materials will include videos, printed materials, and presentations (see the Permitting Action 

Plan, section 3.4.1, and Alien Species Action Plan, section 3.3.2). 
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Table 3.4.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Enforcement

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy EN-1: Increase law enforcement capacity and integration over the 

life of the plan. 

Activity EN-1.1: Charter a Monument law enforcement working group. NOAA 

Activity EN-1.2: Develop necessary interagency agreements. NOAA 

Activity EN-1.3: Develop an integrated law enforcement training program. NOAA 

Activity EN-1.4: Assess Monument law enforcement capacity and program 

effectiveness. 

NOAA 

Activity EN-1.5: Increase law enforcement capacity on Midway Atoll within 

2 years. 

FWS 

Strategy EN-2: Implement a threat-based detection and monitoring program 

within 2 years.

Activity EN-2.1: Conduct a comprehensive threat assessment and draft an 

enforcement plan. 

NOAA 

Activity EN-2.2: Operate a Vessel Monitoring System for all permitted vessels. NOAA 

Activity EN-2.3: Integrate additional automated monitoring systems and ship 

reporting systems for all vessels transiting the Monument. 

NOAA 

Activity EN-2.4: Increase available platforms to support law enforcement. NOAA 

Strategy EN-3: Develop and implement a multiagency COPPS/interpretive 

enforcement program within 2 years.

Activity EN-3.1: Integrate regulations briefings into preaccess training required for 

all Monument users. 

NOAA 

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Links to other Action Plans Desired Outcome

Offer visitors opportunities to discover, enjoy, 

appreciate, protect, and honor the unique natural, 

cultural, and historic resources of 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

 3.4.1 Permitting 

 3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach 

 3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy 

 3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations 

Links to Goals

Current Status and Background 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Goal 5 

Goal 7

Goal 8

Since 1995, FWS has been strongly committed to welcoming visitors to 

Midway Atoll. This is the first and only remote island National Wildlife 

Refuge in the Pacific to provide the general public with an opportunity to 

learn about and experience these unique ecosystems. With the 

establishment of the Monument, Midway Atoll takes on the additional role 

of providing a “window” so that visitors can learn about and enjoy a small portion of the largest 

fully protected marine managed area in the world. 

A regularly scheduled visitor program operated on Midway Atoll from 1995 until early in 2002 

but ended when the FWS cooperator left the atoll. Since then, visitors have arrived almost 

exclusively by the occasional cruise ship or sailboat, or for a Battle of Midway commemorative 

event. In May 2007, the FWS approved an interim visitor services plan to guide a small-scale 

visitor program on Midway Atoll until the Monument Management Plan is completed. In 

January 2008, a regularly scheduled visitor program began, offering limited opportunities for 

people to experience Midway’s wildlife and historic treasury. 

As part of the interim visitor services plan and in accordance with the National Wildlife Refuge 

System Administration Act of 1966, the following wildlife-dependent recreational uses were 

determined to be compatible at Midway Atoll Special Management Area and National Wildlife 

Refuge: wildlife observation and photography, environmental education and interpretation, and 

participatory research. Hunting and fishing, which normally are given priority on national 

wildlife refuges if they are determined to be compatible, will not take place at Midway Atoll. 

All animal species are protected by law or occur in numbers too low for harvest to allow hunting 

opportunities. Recreational fishing is precluded under the Presidential proclamation designating 

the Monument. Additional compatibility determinations allow for nonwildlife-dependent beach 

use activities such as swimming and volleyball, nonadministrative airport operations, limited 

outdoor sports such as bicycling and jogging, and amateur radio use. 

Each compatibility determination includes stipulations necessary to ensure protection of 

Midway’s natural, cultural, and historic resources. These compatibility determinations are valid 

for 15 years for wildlife-dependent visitor activities and 10 years for nonwildlife-dependent 

activities and are incorporated into this Monument Management Plan in Appendix D. 

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Any additional activities that may be proposed 

within Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge 

would need to be evaluated through the 

compatibility determination process with 

formal public review. Activities that are 

determined to be compatible are authorized 

through the issuance of Monument permits, 

which fall within six permit types: 

conservation and management, research, 

education, Native Hawaiian practices, special 

ocean uses, and recreation. The permitting 

process is discussed in section 3.4.1, the 

Permitting Action Plan. 

Some strategies and activities outlined in the 

Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan are 

included within other action plans; see the 

Ocean Ecosystems Literacy (section 3.5.4), 

Constituency Building and Outreach (section 

3.5.2), and Coordinated Field Operations 

(section 3.6.3) action plans.

Visitors spend part of their time on Midway helping to restore Need for Action wildlife habitat. 

Since the Interim Visitor Services Plan was 

designed to be in effect only until a Monument Management Plan was completed, this action 

plan addresses a longer-term visitor services program for Midway Atoll. The interim program 

was initiated in January 2008, so only minimal updates are included in the Midway Atoll Visitor 

Services Plan (Appendix C). 

The Co-Trustees remain committed to offering a high-quality, small-scale visitor program at 

Midway Atoll as a “window” to the Monument. By physically experiencing the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands, visitors will return home with a personal connection and commitment to 

protecting and conserving the Monument’s unique resources. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

The Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan includes numerous detailed activities that constitute the 

visitor program. Since the reinitiated program is only a few months old, the MMB will be 

monitoring the program and adapting it as necessary to ensure protection of natural, cultural, and 

historic resources and visitor safety and satisfaction. The strategies and activities are coded by 

the acronym for the action plan title, “Visitor Services Action Plan” (VS). A summary of 

strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.4.3 at the end of this action plan. 

• VS-1: Implement the Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan, providing visitor opportunities 

for up to 50 overnight guests at any one time. 

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• VS-2: Assess the level of visitor satisfaction, financial stability of the program, staffing 

needs, and program structure, resulting in recommendations for improvement beginning 

in 2009 and biennially thereafter. 

Strategy VS-1: Implement the Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan, providing visitor 

opportunities for up to 50 overnight guests at any one time. 

The Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan extends the interim visitor program that was reinitiated 

on a regular schedule in January 2008. Most of the same restrictions and stipulations identified 

in the interim plan have been carried over into this longer-term plan. Due to infrastructure 

limitations and to ensure a quality program, the maximum number of overnight visitors will be 

limited to no more than 50 people at any one time; because of transportation availability, that 

number generally will be from 15-30 people. This number of visitors may be exceeded for shortduration prearranged visits (less than 1 day) by ocean vessels or aircraft. 

Activity VS-1.1: Provide visitors with opportunities for wildlife-dependent recreation to 

enhance their knowledge and appreciation of the Monument’s natural resources. 

As outlined in the Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan, visitors will be offered opportunities for 

guided interpretive tours, wildlife photography, snorkeling, diving, kayaking, and self-guided 

walks. At few other places in the world can visitors be so totally surrounded by wildlife. 

Midway’s seabirds have little fear of humans, and visitors are offered opportunities to observe 

and photograph them from the time they arrive until they leave. More sensitive species, such as 

Hawaiian monk seals and green sea turtles, are observed from a distance to ensure they are not 

disturbed. Snorkeling and diving will allow visitors a glimpse of the Monument’s magnificent 

coral reefs and their inhabitants. The focus of all activities will be educational in nature, and 

visitors will be encouraged to share their experiences and knowledge when they return to their 

homes to develop a broader constituency for the Monument. 

Activity VS-1.2: Provide visitors with opportunities to learn about and appreciate the 

Monument’s cultural and historic resources. 

Visitors will be offered guided interpretive tours, self-guided walks, interpretive exhibits, and 

written materials that focus on Midway’s and the Monument’s distinguished human history. In 

establishing the Battle of Midway National Memorial, FWS was charged with helping others 

keep knowledge of this important battle alive for future generations. Numerous historic 

structures on Midway Atoll were present during World War II, and serve as reminders of the 

heroic courage of the men who risked their lives in the midst of the Pacific and turned the tide of 

the war. 

Because it serves as the “window” to the Monument, it is important that interpretation at Midway 

be broadened to include information about the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands’ importance in 

Native Hawaiian culture. Interpretive exhibits will be developed to reflect all of Midway’s 

“eras,” from prerecorded history to Polynesian and Western contact, to shipwrecks and the 

Commercial Pacific Cable Company days, the Pan American Flying Clipper period, the Battle of 

Midway, and on through the Cold War and Vietnam conflicts. Additional exhibits will focus on 

the cultural and historic sites throughout the NWHI, such as the archaeological remains at Nihoa 

Island and Mokumanamana and submerged resources throughout the NWHI. 

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To the extent possible, remnants of these eras will be interpreted as they exist on Midway. To 

ensure all cultural and historic resources are included in the story, one of the historic buildings 

on Sand Island will be restored to house a permanent museum/library that will be available to all 

visitors. 

Activity VS-1.3: Continuously monitor the impacts of visitors and other users on wildlife and 

historic resources to ensure their protection. 

Monument staff will monitor the impacts of visitors and other users on wildlife and historic 

resources to ensure continuing compatibility, as required by Monument and FWS policies. 

Monitoring methodology to assess impacts on seabirds, Hawaiian monk seals, sea turtles, corals, 

and fishes has been developed based on previous work on other refuges and protected areas and 

is included in the Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan. The visitor program supervisor, in 

consultation with FWS and NOAA Cultural Resources Program staffs, monitors impacts on 

historic resources. 

Based on FWS experience from 1996 to 2002, when up to 100 overnight visitors were allowed 

on Midway at any one time, few impacts are anticipated as long as visitors comply with Refuge 

and Monument rules and regulations. 

Strategy VS-2: Assess the level of visitor satisfaction, financial stability of the program, 

staffing needs, and program structure, resulting in recommendations for improvement 

beginning in 2009 and biennially thereafter. 

A more regularly scheduled visitor program resumed operation on Midway Atoll in January 

2008 during development of this Monument Management Plan. After gathering approximately 

1 year of experience and data, Monument staff will be in a better position to make 

recommendations to improve the program. 

Activity VS-2.1: Monitor visitor satisfaction surveys completed by outgoing visitors, adjusting 

activities, facilities, and maintenance schedules as appropriate on a monthly basis. 

The FWS contractor has designed and implemented a visitor satisfaction survey to be completed 

as visitors depart Midway Atoll. These questionnaires provide valuable insight into how the 

visitor program could be improved, as well as providing practical information such as room 

maintenance needed. The information is compiled on a monthly basis and provided to the refuge 

manager for appropriate action. 

Activity VS-2.2: Convene a team of visitor services specialists and Midway Atoll staff to review 

the visitor program on a biennial basis. 

Beginning in March 2009, the team will conduct a visitor services requirements evaluation to 

assess whether the visitor program is meeting the standards outlined in the Visitor Services Plan, 

as well as the purposes and goals of the Refuge and Monument, and provide recommendations to 

management based on their evaluation. The team will also review the financial information 

relevant to the visitor program to assess the need to adjust visitor fees and make 

recommendations on the program’s financial stability, including staffing and facility needs. 

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Activity VS-2.3: Based on the assessment above, seek funding, authority, or other needs to 

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Depending upon the results of the visitor services evaluation, steps will be taken to implement 

improvements to the visitor program. Possible improvements could include revisions to the 

Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan, facility improvements, additional staffing, changes in fee 

structure, changes to visitor activities or stipulations associated with them, or new 

implementation structures (such as working through a concessionaire). 

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Table 3.4.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Midway Atoll Visitors 

Services 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy VS-1: Implement the Midway Atoll Visitor Services Plan, providing 

visitor opportunities for up to 50 overnight guests at any one time. 

Activity VS-1.1: Provide visitors with opportunities for wildlife-dependent 

recreation to enhance their knowledge and appreciation of the Monument’s natural 

resources. 

FWS 

Activity VS-1.2: Provide visitors with opportunities to learn about and appreciate 

the Monument’s cultural and historic resources. 

FWS 

Activity VS-1.3: Continuously monitor the impacts of visitors and other users on 

wildlife and historic resources to ensure their protection. 

FWS 

Strategy VS-2: Assess the level of visitor satisfaction, financial stability of the 

program, staffing needs, and program structure, resulting in 

recommendations for improvement beginning in 2009 and biennially 

thereafter.

Activity VS-2.1: Monitor visitor satisfaction surveys completed by outgoing 

visitors, adjusting activities, facilities, and maintenance schedules as appropriate on 

a monthly basis. 

FWS 

Activity VS-2.2: Convene a team of visitor services specialists and Midway Atoll 

staff to review the visitor program on a biennial basis. 

FWS 

Activity VS-2.3: Based on the assessment above, seek funding, authority, or other 

needs to implement the recommendations for improvement. 

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3.5 Coordinating Conservation and Management Activities 

3.5.1 Agency Coordination Action Plan 

3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach Action Plan 

3.5.3 Native Hawaiian Community Involvement Action Plan 

3.5.4 Ocean Ecosystems Literacy Action Plan 

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Many government agencies and nongovernmental organizations work in close coordination with 

the MMB to achieve Monument goals. Implementation of action plans relies on resources and 

efforts from a variety of partners. The Co-Trustees and the MMB generally have a high level of 

involvement for most action plans, while other governmental agencies and nongovernmental 

organizations will contribute to action plans at varying levels. As Monument projects develop, 

more organizations will likely be involved. Section 2, Management Framework, and section 

3.5.1, the Agency Coordination Action Plan, provide discussions on the importance of 

collaboration and partnerships in effectively achieving Monument goals. 

Participation by a broad sector of the public is also essential to any successful system of 

governance (Creighton 1981). The NWHI face an array of complex issues and competing 

interests. Public input into the decisionmaking process can help ensure that those interested are 

fairly represented and a strong base of support is built. Without a forum for participation and 

collaboration, disputes can linger and resources degrade (Pew 2003). 

Working together, the MMB will adopt a three-part approach to coordinate management of the 

Monument. Each part is integral to the success of the whole: (1) agency coordination, which is 

essential to foster stewardship that takes ecosystem effects into account, (2) involvement of 

stakeholders, and (3) a strong program of education and outreach to build community support for 

ecosystem conservation. 

Responsibility for management of the Monument is shared by the Co-Trustees. Stakeholders 

include Native Hawaiians, researchers, educators, conservation groups, fishers, and others. 

Collaborative management mechanisms are needed to facilitate effective interagency 

coordination for management and to provide opportunities for active stakeholder participation 

and input from community forums and various partnerships, and specifically from the Native 

Hawaiian community. 

Action plans to facilitate collaboration and partnerships in the management of the NWHI focus 

on providing the operational framework to enhance interagency coordination and to provide 

broad stakeholder involvement in managing the NWHI. Each action plan consists of a set of 

strategies to address a desired outcome. The desired outcomes of these action plans are as 

follows: 

• Agency Coordination: Successfully collaborate with government partners to 

achieve publicly supported, coordinated management in Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument. 

• Constituency Building and Outreach: Cultivate an informed, involved 

constituency that supports and enhances conservation of the natural, cultural, and 

historic resources of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

• Native Hawaiian Community Involvement: Engage the Native Hawaiian 

community in active and meaningful involvement in Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument management. 

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• Ocean Ecosystems Literacy: Cultivate an ocean ecosystems stewardship ethic, 

contribute to the Nation’s science and cultural literacy, and create a new generation of 

conservation leaders through formal environmental education. 

Action plans described in this section will be implemented in close coordination with 

jurisdictional agency partners and in conjunction with other priority management needs. 
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Links to other Action Plans Desired Outcome 

Successfully collaborate with government partners to 

achieve publicly supported, coordinated management in 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

 3.3.1 Permitting 

 3.3.2 Enforcement 

 3.5.3 Coordinated Field Operations 

Current Status and Background Links to Goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2

Goal 4

The NWHI has had a long history of multiagency coordination due to 

divided responsibilities among several management agencies over the past 

100 years (Shallenberger 1984). The Navy assumed jurisdiction over 

Midway Atoll in 1903. In 1909, President Teddy Roosevelt signed 

Executive Order 1019 to create the Hawaiian Islands Reservation, and 

management responsibility was given to the Department of Agriculture; the reservation was later 

renamed the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge and managed under the authority of the 

FWS. The Hawai‘i Organic Act and Hawai‘i Admission Act gave the Territory of Hawai‘i 

responsibility for nearshore waters of the NWHI, excluding Midway. In 1988, Midway Atoll 

was designated a National Wildlife Refuge. Under Federal law, NOAA Fisheries is responsible 

for the management of monk seals, as well as for sea turtles when they are in marine waters; 

FWS is responsible for the management of sea turtles when they are on land. The State of 

Hawai‘i also has jurisdiction over these species under State wildlife and endangered species laws. 

NOAA’s National Ocean Service, through the National Marine Sanctuary Program, joined the 

jurisdictional players in December 2000, when Executive Order 13178 (as amended by 13196) 

created the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve (adapted from 

Shallenberger 2004). 

Several innovative programs involving Federal, State, and private entities have resulted in 

cooperative efforts to protect and restore natural, cultural, and historic resources in the NWHI. 

Notable examples include the following: 

• The creation of a State Marine Refuge in the NWHI in 2005. 

• Several multiagency collaborative research efforts under the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands Research and Monitoring Program, conducted since 2000. 

• Collaborative educational partnerships, including Navigating Change, Hawai‘i’s Living 

Reef program, and outreach for the 2002 and 2004 Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

Research and Monitoring Program efforts. 

• A multiagency collaborative process to establish a regional research forum and to identify 

regional research and science priorities. 

• The NWHI Third Scientific Symposium (2004). 

• A regional collaboration that led to the identification of several maritime archaeology and 

history sites. 

• A process to identify opportunities for collaborative permitting and enforcement efforts. 

• Development of a unified permitting system for the Monument. 

• Critically needed multiagency marine debris removal efforts, ongoing since 1996. 

• Collaborative support of Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle recovery and field camps. 

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Coordination of Monument resource management is overseen by the Co-Trustee agencies, while 

day-to-day management is implemented by the MMB as described in Section 2. However, 

several other Federal agencies including the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S.Geological Survey, the 

Environmental Protection Agency, and Department of Defence and various State agencies have a 

role to play and could be part of the larger Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC). 

Coordination among all parties with regulatory and management responsibilities is crucial to 

successful Monument operations. The ICC is further described in section 2.2. 

Need for Action 

The creation of the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in 2006 offers a unique 

opportunity to carry out coordinated management across multiple Federal and State agencies to 

achieve strong, long-term protection of the NWHI. While management of the Monument is the 

responsibility of the three Co-Trustees, as described in Proclamation 8031, many important 

government partners also have missions that are affected by and may affect Monument 

management strategies. Therefore, collaboration with all government stakeholders is essential. 

The unique biological, cultural, scientific, educational, historic, and recreational values of the 

NWHI require that the region be carefully managed to ensure these values are not diminished for 

future generations. This action plan presents strategies and activities for facilitating interagency 

coordination to successfully collaborate with government partners in the NWHI. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Agency coordination in the remote Monument ecosystems is essential to the lasting protection of 

ecosystems and resources. To achieve the desired outcome of publicly supported coordinated 

management, three strategies have been developed. The strategies and activities are coded by the 

acronym for the action plan title, “Agency Coordination” (AC). A summary of strategies and 

activities is provided in Table 3.5.1 at the end of this action plan. 

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• AC-1: Ensure effective communications and procedural operations of the MMB.

• AC- 2: Establish and support cooperative management agreements with agency 

partners.

• AC-3: Promote international, national, and local agency collaborations to increase 

capacity building and foster networks that will improve management effectiveness. 

Strategy AC-1: Ensure effective communications and procedural operations of the MMB.

The MMB was established by the Co-Trustee MOA in 2006 (see section 2, Management 

Framework). The MMB is charged with promoting coordinated management of the Monument 

at the field level and implementing day-to-day management activities necessary to achieve 

strong, long-term protection of the NWHI for current and future generations. Working across 

multiple agencies can present a challenge to management if clear and effective procedures are 

not established. 

Activity AC-1.1: Establish standard operating procedures, as needed, to provide direction and 

improve communication within the MMB. 

Standard operating procedures are often necessary to facilitate consistent implementation and 

ensure that processes are continued and completed on a prescribed schedule. They also serve as 

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a historical record of steps taken and a basis for revising the steps when changes to the process 

are proposed. In order to ensure that unwritten knowledge and skills do not disappear when 

positions are filled with new staff, standard operating procedures for the MMB will be written 

and properly maintained. 

Strategy AC-2: Establish and support cooperative management agreements with agency 

partners. 

The MOA signed by the State of Hawai‘i, the Department of the Interior, and the Department of 

Commerce promotes coordinated management of the Monument and establishes the functional 

relationships to effectively coordinate on all management actions. This agreement serves as the 

foundation for entering into other agreements among the Co-Trustees and with agencies and 

other entities, as appropriate. Formal partnerships and agreements will be developed with 

essential agency partners who can help provide comprehensive protection for the ecosystems and 

resources of the NWHI. 

Activity AC-2.1: Establish agreements for coordinated management and conduct cooperative 

management operations. 

Building on the MOA signed in 2006, new agreements will be developed among the MMB to 

support collaborations that facilitate coordinated management. Such agreements will specify 

roles, responsibilities, and periodic reviews. Opportunities for interagency collaboration may 

include personnel agreements and crosscutting budget initiatives to promote coordinated 

management and effective implementation of strategies identified in the action plans. The MMB 

will work together to establish priorities and initiate joint activities. 

Activity AC-2.2: Develop interagency agreements, grants, and memoranda of agreement as 

needed to carry out specific program priorities. 

Cooperative projects will be pursued with agencies outside of the MMB that allow for ease in 

sharing resources and in-kind assistance and support, as appropriate. Efforts will continue to 

coordinate with and support the Interagency Coordinating Committee. Formal agreements 

required for specific program areas will be developed as needed. Collaborative agency efforts 

that may benefit from formal and other informal agreements are described in the following action 

plans: Alien Species (section 3.3.2), Coordinated Field Operations (section 3.6.3), Emergency 

Response and Natural Resource Damage Assessment (section 3.3.4), Enforcement (section 

3.4.2), Threatened and Endangered Species (section 3.2.1), Information Management (section 

3.6.2), Maritime Heritage (section 3.1.4), Marine Debris (section 3.3.1), Permitting (section 

3.4.1), and Habitat Management and Conservation (section 3.2.3).

