U.S. Human

Spaceflight

Compiled by Judith A. Rumerman

Updated by Chris Gamble

and Gabriel Okolski

NASA History Division 

Office of External Relations 

NASA Headquarters 

Washington, DC 20546 

Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 41

December 2007

SP-2007-4541

A R E C O R D O F A C H I E V E M E N T , 1 9 6 1 – 2 0 0 6



IN MEMORIAM 

Apollo 1 (27 January 1967) 

Virgil I.“Gus” Grissom • Roger B. Chaffee • Edward H.White II 

Portrait of the Apollo 1 prime crew for the first crewed Apollo spaceflight.


(Left to right) Astronauts Edward H. White II, Virgil I. Grissom, and Roger B. Chaffee. (S66-30236)


Challenger, STS-51L (28 January 1986) 

Francis R.“Dick” Scobee • Michael J. Smith 

Judith A. Resnik • Ellison S. Onizuka • Ronald E. McNair 

Gregory B. Jarvis • Sharon Christa McAuliffe 

Official portrait of the STS-51L crew members. In the back row (left to right) are 

mission specialist Ellison S. Onizuka, Teacher in Space participant Sharon Christa 

McAuliffe, payload specialist Greg Jarvis, and mission specialist Judy Resnik. In 

the front row are (left to right) pilot Mike Smith, commander Dick Scobee, and 

mission specialist Ron McNair. (S8544253) 

Columbia, STS-107 (1 February 2003) 

Rick D. Husband • William C. McCool • Michael P.Anderson 

David M. Brown • Kalpana Chawla • Laurel B. Clark 

Ilan Ramon (Israel) 

The seven STS-107 crew members take a break from their training regimen to 

pose for the traditional crew portrait. Seated in front (left to right) are astronauts 

Rick D. Husband, mission commander; Kalpana Chawla, mission specialist; and 

William C. McCool, pilot. Standing (left to right) are astronauts David M. Brown, 

Laurel B. Clark, and Michael P. Anderson, all mission specialists, 

and Ilan Ramon, payload specialist representing the Israeli Space Agency. 

(GPN-2003-00070) 


Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

U.S. Human spaceflight : a record of achievement, 1961-2006 / 


compiled by Judith A. Rumerman ; updated by Chris Gamble and Gabriel Okolski.


 p. cm.—(Monograph in aerospace history ; no. 41)


 Rev. ed. of: U.S. human spaceflight. 1998.


 Includes bibliographical references and index.


1.Astronautics—United States—History—Chronology. 2. Space flights—History—Chronology.


3. Manned space flight--History--Chronology. I. Rumerman, Judy A. II. Gamble, Chris. III. Okolski,


Gabriel. IV. Title: Human space flight.V. Title: U.S. human spaceflight.


TL789.8.U5H86 2007


629.450973--dc22


 2007022208 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Preface and Acknowledgments ............................................... 7


Introduction .............................................................................. 9 


Mercury ................................................................................... 11 


Gemini ..................................................................................... 15


Apollo ...................................................................................... 21 


Skylab ...................................................................................... 29 


Apollo-Soyuz ............................................................................ 33


Space Shuttle .......................................................................... 35


International Space Station ...................................................... 75


Appendix A: Shuttle Main Payloads ........................................ 83


Appendix B: Astronauts Past and Present .............................. 85


Appendix C: Acronyms ............................................................ 93


Monographs in Aerospace History .......................................... 97




PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This monograph is an updating of U.S. Human Spaceflight: A Record of Achievement, 

1961–1998 (Monograph in Aerospace History No. 9, July 1998), compiled by Judith 

A. Rumerman. It extends the timeframe covered through the end of calendar year 

2006. It also includes additional information, such as more detailed crew and mission 

descriptions, more bibliographic information, Shuttle payload information, and useful 

Web sites. It also includes a new section on the International Space Station, which did 

not physically exist when the previous monograph was prepared and published. In addition,with Chris Gamble’s guidance,Gabriel Okolski pulled together a new set of photos 

to illustrate this updated monograph. 

For more information about NASA’s human spaceflight efforts, please see http:// 

spaceflight.nasa.gov, and for more about NASA history, please see http://history.nasa. 

gov online. 

The captions for the images in this publication include NASA image numbers in parentheses.The numbers with GPN prefixes refer to images in the Great Images in NASA 

(GRIN) photo database, available at http://grin.hq.nasa.gov online. 