Activity AC-2.3: Conduct annual interagency planning workshop. 

An annual interagency strategic planning workshop will be conducted with the ICC to discuss 

previous year activities and align planned activities and priorities. Gaps and additional needs 

will be identified along with strategies to address them. (See the Evaluation Action Plan, section 

3.6.4) 

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Strategy AC-3: Promote international, national, and local agency collaborations to increase 

capacity building and foster networks that will improve management effectiveness. 

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Collaborations at the international, national, and local levels are needed to promote information 

sharing, relationship building, and adaptive use of management tools for conservation and 

resource management. These partnerships can provide a regional and global context to better 

understand the significance of traditional knowledge in resource management, the need for 

scientific and cultural research, and the development of management models that could be 

applied to the Pacific and beyond. 

Activity AC-3.1: Enhance communication and cooperation with the Department of Defense 

and the U.S. Navy Pacific Fleet. 

Through the ICC and other forums, the MMB will maintain open communication with the DOD 

and the U.S. Navy on potential areas of cooperation, including enforcement; minimizing military 

activities in the Monument; support of zoning, permitting, and tracking programs; and regional 

and local restoration and wildlife protection efforts. 

Activity AC-3.2: Network with other marine protected areas in the Pacific. 

The MMB will foster and promote relationships with the marine protected area managers and 

constituents in Hawai‘i and the Pacific that face enforcement, surveillance, and other challenges 

common to coral reef ecosystem management. Through such regional collaboration, 

participating organizations could share information on subjects such as enforcement, 

incorporating traditional knowledge, research, and outreach about the importance of coral reef 

ecosystems to the world. 

Activity AC-3.3: Support the bid for World Heritage Site status. 

In 2007, the Monument was included on the new U.S. World Heritage Tentative List as a site 

within the United States for outstanding universal value for both its natural and cultural heritage. 

The U.S. Tentative List was submitted to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and 

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Center for consideration in February 2008. 

The MMB will continue to support the bid for World Heritage designation across agencies to 

ensure a high level of communication and coordination. 

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1 Table 3.5.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Agency Coordination

2 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy AC-1: Ensure effective communications and procedural operations of 

the MMB. 

Activity AC-1.1: Establish standard operating procedures, as needed, to provide 

direction and improve communication within the MMB. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Strategy AC-2: Establish and support cooperative management agreements 

with agency partners.

Activity AC-2.1: Establish agreements for coordinated management and conduct 

cooperative management operations. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity AC-2.2: Develop interagency agreements, grants, and memoranda of 

agreement as needed to carry out specific program priorities. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity AC-2.3: Conduct annual interagency planning workshop. NOAA 

Strategy AC-3: Promote international, national, and local agency 

collaborations to increase capacity building and foster networks that will 

improve management effectiveness.

Activity AC-3.1: Enhance communication and cooperation with the Department of 

Defense and the U.S. Navy Pacific Fleet. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawaii 

FWS 

Activity AC-3.2: Network with other marine protected areas in the Pacific. NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity AC-3.3: Support the bid for World Heritage Site status. State of Hawai‘i 

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Cultivate an informed, involved constituency that supports and 

enhances conservation of the natural, cultural, and historic 

resources of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

 All Action Plans 

Links to Goals 

Current Status and Background Goal 4 

The MMB currently conducts diverse constituency building and outreach 

activities related to the Monument, such as: 

Goal 5 

Goal 6

Goal 8

• Operating discovery centers and visitor facilities, including 

Mokupāpapa Discovery Center in Hilo and the Midway Atoll visitor center; 

• Developing and disseminating informational materials such as fact sheets, brochures, 

planning updates, and reports; 

• Updating and maintaining Monument websites; 

• Conducting informational meetings, workshops, and seminars to inform constituencies 

and seek input on various aspects of Monument management; 

• Issuing news releases, feature stories, and public service announcements; 

• Working with partners in community fairs, photography exhibits, and documentaries; 

• Partnering with support groups such as the Friends of Midway Atoll National Wildlife 

Refuge and the National Marine Sanctuary Foundation; 

• Involving volunteers in management and support activities; 

• Seeking public review of Monument permit applications for activities proposed in State 

waters at the State Board of Land and Natural Resources; and 

• Seeking public review of draft plans and environmental analyses through National 

Environmental Policy Act requirements. 

The Monument’s diverse constituencies in Hawai‘i and beyond include Federal and State 

agencies with responsibilities for the region; industry and community stakeholders; and 

prospective and permitted users. Key Monument constituencies that have been identified to date 

include, but are not limited to, the following: 

• Government agencies with responsibilities in the NWHI 

• Native Hawaiian community 

• Conservation groups 

• Research/academia 

• Commercial and recreational fishers 

• Schools, organizations, and institutions that conduct marine education and outreach 

programs throughout Hawai‘i 

• Other states, territories, and Pacific nations managing coral reefs 

• Business/industry 

• Elected officials 

• General public at large 

Outreach to these diverse communities must be coordinated closely with the strategies and 

activities identified in the individual action plans detailed in this management plan. A vigorous 

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public outreach and education effort that bridges community concerns and needs with measures 

applied to protect the resources of the Monument will galvanize broader support for ocean and 

island conservation and the MMB’s work. Such support will bolster the MMB’s ability to 

effectively protect NWHI marine resources. 

A strong, sustained constituency-building effort is particularly important in the Monument’s early 

formative years to establish its role in the region and in local, national, and global resource 

management circles, and to set a proactive course into the future. 

Need for Action 

Stakeholder and community involvement is an integral component to creating an informed and 

engaged constituency that would further the successful protection of the ecosystems and 

resources of the NWHI, thus achieving the goals of the Monument (see section 2, Management 

Framework). 

A study conducted by 

Ward Research in 

March 2006 for the 

National Marine 

Sanctuary Foundation 

found that the majority 

of residents of the State 

of Hawai‘i were 

unaware of the NWHI 

and its protected status. 

More than 50 percent of 

Hawai‘i’s residents 

believed that there are 

only eight Hawaiian 

Islands (Ward Research 

2006). For the question, 

“How many islands, 

atolls, and other land 

masses make up what 

we know as the Hawaiian Islands?,” the proportion of residents who answered the correct, “more 

than 15” or “plenty/too many to count” decreased from the previous year (22 percent, compared 

to 28 percent in 2005). 

PERCEIVED NUMBER OF HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

54%

14%

9%

19%

5%

58%

11%

8%

14%

10%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

Up to 8 9 to 15 More than 15 Plenty/Too many

to count

Don't

know/Refused

2005

2006

CORRECT

The establishment of the Monument provides opportunities for the managing agencies to 

collaborate and share resources for effective constituency building and outreach activities. 

Currently, the agencies often implement public outreach activities separately, use a similar and 

limited range of strategies and activities, and target similar constituencies. As the Monument 

constituencies comprise a wide range of user groups and individuals, various methods will be 

needed to best engage them in Monument management. A range of strategies and activities are 

needed to develop, engage, and sustain the active involvement and support of constituencies in 

Hawai‘i as well as national and international publics. These strategies and activities will keep 

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the public informed as well as provide opportunities for input on management decisionmaking 

from various stakeholder groups. This action plan presents strategies and activities to develop an 

integrated constituency-building framework supported by collaborative activities of the CoTrustees. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

The following strategies have been identified to achieve the desired outcome of cultivating an 

informed, involved constituency that supports and enhances conservation of the natural, cultural, 

and historic resources of the Monument. These strategies provide both capacity building, which 

will ensure continuity and effectiveness of Monument communication efforts, and public 

interface, which will allow for various levels of support for and participation in activities related 

to the Monument. The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, 

“Constituency Building and Outreach” (CBO). A summary of strategies and activities is 

provided in Table 3.5.2 at the end of this action plan. 

• CBO- 1: Develop and implement an integrated communications strategy, based on an 

assessment of ongoing activities and future needs, to coordinate outreach and engage 

Monument constituencies within 5 years. 

• CBO-2: Continue to develop and disseminate materials and improve and update tools that 

help inform Monument constituencies about the Monument over the life of the plan. 

• CBO-3: Continue initiatives that allow Monument constituencies to be more involved in 

the Monument and enhance opportunities for long-term engagement over the life of the 

plan. 

• CBO-4: Develop and implement an overarching Monument interpretive strategy, 

including site-specific planning documents for the Monument’s visitor facilities, within 

5 years. 

Strategy CBO-1: Develop and implement an integrated communications strategy, based on 

an assessment of ongoing activities and future needs, to coordinate outreach and engage 

Monument constituencies within 5 years. 

The integrated communications strategy will be made up of various components, including 

visitor site administration, capacity building, research and development, telecommunication 

tools, and assessment. The following activities will help to achieve the initiatives of these 

components and ensure the effectiveness of the integrated strategy. 

Activity CBO-1.1: Develop an integrated communications strategy based on an assessment of 

ongoing activities and future needs.

A unified strategy for constituency building and outreach for the Monument will be developed. 

The integrated strategy will include a description of the different types of constituencies that need 

to be informed, engaged, and sustained in support of the Monument; specific strategies, messages, 

and activities related to each constituency; and indicators to evaluate effectiveness. In developing 

the document, the MMB will engage analogous entities, such as administrating agencies of 

Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, to learn lessons from their constituency building and outreach 

successes. Existing constituency building activities of all MMB agencies generally will be 

continued under the new Monument framework. This will ensure continued support for already 

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successful programs and the development of new activities that enhance existing support for the 

region. The Monument communications strategy will be reviewed and updated every 3 years, at 

a minimum. 

Activity CBO-1.2: Continue to refine and implement the Monument Media Communications 

Protocol to engage news media in informing the public about the Monument’s resources and 

activities. 

A key aspect of the communications strategy is media protocol. In February 2007, a Monument 

media communications protocol was developed to ensure media receive accurate, consistent, and 

timely information about the Monument; its natural, cultural, and historic resources; and ongoing 

activities related to the Monument. An interagency communications team implements the 

strategy, ensuring that all of the managers are included in the review process and presenting a 

unified position to the public. Contacts, standards, and procedures are clearly identified within 

the protocol. Unlike the communications strategy overall, the protocol will be reviewed anytime 

the need arises from any agency or is deemed necessary due to unforeseen external 

circumstances. 

Activity CBO-1.3: Develop a consistent Monument identity to be used in all communications 

strategies that reflects its comanagement within 1 year. 

The Co-Trustees currently maintain their three separate identities and place all agency logos on 

most communications materials. The MMB will develop a new Monument “corporate identity,” 

reflecting its shared management on behalf of the American people. 

Activity CBO-1.4: Incorporate new perspectives for understanding the value of NWHI 

ecosystems, including socioeconomic studies, to increase ocean ecosystems literacy and 

conservation in the Monument within 5 years.

The Monument will serve as a powerful focal point for increasing ocean ecosystems literacy. To 

engage a broad and diverse base of constituents, the Monument program must continuously 

expand the types of products, messages, and modes of communication used in education and 

outreach programs. The MMB will support and seek out traditional ecological knowledge as well 

as new perspectives that contribute different ways of valuing the ecosystems of the NWHI. New 

and innovative ways to look at the value of marine ecosystems, such as socioeconomic analysis 

of the nonmarket value of coral reefs, will also be supported. 

Activity CBO-1.5: Research and implement new technologies and tools to increase public 

understanding of the NWHI ecosystems within 5 years. 

Telepresence (technologies that allow a person to feel as if they were present, to give the 

appearance that they were present, or to have an effect at a location other than their true location) 

is an important tool for helping to educate the larger community about the special region of the 

Monument. Since most people will not be able to visit the Monument due to its remoteness and 

fragility, it is important to bring the place to the people. Telepresence technologies such as 

underwater video cameras, real-time video transmission, virtual field trips, website interfaces, 

and exhibits in discovery centers that present this content will play an important role in educating 

the public about the NWHI. Obstacles to implementing these technologies do exist, such as cost, 

feasibility, and ecological sensitivities, but the Monument will continue to invest in and utilize 

new technologies for providing this virtual experience. 

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Strategy CBO-2: Continue to develop and disseminate materials and improve and update 

tools that help inform Monument constituencies about the Monument over the life of the 

plan. 

Providing information about the Monument through products such as websites, brochures, and 

other media is one of the first steps toward raising the overall awareness of the Monument with 

the public (local, national, and international). 

Activity CBO-2.1: Establish a new Monument website that will allow constituents to visit a 

single site for all Monument-related information within 1 year. 

Currently, the three Co-Trustee agencies all maintain separate websites that provide information 

about the Monument. The MMB is developing a single interagency website 

(http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov) that will be jointly managed and regularly updated with 

information about permit and management activities, planning updates, etc. 

Activity CBO-2.2: Continue to develop and update printed materials to aid Monument 

constituencies in understanding key aspects of the Monument. 

Although an overall site brochure is the primary informational mechanism to help the public 

understand the Monument, additional materials will be developed to aid in the understanding of 

more specific aspects of the entire region and on the ways in which the public can participate. 

Topics to be addressed will include, but not be limited to, Native Hawaiian culture; research; 

management activities; permitting; Monument fish, wildlife, historic, and cultural resources; and 

volunteer activities. These materials will be printed pieces but may also include multimedia 

components or be developed as a suite of materials. The update letter that was provided to the 

public on a regular basis during development of the Monument Management Plan also will be 

continued on a quarterly basis. 

Activity CBO-2.3: Support other entities’ efforts to broaden knowledge of and appreciation for 

Monument resources and management priorities. 

Establishment of the Monument has created interest from documentary filmmakers, writers, 

photographers, and other entities to help us “bring the place to the people.” The MMB will 

support those endeavors that provide benefit to Monument resources and management and our 

constituents without impacting Monument resources. 

Strategy CBO-3: Continue initiatives that allow Monument constituencies to be more 

involved in the Monument and enhance opportunities for long-term engagement over the 

life of the plan. 

This strategy will continue efforts to create an interactive experience with constituents by 

providing the support and activities necessary to develop a long-term commitment to the 

Monument from a growing number of increasingly knowledgeable constituents. The Monument 

is a vast region that will need a strong network of constituents who are connected to the NWHI 

in order to ensure that the plans initiated today are carried out and implemented successfully over 

time. However, this kind of success is realized only when the support is rooted in an engaged 

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community and when the relationship between the agency and its constituents has matured into 

one of collaboration. 

Activity CBO-3.1: Continue to seek out and participate in events that reach a broader audience 

and provide constituents with knowledge of the Monument.

The MMB agencies individually have a history of participating in various public outreach 

activities. We will collaborate to enhance existing participation and find new venues. Examples 

of such activities include but are not limited to events such as fairs, lecture series, and public 

forums. 

Activity CBO-3.2: As needed, hold focused forums on various Monument-related issues or 

topics to inform and engage a broader range of constituents. 

The MMB will offer public forums on specific topics or issues both to exchange information 

with our constituencies and to build awareness and support. These forums will be offered at 

various locations to facilitate participation by a broad range of constituents. 

Activity CBO-3.3: Continue to seek out and support partnership opportunities that focus on 

Oceania-related issues. 

As the Hawaiian Archipelago is most closely related to other sites across Oceania, it is important 

for the Monument to collaborate with a network of marine managed areas in this region. These 

partnerships will allow for a greater exchange of knowledge and expertise. They will also 

provide opportunities to build awareness about the important connection between cultural and 

conservation practices. 

Activity CBO-3.4: Continue to build and nurture volunteer programs that develop knowledge 

of, involvement in, and support for Monument programs and resources. 

Volunteers offer an opportunity to build a new base of constituents who are closely connected to 

and involved in efforts of the Monument. Volunteers are essential in carrying out our mission to 

protect this valuable resource. We will work to enhance existing efforts and to build capacity to 

support these important efforts. 

Long-term volunteers help with outreach and education needs, especially at Mokupāpapa 

Discovery Center and Midway Atoll, and with habitat restoration and wildlife monitoring, 

especially at Tern Island, Laysan Island, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll. In addition, we will 

incorporate Midway Atoll visitors into volunteer programs for habitat restoration, wildlife 

population monitoring, and historic restoration projects, as outlined in the Midway Atoll Visitor 

Services Plan. Overnight visitors will be encouraged to participate in volunteer activities, 

including eradication of invasive plants, collection of marine debris, and restoration of native 

plants and historic structures. Many visitors want to “give something back” to the environment 

during their time on the atoll, and these activities will help restore acres of habitat. 

Activity CBO-3.5: Establish and support a Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

Alliance to engage a broad range of constituents, who will provide recommendations and 

information on specific management issues on a regular basis. 

A Monument Alliance will be established as a community support group to exchange 

information; provide community input and provide individual recommendations on Monument 

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policies, activities, and management; advocate for Monument conservation; enhance broader 

community understanding; and address specific issues. The Alliance will be composed of 

established groups and individuals who are directly interested in the Monument and the 

conservation of its resources. Before the Alliance is established, the MMB will conduct a 

reasoned analysis to identify and recommend specific purposes and roles of the Alliance. The 

assessment may include, but not be limited to, cumulative impacts and related issues that stem 

from human activity within the Monument. Meetings of the Monument Alliance will be 

convened on a regular basis, with specific topics identified for each meeting. The meetings will 

be well publicized and open to the public, and will be held at various locations to facilitate 

participation by a broad range of constituents. 

Activity CBO-3.6: Continue to support the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group through 

the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. 

This group comprises members of the Native Hawaiian community who provide guidance to the 

State of Hawai‘i through the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. This group has offered support on 

permit review and cultural protocols, and provided the Monument with its name. By better 

incorporating Hawaiian culture into Monument management, we gain long-term support and 

greater understanding from the community that represents the host culture of the entire Hawaiian 

Archipelago. 

Activity CBO-3.7: Continue working with the Friends of Midway Atoll National Wildlife 

Refuge through FWS and support the establishment of a Monument-related “friends” group. 

The Friends of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge is a nonprofit group that was formed in 

1999 and currently has more than 200 members from across the Nation who contribute to the 

interpretation, recreation, and educational programs of the Refuge. In addition to continuing to 

work with the Friends of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, we will work with other 

Monumentwide “friends” groups if established. 

Activity CBO-3.8: Continue to convene the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef 

Ecosystem Reserve Advisory Council through NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuary Program 

until the Monument Alliance is established.

The Reserve Advisory Council was formed in 2001 and has served as a mechanism for public 

input and a venue for public comment on management activities. The composition of the 

Reserve Advisory Council is designed to provide formal advice from a variety of stakeholder 

viewpoints and geographic representation. Continuing the RAC would provide a public forum 

for members of the community and constituencies to allow for input on the Reserve until such a 

mechanism is established for the Monument. 

CBO- 4: Develop and implement an overarching Monument interpretive strategy, 

including site-specific planning documents for the Monument’s visitor facilities, within 

5 years. 

As one of many means of communication, several facilities that interpret Monument resources 

and activities have been developed, most of them prior to designation of the Monument. The 

overarching Monument interpretive strategy will identify the Monument’s interpretive themes, 

audiences, messages, and media, and include information on project priorities, costs, staffing 

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needs, and schedules. It will also include evaluation strategies and maintenance schedules. By 

unifying all Monument interpretation under a single strategy, the MMB can ensure targeted, 

appropriate messages are delivered to our constituents in a consistent manner that leads to 

achievement of Monument goals. 

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Activity CBO-4.1: Develop interagency Monument interpretive themes to guide all interpretive 

products and activities.

Although initial discussions of Monumentwide interpretive themes have been held among the 

Co-Trustee agencies, a more focused study is needed. These interpretive themes will guide the 

development and presentation of interpretive sites and products, linking tangible resources to 

intangible meanings, creating emotional and intellectual connections to the meanings of the 

resource, and making the Monument personally relevant to individuals. 

Activity CBO-4.2: Review existing interpretive sites and activities to determine their current 

relevance to the Monument and how they could better represent Monument themes. 

Two existing interpretive facilities—Mokupāpapa: Discovery Center for Hawai‘i’s Remote 

Coral Reefs in Hilo, Hawai‘i, and the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge visitor center on 

Sand Island, Midway Atoll—and the proposed visitor facility at NOAA’s Pacific Regional 

Center on Ford Island, O‘ahu, will be reviewed and updated so that they better reflect the 

Monument as a whole. 

Activity CBO-4.3: Seek additional opportunities to expand Monument interpretive efforts to 

new sites and through new technologies, creating a network of coordinated interpretive sites.

The MMB will identify new sites and technologies to better reach our audiences. In many cases, 

we will work with private or other government entities to include Monument messages in 

broader arenas. Possible partnership opportunities exist in aquaria, schools and universities, 

parks, government buildings, hotels, and many other locations. 

Activity CBO-4.4: Working with the National Park Service, U.S. Navy, and other key entities, 

develop off-site exhibits on the Battle of Midway and the associated National Memorial to be 

integrated into World War II memorial sites of the Pearl Harbor Historic District.

In establishing the Battle of Midway National Memorial at Midway Atoll, FWS was charged 

with ensuring that the heroic courage and sacrifice of those involved in the Battle will never be 

forgotten. Although this will be an important interpretive theme at Midway Atoll, a relatively 

small number of visitors will be reached. A much broader audience will be found within the 

Pearl Harbor Historic District, where the USS Arizona Memorial, USS Missouri, USS Bowfin, 

and sites on Ford Island receive at least 1.5 million visitors each year. The MMB working with 

partner agencies and other key entities will develop exhibits about the Monument that can be 

integrated with other existing interpretative facilities and sites. 
Draft Management Plan 

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Table 3.5.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Constituency Building and 

Outreach 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy CBO-1: Develop and implement an integrated communications 

strategy, based on an assessment of ongoing activities and future needs, to 

coordinate outreach and engage Monument constituencies within 5 years. 

Activity CBO-1.1: Develop an integrated communications strategy based on an 

assessment of ongoing activities and future needs. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CBO-1.2: Continue to refine and implement the Monument Media 

Communications Protocol to engage news media in informing the public about the 

Monument’s resources and activities. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CBO-1.3: Develop a consistent Monument identity to be used in all 

communications strategies that reflects its comanagement within 1 year. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CBO-1.4: Incorporate new perspectives for understanding the value of 

NWHI ecosystems, including socioeconomic studies, to increase ocean ecosystems 

literacy and conservation in the Monument within 5 years. 

NOAA 

Activity CBO-1.5: Research and implement new technologies and tools to increase 

public understanding of the NWHI ecosystems within 5 years. 

NOAA 

Strategy CBO-2: Continue to develop and disseminate materials and improve 

and update tools that help inform Monument constituencies about the 

Monument over the life of the plan.

Activity CBO-2.1: Establish a new Monument website that will allow constituents 

to visit a single site for all Monument-related information within 1 year. 

NOAA 

Activity CBO-2.2: Continue to develop and update printed materials to aid 

Monument constituencies in understanding key aspects of the Monument. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CBO-2.3: Support other entities’ efforts to broaden knowledge of and 

appreciation for Monument resources and management priorities. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

USFWS 

Strategy CBO-3: Continue initiatives that allow Monument constituencies to 

be more involved in the Monument and enhance opportunities for long-term 

engagement over the life of the plan.

Activity CBO-3.1: Continue to seek out and participate in events that reach a 

broader audience and provide constituents with knowledge of the Monument. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CBO-3.2: As needed, hold focused forums on various Monument-related 

issues or topics to inform and engage a broader range of constituents. 

NOAA 

OHA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

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Activity CBO-3.3: Continue to seek out and support partnership opportunities that 

focus on Oceania-related issues. 

NOAA 

Activity CBO-3.4: Continue to build and nurture volunteer programs that develop 

knowledge of, involvement in, and support for Monument programs and resources. 

FWS 

Activity CBO-3.5: Establish and support a Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument Alliance to engage a broad range of constituents, who will provide 

recommendations and information on specific management issues on a regular 

basis. 

NOAA 

Activity CBO-3.6: Continue to support the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working 

Group through the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. 

OHA 

Activity CBO-3.7: Continue working with the Friends of Midway Atoll National 

Wildlife Refuge through FWS and support the establishment of a Monumentrelated “friends” group. 

FWS 

Activity CBO-3.8: Continue to convene the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral 

Reef Ecosystem Reserve Advisory Council through NOAA’s National Marine 

Sanctuary Program until the Monument Alliance is established. 

NOAA 

Strategy CBO-4: Develop and implement an overarching Monument 

interpretive strategy, including site-specific planning documents for the 

Monument’s visitor facilities, within 5 years.

Activity CBO-4.1: Develop interagency Monument interpretive themes to guide all 

interpretive products and activities. 

FWS 

NOAA 

Activity CBO-4.2: Review existing interpretive sites and activities to determine 

their current relevance to the Monument and how they could better represent 

Monument themes. 

FWS 

Activity CBO-4.3: Seek additional opportunities to expand Monument interpretive 

efforts to new sites and through new technologies, creating a network of 

coordinated interpretive sites. 

NOAA 

FWS 

Activity CBO-4.4: Working with the National Park Service, U.S. Navy, and other 

key entities, develop off-site exhibits on the Battle of Midway and the associated 

National Memorial to be integrated into World War II memorial sites of the Pearl 

Harbor Historic District. 

FWS 

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Desired Outcome Links to other Action Plans Engage the Native Hawaiian community in active and 

meaningful involvement in Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument management. 3.1.2 Native Hawaiian Culture and History 

 3.5.1 Agency Coordination 

 3.5.2 Constituency Building and Outreach 

Current Status and Background 

Links to Goals 

Goal 2 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Goal 5 

Goal 6 

Goal 7 

The Executive order that designated the NWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve 

(Reserve) in 2000 required that Native Hawaiians, among others, provide 

advice regarding management of the Reserve and ensuring the continuance of 

Native Hawaiian practices. It did so through provisions allowing for “culturally 

significant, noncommercial subsistence, cultural, and subsistence uses” in the 

Reserve by Native Hawaiians, and set aside three voting seats on the Reserve 

Advisory Council for Native Hawaiians. During its first 5 years of operation, 

the Advisory Council established a Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group, which broadened 

the inclusion of Native Hawaiians in the operations of the Reserve and in planning for a proposed 

National Marine Sanctuary. 

In addition to Native Hawaiian representation on the Advisory Council and the establishment of 

a Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group, the Reserve began efforts to consult with the Native 

Hawaiian community through a grant to the University of Hawai‘i’s Kamakakūokalani Center 

for Hawaiian Studies. This grant provided an opportunity for Native Hawaiians to develop the 

content of NOAA’s report on the cultural history of the NWHI from an indigenous point of view. 

The grant also convened key Native Hawaiian community members for a 2-day planning session 

to make recommendations about future research, educational, and cultural activities that should 

be made available to Native Hawaiians and others to ensure a strong cultural link in the planning 

and management of the Reserve and throughout the Sanctuary designation process. 

These efforts provided a foundation for 

Native Hawaiian involvement in the 

Reserve, and this foundation has 

continued and expanded in the 

management of the Monument. Many 

Native Hawaiians remain unaware of 

efforts under way to protect the NWHI 

through management of the Monument. 

Although several prominent members 

of the Native Hawaiian community 

have been involved in the management 

and implementation of the Reserve, 

many others should be engaged, in part 

by working more closely with Native 

Hawaiian institutions. 

Participants of the 2004 NWHI workshop on Native Hawaiian issues 

and concerns held at Kamakakūokalani Center for Hawaiian Studies at 

U.H. Mānoa. Photo: Dr. Kekuni Blaisdell 

The Reserve set a standard for recognition and inclusion of Native Hawaiians in determining the 

future management of the NWHI. Strategies will be developed to involve the Native Hawaiian 

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community in the management of the Monument not only because of strong public support, but 

also because of the mandates of the National Marine Sanctuary Program to protect biological and 

cultural resources in the areas it manages, of the FWS to preserve historic sites as well as 

conserve and promote wildlife and their habitat, and of the State to protect ceded lands and the 

rights of Native Hawaiians. 

An increasing number of resource management and conservation partnerships are being formed 

between indigenous groups and governmental bodies worldwide. In Hawai‘i, the Kaho‘olawe 

Island Reserve Commission and Mo‘omomi, Moloka‘i partnerships are examples of how 

traditional knowledge and values are integrated into resource management. An international 

example is seen in New Zealand, where Maori involvement in government conservation 

management projects ranges from consultation to full control over marine and terrestrial tribal 

regions. 

The Native Hawaiian community has expressed a strong interest in participating in management 

decisions affecting the Reserve and Monument. Respecting Native Hawaiian traditions and 

values and providing an effective degree of participation in the protection and stewardship of the 

Monument will provide an opportunity for Native Hawaiians to maintain ancestral connections 

to the NWHI. Such connections will continue to further ongoing reconciliation efforts between 

Native Hawaiians and the United States, as directed by the Apology Bill (United States Public 

Law 103-150) in 1993. 

Efforts are needed to directly engage Native Hawaiians in a variety of ways. Specific and 

meaningful inclusion of Native Hawaiians and Native Hawaiian perspectives in the 

management of natural, cultural, and historic resources is increasingly being incorporated in 

Western management practices used throughout the islands today. Historically, resource 

management in Hawai‘i has largely excluded Native Hawaiians. Given this history, trust must 

be built within the Native Hawaiian community before significant progress may be made. The 

MMB is committed to working with the Native Hawaiian community to identify specific and 

meaningful ways of engagement in managing the Monument. A variety of strategies to promote 

this engagement have been identified in this action plan as well as those in section 3.1.2, the 

Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan. 

Need for Action 

Numerous public comments collected during the scoping process for the proposed National 

Marine Sanctuary identified the need to include Native Hawaiians and Native Hawaiian 

traditional resource management practices in the management of the NWHI. Communities also 

expressed concern that Native Hawaiians must have access to continue cultural practices in the 

region. The comments indicated the need for direct consultation with Native Hawaiians, or more 

consultation over and beyond the representation of Native Hawaiians currently included in the 

management of the Monument. 

The inclusion of terrestrial areas (particularly Nihoa, Mokumanamana, and Kure Atoll) and waters 

in the Monument creates a greater urgency to include Native Hawaiian perspectives in the 

Monument’s management. All of the documented Native Hawaiian archaeological sites in the 

NWHI are on Nihoa and Mokumanamana; they hold some of the densest scatters or concentrations 

of prehistoric structural sites in Hawai‘i; and they represent a pure example of the culture 

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prevailing in Hawai‘i before the 13th century. Of further importance, the Constitution of the State 

of Hawai‘i requires the State to care for Hawai‘i’s trust resources and recognizes the State’s 

obligation to work for the perpetuation and enhancement of Native Hawaiians. Given the unique 

history and constitutional and statutory requirements of the State to protect the claims and rights of 

Native Hawaiians in their homeland, the Native Hawaiian community must be involved in the 

planning, management, and operations of the Monument. 

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Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Three strategies have been identified for achieving the desired outcome of engaging the Native 

Hawaiian community in active and meaningful involvement in Monument management. The 

strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Native Hawaiian 

Community Involvement” (NHCI). A summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 

3.5.3 at the end of this action plan. 

• NHCI-1: Regularly involve the Native Hawaiian community for the life of the plan. 

• NHCI-2: Develop and annually maintain partnerships with Native Hawaiian 

organizations and institutions. 

• NHCI-3: Identify and integrate Native Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge and 

management concepts into Monument management annually for the life of the plan. 

Strategy NHCI-1: Regularly involve the Native Hawaiian community for the life of the 

plan. 

 

The MMB includes representation by the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. Currently, OHA is the only 

State agency with a statutory mandate to advocate for Native Hawaiians and to assess the 

policies and practices of other agencies’ impacts on Native Hawaiians. OHA, on behalf of the 

MMB, will continue to convene the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group to obtain advice 

and guidance from Native Hawaiian cultural experts, including kūpuna (respected elders) and 

practitioners, on all Monument actions affecting Native Hawaiians and cultural resources in the 

Monument. Over time, the MMB may develop other mechanisms to bring together Native 

Hawaiians to participate in Monument activities and management.

 

Activity NHCI-1.1: Formalize, expand, and convene the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working 

Group. 

During year 1, the MMB, through OHA, will formally establish a cultural working group, 

expanding the previously established working group, to ensure a strong cultural link in the 

planning and management of the Monument. Like its predecessor, this body would consist of 

kūpuna, cultural practitioners, Native Hawaiian resource managers, and others (see section 3.5.2, 

the Constituency Building and Outreach Action Plan). 

Activity NHCI-1.2: Engage the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group in the development 

of a Monument Cultural Resources Program. 

The MMB will work with the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group and other Native 

Hawaiian organizations and institutions to develop a Monument Cultural Resources Program and 

corresponding cultural resource management activities. (See section 3.1.2, the Native Hawaiian 

Culture and History Action Plan.) 

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Activity NHCI-1.3: Establish an annual cultural resources exchange.

The MMB will annually convene groups of Native Hawaiians who have visited the Monument to 

provide a safe venue to discuss the knowledge, experiences, and new questions gained during the 

past research season. The MMB will also update the Native Hawaiian community on its lessons 

learned from the last research season, including synopses of nonproprietary cultural reflections 

provided in various permittees’ final reports. This conference will not only update the Native 

Hawaiian community, but will also engage that community in determining the priorities and 

proposed methodologies of forthcoming research queries, theories, and needs. (See section 

3.1.2, the Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan.)

Strategy NHCI-2: Develop and annually maintain partnerships with Native Hawaiian 

organizations and institutions. 

Memoranda of Understanding, grant programs, and cooperative agreements have been useful in 

developing working relationships with partner agencies and organizations. Partnerships with 

Native Hawaiian organizations could similarly help to strengthen that community’s involvement 

in Monument management and the development and implementation of programs involving 

Native Hawaiians. Partnering will help the Monument to consult with the broader Native 

Hawaiian community and aid in gathering information about cultural resources and practices. 

Activity NHCI-2.1: Continue to expand and explore opportunities to partner with institutions 

serving Native Hawaiians. 

In 2003, the Reserve established a partnership with the Kamakakūokalani Center for Hawaiian 

Studies and the University of Hawai‘i to conduct cultural research, consult with the Native 

Hawaiian community, and produce educational materials related to the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands. The MMB will seek other opportunities to formally consult with and engage other 

Native Hawaiian groups and will develop outreach programs for the Native Hawaiian 

community. (Interagency partnerships are also addressed in section 3.5.1, the Agency 

Coordination Action Plan.) Additional partnerships, contracts, grants, or formal agreements with 

Native Hawaiian organizations will be considered and established as opportunities arise. 

Strategy NHCI-3: Identify and integrate Native Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge 

and management concepts into Monument management annually for the life of the plan. 

Traditional resource management involved recognizing local variations, observing patterns, 

periodically applying kapu (restrictions on resource extraction and other activities) by konohiki 

(local managers), and maintaining a deep respect for, and intimate knowledge of, the 

environment. Integrating traditional ecological knowledge will not only strengthen the 

relationship between Monument managers and the Native Hawaiian community, it will also 

provide additional tools and methods for improving management practices. This relationship 

will also perpetuate the application of traditional ecological knowledge across the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. 

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Activity NHCI-3.1: Engage the Native Hawaiian community to identify how traditional 

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The Monument’s cultural resources staff, to be developed pursuant to the Native Hawaiian 

Culture and History Action Plan (section 3.1.2), will work with the Native Hawaiian community 

and cultural experts to preserve and recover the knowledge of traditional Hawaiian resource 

management strategies and to identify how traditional ecological knowledge and associated 

practices may be woven into Monument management and research activities. This will include 

developing recommendations for integrating these skills and knowledge into Monument 

management, and preparing a report of the recommendations within 2 years. 

Activity NHCI-3.2: Use and integrate Native Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge in 

Monument management activities. 

Based on recommendations developed under Activity NHCI-3.1, the MMB will integrate 

traditional perspectives, knowledge, and approaches in the management of Monument resources. 

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Table 3.5.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Native Hawaiian 

Community Involvement 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy NHCI-1: Regularly involve the Native Hawaiian community for the 

life of the plan. 

Activity NHCI-1.1: Formalize, expand, and convene the Native Hawaiian Cultural 

Working Group. 

OHA 

Activity NHCI-1.2: Engage the Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group in the 

development of a Monument Cultural Resources Program. 

OHA 

Activity NHCI-1.3: Establish an annual cultural resources exchange. OHA 

Strategy NHCI-2: Develop and annually maintain partnerships with Native 

Hawaiian organizations and institutions.

Activity NHCI-2.1: Continue to expand and explore opportunities to partner with 

institutions serving Native Hawaiians. 

OHA 

NOAA 

Strategy NHCI-3: Identify and integrate Native Hawaiian traditional 

ecological knowledge and management concepts into Monument management 

annually for the life of the plan.

Activity NHCI-3.1: Engage the Native Hawaiian community to identify how 

traditional ecological knowledge will be integrated into Monument activities. 

NOAA 

Activity NHCI-3.2: Use and integrate Native Hawaiian traditional ecological 

knowledge in Monument management activities. 

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Desired Outcome Links to other Action Plans 

Cultivate an ocean ecosystems stewardship ethic, 

contribute to the Nation’s science and cultural 

literacy, and create a new generation of conservation 

leaders through formal environmental education. 

All action plans in: 

 3.1 Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI 

 3.2 Conserving Wildlife and their Habitats 

 3.3 Reducing Threats to Monument Resources

 3.4 Managing Human Uses 

Current Status and Background 

Prior to the establishment of the Monument, the Co-Trustees took active steps 

to address the need for ocean ecosystems literacy. Adopting a cooperative 

approach has exponentially enhanced and extended the agencies’ educational 

efforts. Educational partnerships have enabled the implementation of 

programs far beyond the resources of any one agency, institution, or 

organization alone. 

Links to Goals 

Goal 5 

Goal 6 

Goal 8 

The NWHI provide a model and rare benchmark of a healthy, intact ecosystem, conserved in its 

natural state, that may serve to inspire Hawai‘i residents, all Americans, and the global 

community to take part in ocean restoration efforts. This guiding premise led resource 

management agencies and partners to found the multiyear “Navigating Change” project, which 

focuses on raising awareness and motivating people to change their attitudes and behaviors to 

better care for Hawai‘i’s land and ocean resources. A five-part video, standards-based 

educational curriculum, and teleconferences with the traditional Polynesian voyaging canoe 

Hōkūle‘a during its 2004 expedition to the NWHI have been completed in partnership with 

several agencies and organizations. Teacher workshops on the “Navigating Change” program 

have been held since 2003 across Hawai‘i. The MMB also organized a number of education-atsea initiatives. 

The multiagency educational partnership remains active and fluid and continues to work well even 

in the absence of formal agreements because of the clear benefits to all parties. Shared objectives 

include information sharing, aligning education with management needs, setting regional priorities, 

reducing duplication of efforts, and sharing resources. Through partnering, organizations and 

agencies are better able to meet their 

educational mandates. Partnerships 

take advantage of existing expertise and 

experience, as well as preexisting 

markets for educational outreach. Cost 

and staff sharing of education and 

outreach programs help to alleviate 

limited funding and staffing issues for 

these programs. 

Mokupāpapa: Discovery Center for 

Hawai‘i’s Remote Coral Reefs 

The Reserve built a visitor/education 

center colocated with its Hilo office to Students visit Mokupāpapa Discovery Center in Hilo. 

Photo: James Watt 

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spur greater public awareness of the region and ocean conservation issues. Mokupāpapa: 

Discovery Center for Hawai‘i’s Remote Coral Reefs was conceived and built in 2003 to interpret 

the natural science, culture, and history of the NWHI and surrounding marine environment. The 

4,000-square foot center brings the region to people by proxy, since most will never have the 

opportunity to visit the area. At the time of this publication, over 200,000 people have been 

exposed to the wonders of the NWHI through the center. The center has served as a physical hub 

of learning, regularly hosting well-attended educational talks, summer programs, and activities, 

while drawing a constant stream of field trips coorganized by Reserve staff, as well as school and 

community groups from around the State and beyond. 

Need for Action 

The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy (2004) stressed the need to strengthen the Nation’s ocean 

awareness and to improve ocean-related education efforts as “critical to building an ocean 

stewardship ethic, strengthening the nation’s science literacy, and creating a new generation of 

ocean leaders.” The report concluded that an interested, engaged public is an essential 

prerequisite “to successfully address complex ocean- and coastal-related issues, balance the use 

and conservation of marine resources, and realize future benefits from the ocean.” 

The President’s Ocean Action Plan places a major emphasis on ocean-related awareness and 

education. This action plan addresses the need to build upon our environmental education efforts 

to cultivate students as an informed, involved constituency that cares about restoring, protecting, 

and conserving our precious ocean resources. Strengthening awareness of the importance of the 

NWHI as a model of a wild marine ecosystem being maintained in its natural state requires a 

heightened focus on stewardship values and resource management issues through both formal and 

informal education efforts. School curricula, starting in kindergarten, will expose students to ocean 

issues and prepare the next generation of scientists, managers, educators, and leaders through 

diverse educational opportunities. Further, students’ increased understanding is anticipated to 

naturally influence their families, extending the extracurricular reach of the Monument’s 

educational activities. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Monument staff will work closely with existing and new partners to further their environmental 

education goals. Two strategies have been identified to cultivate an ocean ecosystem ethic, 

strengthen the Nation’s science literacy, and create a new generation of conservation leaders. 

The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, “Ocean 

Ecosystems Literacy” (OEL). A summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.5.4 at 

the end of this action plan. 

• OEL-1: Develop and implement educational programs in Hawai‘i to increase ocean 

ecosystems literacy and promote stewardship values within 5 years. 

• OEL-2: Develop and implement new tools to “bring the place to the students,” rather than 

the students to the place, within 3 years. 

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Strategy OEL-1: Develop and implement educational programs in Hawai‘i to increase 

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A coordinated and long-term strategy for mainstreaming NWHI and ocean ecosystem 

stewardship values-based educational materials into Hawai‘i’s schools will be developed. 

Appropriate educational materials and curricula geared to increase ocean literacy and ocean 

stewardship will be developed in concert with the NWHI education partnership and the State of 

Hawai‘i Department of Education, Independent Schools of Hawai‘i, Nā Lei Na‘auao Native 

Hawaiian Charter School Alliance, and the Charter School Association of Hawai‘i. Materials 

developed through activities in other action plans will be used as resource and support materials 

for development of curricula. Programming will also be developed in the Hawaiian language for 

use in Hawaiian language immersion and culture-based charter schools. Ultimately, increased 

knowledge of ocean ecosystems issues, in particular of the NWHI, will allow Hawai‘i’s children, 

their families, and lifetime learners to be more active ocean stewards and to better understand the 

issues related to ocean management. 

Activity OEL-1.1: Expand and improve the NWHI educational partnership’s Navigating 

Change curriculum for elementary and middle school students, with increased focus on ocean 

ecosystems literacy, within 3 years. 

Building upon existing NWHI-based curricula developed under the Navigating Change partnership 

and the new Hawai‘i Marine Curriculum, the MMB will contract with curricula developers to 

improve and expand “A Teacher’s Guide to Navigating Change.” Additional study units will be 

added for the current guide targeted at 4th and 5th grade students, and units focusing on other grade 

levels will be developed. As the effects of climate change are further studied and potential 

mitigations are identified, a unit on this topic could be developed. External grants for curricula 

development will also be sought. Education partners will work with the Department of Education 

and private and charter schools as curricula are being developed to ensure that the Department’s 

and schools’ needs are incorporated into the work and to facilitate incorporation of the new 

curricula into existing educational programming. Whenever possible, families will be drawn into 

the lesson plans and activities. Planting the seed of awareness in young minds and those of their 

families concerning alien species, climate change and ocean acidification, and marine debris 

cleanup and prevention issues will effectively support long-range prevention efforts to deal with 

these threats. 

Activity OEL-1.2: As curricula are developed, work with Hawaiian-language immersion 

schools and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to ensure the curricula meet their needs, including 

translation into the Hawaiian language. 

The Navigating Change partnership will work closely with the Native Hawaiian community to 

ensure appropriate cultural information is included within all curricula, and that the units meet the 

needs of Hawaiian-language immersion and culture-based charter schools. 