Thanks to Kipp Teague for all his help with images for this publication and over the 

years in general.Thanks also to the production professionals who made this monograph 

possible. Specifically, thanks to Dyana Weis and Lisa Jirousek for copyediting it carefully, 

to graphic designer Steve Bradley for laying it out, to printing specialist Dave Dixon for 

handling this crucial final stage, and to Gail Carter-Kane and Cindy Miller for professionally overseeing all of these production phases. 

We hope you enjoy this updated monograph and find it to be a useful reference work. 

Stephen Garber 

NASA History Division 



INTRODUCTION 

More than 45 years after the Mercury astronauts made their first brief forays into the 

new ocean of space, Earth orbit has become a busy arena of human activity. In that time, 

more than 300 people have traveled into orbit on U.S. spacecraft. The first astronauts 

went along stuffed into capsules barely large enough for their bodies, eating squeezetube food and peering out at Earth through tiny portholes.Their flights lasted only a 

matter of hours. Today, we routinely launch seven people at a time to spend a week 

living, working, and exploring aboard the Space Shuttle. In addition to regular launches, 

crew members from various nations keep a permanent human presence aboard the 

International Space Station (ISS). 

The history of spaceflight has seen not only an increase in the numbers of people 

traveling into orbit, but also marked improvements in their vehicles. Each successive 

spacecraft, from Mercury through Apollo and the Space Shuttle, has been larger, more 

comfortable, and more capable. Scientists working inside the Shuttle’s Spacelab have 

many of the comforts of a laboratory on Earth, none of which were available when 

human spaceflight first began. 

Some projects, like Apollo, produced stunning firsts or explored new territory. Others— 

notably, Skylab and the Space Shuttle—advanced our capabilities by extending the range 

and sophistication of human operations in space. Both kinds of activity are vital to 

establishing a permanent human presence off Earth. 

Almost 50 years after the dawn of the age of spaceflight,we are learning not just to travel 

into space, but also to live and stay there.That challenge ensures that the decades to come 

will be just as exciting as the past decades have been. 
0


MERCURY 

Overview 

Project Mercury came into being on 7 October 1958, 

only a year and three days after the Soviet Union’s Sputnik 

I satellite opened the Space Age. The goal of sending 

people into orbit and back had been discussed for many 

years before that, but with the initiation of the Mercury 

project, theory became engineering reality. 

Mercury engineers had to devise a vehicle that would 

protect a human being from the temperature extremes, 

vacuum,and newly discovered radiation of space.Added 

to these demands was the need to keep an astronaut 

cool during the burning, high-speed reentry through 

the atmosphere.The vehicle that best fit these requirements was a wingless “capsule” designed for a ballistic 

reentry, with an ablative heatshield that burned off as 

Mercury returned to Earth. 

Mercury capsules rode into space on two different kinds 

of boosters.The first suborbital flights were launched on 

Redstone rockets designed by Wernher von Braun’s team 

in Huntsville, Alabama. For orbital flights, Mercury was 

placed on top of an Atlas-D, a modified ballistic missile 

whose steel skin was so thin (to save weight) it would 

have collapsed like a bag if not pressurized from within. 

The first Americans to venture into space were drawn 

from a group of 110 military pilots chosen because they 

had flight-test experience and met certain physical requirements. Seven of those 110 became astronauts in April 1959. 

Six of the seven flew Mercury missions (Deke Slayton was 

removed from flight status due to a heart condition). 

Beginning with Alan Shepard’s Freedom 7 flight, the 

astronauts named their own spacecraft, and all added 

“7” to the name to acknowledge the teamwork of 

their fellow astronauts. 

With only 12.133 cubic meters (428.47 cubic feet) of 

volume, the Mercury capsule was barely big enough to 

include its pilot. Inside were 120 controls, 55 electrical switches, 30 fuses, and 35 mechanical levers. Before 

Shepard’s flight, surrogate “passengers” tested the integrity of the spacecraft design: two rhesus monkeys, Ham 

the chimpanzee, and an electronic “crewman simulator” 

mannequin that could breathe in and out to test the cabin 

environment. Finally, in May 1961, Shepard became the 

first American in space. Nine months later, John Glenn 

became the first American to orbit Earth. 