Activity OEL-1.3: Develop an ocean stewardship program for middle school and high school 

students within 5 years. 

In concert with development of Navigating Change educational materials for primary schools, an 

ocean stewardship program will be developed with educational partners to give middle and high 

school students real-world, hands-on experience with the issues of ocean management. Real 

examples from the Monument will be used as the basis for the science- and culture-based 

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program, which will use educational activities such as interviews with people in the student’s 

communities, and collecting and analyzing research data to resolve management issues. Through 

these activities, students will be encouraged to apply their newfound knowledge to help restore 

the ecosystems closer to their homes. 

Activity OEL-1.4: Conduct at least four teacher workshops in the main Hawaiian Islands per 

year to introduce and support the elementary school and middle/high school environmental 

education programs. 

Teacher workshops to present and demonstrate the use of Monument-developed educational 

materials, activities, and curricula, as well as those developed with partners, are effective ways to 

get Monument-based information into classrooms and informal education venues. Development 

and distribution of educational materials is not enough; teachers are often overwhelmed by 

available materials and should be taught how to use them, assisted in implementing materials in 

their classrooms, and supported by followup activities. 

Activity OEL-1.5: Continue Teacher and Class-at-Sea programs on an annual basis. 

In 2005, the first teacher and class-at-sea educational expedition to the NWHI was conducted. 

During NOAA vessel allocation meetings, NOAA agreed to accommodate annual education 

missions aboard one of the several research vessels active in the NWHI. Teachers who have been 

active in using existing Monument educational materials will be chosen to participate in these 

educational cruises, and select students will be sought. These programs allow teachers and 

students who are active in learning about the NWHI to experience the area firsthand and share the 

wonder of the place with the rest of the educational community. Annual expeditions will be 

planned in conjunction with educational opportunities with State and FWS partners. Monument 

educational materials developed in activity OEL-1.3 will be used during these expeditions. For 

linked activities, see also the Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan, strategy NHCH-5, 

in section 3.1.2. 

Activity OEL-1.6: Expand educational programs for school groups at Mokupāpapa: 

Discovery Center for Hawai‘i’s Remote Coral Reefs to host at least 10 groups per month. 

Educational programming at the Monument’s premier education and outreach venue, 

Mokupāpapa: Discovery Center for Hawai‘i’s Remote Coral Reefs, will be expanded. Working 

closely with local public, private, and charter schools, Discovery Center staff will create 

educational partnerships to promote Mokupāpapa as an educational facility and field trip venue. 

Discovery Center staff will collaborate with the Monument’s educational partners to codevelop 

standards-based education programs at the Discovery Center for K-12 students. Visitation 

calendars, pre- and post-visit teacher background and activities packets, and volunteer docent 

capacity will be developed to meet the various needs of school and community groups. 

Expanded programming, such as guided tours in the Hawaiian language, monthly talks, tide pool 

classes, and reef-at-night visits to the aquarium, will provide continuing education opportunities 

for adults. Discovery Center staff will work with partner facilities and agencies on Hawai‘i 

Island to codevelop on- and off-site programming, where appropriate, and to develop an 

education strategy and identify areas of collaboration. 

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Activity OEL-1.7: Provide biennial wildlife-dependent educator workshops at Midway Atoll, 

targeting a mix of science teachers and those from other fields of education and using the 

Navigating Change curricula, within 2 years. 

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The goal of these biennial educator workshops is to inspire a new group of educators to use 

environmental education as a method of connecting students and lifetime learners to Hawai‘i’s 

wildlife and culture. Over the past 5 years, more than 15 workshops have been conducted on the 

main Hawaiian Islands to introduce the standards-based Navigating Change curriculum to local 

teachers. The major themes included within the curriculum could provide the stepping stones for 

future development of educational activities such as telepresence, distance learning projects, and 

ocean stewardship programs. 

Agency planning for Midway Atoll educator workshops began in 2007, and a focus group of 

teachers, curriculum developers, educational leaders, and Navigating Change Educational 

Partnership members held a planning workshop on Midway Atoll in January 2008. The 2009 

educator workshop and beyond will be conducted mainly by the focus group educators, with 

support from the Navigating Change Educational Partnership. As curricula geared at new grade 

levels and targeting different audiences are developed, the number of educator workshops 

offered within the Monument may increase. Offering more educators the opportunity to 

experience Midway Atoll and bring the Monument back to their students and lifetime learners 

will be an important role for Midway in the coming years. 

Activity OEL-1.8: Facilitate at least two opportunities per year for accredited colleges, 

universities, or private/nonprofit environmental or historical organizations to conduct wildlifedependent or historical college-level courses or administer informal educational camps, within 

2 years.

Organizations have already shown their interest in using Midway for educational experiences, 

since it provides unparalleled wildlife-dependent educational opportunities. Sponsoring 

organizations will be responsible for providing instructors and leading their participants. 

Monument staff will provide guidance during a mandatory advance orientation. When possible, 

Monument staff can provide learning opportunities that engage participants in biological and 

historical projects such as habitat restoration or historic preservation. FWS staff will also 

monitor group activities to ensure Midway’s wildlife and historic resources are protected. 

The MMB also will collaborate with universities to offer semester internship opportunities for 

students interested in resource management, cultural studies, history, or natural sciences. In the 

future, the MMB will investigate opportunities to bring select middle and high school students to 

Midway for courses in atoll ecosystems. The MMB supports expanding environmental 

education opportunities to the extent feasible on Midway Atoll. Developing lower-cost housing 

and increasing classroom and laboratory space will facilitate these programs. An opportunity to 

study Midway’s unique natural resources could be the catalyst to inspire lifelong devotion to the 

field of science. 

Activity OEL-1.9: Build formal evaluations into all education programs within 2 years.

Evaluation of education and outreach programs and activities is critical to ensuring that the 

MMB is achieving its desired goals and reaching target audiences. This information is also 

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useful in helping to redesign current efforts to be more successful. Formal evaluations take time, 

expertise, and will require external assistance in development. 

Strategy OEL-2: Develop and implement new tools to “bring the place to the students,” 

rather than the students to the place, within 3 years. 

The Monument will serve as a powerful focal point for increasing ocean literacy in Hawai‘i, the 

Nation, and the world. To engage a broad and diverse base of students around the world, the 

MMB will continuously expand the types of products and modes of communication used in 

educational programs. The MMB will benefit from continually exploring new research initiatives, 

new technologies, and best management practices that may advise its efforts and enhance its ability 

to restore, protect, and conserve Monument resources. 

Activity OEL-2.1: Identify and prioritize research and development projects to increase ocean 

ecosystems literacy and conservation in NWHI. 

The MMB, working together with educational partnerships and other relevant groups, including 

the private sector, will identify and prioritize research and development projects for new 

products and innovative technologies that could be employed to increase ocean ecosystems 

literacy and support for conservation of the NWHI. These tools may include technologies for 

making remotely collected scientific data available for education purposes on a real-time basis, 

and the possibility of hosting student research projects in the Monument, similar to what NASA 

does with the space shuttle and space station. Since the challenges of increasing awareness of 

the Monument have been likened to those involved in increasing understanding of space, the 

MMB will work with NASA to learn from their extensive education programs. 

Activity OEL-2.2: Use telepresence technology for educational and outreach activities within 

5 years. 

Telepresence is an important tool for helping to educate the larger community about the special 

ocean region of the NWHI. Since most people will not be able to visit the NWHI due to its 

remoteness and fragility, it is important to bring the place to the people. Technologies such as 

underwater video cameras, real-time video transmission, virtual field trips, formal distance 

learning programs, website interfaces, and exhibits in discovery centers can play an important 

role in educating students and the public about the NWHI. Obstacles to implementing these 

technologies do exist, such as cost, feasibility, and ecological sensitivities, but the MMB will 

continue to invest in and use new technologies for providing this virtual experience. 
Draft Management Plan 

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Table 3.5.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Ocean Ecosystems 

Literacy 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy OEL-1: Develop and implement educational programs in Hawai‘i to 

increase ocean ecosystems literacy and promote stewardship values within 

5 years. 

Activity OEL-1.1: Expand and improve the NWHI educational partnership’s 

Navigating Change curriculum for elementary and middle school students, with 

increased focus on ocean ecosystems literacy, within 3 years. 

NOAA 

FWS 

Activity OEL-1.2: As curricula are developed, work with Hawaiian-language 

immersion schools and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to ensure the curricula meet 

their needs, including translation into the Hawaiian language. 

NOAA 

FWS 

Activity OEL-1.3: Develop an ocean stewardship program for middle school and 

high school students within 5 years. 

NOAA 

Activity OEL-1.4: Conduct at least four teacher workshops in the main Hawaiian 

Islands per year to introduce and support the elementary school and middle/high 

school environmental education programs. 

NOAA 

Activity OEL-1.5: Continue Teacher and Class-at-Sea programs on an annual 

basis. 

NOAA 

Activity OEL-1.6: Expand educational programs for school groups at Mokupāpapa: 

Discovery Center for Hawai‘i’s Remote Coral Reefs to host at least 10 groups per 

month. 

NOAA 

Activity OEL-1.7: Provide biennial wildlife-dependent educator workshops at 

Midway Atoll, targeting a mix of science teachers and those from other fields of 

education and using the Navigating Change curricula, within 2 years. 

FWS 

NOAA 

Activity OEL-1.8: Facilitate at least two opportunities per year for accredited 

colleges, universities, or private/nonprofit environmental or historical organizations 

to conduct wildlife-dependent or historical college-level courses or administer 

informal educational camps, within 2 years. 

FWS 

Activity OEL-1.9: Build formal evaluations into all education programs within 2 

years. 

NOAA 

Strategy OEL-2: Develop and implement new tools to “bring the place to the 

students,” rather than the students to the place, within 3 years.

Activity OEL-2.1: Identify and prioritize research and development projects to 

increase ocean ecosystems literacy and conservation in NWHI. 

NOAA 

Activity OEL-2.2: Use telepresence technology for educational and outreach 

activities within 5 years. 

NOAA 

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3.6 Achieving Effective Monument Operations 

3.6.1 Central Operations Action Plan 

3.6.2 Information Management Action Plan 

3.6.3 Coordinated Field Operations Action Plan 

3.6.4 Evaluation Action Plan 

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Monument operations provide the support system for implementing strategies and activities 

described in other action plans. This support system includes improvement and maintenance of 

infrastructure in Honolulu to support field sites in the NWHI, information management, 

coordinated field operations, improvement and maintenance of field infrastructure, and program 

evaluation in both Honolulu and field sites. 

Action plans to achieve effective operations focus on building and maintaining the vital 

personnel and infrastructure needs, both on land and at sea. The Information Management and 

Evaluation Action Plans (sections 3.6.2 and 3.6.4) describe programs and functions necessary to 

effectively carry out and assess the effectiveness of all other action plans. Each action plan 

consists of a set of strategies and corresponding activities to address a desired outcome. The 

desired outcomes of these action plans over the 15-year planning horizon are as follows: 

• Central Operations: Conduct effective and well-planned operations with appropriate 

human resources and adequate physical infrastructure in the main Hawaiian Islands to 

support management of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

• Information Management: Consolidate and make accessible relevant information to 

meet educational, management, and research needs for Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument. 

• Coordinated Field Operations: Coordinate field activities and provide adequate 

infrastructure to ensure safe and efficient operations while avoiding impacts to the 

ecosystems in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

• Evaluation: Determine the degree to which management actions are achieving the 

goals of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

Action plans described in this section will be implemented through close coordination among 

the MMB and in conjunction with other priority management needs. 

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Desired Outcome 

Conduct effective and well-planned operations with appropriate 

human resources and adequate physical infrastructure in the 

main Hawaiian Islands to support management of 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

Links to other Action Plans 

 All action plans 

Links to Goals

Current Status and Background Goal 1

The Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Midway Atoll Goal 4

National Wildlife Refuge, NWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve (Reserve), 

NWHI Marine Refuge, and State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll were established prior to 2006, 

but remain part of the Monument. The MMB agencies had varying levels of human resources 

and facility infrastructure in place when the Monument was established. The majority of the 

staff and administrative support is located in Honolulu. Outreach and other activities are 

conducted at other locations within the main Hawaiian Islands, and some on-site management is 

conducted as needed at a few sites within the Monument. 

The FWS and its preceding natural resource agencies have conducted management activities in 

the NWHI since the establishment of the Hawaiian Islands NWR in 1909. Full time staff were 

assigned for administrative and logistical support in 1979 when the U.S. Coast Guard abandoned 

their presence at French Frigate Shoals. These FWS operations in support of the Hawaiian 

Islands NWR were first conducted at Kīlauea Point NWR on the island of Kaua‘i, and were later 

moved to the central FWS refuge office in Honolulu. FWS assumed wildlife management 

responsibilities at Midway Atoll NWR in 1988. 

The FWS currently maintains numerous Monument staff, in diverse roles, in Honolulu in the 

Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana‘ole Federal Building (Federal Building). Support also is provided 

by other FWS staff within the Federal Building, including from the Hawaiian and Pacific Islands 

National Wildlife Refuge Complex, Pacific Islands External Affairs and Visitor Services, and 

Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office. Both the Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll refuges, 

under the Monument staffing structure, maintain staff in Honolulu and in the NWHI (see section 

3.6.3, Coordinated Field Operations Action Plan). In addition to the facilities at the Federal 

Building, FWS maintains a bunkhouse and storage facility in the Kapahulu area of Honolulu. This 

facility, while periodically available for FWS Monument needs, is administered by and primarily 

serves the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex. 

Much of the necessary NOAA-related infrastructure and personnel were established while 

implementing the Reserve from 2001 to the present. This included the creation of an office in 

Hilo and an office in Honolulu, hiring of key staff, and the design, construction, and opening of 

the Mokupāpapa: Discovery Center for Hawai‘i’s Remote Coral Reefs in Hilo. 

Prior to Monument designation, Reserve staff carried out operations specific to the Reserve while 

devoting a considerable amount of time working toward the designation of the Reserve as a 

national marine sanctuary. Due to these demands, staff size increased steadily between 2000 and 

2005, with most staff managing multiple diverse roles and becoming more centralized in the 

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Honolulu office. In 2004, Honolulu Reserve staff located to offices shared by the NMSP Pacific 

Region and Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary. Also in 2004, NOAA 

began plans to relocate all Hawai‘i NOAA offices to a new consolidated Pacific Regional Center 

on Ford Island by 2010. The Mokupāpapa Discovery Center exceeded expectations for the 

number of annual visitors in its first year of operation requiring additional staff for managing the 

facility. 

In 2006, when the NWHI were designated as a Marine National Monument by Presidential 

Proclamation 8031, staff involved in managing the Hawaiian Islands NWR, Midway Atoll NWR, 

and the Reserve became Monument staff and immediately began carrying out a rolling 

implementation of management of the newly designated Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument. 

NOAA Fisheries provides management support and program coordination for the Monument from 

the Pacific Islands Regional Office (PIRO), located in downtown Honolulu. Established in 2004, 

PIRO has increased its resources to meet a growing number of regional, national and international 

requirements. In addition to senior leadership direction, a NOAA Fisheries Management Officer 

was reassigned from existing staff to directly support the development and implementation of 

Monument activities. NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, located adjacent to the 

University of Hawai‘i's Manoa campus, supports a variety of scientific activities taking place 

within the Monument. 

The State of Hawai‘i has had an active presence in monitoring and managing resources in NWHI 

starting with assessing and managing fisheries in the 1950’s and continuing with the on-site 

management of Kure Atoll in the late 1980s when the U.S. Coast Guard returned atoll management 

back to the State. Resources under State jurisdiction are mainly managed by the Department of 

Land and Natural Resources. The key line offices for undertaking this management are the 

Division of Aquatic Resources and the Division of Forestry and Wildlife, both administrative 

offices located in the Kalanimoku Building in downtown Honolulu. Staff involved in the 

management of the Monument are located at this site and are also co-located with NOAA staff at 

their offices in Hawai‘i Kai. Staff involved in the management of the State NWHI Marine Refuge 

immediately began carrying out rolling implementation of the Monument as the needs of 

comanagement evolved. While State staff involved in Monument operations have not grown in the 

past few years, recent State administrative and legislative action has created additional positions to 

implement State Monument activities. 

In addition to those activities undertaken at the State administrative offices, staff involved in the 

management of the State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll are located at the Division of Forestry 

and Wildlife baseyard. All staff associated with the support of wildlife activities in the O‘ahu 

district (of which Kure is a component) are located at this site. The Division of Aquatic Resources 

also has an additional site for staging all boating and diving operations at their Ānuenue Research 

Facility at Sand Island in Honolulu Harbor. 

Additional support activities including conservation enforcement, alien species response, 

emergency response, and historic preservation are located throughout the Department of Land and 

Natural Resources and the Department of Health. 

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OHA’s involvement in the management of the NWHI is based in part on the agency’s legal 

connection to ceded lands. The Hawai‘i Admission Act of March 18, 1959 (U.S. Public Law 86-3) 

states that one of the purposes of the public lands trust, the majority of which includes ceded lands, 

is to better conditions of Native Hawaiians. OHA was created to fulfill this purpose. The NWHI 

are a mixture of ceded lands controlled either by the State of Hawai‘i or the Federal government. 

Staff members from OHA’s Native Rights, Land and Culture division lead the agency’s efforts in 

ensuring that the ceded lands and cultural resources of the Monument are managed in such a way 

that it is culturally appropriate to the spiritual significance of the place to Native Hawaiians; that is 

beneficial to Native Hawaiians, in accordance with the Admission Act; and that retains Native 

Hawaiians’ traditional, customary, and religious rights and practices, in accordance with the 

Hawai‘i State Constitution. The nine OHA Trustees and OHA’s main administrative staff are 

housed in the Pacific Plaza Building in Honolulu, with community resource offices on five of the 

main Hawaiian Islands, including two offices on Hawai‘i Island. 

Volunteers currently provide support to the Monument in a number of locations including 

administrative offices, the Mokupāpapa Discovery Center in Hilo, French Frigate Shoals, Laysan 

Island, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll. These volunteers help Monument staff in carrying out their 

missions to protect the natural, cultural, and historic resources of the Monument (see 3.5.2 - 

Constituency Building and Outreach Action Plan). 

Need for Action 

Effectively managing such an extraordinary and high profile marine conservation project requires a 

strong operational foundation to support management goals. Operational support of onsite 

management and day-to-day operations require that highly trained and experienced staff are 

maintained and recruited to implement the strategies and activities described throughout this 

management plan. Volunteer services are also needed to augment this staff. In addition, the 

appropriate physical infrastructure must be in place to support operations. Each of the MMB 

agencies currently has infrastructure to maintain and possibly collocate both in Honolulu and 

elsewhere in the main Hawaiian Islands. Successful site operations are achieved through a 

synergy of people and places for them to work. This action plan presents strategies and activities 

designed to achieve effective site operations. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Three strategies have been identified to ensure the necessary human resources, physical 

infrastructures, and administrative procedures are in place to successfully manage the 

Monument. The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, 

Central Operations (CO). A summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.6.1 at the 

end of this action plan. 

• CO-1: Coordinate annual site operations planning and implementation over the life of the 

plan. 

• CO-2: Assess and enhance human resource and organizational capacity over the life of 

the plan. 

• CO-3: Assess and enhance physical infrastructure and facilities, as necessary, in the main 

Hawaiian Islands over the life of the plan. 

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Strategy CO-1: Coordinate annual site operations planning and implementation over the 

life of the plan. 

Monument management agencies develop annual operating plans guided by their agency policies 

and procedures and consistent with the Monument Management Plan. These individual agency 

operating plans may be integrated to the extent possible to better guide day-to-day activities 

based on budget allocations to ensure efficient and effective use of public resources. 

Activity CO-1.1: Coordinate and implement annual operating plans. 

Annual operating plans will be developed and coordinated in accordance with agency requirements 

and guided by site-specific needs articulated in planning documents and based upon funding 

availability. The results of annual evaluation activities and current priorities will be reviewed and 

considered in developing annual operating plans (see Section 3.6.4, Evaluation Action Plan). 

Financial administration includes budget tracking, managing the financial portions of memoranda 

of understanding and contracts, and purchasing and travel planning according to State and Federal 

purchasing regulations. Administrative procedures and functions also include planning for 

emergencies to ensure staff safety; complying with programmatic reporting requirements; records 

retention; purchasing and maintaining equipment, supplies, and vehicles; maintaining 

communication equipment including telephones, cellular phones, satellite phones and connections, 

and radios, as well as communication policy. Although each agency will follow their own 

procedures, activities will be coordinated to the extent possible to increase efficiencies, and where 

possible standard operating procedures will be developed to outline roles and responsibilities as 

needed. 

Strategy CO-2: Assess and enhance human resource and organizational capacity over the 

life of the plan. 

Both human resource and organizational capacity are needed to achieve effective site operations. 

With the Proclamation announcement comes high expectations for the Monument to implement 

management actions in a short amount of time. To effectively meet Monument goals, the MMB 

will develop a strong operational framework of human resources as early as possible. Human 

resources and organizational capacity may be increased to carry out programs, including 

administration, research and monitoring, threat reduction, education and outreach, information 

management, and enforcement. 

Activity CO-2.1: Regularly assess current status and future needs for human resources. 

In order to implement the Monument Management Plan effectively, human resource and 

organizational capacity needs will be regularly assessed. These assessments will be used to 

organize and better utilize existing staff, and identify technical and administrative human 

resource overlaps and gaps. The assessments will also identify and prioritize capacity building 

opportunities, and regional capacities and opportunities to coordinate and share resources with 

partners. Alternative human resource capacity-building measures, such as internships, volunteer 

programs, and partnerships, will be considered in the assessments as a means to increase staffing 

capacity. 

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As funding, field-based housing, and other factors allow, the human resource and organizational 

capacity of the Monument will be enhanced to address specific needs and carry out the strategies 

and activities contained within the Monument Management Plan. Human resource development 

includes staff recruitment, retention, recognition, training, communication, regular meetings, 

time and attendance, as well as staff safety. 

Strategy CO-3: Assess and enhance physical infrastructure and facilities, as necessary, in 

the main Hawaiian Islands over the life of the plan. 

Effective and efficient human resources must be supported by sufficient physical infrastructure 

resources. Efforts will be ongoing to maintain existing facilities in the main Hawaiian Islands and 

design and improve facilities as required to support Monument administration and operations. 

Activity CO-3.1: Regularly assess current status and future needs for infrastructure and 

facilities. 

In conjunction with assessments of human resource needs, infrastructure and facilities needs will 

also be reviewed to optimize facilities utilization. These assessments will aim to organize and 

better utilize existing facilities and infrastructure in the main Hawaiian Islands, identify physical 

resource overlaps and gaps, and identify needs to support projected future growth and 

collocation. These assessments will also identify and prioritize capacity building opportunities, 

and regional capacities and opportunities to coordinate and share resources with partners. 

Additional educational venues, such as Mokupāpapa, will be considered for development as 

stand-alone facilities or in partnership with existing educational and interpretive facilities. 

Additional consideration will be given to the already planned and scheduled NOAA transition to 

the NOAA consolidated facility. 

Activity CO-3.2: Maintain and improve infrastructure and facilities. 

Maintenance and retention of current physical assets and the procurement or lease of additional 

assets will be driven by need and available funding. All efforts will be made to combine 

utilization of assets among MMB agencies for more efficient use of available resources. 

Activity CO-3.3: Improve information technology infrastructure. 

Computer and information technology is an integral part of site infrastructure. Appropriate 

equipment will be acquired, upgraded, and maintained to meet management needs. New 

technologies will be regularly integrated (see 3.6.2 - Information Management Action Plan). 

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1 Table 3.6.1 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Central Operations

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy CO-1: Coordinate annual site operations planning and 

implementation over the life of the plan.

Activity CO-1.1: Coordinate and implement annual operating plans. NOAA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Strategy CO-2: Assess and enhance human resource and organizational 

capacity over the life of the plan.

Activity CO-2.1: Regularly assess current status and future needs for human 

resources. 

NOAA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CO-2.2: Improve human resources and organizational capacity. NOAA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Strategy CO-3: Assess and enhance physical infrastructure and facilities, as 

necessary, in the main Hawaiian Islands over the life of the plan.

Activity CO-3.1: Regularly assess current status and future needs for infrastructure 

and facilities. 

NOAA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CO-3.2: Maintain and improve infrastructure and facilities. NOAA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

Activity CO-3.3: Improve information technology infrastructure. NOAA 

State of Hawai‘i 

FWS 

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Desired Outcome Links to other Action Plans 

Consolidate and make accessible relevant information to meet 

educational, management, and research needs for 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

 3.1.1 Marine Conservation Science 

 3.1.4 Maritime Heritage 

 3.3.1 Permitting 

 3.3.2 Alien Species 

Current Status and Background 

Links to Goals 

Goal 1 

Goal 2 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Biogeographic studies, bathymetric spatial data, temporal analyses, research 

notes, maritime heritage data, Native Hawaiian cultural research, historic 

charts, published field project results, and other data all comprise the large 

and varied collection of NWHI information. These data sets include 

databases, oral histories, raw scientific results, physical specimens, and 

digital imagery. This collection has in the past been scattered among 

Federal and State agencies, universities, museums, and other agencies and 

institutions in varied formats, and some has simply remained in the 

possession of the individual investigator. Often the data are not adequately documented, creating 

the need for resource intensive validation for future integration purposes. Both the data and 

associated documentation are needed in order to be useful for long-term ecosystem-based 

management. 

Strategic efforts to address the broad issue of data management for the NWHI have begun. 

Multiagency Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program expeditions in the NWHI, begun in 

2000, represent an initial attempt to establish a multiagency data clearinghouse for management 

purposes. To date, only a portion of the many years of existing NWHI data has been processed 

and made available. 

Several complementary projects have been initiated to address information management needs. 

A GIS spatial bibliography database for the NWHI is under development. This GIS incorporates 

geographical positions of past habitat characterization and field research into spatially referenced 

electronic documents. Additionally, an annotated bibliography of cultural resources for the 

NWHI is available on line at http://www2.bishopmuseum.org/noaanwhi/index.asp, which 

incorporates past cultural, geological, and biological studies in the NWHI. This annotated 

bibliography of past cultural, geological, and biological studies in the NWHI was created with 

the support of NOAA’s National Ocean Service and the NWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. 

The resources catalogued are primarily available in the Bishop Museum Library and Archives, 

the libraries at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, and the State of Hawai‘i Archives. 

Additionally, the Office of Hawaiian Affairs is developing an archipelago-wide Wahi Pana 

Database of cultural information, and the MMB is working to integrate this database with other 

Monument data sets. 

The MMB also participates in the National Marine Sanctuary Program’s Information 

Management and Spatial Technology (IMaST) plan for all field sites. The IMaST plan organizes 

the many spatial resources within the National Marine Sanctuary System and makes them 

available to all sites and partner staff needing geospatial information, data, training, software, 

hardware, and hands-on experience. IMaST enhances capacity and integrates capabilities for site 

and national program staff in the utilization of geospatial technology. 

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Additionally, the MMB has initiated the development of a field-based data collection tool that 

will help to facilitate collection of research and vessel activity data from scientific expeditions 

conducted aboard research vessels active in the NWHI. This system will help to meet permit 

criteria for data management and reporting, and will assist in data entry, metadata recording, and 

data integrity. This system is one component of the larger Information Management System that 

is addressed in strategies outlined below and is already being developed based upon a set of 

priority management questions. 

Need for Action 

Access to accurate information is essential to implement an adaptive, ecosystem approach to the 

management of the Monument. A large amount of data have been, and will continue to be, 

collected on the NWHI environments by various State, Federal, and academic institutions, as 

well as private sector partners. Presently, results of research efforts are in multiple independent 

locations and in formats not readily available to resource managers, who need access to pertinent 

characterization information and up-to-date reports as a basis to make decisions for the 

protection of ecosystems. To address this difficulty, this action plan presents strategies and 

activities to develop a comprehensive data management and retrieval system, and to consolidate 

and organize information gathered from diverse sources, thus ensuring that stakeholders will 

share access to an expanding repository of knowledge on the NWHI. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

Research and information compilation on the Monument is ongoing, therefore gathering and 

consolidation of that information is also an ongoing process. A comprehensive approach is critical 

to achieving the desired outcome, which is to ensure that relevant information is collected and 

integrated in a standardized and useable manner, consolidated, and made accessible. Only a broad 

and comprehensive approach can ensure that information management will promote data gap 

analysis for the purposes of management and research. The Monument will not duplicate data, but 

along with partners, has already begun to build a decentralized information system that allows data 

discovery and access while allowing principal investigators and major agencies to house and 

maintain their own data. 

The MMB will create the Papahānaumokuākea Information Management System (PIMS), a 

crucial tool for integrated management of the Monument. Aggregated data in the PIMS will 

provide material for multiple purposes, including outreach and education products, Monument 

management and evaluation, regional coordination among partners, and comparative data for 

regional research work. As a clearinghouse node for information, the PIMS must ensure that 

appropriate material is made available to managers, researchers, and the public in a timely 

manner. Some of the data available for management or research purposes may be of a sensitive 

nature and, therefore, not appropriate for public and education-focused release. Security 

procedures and policies will be in place to ensure that only appropriate users can access specific 

data. Access will be limited to reading the data, no updates or changes will be allowed through 

the decentralized information system. 

Through the PIMS, managers will have access to integrated biogeographic and spatial analyses, 

maps, and reports that define the characterization of the ecosystem diversity, maritime heritage 

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data, and Native Hawaiian cultural information to aid in evaluating the interaction and 

effectiveness of past, current, and future management efforts. Management of information in a 

manner that is responsive to the changing needs of the Monument is part of an adaptive, 

ecosystem-based management system and ensures that NWHI research will be fully valued. The 

following strategies are designed to consolidate and make more readily available the abundance 

of useful information on the NWHI for management, research, education, and enforcement 

purposes. The strategies and activities are coded by the acronym for the action plan title, 

“Information Management” (IM). A summary of strategies and activities is provided in Table 

3.6.2 at the end of this action plan. 

• IM-1: Within 5 years, develop and implement a system for handling Monument data. 

• IM-2: Within 5 years, facilitate appropriate access and use of PIMS. 

Strategy IM-1: Within 5 years, develop and implement a system for handling Monument 

data. 

The sources and types of NWHI data are diverse and do not necessarily adhere to uniform data 

management. For all data to be accessible by the PIMS, data protocols and Federal Geographic 

Data Committee (FGDC) compliant metadata standards will be implemented. These standards 

must also adhere to existing data management and metadata protocols established by the Federal 

government. Agreements between various agencies for data sharing, access, security, and use 

must also be developed and implemented. 

Activity IM-1.1: Develop and implement a data discovery, inventory, and acquisition strategy. 

A data discovery, inventory, and acquisition strategy will be developed and implemented based 

on meetings and workshops with partners and other organizations. The strategy will identify the 

types, format, and sources of existing information and data sets, as well as potential new data 

sources. Workshops will be held annually to review progress of data acquisition and revise the 

strategy as needed. 

Activity IM-1.2: Develop appropriate data management protocols, procedures, and agreements 

with partner agencies. 

One of the first tasks in information management, after determining data sources, is to develop 

and implement protocols for how data is collected, documented, stored, and shared, as well as 

their schema and format. Existing metadata standards within NOAA will be utilized to 

document the data. Agreements with data providers to define use and access restrictions, as well 

as data transfer methods, will be developed. A shipboard data collection tool is currently being 

developed and implemented aboard the NOAA ships active in the NWHI. This tool will help to 

facilitate data capture, standardization, and chain of custody. A rigorous quality 

assurance/quality control protocol will be developed and implemented to maintain information 

and data quality in the system in accordance with the Data Quality Act. A long-term strategy for 

data assimilation and review will be developed in conjunction with data providers. 

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Activity IM-1.3: Continue to design, build, and maintain the Papahānaumokuākea 

Information Management System. 

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An information and database management system is being designed, developed, and configured to 

meet a broad spectrum of needs of the MMB, including Monument program and site applications, 

research and educational needs, and public access. The system is built on a sophisticated data 

model implemented in a relational database, and incorporates custom applications for spatial data 

management, tabular data management, data import/export and reconciliation, and reporting as an 

integral part of the data management strategy. Storage and security of data, as well as ease of 

access, are some of the issues that are being addressed. Agreements with data providers developed 

in the previous activity (IM-1.2) will be essential to the success and utility of this system, since the 

PIMS is not a massive data archive but a system that defines interrelationships between distributed 

data sources, which are the vast majority of data. The PIMS stores some data that are not already 

maintained by other partner agencies, such as image and video data, and the spatial bibliography. 

Activity IM-1.4: Begin incorporating information into PIMS. 

A significant amount of effort will be involved in data entry, formatting, and regular review. A 

long-term strategy for data assimilation and review processes will be developed in conjunction 

with data providers. The prioritization of data entry will be based on specific management and 

scientific questions. This activity will initiate indepth analyses to answer these questions. The 

data needed and accessed for these analyses will be documented and loaded into the inventory. 

Collaborative links to data that are being maintained by partners will be created and maintained 

to ensure seamless access to these data. 

Strategy IM-2: Within 5 years, facilitate appropriate access and use of PIMS. 

Tools and protocols to access the data in PIMS need to be developed and deployed. Some 

information may be public domain, and other information, such as the exact locations of historic 

shipwrecks, will be restricted by law to protect the resources. Levels of access to the data will be 

determined through agreements with partners. Educational materials that interpret the data and 

make the information accessible and understandable to a wider audience will also be developed 

and deployed. 

Activity IM-2.1: Design tools for accessing the PIMS. 

Using the latest technologies, the MMB will develop tools for accessing, updating, analyzing, 

and retrieving PIMS data. Access tools will be primarily web-based. These tools will allow for 

integration into GIS, on-line analytical processing via open database connectivity, object linking 

and embedding, and synchronization with analogous database management system resources. 

Tools will include integrated biogeographic and spatial analyses, maps, and reports that define 

the characterization of the ecosystem diversity, interaction, and health, and the effectiveness of 

past, current, and future management efforts. 

Activity IM-2.2: Assess data access needs and provide training for PIMS users. 

Assessing the uses of the PIMS will be an evolving process, and providing access will be tightly 

integrated with activity IM-2.1, above. Before any access is provided, rules and access 

restrictions will be determined to ensure security and confidentiality of the data. These 

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restrictions will be determined in coordination with data providers. A training program for 

management and other users of the PIMS will be developed so that access and use are facilitated. 

Activity IM-2.3: Develop interfaces to feed data to repositories such as National Biological 

Information Infrastructure, Pacific Basin Information Node, Coral Reef Information System, 

and Integrated Ocean Observing System. 

The MMB will maintain standardized metadata records for data indexed within the PIMS to help 

facilitate the population of other data repositories with NWHI data. To automate this process, 

agreements and data streaming/sharing mechanisms will need to be developed. 

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Table 3.6.2 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Information Management 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy IM-1: Within 5 years, develop and implement a system for handling 

Monument data. 

Activity IM-1.1: Develop and implement a data discovery, inventory, and 

acquisition strategy. 

NOAA 

Activity IM-1.2: Develop appropriate data management protocols, procedures, and 

agreements with partner agencies. 

NOAA 

Activity IM-1.3: Continue to design, build, and maintain the Papahānaumokuākea 

Information Management System. 

NOAA 

Activity IM-1.4: Begin incorporating information into PIMS. NOAA 

Strategy IM-2: Within 5 years, facilitate appropriate access and use of PIMS. 

Activity IM-2.1: Design tools for accessing the PIMS. NOAA 

Activity IM-2.2: Assess data access needs and provide training for PIMS users. NOAA 

Activity IM-2.3: Develop interfaces to feed data to repositories such as National 

Biological Information Infrastructure, Pacific Basin Information Node, Coral Reef 

Information System, and Integrated Ocean Observing System. 

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Links to other Action Plans Desired Outcome 

Coordinate field activities and provide adequate 

infrastructure to ensure safe and efficient operations while 

avoiding impacts to the ecosystems in 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 

All Action Plans are related to carrying out field 

operations 

Links to goals 

Goal 1 Current Status and Background Goal 2 

Goal 3 

Goal 4 

Goal 7 

Goal 8 

Field operations in the Monument rely upon ships, aircraft, seasonal field 

camps, and three field stations with varying degrees of infrastructure. 

Interagency planning and sharing of resources for fieldwork began with the 

Tripartite Commission’s work in the late 1970s (Tripartite Agreement 1978). 

Recent field activities in the NWHI continue this cooperative work through a number of projects. 

One of the most significant of these is the annual NWHI Reef Assessment and Monitoring 

Program research and outreach expeditions. These expeditions are made possible through 

sharing of both vessels and dive teams. 

In September 2004, the NOAA ship Hi‘ialakai became the first oceanographic research 

platform primarily dedicated to the National Ocean Service. Hi‘ialakai is a 224-foot T-AGOSclass research ship that is designed to conduct and facilitate research operations in remote areas 

throughout the Pacific. The ship’s primary mission is to support the research, monitoring, 

assessment, restoration, and outreach needs of NOAA’s National Ocean Service in waters 

around the Hawaiian Islands and the American Flag Territories. Maintenance and operations 

of NOAA ships are managed by NOAA Marine and Aircraft Operations. 

The NOAA Ship Oscar Elton Sette is the sister ship to the Hi‘ialakai and primarily supports 

the scientific missions of NOAA Fisheries, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center

NOAA Ship Hi‘ialakai. Photo: Don Suthers 

, in 

Honolulu, Hawai‘i. The 

ship normally operates 

throughout the central and 

western Pacific, and 

conducts fisheries 

assessment surveys, 

physical and chemical 

oceanography, marine 

mammal projects, and coral 

reef research. The Oscar 

Elton Sette has participated 

in coordinated Reef 

Assessment and Monitoring 

Program efforts since its 

arrival in 2003. 

Several other vessels such as the NOAA Ship Ka‘imimoana, the University of Hawai‘i’s R/V 

Kilo Moana and R/V Kaimikai-O-Kanaloa, Coast Guard vessels, and chartered vessels are 

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engaged in mapping, deep-water benthic characterization, marine debris removal, protected 

species recovery activities, management-oriented research, and resupply missions to FWS and 

State land-based operations throughout the Monument. Collectively, these ships conduct 

approximately 10-12 missions per year during the months of April through November. Much 

of the fieldwork conducted in the Monument is supported by NOAA ships. 

FWS maintains permanent staff and infrastructure at Tern Island (French Frigate Shoals) and 

Midway Atoll as well as a year-round FWS field camp at Laysan Island. The State maintains 

facilities at Kure Atoll, which are staffed much of the year. Seasonal field camps are located at 

Nihoa Island, Lisianski Island, and Pearl and Hermes Atoll. 

Midway Atoll NWR includes facilities and infrastructure left by the military when the Naval Air 

Facility closed. It includes 237 real property assets, including a Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) approved commercial airport, numerous buildings, airplane hangars, roads, utilities, 

docks, seawalls, shipping channel, in additional to structures listed on the National Register of 

Historic Places. This infrastructure supports refuge management operations, airport operations, 

and a limited number of partners and visitors. The FWS and FAA have partnered together to 

manage Henderson Airfield and maintain Midway’s aging infrastructure. Over the past 6 years, 

FWS has been upgrading and rightsizing Midway’s operating systems, and FAA has constructed 

a new airfield operations building as well as other airfield improvements. 

By utilizing World War II and Cold War era buildings, FWS managers are able to preserve the 

history of the atoll, provide support to the many ongoing management and research projects, and 

focus on protecting the islands and surrounding reefs for the benefit of the unique mix of species 

that live at Midway Atoll. In order to effectively plan for future Monument operations at 

Midway, a Conceptual Site Plan was drafted. This Conceptual Site Plan (Appendix B) outlines 

the vision and practical realities of future uses and provides an overarching view of priority 

actions. Field infrastructure requirements for education, research, restoration, and management 

programs were identified by the MMB in a requirements document produced in 2007. 

Tern Island is the support hub for management operations at French Frigate Shoals. The 

facilities consist of 42 real property assets that remain from prior Coast Guard use. These 

include shore protections, two septic tanks, a small barracks that serves as a residential and office 

facility, a single warehouse, several small storage and utility buildings, water catchment systems, 

a 3,000 foot crushed coral runway, a shipping channel, and a small boat ramp and dock. All of 

the Tern Island real property assets are utilized by and support MMB agencies and are 

maintained by FWS. 

Laysan Island is a temporary year round field camp that supports management of the island. The 

facility consists of seven temporary wood-framed platform tents used for sleeping, offices, 

communications, cooking, and storage. To support this field camp a reverse osmosis water 

system, photovoltaic power system, and a hurricane shelter for high wind and surf emergencies 

are maintained. Laysan is currently accessible only by ship. 

Green Island serves as the hub for the State of Hawai‘i’s Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. The 

facilities consist of storage buildings, a four room residential and office building, water tank, 

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septic tank, a nonoperational coral runway, and a small boat pier. The assets on Green Island are 

maintained by the State. 

Past coordination efforts

In the past, NOAA has hosted an annual NWHI field calendar meeting to facilitate overall field 

coordination among the Co-Trustees. The goal of this type of meeting was to create a master 

calendar of all field operations, scheduled flights, cruise plans, field camps, and similar activities. 

These meetings were open to managers, scientists, and staff from all agencies and groups 

conducting research or field activities in the NWHI. Attendees provided dates, places, and other 

logistical details of planned fieldwork to the calendar. Field activities typically included NOAA 

research vessel cruises, scheduled FWS charter flights to Midway and Tern Island, marine debris 

cleanup activities, ship charters to support FWS field stations, and special field activities such as 

Hōkūle‘a voyages. The purpose of the common calendar was to increase coordination, 

efficiency, and safety for all NWHI fieldwork. 

Impacts of fieldwork 

Well-planned field activities are designed to minimize negative impacts to ecosystems, avoid 

redundant efforts, and achieve efficient use of agency resources. Each year, coordinated 

planning benefits management activities such as the multiagency-supported effort to remove 

derelict fishing gear from the reefs and beaches; implementation of endangered plant, monk seal, 

sea turtle, and bird recovery actions; management and restoration of marine and terrestrial 

species and their habitats; and conducting management-oriented research. This emphasis on 

coordinated planning and the application of consistent interagency permit requirements will 

prevent or minimize potential impacts that could be associated with these types of activities. 

Diving Protocols 

Standardization of safety training and diving protocols among different agencies has proved 

difficult in the past. MMB agencies have established interagency reciprocity agreements for diving 

protocols and with affiliated institutions of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences. These 

agreements are renewed and updated as necessary. 

Need for Action 

Field coordination among the MMB and the Interagency Coordinating Committee provides for 

efficient use of public funds, increased availability of assets, reduced duplication of effort, and 

minimized impacts to Monument resources. Due to the remote nature of the region and limited 

availability of facilities, coordination is essential to the success of activities such as emergency 

response, wildlife and habitat management, law enforcement, research, as well as marine debris 

removal and other threat reduction tasks. 

Appropriate vessels, aircraft, facilities, equipment and training are critical to carrying out field 

operations in a safe and effective manner. Coordinating these assets among Co-Trustees is 

central to achieving the goals of the Monument. This plan provides strategies and activities for 

coordinating the implementation of low-impact field operations, by ensuring that necessary 

facilities, equipment, and transportation are available and that staff is properly trained (see 

section 3.3.4, Emergency Response and Damage Assessment Action Plan). 

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Nine strategies have been identified for achieving the desired outcome of coordinating field 

activities and providing adequate infrastructure to ensure safety and efficient operations while 

avoiding impacts to ecosystems in the Monument. The strategies and activities are coded by the 

acronym for the action plan title, “Coordinated Field Operations” (CFO). A summary of 

strategies and activities is provided in Table 3.6.3 at the end of this action plan. 

• CFO-1: Conduct necessary site planning and infrastructure development to enhance 

Monument field operations capacity over the life of the plan. 

• CFO-2: Enhance interagency planning and coordination for field operations and develop 

protocols and processes that will be utilized throughout the life of the plan. 