The six Mercury flights (which totaled 2 days and 6 hours in 

space) taught the pioneers of spaceflight several important 

lessons. They learned not only that humans could function in space, but also that they were critical to a mission’s 

success. Ground engineers learned the difficulty of launch 

preparations and found that a worldwide communications 

network was essential for human spaceflight. 

By the time of the last Mercury flight in May 1963, 

the focus of the U.S. space program had already shifted. 

President John F. Kennedy had announced the goal of 

reaching the Moon only three weeks after Shepard’s 

relatively simple 15-minute suborbital flight, and by 

1963, only 500 of the 2,500 people working at NASA’s 

Manned Spacecraft Center were still working on 

Mercury Atlas 9 on the pad. (63C-1417) 

Mercury program astronaut group portrait. Front row, left to right: Walter Schirra, 

Deke Slayton, John Glenn, and Scott Carpenter. Back row, left to right: Alan 

Shepard, Gus Grissom, and Gordon Cooper. (GPN-2000-000651) 


Mercury—the remainder were already busy on Gemini 

and Apollo. But Mercury had taken the critical first step 

and had given reassuring answers to a number of fundamental questions: 

Could humans survive in space? 

Could a spacecraft be designed to launch them into orbit? 

Could they return safely to Earth? 

At the moment John Glenn’s Friendship 7 capsule was 

placed into its orbital trajectory,fulfilling the primary goal 

of Project Mercury, one member of the launch team on 

the ground made a notation in his log:“We are through 

the gates.” 

Mercury Statistics 

Dates: 1961–1963 

Vehicles: Redstone andAtlas launchers,Mercury spacecraft 

Number of People Flown: 6 

Highlights: FirstAmerican in space, firstAmerican in orbit 

Mercury Bibliography 

NASA Sources 

Grimwood,James M. Project Mercury:A Chronology.NASA 

SP-4001, 1963.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/ 

SP-4001/cover.htm. 

Hansen, James R. Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley 

Research Center from Sputnik to Apollo. NASA SP-4308, 

1995.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4308/ 

sp4308.htm. 

Link, Mae Mills. Space Medicine in Project Mercury. NASA 

SP-4003, 1965. Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/ 

SP-4003/cover.htm. 

Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned 

Space Program to 1980. NASA SP-4213, 1985. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4213/sp4213.htm. 

Swenson, Loyd S., Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles 

C. Alexander. This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury. 

NASA SP-4201, 1966. Available online at http://history. 

nasa.gov/SP-4201/cover.htm. 

Results of the Second U.S.Manned Orbital Space Flight.NASA 

SP-6, 1962.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP6/cover.htm. 

Results of theThird U.S. Manned Orbital Space Flight. NASA 

SP-12, 1962. Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/ 

SP-12/cover.htm. 

Mercury Project Summary Including Results of the Fourth 

Manned Orbital Flight. NASA SP-45, 1963. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-45/cover.htm. 

Non-NASA Sources 

Catchpole, John. Project Mercury: NASA’s First Manned Space 

Programme. Springer-Praxis, 2001. 

Wolfe,Tom. The Right Stuff. Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979. 

Mercury Astronauts. We Seven. Simon and Schuster, 1962. 

Technicians working in the McDonnell White Room 

on the Mercury spacecraft. (GPN-2002-000040) 

Liftoff of MercuryRedstone 3. 

(GPN-2000-000859) 

Alan Shepard waits to be sealed inside 

Freedom 7. (61-10515) 


Mercury Missions 

Mercury-Redstone 3 (Freedom 7)


5 May 1961


Crew:Alan B. Shepard, Jr.


Alan Shepard’s suborbital flight lasted only 15 minutes, 

but it proved that an astronaut could survive and work 

comfortably in space and demonstrated to the 45 million 

Americans watching onTV that the United States was now 

in the spaceflight business. Freedom 7 was a ballistic “cannon 

shot”—Shepard reached no higher than 187.45 kilometers 

(116.5 statute miles) and traveled only 486.022 kilometers 

(302 statute miles) downrange from Cape Canaveral.During 

his short time in space, he maneuvered his spacecraft using 

hand controllers that pitched, yawed, and rolled the tiny 

Mercury capsule with small thrusters. He found the ride 

smoother than expected and reported no discomfort during 5 minutes of weightlessness.Although this first Mercury 

capsule lacked a window, Shepard was able to look down at 

theAtlantic coastline through a periscope.His view,though, 

was in black and white—the astronaut had inadvertently left 

a gray filter in place while waiting on the pad for liftoff. 