• CFO-3: Maintain and enhance housing and field camp capacity using short-, mediumand long-term approaches across the life of the plan. 

• CFO-4: Meet fuel requirements for aircraft, vessel, utility, and equipment needs at 

Midway Atoll. 

• CFO-5: Rehabilitate critical utility systems and ailing structures and facilities at Midway 

Atoll within 5 to 15 years. 

• CFO-6: Within 5 years improve the small boat operational capacity to enable quick, 

reliable access to the region in support of management and continue to enhance the 

program throughout the life of the plan. 

• CFO-7: Within 5 years identify interisland aircraft transportation options. 

• CFO-8: Develop a comprehensive dive operations program for Monument management 

activities within 5 years.

• CFO-9: Develop necessary research, education, visitor, and administrative facilities 

across the life of the plan. 

Strategy CFO-1: Conduct necessary site planning and infrastructure development to 

enhance Monument field operations capacity over the life of the plan. 

In-depth site planning and analyses are needed to ensure that field operations align with the 

purpose and mission of the Monument, as well as the purposes of the Midway Atoll and 

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuges, NWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, the State of 

Hawai‘i NWHI Marine Refuge, and the Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. This effort will help 

meet the shared responsibilities for management, emergency response, enforcement, education, 

recreation, and research in the Monument. 

Activity CFO-1.1: Initiate and complete necessary planning to implement the draft Midway 

Atoll Conceptual Site Plan. 

Substantial time and resources are required to complete the preferred alternative for 

infrastructure rehabilitation, reconstruction, and development included in the draft Midway Atoll 

Conceptual Site Plan (Appendix B). Priority actions for Midway have been identified in chapter 

6 of the draft Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan and are included in this action plan. Several of 

these are projected for completion in the short term, while others will require additional planning 

and environmental analysis and are anticipated to take place over the life of the plan. 

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Activity CFO-1.2: Develop conceptual site plans for Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife 

Refuge and Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. 

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Individual conceptual site plans will be developed for the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife 

Refuge and the State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll to identify long-term infrastructure 

alternatives and priorities. These plans will be based upon the identification of field 

requirements developed by the MMB in 2007 and will assess the opportunity for education, 

research, restoration, and management programs. It is anticipated that these plans will be 

developed within 3 years. 

Activity CFO-1.3: Develop a strategy for long-term sustainability for operations throughout 

the Monument using alternative energy systems and waste reduction within 2 years. 

In accordance with agency building standards, the strategy will consider solar and other 

renewable energy generation, integration of kitchen waste with biodiesel or other sustainable fuel 

types use in machinery, composting of food waste, growing produce on site (at Midway only), 

passive lighting and cooling, and construction using sustainable nontoxic building materials. 

Each building will be evaluated to determine the feasibility of generating its own power. In the 

interim period, proven energy efficiencies will be implemented within the limits of appropriated 

funding. 

Activity CFO-1.4: Plan for use of sustainable construction and landscape architecture for 

facilities and assets throughout the Monument. 

In support of the “Greening of America” governmentwide initiative, the managing agencies will 

apply feasible “greening” methodologies and technologies to future operations and construction 

projects at Midway and all other field sites, including NOAA ships. These green principles will 

be applied to the operation of small boats, selection of nontoxic lubricants and maintenance 

materials, and development of fuel capacity. 

Strategy CFO-2: Enhance interagency planning and coordination for field operations and 

develop protocols and processes that will be utilized throughout the life of the plan. 

One of the Monument’s operating principles is to use effective planning and communication to 

coordinate activities in order to minimize resource impacts, avoid redundant or duplicative 

efforts, and achieve efficient use of agency resources in the implementation of priority 

management needs. The MMB will work with partners in planning field operations for these 

purposes and to contribute to the success of each project. Ship scheduling, coordination of 

logistical support, and interagency collaboration are elements of field operations that will be 

addressed in advance of each field season. 

Activity CFO-2.1: Develop interagency agreements to facilitate effective field coordination 

throughout the Monument. 

Interagency agreements to coordinate field operations, share resources, and commit to joint 

implementation of field priorities will be developed as appropriate. Agreements will be 

considered among the Co-Trustee agencies and the Interagency Coordinating Committee, as 

appropriate. (See section 3.5.1, Agency Coordination Action Plan) 

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1 Activity CFO-2.2: Develop and implement standardized field operation protocols. 

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Environmental, safety, and preparedness protocols for field operations consistent with partner 

agency standards will be developed to provide resource protection and safe field operations. A 

Field Operations Manual will be prepared and updated as needed that includes these protocols, as 

well as protocols and chain of command procedures for reporting environmental and safety 

incidents, personnel communication, and evacuations. All principal investigators and managers 

working in the NWHI will receive a copy of the Field Operations Manual. 

Activity CFO-2.3: Assess threats that field activities pose to Monument resources. 

Permitted activities will be monitored through field activity reports to assess the threats they may 

pose to the resources. Reporting requirements will be developed with partners that will draw on 

existing databases when available. Any incidents will be tracked to assess potential damages to 

resources. Data will be managed in a geographic information system to provide for adaptive 

management by the MMB in conducting or authorizing future field activities (see the Information 

Management Action Plan, section 3.6.2). 

Activity CFO-2.4: Annually coordinate field operations to efficiently deploy personnel and 

share resources among agency partners.

The MMB will host an annual NWHI field calendar meeting to create a master calendar of all 

field operations, scheduled flights, cruise plans, field camps, and similar activities, open to 

managers, scientists, and staff of all agencies and groups conducting research or field activities in 

the NWHI. Each year a common field calendar will be developed to ensure that the highest 

priority management needs are met as efficiently and economically as possible. 

Activity CFO-2.5: Develop a staff coordination agreement between Midway Atoll NWR and 

the State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. 

To assist in island management activities, occasional site “exchange” visits will be conducted 

between the State and FWS staff at Midway and Kure Atolls. This will ensure that habitat 

restoration and management activities and wildlife monitoring activities are coordinated between 

FWS and the State. 

Strategy CFO-3: Maintain and enhance housing and field camp capacity using short-, 

medium- and long-term approaches across the life of the plan. 

There is a critical need to plan and design facilities at various field sites to ensure that activities 

can be accomplished. The needs of visitors, staff, volunteers, contractors, researchers, and 

educators will be considered, as well as temporary accommodations in case of emergency 

aircraft landings, ship evacuations, or emergency response events. As stated in Activity CFO1.4, the MMB will apply all feasible green construction methods and technologies to all future 

projects. 

Activity CFO-3.1: Construct low-impact structure pilot project at Midway Atoll. 

A low-impact shelter will be constructed as a pilot project in the housing zone on Midway within 

2 years in accordance with the Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan. This pilot project will serve 

to gauge the feasibility of using this type of structure elsewhere at Midway. These structures 

will be designed to operate “off-grid” using renewable energy resources. The buildings will 

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incorporate recycled materials, will be nonpolluting, and may potentially increase the available 

wildlife habitat. The buildings will serve as lodging for short-term and transient visitors. 

Activity CFO-3.2: Replace Bravo Barracks at Midway Atoll. 

Bravo Barracks houses permanent operations and maintenance personnel, but the end of its 

useful life is within 3 years. The barracks are in critical need of demolition and replacement. 

Replacement is essential in order to provide safe housing for personnel to sustain island 

operations. 

Activity CFO-3.3: Replace Charlie Barracks at Midway Atoll. 

Charlie Barracks replacement is essential in order to provide safe housing for island visitors and 

transient personnel. Such replacement is envisioned to take place within 10 years. 

Activity CFO-3.4: Rehabilitate “Officers’ Row” Housing at Midway Atoll. 

The 10 historic Officers’ Row houses serve as examples of historic Albert Kahn architecture and 

are identified for restoration in the draft Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan. This increased 

housing capacity will accommodate increased agency and partner personnel. The rehabilitation 

of these structures would take place within 10 years. 

Activity CFO-3.5: Maintain and enhance, where appropriate, the infrastructure at Kure Atoll. 

Well-established, permanent biological monitoring and restoration programs at Kure Atoll are 

dependent on existing housing and facilities on Green Island at Kure Atoll. Given the harsh 

environmental conditions that exist, there is an ongoing need to maintain, expand, or replace 

communications equipment, solar power and water production units, sewage treatment 

infrastructure, buildings, and equipment. All field operations requirements at Kure Atoll will be 

assessed in accordance with Activity CFO-1.2. 

Activity CFO-3.6: Maintain and enhance, where appropriate, the infrastructure at French 

Frigate Shoals. 

A permanent biological field station exists on Tern Island at French Frigate Shoals. The 

biological monitoring programs that operate from the island are dependent upon existing 

housing, warehouses, small boat facilities, and a short coral rubble air strip. Given the harsh 

environmental conditions, there is an ongoing need to maintain, expand or replace 

communications equipment, solar power and water production units, buildings, and equipment. 

For example, the barracks roof requires replacement by 2012. All field operations requirements 

at French Frigate Shoals will be assessed in accordance with Activity CFO-1.2. 

Activity CFO-3.7: Evaluate, maintain, and enhance the small tent field camp at Pearl and 

Hermes Atoll on Southeast Island. 

A seasonal three-person tent field camp is currently maintained at Pearl and Hermes Atoll to 

support the long-term Hawaiian monk seal population monitoring effort. Periodic overwashing 

of the islands by storm surges will require tent platforms to be built as soon as possible to 

provide for personnel safety. A year-round small tent camp is also needed to support invasive 

plant species eradication. The establishment of a permanent field camp in addition to upgrading 

the existing seasonal camp will be evaluated in accordance with Activity CFO-1.2. 

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An intensive alien species eradication and native habitat restoration program is currently 

underway at Laysan Island. A year-round presence of staff on island is necessary. Staff reside in 

a minimal tent camp, which requires routine maintenance and replacement of solar power, water 

purification, and communications equipment as well as periodic replacement of tents and other 

structures. 

Strategy CFO-4: Meet fuel requirements for aircraft, vessel, utility, and equipment needs 

at Midway Atoll. 

The current fuel capacity at Midway Atoll was designed to meet the requirements of the FWS, 

FAA, and the United States Coast Guard (USCG). This includes fuel for site operations, aircraft, 

and heavy equipment and a limited amount of gasoline for small boats and vehicles. Additional 

Co-Trustee fuel requirements will be met through additional gasoline and the introduction of 

biodiesel. 

Activity CFO-4.1: Maintain recently replaced fuel farm at Midway Atoll. 

The Midway Atoll fuel farm is designed to meet current FWS, FAA, and USCG needs. In the 

short term a Memorandum of Agreement will be drafted describing how the MMB agencies can 

share and replenish existing supplies, while increasing the capacity of gasoline, biodiesel, or 

other sustainable fuel types. The MMB will convert existing and new small boats, vehicles, and 

heavy equipment to the use of biodiesel or other sustainable fuel types where feasible. 

Activity CFO-4.2: Develop biodiesel fuel capacity or other sustainable fuel types at Midway 

Atoll within 2 years. 

The MMB will work toward converting existing and new small boats, vehicles, and heavy 

equipment to the use of biodiesel or other sustainable fuel types where feasible. Two locations 

will be evaluated for storage and distribution of this type of fuel. The first is located on the 

concrete pad adjacent to the north seawall on the inner harbor of the Atoll. This location has the 

advantage of being close to future small boat piers, which would allow for simple and safe 

fueling procedures. However, this would require regular supervision of this fuel supply in 

addition to that required at the fuel farm. Alternatively, the fuel could be stored at the existing 

fuel farm location, but this option would necessitate a fueling truck or the use of boat trailers to 

complete fueling operations. 

Strategy CFO-5: Rehabilitate critical utility systems and ailing structures and facilities at 

Midway Atoll within 5 to 15 years. 

A number of centralized systems such as water and sewage and a number of facilities and 

buildings are utilized by all personnel throughout the Monument. This critical infrastructure is 

the backbone of all operations. Without substantial investment in the rehabilitation and repair of 

these resources, all operations will be seriously impaired. System needs have been identified 

through the draft Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan and will continue to be evaluated to reduce 

reliance on centralized utilities. Additional needs for other islands and atolls throughout the 

Monument will be developed in the future as cited in CFO-1.2. 

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1 Activity CFO-5.1: Rehabilitate water catchment and distribution system. 

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Within 5 years the water catchment and distribution system will be rehabilitated in order to 

adequately supply existing needs and those envisioned in the draft Midway Atoll Conceptual Site 

Plan. 

Activity CFO-5.2: Rehabilitate septic and wastewater systems. 

Reliable septic and wastewater systems will be required to support existing and additional needs 

envisioned in the draft Midway Conceptual Site Plan. The rehabilitation of these systems will 

take place within 5 years. 

Activity CFO-5.3: Treat all wooden historic structures at Midway Atoll for termites. 

All wooden historic structures must be treated for termites within 3 to 5 years in order to 

maintain the structural integrity of the buildings. Without treatment, the buildings will 

deteriorate beyond repair. 

Activity CFO-5.4: Evaluate and expand food services as necessary. 

The Clipper House presently serves as the primary food service facility at Midway. Overall food 

services will need to be expanded to accommodate future population increases. 

Activity CFO-5.5: Rehabilitate seaplane hangar.

Due to its size (large enough to hold heavy equipment, boats, and workshops), its location (short 

distance from inner harbor and boat ramp), and its historic significance (designed by Albert 

Kahn and still contains scars from the Battle of Midway), the seaplane hangar needs to be 

maintained. A priority is to replace the roof of the building. 

Activity CFO-5.6: Repair inner harbor sea wall. 

The inner harbor is critical to operations at Midway. Any future docking and pier facilities in the 

harbor must be preceded by the repair of the existing seawall within 15 years. 

Strategy CFO-6: Within 5 years improve the small boat operational capacity to enable 

quick, reliable access to the region in support of management and continue to enhance the 

program throughout the life of the plan. 

Improved access to the islands and atolls of the NWHI has been identified as a top priority. 

Small boat support is a key component to reliable access between islands and around individual 

island reef systems. Small boat capacity is instrumental to research, conservation, enforcement, 

outreach, education, and emergency response throughout the archipelago. 

Activity CFO-6.1: Inventory, maintain, and coordinate the use of small boats and related field 

resources. 

The Co-Trustees have a variety of small boats and related field resources that are used for 

fieldwork within the Monument. An inventory of small boats and support equipment will be 

conducted Monumentwide to determine whether these resources can be used more effectively 

by the Co-Trustees, and to reduce duplicative efforts. 

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Activity CFO-6.2: Within 2 years, station additional vessels at Midway for use during the 

summer marine research field season. 

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New vessels will be used to support existing field activities at Midway Atoll and to establish an 

annual research and monitoring program for marine debris, maritime heritage, and coral reef 

communities. These vessels will expand the range of operations both inside and outside the 

lagoon as well as to Kure Atoll on a limited basis. 

Activity CFO-6.3: Within 5- 10 years station a small research/enforcement vessel at Midway 

Atoll.

A small research/enforcement vessel (SRV) would expand research, enforcement, education, 

response, and restoration capabilities from French Frigate Shoals to Kure Atoll. Repair and 

maintenance facilities will be established at Midway, and full-time support personnel will be 

identified to properly manage this asset. This vessel will be permanently based at Midway, but 

could also be based out of the main Hawaiian Islands for part of the year to service the southeast 

portions of the Monument. This vessel will provide the opportunity to dedicate short cruises to 

individual projects on a regular basis. 

Activity CFO-6.4: Construct new finger piers along the north wall of Midway’s inner harbor. 

To meet the small boat needs, within 5 years evaluate the structural integrity of the inner harbor 

seawall, make appropriate improvements, and construct three finger piers. These piers will be 

designed to simplify fueling and loading as well as to provide short term in-water storage for a 

variety of small boats. Midway’s inner harbor is not fully protected from outside sea conditions, 

and additional piers will allow for sheltered small boat storage under a variety of conditions. 

Activity CFO-6.5: Redevelop existing boathouse at Midway into a multiuse facility. Consistent 

with the priorities contained within the draft Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan, redevelop the 

existing boathouse at Midway into a multipurpose boathouse, dive center, and storage facility. 

The facility will have maintenance bays for servicing small boats and a dive locker including a 

compressor, recompression chamber, appropriate storage, and work area. The building will be 

resited and potentially raised to address concerns over flooding on the seaplane pad. Small boat 

operations depend on a reliable means of removing the boats from the water. At present, the 

seaplane ramp that is used is not sufficiently steep, and results in inadvisable launch and 

recovery methods. A new boat ramp will be constructed to address this concern, while 

renovating the adjacent small boat pier. 

Activity CFO-6.6: Evaluate needed improvements to Pier No. 1 in the ship basin and the Tug 

Pier at Midway Atoll. 

In order to ensure access for large vessels such as NOAA, USCG, and University research 

vessels, Pier No. 1 and the Tug Pier will be evaluated for needed renovations and maintenance. 

The ability for ships to dock at Midway, in conjunction with reliable air transport, will assist in 

efficient research operations and crew changes on cruises, while also providing an additional 

place for supply ships and other vessels to dock.

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Eastern Island pier renovation is required to ensure continued access for researchers and field 

workers. Attention is required as soon as feasible to prevent damage to boats and improve 

passenger safety. 

Strategy CFO-7: Within 5 years identify interisland aircraft transportation options. 

Available flights to and from the Monument are a limiting factor to the expansion of a visitor 

services program and science station at Midway Atoll, and a host of management, research, 

educational activities, and enforcement and emergency response throughout the Monument. 

Frequent and reliable access in support of these activities is needed. Flights are currently booked 

by individual agencies on an as-needed basis, which contributes to their high costs and low 

frequency. The following activities will be conducted to ensure that Monument aircraft needs 

are considered and met. 

Activity CFO-7.1: Identify a reliable, efficient, cost-effective aircraft service to double the 

delivery capacity of personnel and cargo between Honolulu and Midway. 

Without reliable air transport, the vast majority of current operations at Midway, as well as many 

operations in the other islands of the NWHI, would cease to exist. Air transport maintains the 

link between Midway and Honolulu, and allows Midway to serve as the logistical hub for the 

northern end of the archipelago. Air transport is currently limited by the small cargo and 

personnel capacity of the aircraft being used. Identifying a more capable aircraft service is key to 

the expanded function of Midway and other areas within the Monument. 

Activity CFO-7.2: Within 5-10 years evaluate the need for a dedicated aircraft for 

transportation, research, evacuation, education, surveillance, management, and enforcement 

in the Pacific region. 

A shared aircraft that would be used across the Pacific region or seasonally may be an effective 

way to defray the high costs of air transportation. Maintenance facilities and staffing would need 

to be considered if such a craft were acquired. The need for a dedicated aircraft will be evaluated 

within 5-10 years. 

Activity CFO-7.3: Within 15 years acquire appropriate aircraft to service the Monument and 

the Pacific region. 

Pending the outcome of the evaluation (Activity CFO-7.2) an appropriate aircraft or use of 

multiple platforms will be acquired as necessary to meet the needs of the Monument and region. 

Strategy CFO-8: Develop a comprehensive dive operations program for Monument 

management activities within 5 years. 

Coordinated dive operations are critical to effectively and safely carrying out marine research, 

monitoring, emergency response, and management activities. Such a program will require 

infrastructure and equipment investments, training, interagency communication and agreements, 

and compliance with all agency requirements. 

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A dive recompression chamber was installed and refurbished on Midway in the late 1990s in 

support of commercial dive tour operations and research. The chamber has not been serviced in 

over 5 years and needs to be assessed and refurbished or replaced. This chamber would be 

maintained by an onsite chamber operator/dive technician. 

Activity CFO-8.2: Investigate acquisition of portable dive recompression chamber for use on a 

small research vessel. 

A small, portable recompression chamber aboard the small research vessel referenced in CFO6.3 would vastly extend the SCUBA-based research capacity of scientists in the remote NWHI. 

This equipment would be based at Midway and maintained by an onsite chamber operator/dive 

technician.

Activity CFO-8.3: Incorporate a dive operations center into the refurbished boathouse facility 

at Midway. 

Consistent with the draft Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan, resite and refurbish the boathouse 

facility on Sand Island to include a dive center complete with storage, maintenance facility, 

compressor, recompression chamber, dive locker, and tool shed as articulated in Activity CFO6.5. 

Activity CFO-8.4: Support interagency dive operations.

Agency dive supervisors will support interagency and contract field operations by maintaining 

updated reciprocity agreements, open communication among agency dive masters and chief 

scientists, and current records on agency and contract divers to ensure certifications and training 

requirements are current. Each agency is responsible for maintaining and ensuring the 

proficiency of its divers. 

Strategy CFO-9: Develop necessary research, education, visitor, and administrative 

facilities across the life of the plan. 

A variety of infrastructure needs have been identified by the MMB and partner agencies for 

research, education, visitor interpretation, and administration to effectively meet the vision, 

mission, and goals of the Monument. Planning and appropriate redevelopment of existing 

buildings and construction of new facilities will take place according to the priorities identified 

in the draft Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan and the future Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll 

and Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge conceptual site plans as cited in CFO-1.2. 

Activity CFO-9.1: Design a marine laboratory at Midway and develop in phases. 

A variety of needs will be met by the development of a marine laboratory at Midway. An 

evaluation and planning effort will help determine if the research and educational needs of 

potential users will be best met by developing several small facilities over time, or by a design 

that allows new requirements to be filled as they arise. Initially the lab would provide basic 

amenities to augment research and education capacity including field schools, seasonal research, 

and long-term monitoring. A monk seal captive care facility (as outlined in activity CFO-9.2), 

wet/dry lab infrastructure, and quarantine standards will be included in the plan and built as 

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funding becomes available. Several locations are well suited for a laboratory and will be 

evaluated in order to determine an appropriate site. 

Activity CFO-9.2: Complete planning for and construct a captive care monk seal facility on 

Sand Island. 

A monk seal captive care facility at Midway has been identified as a critical component for 

survival of the species. Holding tanks, water treatment and pumping capability, freezer storage, 

and a dedicated food preparation area are required to be included in these facilities, which will 

dramatically improve the effectiveness of rehabilitating ailing monk seals in the NWHI. 

Activity CFO-9.3: Provide logistical, infrastructure, and transportation support for threatened 

and endangered species recovery actions. 

Advanced recovery efforts, particularly efforts to address juvenile survival, will require 

logistical, infrastructure, and transportation capabilities that currently do not exist. The ability to 

transport threatened and endangered species, equipment, and personnel among the various atolls 

will be a challenge to efforts to relocate animals, or to capture and return animals that may be 

brought into captivity for nutritional support or medical treatment. For example, the ability to 

hold Hawaiian monk seals in a temporary facility, likely on Midway Atoll, is a critical 

component of these types of recovery actions. Finally, travel from the main Hawaiian Islands to 

Midway also restrains the ability to move people, equipment, and seals. 

Activity CFO-9.4: Complete Phase I rehabilitation of Midway Mall and the commissary 

building. 

Collectively the commissary building and the Midway Mall present ideal central locations for 

MMB and partner offices, classroom space, storage, visitor services, and basic laboratory space. 

Phase I rehabilitation of Midway Mall and the commissary will include cleaning and 

maintenance, completion of office and classroom space, and a feasibility study of how best to 

incorporate solar and other renewable energy, a green roof, and other sustainable design 

principles. The complete Midway Mall rehabilitation will require more substantial work and 

resources. 

Activity CFO-9.5: Construct airport welcome center on Sand Island within 2 years. 

A passenger terminal/welcome facility will be constructed at the airport to handle passenger 

arrival and departures from Midway. This simple facility will offer restrooms, baggage 

handling, and a waiting area out of the weather. 

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Table 3.6.3 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Coordinated Field 

Operations

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy CFO-1: Conduct necessary site planning and infrastructure 

development to enhance Monument field operations capacity over the life of 

the plan. 

Activity CFO-1.1: Initiate and complete necessary planning to implement the draft 

Midway Atoll Conceptual Site Plan. 

FWS 

Activity CFO-1.2: Develop conceptual site plans for Hawaiian Islands National 

Wildlife Refuge and Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. 

State of Hawaii 

FWS 

Activity CFO-1.3: Develop a strategy for long-term sustainability for operations 

throughout the Monument using alternative energy systems and waste reduction 

within 2 years. 

State of Hawaii 

FWS 

Activity CFO-1.4: Plan for use of sustainable construction and landscape 

architecture for facilities and assets throughout the Monument. 

State of Hawaii 

FWS 

Strategy CFO-2: Enhance interagency planning and coordination for field 

operations and develop protocols and processes that will be utilized 

throughout the life of the plan. 

Activity CFO-2.1: Develop interagency agreements to facilitate effective field 

coordination throughout the Monument. 

NOAA 

State of Hawaii 

FWS 

Activity CFO-2.2: Develop and implement standardized field operation protocols. FWS 

Activity CFO-2.3: Assess threats that field activities pose to Monument resources. NOAA 

Activity CFO-2.4: Annually coordinate field operations to efficiently deploy 

personnel and share resources among agency partners. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-2.5: Develop a staff coordination agreement between Midway Atoll 

NWR and the State Seabird Sanctuary at Kure Atoll. 

State of Hawaii 

FWS 

Strategy CFO-3: Maintain and enhance housing and field camp capacity using 

short-, medium- and long-term approaches across the life of the plan. 

Activity CFO-3.1: Construct low-impact structure pilot project at Midway Atoll. FWS 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-3.2: Replace Bravo Barracks at Midway Atoll. FWS 

Activity CFO-3.3: Replace Charlie Barracks at Midway Atoll. FWS 

Activity CFO-3.4: Rehabilitate “Officers Row” Housing at Midway Atoll. FWS 

Activity CFO-3.5: Maintain and enhance, where appropriate, the infrastructure at 

Kure Atoll. 

State of Hawaii 

Activity CFO-3.6: Maintain and enhance, where appropriate, the infrastructure at 

French Frigate Shoals. 

FWS 

Activity CFO-3.7: Evaluate, maintain, and enhance the small tent field camp at 

Pearl and Hermes Atoll on Southeast Island. 

FWS 

Activity CFO-3.8: Maintain and enhance the existing tent field camp at Laysan 

Island. 

FWS 

Strategy CFO-4: Meet fuel requirements for aircraft, vessel, utility, and 

equipment needs at Midway Atoll. 

Activity CFO-4.1: Maintain recently replaced fuel farm at Midway Atoll. FWS 

Activity CFO-4.2: Develop biodiesel fuel capacity or other sustainable fuel types at 

Midway Atoll within 2 years. 

NOAA 

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy CFO-5: Rehabilitate critical utility systems and ailing structures and 

facilities at Midway Atoll within 5 to 15 years. 

Activity CFO-5.1: Rehabilitate water catchment and distribution system. FWS 

Activity CFO-5.2: Rehabilitate septic and wastewater systems. FWS 

Activity CFO-5.3: Treat all wooden historic structures at Midway Atoll for 

termites. 

FWS 

Activity CFO-5.4: Evaluate and expand food services as necessary. FWS 

Activity CFO-5.5: Rehabilitate seaplane hangar. FWS 

Activity CFO-5.6: Repair inner harbor sea wall. FWS 

Strategy CFO-6: Within 5 years improve the small boat operational capacity 

to enable quick, reliable access to the region in support of management and 

continue to enhance the program throughout the life of the plan. 

Activity CFO-6.1: Inventory, maintain, and coordinate the use of small boats and 

related field resources. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-6.2: Within 2 years, station additional vessels at Midway for use 

during the summer marine research field season. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-6.3: Within 5- 10 years station a small research/enforcement vessel 

at Midway Atoll. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-6.4: Construct new finger piers along the north wall of Midway’s 

inner harbor. 

FWS 

Activity CFO-6.5: Redevelop existing boathouse at Midway into a multi use 

facility. 

FWS 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-6.6: Evaluate needed improvements to Pier No. 1 in the ship basin 

and the Tug Pier at Midway Atoll. 

FWS 

Activity CFO-6.7: Make needed improvements to or replace the pier at Eastern 

Island. 

FWS 

Strategy CFO-7: Within 5 years identify interisland aircraft transportation 

options. 

Activity CFO-7.1: Identify a reliable, efficient, cost-effective aircraft service to 

double the delivery capacity of personnel and cargo between Honolulu and 

Midway. 

FWS 

Activity CFO-7.2: Within 5-10 years evaluate the need for a dedicated aircraft for 

transportation, research, evacuation, education, surveillance, management, and 

enforcement in the Pacific region. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-7.3: Within 15 years acquire appropriate aircraft to service the 

Monument and the Pacific region. 

NOAA 

Strategy CFO-8: Develop a comprehensive dive operations program for 

Monument management activities within 5 years. 

Activity CFO-8.1: Refurbish or replace the dive recompression chamber at 

Midway. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-8.2: Investigate acquisition of portable dive recompression chamber 

for use on a small research vessel. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-8.3: Incorporate a dive operations center into the refurbished 

boathouse facility at Midway. 

FWS 

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Activity CFO-8.4: Support interagency dive operations. NOAA 

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Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy CFO-9: Develop necessary research, education, visitor and 

administrative facilities across the life of the plan.

Activity CFO-9.1: Design a marine laboratory at Midway and develop in phases. FWS 

Activity CFO-9.2: Complete planning for and construct a captive care monk seal 

facility on Sand Island. 

FWS 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-9.3: Provide logistical, infrastructure, and transportation support for 

threatened and endangered species recovery actions. 

NOAA 

Activity CFO-9.4: Complete Phase I rehabilitation of Midway Mall and the 

commissary building. 

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Activity CFO-9.5: Construct airport welcome center on Sand Island within 2 years. FWS 

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Desired Outcome 

Determine the degree to which management actions are 

achieving the goals of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument. 

Links to other Action Plans 

All action plans 

Current Status and Background 

Links to Goals 

All Goals 

The Monument evaluation process is designed to meet specific site-level 

desired outcomes and goals, as well as FWS’s and NOAA’s overarching 

missions, goals, and priorities. The Government Performance and Results 

Act seeks to make the Federal government more accountable to the 

American people for the tax dollars it spends and the results it achieves. NOAA and FWS view 

the use of performance measures for assessment and evaluation as critical to continued success. 

NOAA’s strategic plan (2004a) and NOAA’s National Ocean Service Strategic Plan (NOAA 

2003a) outline four mission goals and six cross-cutting priorities. The NMSP (National Marine 

Sanctuary Program) falls under the first mission goal: 

Protect, restore, and manage the use of coastal and ocean resources through 

ecosystem-based management. 

The NMSP also clearly supports five of the six cross-cutting priorities: 

• Integrated global environmental observation and data management system 

• Environmental literacy, outreach, and education 

• Sound, reliable, state-of-the-art research 

• International cooperation and collaboration 

• Organizational excellence 

The Department of the Interior is complying with the Government Performance and Results Act 

through its performance management system, which provides useful information to managers 

and promotes accountability for results. Specifically, FWS has adopted the following principles 

and priorities, which all apply to Monument management: 

Conservation Principles: 

• Science: Our work is grounded in thorough, objective science. 

• Stewardship: Our ethic is to conserve natural resources for future generations. 

• Service: It is our privilege to serve the American people. 

• Professionalism: We hold ourselves to the highest ethical standards, strive for excellence, 

and respect others. 

• Partnerships: We emphasize creative, innovative partnerships. 

• People: Our employees are our most valued asset. 

• Legacy: We ensure the future of natural resource conservation by connecting people with 

nature. 

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Priorities: 

• National Wildlife Refuge System: Conserving our lands and resources. 

• Landscape Conservation: Working with others. 

• Migratory Birds: Conservation and management. 

• Threatened and Endangered Species: Achieving recovery and preventing extinction. 

• Aquatic Species: National Fish Habitat Initiative and trust species. 

• Connecting People with Nature: Ensuring the future of conservation. 

Given the similarity of NOAA and FWS priorities and the unifying Monument vision, mission, 

and goals, the Co-Trustees are committed to developing management plan performance measures 

to evaluate whether the strategies and activities contained in the action plans are achieving the 

goals and desired outcomes of the Monument. The management plan performance measures fall 

into three categories: annual benchmarking, management capacity assessment, and outcome 

assessment. 

Annual benchmarking measures will be used to determine whether activities have occurred as 

planned. Management capacity assessment measures will be used every 2 to 3 years to 

determine the adequacy of implementation mechanisms and processes, including interagency 

coordination and stakeholder and community participation. Outcome assessment measures will 

be used every 4 to 5 years to evaluate the impacts of management actions on the resources and 

ecosystem status. These measures will be further defined through the process described in 

activity EV-1.1, below. 

Need for Action 

One of the largest challenges in the management of ocean resources lies in knowing whether 

management actions are effective over time (Pomeroy 2004). Research and long-term 

monitoring programs are essential in an ecosystem-based management context, to provide 

reliable information and data to determine whether management actions are achieving desired 

outcomes. A second and equally important challenge is improving management based on 

reliable information and data, a sound governance process, and experience (Olsen et al. 1999). 

Evaluation is needed to determine if management actions are achieving the desired outcomes, 

addressing priority management needs, and meeting the goals of the Monument. The outcomes 

of evaluation processes can then be used to improve processes, programs, and accountability; 

prioritize activities; and inform constituents. 

The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy recommends that national goals and guidelines be 

developed leading to a uniform process for effective design, implementation, and evaluation of 

marine protected areas. The President’s Ocean Action Plan has elements addressing this issue. 

Since the Monument is the largest marine protected area in the United States, NOAA, FWS, and 

the State of Hawai‘i are in a unique position to respond to these challenges and recommendations 

through a comprehensive evaluation process. 

Strategies to Achieve the Desired Outcome 

A meaningful evaluation requires the use of measurable strategies and the ability to monitor, 

evaluate, provide feedback, and then assess what is working and what needs to be changed in 

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terms of desired outcomes, strategies, and activities. The strategy and activities are coded by the 

abbreviation for the action plan title, “Evaluation” (EV). A summary of strategies and activities 

is provided in Table 3.6.4 at the end of this action plan. 

• EV-1: Implement a comprehensive evaluation process within 1 year. 

Strategy EV-1: Implement a comprehensive evaluation process within 1 year. 

Management plan measures will be used to determine the degree to which management actions 

achieve desired outcomes, address priority management needs, and meet the goals of the 

Monument. The use of site performance measures will ensure that proposed changes are 

consistent with the Monument vision, mission, management principles, and goals. 

Evaluation activities will be developed and implemented by the MMB. Evaluation reports will 

be prepared and reviewed by partner agencies and organizations for review and 

recommendations. 

Activity EV-1.1: Prepare a comprehensive Monument evaluation strategy. 

A comprehensive evaluation strategy will be designed to guide evaluation activities over a 

5-year period. The strategy will describe information and data needs and methods to evaluate 

activity outputs and to quantify site measures. The output from this activity is a Monument 

evaluation strategy that describes site performance measures, their evaluation methods and 

timeframes, measurable elements, and roles and responsibilities of the Co-Trustees, partner 

agencies, and other organizations involved in the evaluation process. 

Activity EV-1.2: Conduct annual program review. 

Agency leads will be identified and responsible for developing milestones for each plan, 

tracking progress, and reporting to the MMB regarding milestones reached or interventions 

needed. The status of implementation of each action plan will be reviewed annually. MMB 

staff leads for each action plan will be responsible for determining the status of completion of 

planned activities and accomplishment of activity outputs. Data and information on site 

indicators will be compiled and analyzed in accordance with the timeframes described in the 

evaluation plan. The output of this activity is an annual report describing the status of activity 

implementation and recommended adjustments. 

Activity EV-1.3: Conduct comprehensive evaluation and prepare a State of the Monument 

Report. 

During the fifth year of plan implementation, a comprehensive evaluation will be conducted 

considering the results of preceding annual reports and incorporating surveys, assessments, and 

long-term research and monitoring studies as described in the comprehensive evaluation plan 

(Activity EV-1.1). The comprehensive evaluation will describe the degree to which 

management actions have achieved desired outcomes, addressed priority management needs, 

and met goals for the Monument over the 5-year period. Status and trends of Monument 

resources, management issues, and ecosystem components will be described with 

recommendations for improved management actions. The output from this activity is a State 

of the Monument Report. 

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Activity EV-1.4: Conduct a management plan review. 

As part of an adaptive management approach to ensure that Monument management is 

effective, the Monument Management Plan will undergo a 5-year review. Scientific 

discoveries, advancements in managing marine resources, and new resource management 

issues or approaches to issues will be updated over time. 

The comprehensive evaluation and State of the Monument Report will serve as the primary input 

for the 5-year management plan review. Monument staff, together with partner agencies and 

organizations, will review past activities, revise strategies and activities accordingly, and as 

appropriate add new strategies and activities based on priority management needs. The output of 

this activity will be a revised Monument Management Plan and revised regulations (as needed) 

for the next 5 years of operations, based on the review of recommended changes identified by the 

comprehensive evaluation. 

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Table 3.6.4 Summary of Strategies, Activities, and Agency Leads for Evaluation 

Strategies and Activities Agency Lead 

Strategy EV-1: Implement a comprehensive evaluation process within 1 year.

Activity EV-1.1: Prepare a comprehensive Monument evaluation strategy. NOAA 

Activity EV-1.2: Conduct annual program review. NOAA 

Activity EV-1.3: Conduct comprehensive evaluation and prepare a State of the 

Monument Report. 

NOAA 

Activity EV-1.4: Conduct a management plan review. NOAA 

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GLOSSARY 

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GLOSSARY 

Abiotic: Pertaining to the non-living components of the environment. 

Abyssal (zone): Relating to the bottom waters of oceans, usually below 1000 m. 

Adaptive management: The process of adjusting management actions and/or directions as new 

and better information emerges about the ecosystem 

Adaptive reuse: A process that changes a disused or ineffective item into a new item that can 

be used for a different purpose. 

Alien species (exotic, nonnative): With respect to a particular ecosystem, any species, including 

its seeds, eggs, spores, or other biological material capable of propagating that species, that is 

not native to that ecosystem. 

Anthropogenic: Caused by humans. 

Apex predator: A species (e.g., fish) at the top of the food chain. 

Appropriate Use (NWR): A proposed or existing use on a refuge that meets the criteria in 

603 FW 1. 

Aquaculture: Cultivation of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi-controlled conditions. 

Archipelago: A group or cluster of islands. 

Ballast water: Any water and associated sediments used to manipulate the trim and stability of a 

vessel 

Bathymetry: Study and mapping (benthic mapping) of sea floor elevations and the variations of 

water depth; the topography of the sea floor. 

Battle of Midway: A naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II. It took place from 

June 4, 1942 to June 7, 1942, approximately one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, 

about five months after the Japanese capture of Wake Island, and six months after the Empire 

of Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor that had led to a formal state of war between the United 

States and Japan. 

Benthic habitat: Of the sea floor, or pertaining to organisms living on or in the sea floor. 

Biodiversity: Defined as the number of different organisms or species that inhabit a given 

ecosystem or the earth overall. It can also refer to the variability within species and among 

species living on the earth or in a particular community. Many ecologists also include the 

interaction of species the environment when describing biodiversity. All biodiversity has its 

origins in the different combinations of genetic material (DNA) and how this is expressed in 

different organisms. 

Biogeographical: Of relating to or involved with biogeography, a branch of biology that deals 

with the geographical distribution of animals and plants. 

Biological community: A naturally occurring assemblage of plants and animals that live in the 

same environment and are mutually sustaining and interdependent. 

Biological inventory or Biodiversity inventory: Catalog of all biota in a given area. 

Inventories of large clades (a clade is a related group with a common ancestor) of organisms 

that are likely to contain many undescribed species or otherwise require major revision to 

complete their taxonomy. 

Biomass: The total weight of all the living organisms, or some designated group of living 

organisms, in a given area. 

Bioprospecting: Search for new chemicals compounds, genes and their products in living things 

that will have some value to people. 

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Biota: All the organisms, including animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms, living 

components of an ecosystem. 

Biotic: Pertaining to any aspect of life, especially to characteristics of entire populations or 

ecosystems. 

Bishop Museum: Founded in 1889, the Bishop Museum is the largest museum in Hawai‘i and 

the premier natural and cultural history institution in the Pacific, recognized throughout the 

world for its cultural collections, research projects, consulting services and public 

educational programs. It also has one of the largest natural history specimen collections in 

the world. 

Board of Land and Natural Resources: An appointed Board of the State of Hawai‘i composed 

of seven members, one from each land district and two at large, and the Chairperson, the 

executive head of the Department. Members are nominated and, with the consent of the 

Senate, appointed by the Governor for a 4-year term. The BLNR convenes twice monthly to 

review and take action on department submittals, including Monument permits. 

Bottomfish species: means bottomfish management unit species as defined at 50 CFR 660.12. 

Bottomfishing: Fishing for bottomfish species using hook-and-line method of fishing where 

weighted and baited lines are lowered and raised with electric, hydraulic, or hand-powered 

reels. 

Calderas: A crater whose diameter is many times that of the volcanic vent because of the 

collapse of subsidence of the central part of a volcano or because of explosions of 

extraordinary violence. 

Catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE): The average number of fish caught in a discrete amount of time. 

Categorical Exclusion: A category of actions that the agency has determined does not 

individually or cumulatively have a significant effect on the quality of the human 

environment. 

Ciguatera toxin: Toxins produced by a marine microalgae called Gambierdiscus toxicus. These 

toxins become progressively concentrated as they move up the food chain from small fish to 

large fish that eat them, and reach particularly high concentrations in large predatory tropical 

reef fish. 

Co-Trustees: U.S. Department of Commerce, through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, the Department of the Interior through the Fish and Wildlife Service, and the 

State of Hawai‘i. 

Commercial Fishing: Fishing in which the fish harvested, either in whole or in part, and are 

intended to enter commerce through sale, barter or trade. 

Compatible use: A proposed or existing wildlife-dependent recreational use or any other use of 

a national wildlife refuge that, based on sound professional judgment, will not materially 

interfere with or detract from the fulfillment of the National Wildlife Refuge System mission 

or the purposes of the national wildlife refuge. 

Comprehensive Conservation Plan: A document that describes the desired future conditions of 

the refuge, and provides long-range guidance and management direction for the refuge 

manager to accomplish the purposes of the refuge, contribute to the mission of the System, 

and to meet other relevant mandates. 

Coral bleaching: When zooxanthellae, symbiotic algae that live in coral tissue, leave the coral 

as a result of thermal and other types of stress. 

Crustacean: A member of the phylum Crustacea, such as a crab, shrimp, or lobster. 

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Cultural literacy: The art and understanding of the intangible meanings and emotions conveyed 

through a particular written cultural language. 

Cultural resources: Any resources whether they are tangible or intangible such as stories, 

people, structures, or artifacts that identifies a certain native people's culture inherent in the 

way they live and practice their traditions. 

Cumulative effects (NEPA): Cumulative impact of the direct and indirect effects of the 

proposed action and its alternatives when added to the aggregate effects of past, present, and 

reasonably foreseeable future actions. 

Customary rights: Rights customarily and traditionally exercised for subsistence, cultural, and 

religious purposes and possessed by ahupua‘a tenants who are descendants of Native 

Hawaiians who inhabited the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778.

Derelict: Abandoned, especially by the owner or occupant; forgotten unused. 

Direct effects (NEPA): Effects caused by the action and occurring at the same time and place. 

Distance-learning: Education initiated on-site at a remote location offered to others often times 

providing two way communication through audio and/or video technology links. 

Ecological: Of, or having to do with, the environments of living things or with the pattern of 

relations between living things and their environments. 

Ecological impacts: The effect that a human-caused or natural activity has on living organisms 

and their environment. 

Ecological Reserve: An area of the Monument consisting of contiguous, diverse habitats that 

provide natural spawning, nursery, and permanent residence areas for the replenishment and 

genetic protection of marine life, and also to protect and preserve natural assemblages of 

habitats and species within areas representing a broad diversity of resources and habitats 

found within the monument. 

Ecosystem: A geographically specified system of organisms (including humans), the 

environment, and the processes that control its dynamics. 

Ecosystem Health: A condition in which structure and functions allow the desired maintenance 

over time of biological diversity, biotic integrity, and ecological processes. 

Ecosystem Integrity: A condition determined to be characteristic of an ecosystem that has the 

ability to maintain its function, structure, and abundance of natural biological communities, 

including rates of change in response to natural environmental variation. 

Ecosystem Services: the natural processes by which the environment produces resources. 

Common examples are water, timber, and habitat for fisheries, and pollination of native and 

agricultural plants. 

Ecosystem-based management approach: Management that carefully considers impacts to all 

species and trophic interactions, including maintenance of biological communities and the 

protection of natural habitats, populations and ecological processes. The approach 

emphasizes the inherent value of ecosystems and recognizes the importance of species 

interactions and conservation of habitats, and only permits resource utilization in a manner 

that is consistent with the Monument’s primary goal of resource protection. 

Ecotourism: Travel to natural areas to foster environmental and cultural understanding, and 

appreciation and conservation. The Proclamation defines Ocean-Based Ecotourism as a class 

of fee-for-service activities that involves visiting the Monument for study, enjoyment, or 

volunteer assistance for purposes of conservation and management. 

Effects (Impacts): As defined by NEPA (direct, indirect, cumulative): Effects include ecological 

(such as the effects on natural resources and on the components, structures, and functioning 

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of affected ecosystems), aesthetic, historic, cultural, economic, social, or health, whether 

direct, indirect, or cumulative. Effects may also include those resulting from actions that 

may have both beneficial and detrimental effects, even if on balance the agency believes that 

the effect will be beneficial. 

El Niño: A climatic phenomenon characterized by a large scale weakening of the trade winds 

and warming of the surface layers in the eastern and central equatorial Pacific Ocean. El 

Niño events occur irregularly at intervals of 2-7 years, although the average is about once 

every 3-4 years. and typically last 12-18 months. During El Niño, unusually high 

atmospheric sea level pressures develop in the western tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean 

regions, and unusually low sea level pressures develop in the southeastern tropical Pacific. 

Southern Oscillation tendencies for unusually low pressures west of the date line and high 

pressures east of the date line have also been linked to periods of anomalously cold 

equatorial Pacific sea surface temperatures sometimes referred to as La Niña. 

Endangered species: An animal or plant species in danger of extinction throughout all or a 

significant portion of its range. 

Endemic: Referring to species native to and confined to a particular region, thus often having a 

comparatively restricted distribution. 

Environmental Assessment (EA): A concise public document, prepared in compliance with the 

National Environmental Policy Act, that briefly discusses the purpose and need for an action, 

alternatives to such action, and provides sufficient evidence and analysis of impacts to 

determine whether to prepare an environmental impact statement or finding of no significant 

impact. 

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): Documentation that assesses the impacts of major 

Federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment as required by 

section 102(2)(C) of NEPA. 

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): A zone contiguous to the territorial sea, including zones 

contiguous to the territorial sea of the United States, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the 

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (to the extent consistent with the Covenant 

and the United Nations Trusteeship Agreement), and United States overseas Territories and 

possessions extending to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the 

breadth of the territorial sea is measured. 

Fathom: A unit of length equal to 1.8m (6ft) used to measure water depth. 

Field camp (camp): In this document refers to both seasonal camps that are placed on Lisianski, 

Pearl and Hermes, Kure, and Nihoa; and one permanent camp at Laysan Island. Seasonal 

camps are established for specific activities such as monk seal research. The Laysan Island 

camp is staffed year-round to work on restoration of the island. Camps depend on tents, 

import all water, and have very limited communications and physical access. 

Field station: In this document is used to refer to permanent infrastructures on Tern Island or 

Midway Atoll. These stations have buildings, water-making abilities, greater power sources, 

advanced communication, and regular access by boat and aircraft. 

Fishery: The act, process, or season of taking fish or other sea products for sale or consumption. 

Friends of Midway Atoll NWR: Association whose mission is “[t]o support the Midway Atoll 

National Wildlife Refuge in its efforts to preserve, protect and restore the biological diversity 

and historic resources of Midway Atoll, while providing opportunity for wildlife-dependent 

recreation, education and scientific research.” 

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Geographic Information System (GIS): A system of spatially referenced information, 

including computer programs that acquire, store, manipulate, analyze, and display spatial 

data. 

Geomorphologic: Relating to geomorphology, a science that deals with land and submarine 

relief features of the earth’s surface. 

Hazardous material: A substance or material that is capable of posing an unreasonable risk to 

health and safety or property when transported in commerce and has been designated as 

hazardous under the federal Hazardous Materials Transportation Law (49 USC 5103). 

Hazardous Waste: The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) specifically defines 

a hazardous waste as a solid waste (or combination of wastes) that, due to its quantity, 

concentration, physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics, can cause or significantly 

contribute to an increase in mortality. RCRA further defines a hazardous waste as one that 

can increase serious, irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness or pose a hazard to 

human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, disposed of, or otherwise 

managed. 

Hi‘ialakai: NOAA research vessel. Hi‘ialakai means embracing pathways to the sea in the 

Hawaiian language. 

Hōkūle‘a: a traditional Hawaiian double hulled voyaging canoe recreated by the Polynesian 

Voyaging Society in the 1970s which signified a rebirth of ancient voyaging and navigation 

and a new cultural renaissance period in Hawaiian history. [Hōkūle‘a is Hawaiian for star of 

gladness]. 

Hypersaline: Salinity well in excess of that of seawater; found in enclosed water bodies. 

Impacts: See Effects 

Indirect effects (NEPA): Those are caused by the action and are later in time or farther removed 

in distance, but are still reasonably foreseeable. Indirect effects may include growth inducing 

effects and other effects related to induced changes in the pattern of land use, population 

density or growth rate, and related effects on air and water and other natural systems, 

including ecosystems. 

In situ [Latin]: In place 

In-reach: Purposefully communicating to personnel working within your agency, or CoTrustees. 

Indigenous (species): Existing within a historical ecological range, usually within a balanced 

system of coevolved organisms. 

Infrastructure: In this document refers to physical buildings and structures, roads, and utility 

and communications systems. 

Interagency: Involving two or more public or government agencies. 

Introduced Species:

1. A species (including, but not limited to, any of its biological matter capable of propagation) 

that is nonnative to the ecosystem(s) protected by the Monument; or 

2. Any organism into which genetic matter from another species has been transferred in order 

that the host organism acquires the genetic traits of the transferred genes. 

"Introduction" means the intentional or unintentional escape, release, dissemination, or 

placement of a species into an ecosystem as a result of human activity. 

Invasive species: A nonindigenous species that may threaten the diversity or abundance of 

native species or the ecological stability and or uses of infested waters and the introduction of 

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which into an ecosystem may cause harm to the economy, environment, human health, 

recreation, or public welfare. 

Invertebrates: Any animal that is not a vertebrate, that is, whose nerve cord is not enclosed in a 

backbone of bony segments. 

Island-specific: Pertains to a specific island of the Monument and may not be translated to other 

islands. 

Knowledge-base: Information and ideas acquired through pre-existing experiences and 

cumulative education.

La Niña: see El Niño

Larval: An immature stage of any invertebrate animal that differs dramatically in appearance 

from the adult. 

Lead-based paint: paint that contains high levels of lead, generally found in houses and 

apartments built before 1978, when the federal government it from housing. 

Longline Protected Species Zone: The area in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands where 

longline fishing is prohibited, described as within a 50 nm radius from the geographic centers 

of Nihoa Island, Mokumanamana, French Frigate Shoals, Gardner Pinnacles, Maro Reef, 

Laysan Island, Lisianski Island, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll. 

Management Zones: Special Preservation Areas, Ecological Reserves, and the Midway Atoll 

Special Management Area (SMA) as defined in Monument regulations (50 CFR 404). 

Marine debris: Any persistent solid material and contents that is manufactured or processed and 

directly or indirectly, intentionally or unintentionally, disposed of or abandoned into the 

marine environment. 

Maritime: Of or relating to navigation or commerce on the sea. 

Memorandum of Agreement or Understanding (MOA/U): A nonbinding agreement between 

state or federal agencies, or divisions within an agency, that delineates tasks, jurisdiction, 

standard operating procedures or other matters which the agencies or units are duly 

authorized and directed to conduct. 

Meta-population: A subdivided population of a single species. 

Midway Atoll Special Management Area: The area of the monument surrounding Midway 

Atoll out to a distance of 12 nautical miles, established for the enhanced management, 

protection, and preservation of Monument wildlife and historical resources. 

Migratory bird: Birds that are listed in Title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Section 

10.13. 

Mitigate (mitigation): To make less severe. An action or series of actions that offset the 

environmental impact, or reduce the severity or consequences. Usually done by sequestering 

or reducing contact thereby reducing risk or by compensating, enhancing, or restoring areas 

adversely affected. 

Mobile transceiver unit: A vessel monitoring system or VMS device installed on board a vessel 

that is used for vessel monitoring and transmitting the vessel's position as required by this 

proclamation. 

Monument Management Board (MMB): The MOA established a locally based Monument 

Management Board (MMB) to guide field level coordination. The seven-member MMB 

includes representation of the Co-Trustee agencies and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. 

Monument Regulations: Initial regulations prescribed by the Presidential Proclamation 8031 

completed jointly by the FWS and NOAA on August 29, 2006 (71 FR 51134). Monument 

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regulations, codified under 50 CFR Part 404, establish the scope and purpose, boundary, 

definitions, prohibitions, marine zones, and regulated activities for managing the Monument. 

National Historic Landmark: Nationally significant historic places designated by the 

Secretary of the Interior possessing exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting 

the heritage of the United States. 

National Historic Properties: Properties listed in, or eligible for listing in the National Register 

of Historic Places (National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended; implementing 

regulation for evaluation and determination of eligibility are in 36 CFR 60). “National 

Register of Historic Places.” 

National Marine Sanctuary Foundation: A private, nonprofit, 501(c)(3) tax-exempt 

organization created to assist the federally managed National Marine Sanctuary Program 

with education and outreach programs designed to preserve, protect, and promote meaningful 

opportunities for public interaction with the nation's marine sanctuaries.

National Monument: An area on lands owned or controlled by the Government of the United 

States designated by the President of the United States under the Antiquities Act of 1906, to 

recognize historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic 

or scientific interest. 

National Register of Historic Places: The Nation's official list of cultural resources worthy of 

preservation. Authorized under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the National 

Register is part of a national program to coordinate and support public and private efforts to 

identify, evaluate, and protect our historic and archeological resources. 

National Wildlife Refuge System: All lands, waters, and interests therein administered by the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as wildlife refuges, wildlife ranges, wildlife management 

areas, waterfowl production areas, and other areas for the protection and conservation of fish, 

wildlife, and plant resources. 

Native Hawaiian: Any individual who is a descendent of the aboriginal people who, prior to 

1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now constitutes the State of 

Hawai‘i. 

Native Hawaiian Practices: Cultural activities conducted for the purposes of perpetuating 

traditional knowledge, caring for and protecting the environment, and strengthening cultural 

and spiritual connections to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands that have demonstrable 

benefits to the Native Hawaiian community. This may include, but is not limited to, the 

noncommercial use of monument resources for direct personal consumption while in the 

Monument. 

Native species: A species (plant or animal) within its natural range or natural zone of dispersal 

without human aid. 

Natural variability: Uncertainties that stem from inherent or assumed randomness and 

unpredictability in the natural world. 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI): Beginning 155 miles (249.4 kilometers) from the 

main Hawaiian Island of Kaua‘i, the 10 islands and atolls of this chain that extend for 

1,200 miles (1,931 kilometers) to Kure Atoll. In past decades, also known as the Leeward or 

Kūpuna Islands, and now as Papahānaumokuākea. 

NOWRAMP or NWHIRAMP: The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Assessment 

and Monitoring Program, which began in 2000, to rapidly evaluate and map the shallow 

water reef habitats in the NWHI. 

Oceania: Collective name for the islands scattered throughout most of the Pacific Ocean. 

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Oceanographic: Of or relating to oceanography, a science that deals with the ocean and its 

phenomena. 

Outreach: The act of communicating activities and conceptual ideas to public audiences outside 

the administering agency/agencies and actively involving them in Monument activites. 

Pacific Rim: includes the countries that lie along the Pacific Ocean, plus the island countries of 

the Pacific. 

Passage without interruption: A vessel passing through waters within the Monument boundary 

without stopping anywhere within the boundary of the Monument. 

Pelagic: Referring to the open ocean. 

Pelagic species: From the Proclamation: Pelagic Species means Pacific Pelagic Management 

Unit Species as defined at 50 CFR 660.12. 

Permit: As used in the Monument Management Plan, authorization by the Co-Trustees to 

conduct an activity within the Monument that: (i) is research designed to further 

understanding of monument resources and qualities; (ii) will further the educational value of 

the monument; (iii) will assist in the conservation and management of the monument; (iv) 

will allow Native Hawaiian practices; (v) will allow a special ocean use; or (vi) will allow 

recreational activities. 

Petrels: Any of numerous seabirds constituting the families Procellariidae and Hydrobatidae. 

Polynesian Voyaging Society (PVS): A society founded in 1973 to research how Polynesian 

seafarers discovered and settled on the islands in the Pacific Ocean before European 

explorers arrived in the 16th century. 

Pono: [Hawaiian] Appropriate, correct, and deemed necessary by traditional standards in the 

Hawaiian culture. 

Precautionary approach: In the decisionmaking process, if there is a reasonable suspicion of 

harm, this approach urges a full evaluation of available alternatives for the purpose of 

preventing or minimizing harm. When consequences are uncertain, managers err on the side 

of caution thereby giving the benefit of the doubt to nature, public health, and community 

well-being. 

Predator-dominated marine ecosystem: Reef ecosystems that have relatively greater 

abundance of large fish, such as sharks and jacks and fewer smaller fish that graze on the 

coral and algae. 

Presidential Proclamation 8031: Establishment of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine 

National Monument, A Proclamation by the President of the United States of America, June 

15, 2006. (also Proclamation, Presidential Proclamation, and Proclamation 8031) 

Productivity: Rate of energy fixation or storage per unit time; not to be confused with 

production. 

Prohibitions: Actions prohibited by authority of law. 

Recreational Activity: For the purposes of the Monument, an activity conducted for personal 

enjoyment that does not result in the extraction of Monument resources and that does not 

involve a fee-for-service transaction. This includes, but is not limited to, wildlife viewing, 

SCUBA diving, snorkeling, and boating. 

Remediation: Rehabilitation of a section of the environment that has been polluted or degraded 

from a sustainable (self-repairing) state. 

Repatriation: The transfer of legal interest in and physical custody of Native American cultural 

items to lineal descendants, culturally affiliated Indian tribes, and Native Hawaiian 

organizations. 

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Resiliency: The ability of an ecosystem to recover from, or adjust to, stress or change. 

SCUBA: A self-contained underwater breathing apparatus and includes, but is not limited to, 

open circuit and rebreather technology. 

Seamount: Submerged volcanic mountain rising above the deep-sea floor. 

Secretaries: For the Monument, collectively refers to the Secretary of Commerce and the 

Secretary of the Interior 

Sessile invertebrates: Organism being attached to a substrate. 

Shoal: Elevation of the sea bottom comprising any material except rock or coral (in which case it 

is a reef) and which may endanger surface navigation. 

Socioeconomic: Relating to or involving a combination of social and economic factors. 

Spawning: The direct release of sex cells into the water for reproduction. 

Special Ocean Use: An activity or use of the Monument that is engaged in to generate revenue 

or profits for one or more of the persons associated with the activity or use, and does not 

destroy, cause the loss of, or injure monument resources. This includes ocean-based 

ecotourism and other activities such as educational and research activities that are engaged in 

to generate revenue, but does not include commercial fishing for bottomfish or pelagic 

species conducted pursuant to a valid permit issued by NOAA. 

Special Preservation Area (SPA): Discrete, biologically important areas of the Monument 

within which uses are subject to conditions, restrictions, and prohibitions, including but not 

limited to access restrictions. SPAs are used to avoid concentrations of uses that could result 

in declines in species populations or habitat, to reduce conflicts between uses, to protect areas 

that are critical for sustaining important marine species or habitats, or to provide 

opportunities for scientific research. 

Stakeholder: Any and all interested parties; an organization, governmental entity, or individual 

that has a stake in, or may be impacted by, a given approach to environmental regulation or 

other agency action. 

Submersible: A research submarine, designed for manned or remote operation at great depths. 

Substrate: The material making up the base on which an organism lives or to which it is 

attached. 

Substratum: The bottom of the bay, the soils of the bay bottom. May also refer to any surface 

that allows for the colonization of marine life. 

Sustenance Fishing: For the Monument, sustenance fishing means fishing for bottomfish or 

pelagic species in which all catch is consumed within the Monument, and that is incidental to 

an activity permitted. 

Symbiotic: Situation in which two dissimilar organisms live together in close association. 

Temporary Structure (Non Permanent): A structure with no permanent foundation that is easy 

to assemble, dismantle, and transport and is removed from a site between periods of actual 

use except as specifically permitted otherwise. 

Terrestrial species: Plants and animals living on land. 

Threatened species: Any species that is likely to become endangered within the foreseeable 

future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. 

Topographic: General elevation pattern of the land surface or the ocean bottom. 

Traditional knowledge: A way of knowing and learning that is acquired through expressions of 

dance or other forms of art, orally, or thru actual hands-on experiences passed down from 

generation to generation. 

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April 2008 320 Glossary

Trolling: Fishing using one or more lines with hooks or lures attached and drawn through the 

water behind a moving vessel. 

Trophic: Relating to nutrition; the position of an organism in a food chain or food pyramid. 

Unexploded Ordnance (UXO): Munitions that contain explosive components. In the 

Monument, refers to lost or abandoned military items.

Unified Ocean Governance: An integrated ecosystem-based management approach using an 

overall governance framework of shared principles and authority, clear communications and 

protocols. 

Unusual Mortality Events: Criteria used to determine if mortalities seen in the Hawaiian monk 

seal are significantly abnormal to indicate an underlying vector. Criteria include: a marked 

increase in the magnitude of strandings is occurring when compared with prior records; 

animals are stranding at a time of the year when strandings are unusual; an increase in 

strandings is occurring in a very localized area; the species, age, or sex composition of the 

stranded animals is different; stranded animals exhibit similar or unusual pathologic findings, 

or the general physical condition; mortality is accompanied by unusual behavior patterns; and 

critically endangered species are stranding. 

Vessel Monitoring System (VMS): Means a vessel monitoring system or mobile transceiver 

unit approved by the NOAA Office for Law Enforcement for use on vessels permitted to 

access the Monument in accordance with the Proclamation and 50 CFR 404. The hardware 

and software used by vessels to track and transmit their positions to a receiver in a remote 

location. 

Wayfinding: Noninstrument navigation. Wayfinding involves navigating on the open ocean 

without sextant, compass, clock, radio reports, or satellites reports. The wayfinder depends 

on observations of the stars, the sun, the ocean swells, and other signs of nature for clues to 

direction and location of a vessel at sea. 

Zooxanthellae: A group of dinoflagellates living symbiotically in association with one of a 

variety of invertebrate groups and found in corals and other marine organisms. 
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REFERENCES 

Volume I: Draft Monument Management Plan 

REFERENCES

Act 50, Session Laws of Hawaii 2000. A Bill for an Act Relating to Environmental Impact 

Statements 

Aeby, G.S. 2006. Baseline levels of coral disease in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Atoll 

Research Bulletin 543:471-488. 

Aeby, G.S., J.C. Kenyon, J.E. Maragos, and D.C. Potts. 2003. First record of mass coral bleaching 

in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Coral Reefs 22 (3): 256. 

Agard, B. 2000. Public comment during Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council. 

104th Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council Meeting, June 16, 2000. Honolulu. 

Ainley, D.G., D.N. Nettleship, H.R. Carter, and A.E. Storey. 2002. In: The Birds of North America, 

No. 666, eds. A. Poole and F. Gill. Philadelphia: The Birds of North America, Inc. 

Alexander, C., R. Kosaki, S. Gittings, and M.S. Tartt. 2004. Information Needs for Conservation 

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Amerson, A.B., Jr., R.C. Clapp, and W.O. Wirtz, II. 1974. The Natural History of Pearl and 

Hermes Reef, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin. 174:1-306. 

Andrews, K.R., L. Karczmarski, W.W.L. Au , S.H. Rickards, C.A. Vanderlip and R.J.Toonen. 

2006. Patterns of genetic diversity of the Hawaiian spinner dolphin Atoll Research Bulletin 543: 

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Antiquities Act. 1906, as amended 16 U.S.C. § 431-433, et seq. 

Antonelis, G.A., J.D. Baker, T.C. Johanos, R.C. Braun, A.L. Harting. 2006. Hawaiian Monk Seals 

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Ashmole, M.J., and N.P. Ashmole. 1967a. The use of food samples from seabirds in the study of 

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Ashmole, N.P. 1963. The biology of the Wide-awake or Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata) on Ascension 

Island. Ibis 103b: 297-364. 

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Athens, J.S., J.V. Ward, and D.W. Blinn. 2007. Vegetation History of Laysan Island, Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Science 61: 17-37. 

Au, D.K. and R.L. Pitman. 1986. Seabird Interactions with Dolphins and Tuna in the Eastern 

Tropical Pacific The Condor 88 (3): 304-317. 

Auman, H.J., J.P. Ludwig, C.L. Summer, D.A. Verbrugge, K.L. Froese, T. Colborn, and J.P. Giesy. 

1997. PCBs, DDE, DDT, and TCDD-EQ in two species of albatross on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, 

North Pacific Ocean. Env. Toxicol. Chem. 16(3): 498-504. 

Auman, H.J., J.P. Ludwig., J.P. Giesy, and T. Colborn. 1998. Plastic ingestion by Laysan albatross 

chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995. In Albatross Biology and Conservation, 

eds. G. Robertson and R. Gales, pp. 239-244. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty & Sons. 

Ayau, H., and T.K. Tengan. 2002. Ka Huaka‘i o Nā ‘Ōiwi – The Journey Home. In The Dead and 

Their Possesions: Repatriation in Principle, Policy, and Practice, eds. Frode et al., pp. 171-189. 

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April 

All cover photos c James Watt with the exception of the upper left 

which is courtesy of Andy Collins/NOAA