Mercury-Redstone 4 (Liberty Bell 7) 

21 July 1961 

Crew:Virgil I.“Gus” Grissom 

Gus Grissom’s suborbital mission was essentially a repeat 

of Shepard’s, again using the Redstone launcher instead of 

the more powerful Atlas. Grissom’s Mercury capsule had 

a few minor improvements, including new, easier-to-use 

hand controllers; a window; and an explosive side hatch, 

which the astronauts had requested for easier escape in case 

of an emergency. Since Shepard’s flight had been overly 

busy, Grissom’s duties were deliberately reduced, and he 

spent more time observing Earth.The only significant failure came at the end of the 15-minute flight, after Liberty 

Bell 7 had parachuted into the Atlantic Ocean near the 

Bahamas.While Grissom waited inside the floating capsule 

to be picked up by helicopter rescue teams, the side hatch 

opened,filling the tiny spacecraft with seawater.Liberty Bell 

7 sank, but a wet Grissom was safely recovered and the 

Mercury program was able to move on to orbital flights. 

Mercury-Atlas 6 (Friendship 7)


20 February 1962


Crew: John H. Glenn, Jr.


John Glenn’s orbital flight—an American first—lasted 4 

hours and 55 minutes, during which he circled Earth three 

times and observed everything from a dust storm in Africa 

to Australian cities from an altitude of 260.71 kilometers 

(162 statute miles). Glenn was the first American to see a 

sunrise and sunset from space and was the first photographer 

in orbit, having taken along a 35-millimeter Minolta camera purchased from a Cocoa Beach, Florida, drugstore.The 

most nerve-wracking moments of the flight came before 

and during reentry, when a signal received on the ground 

(erroneously, as it turned out) indicated that the capsule’s 

heatshield had come loose.At one point, Glenn thought his 

shield was burning up and breaking away.He ran out of fuel 

trying to stop the capsule’s bucking motion as it descended 

through the atmosphere, but it splashed down safely, 64.37 

kilometers (40 statute miles) short of his target (preflight calculations of the spacecraft’s weight had not considered the 

loss of on-board “consumables”). Glenn returned to Earth 

a national hero, having achieved Project Mercury’s primary 

goal of sending an astronaut into orbit. 

The Liberty Bell 7 spacecraft has just sunk 

below the water. A Marine helicopter has 

astronaut Gus Grissom in harness and is 

bringing him out of the water. (S61-02819) 

Astronaut John Glenn is being inserted into the Mercury spacecraft Friendship 7 for the 

Mercury-Atlas 6 mission on launch day. (87PC-0069) 


Mercury-Atlas 7 (Aurora 7) 

24 May 1962 

Crew: M. Scott Carpenter 

The focus of Scott Carpenter’s 5-hour Aurora 7 mission 

was on science.The full flight plan included the first study 

of liquids in weightlessness, Earth photography, and an 

attempt (ultimately unsuccessful) to observe a flare fired 

from the ground. At dawn of the third and final orbit, 

Carpenter inadvertently bumped his hand against the inside 

wall of the cabin and solved a mystery from the previous 

flight.The resulting bright shower of particles outside the 

capsule—what John Glenn had called “fireflies”—turned 

out to be ice particles shaken loose from the capsule’s 

exterior. Like Glenn, Carpenter circled Earth three times. 

Partly because he had been distracted watching the fireflies 

and partly because of his busy schedule, Carpenter overshot his planned reentry mark and splashed down 402.34 

kilometers (250 statute miles) off target. 

Mercury-Atlas 8 (Sigma 7) 

3 October 1962 

Crew:Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Walter Schirra’s was the first of two longer-duration 

Mercury missions. After Carpenter’s flawed reentry, the 

emphasis returned to engineering rather than science 

(Schirra even named his spacecraft Sigma for the mathematical and engineering symbol meaning “summation”). 

The six-orbit mission lasted 9 hours and 13 minutes, 

much of which Schirra spent in what he called “chimp 

configuration,” a free drift that tested the Mercury’s autopilot system. Schirra also tried “steering” by the stars (he 

found this difficult), took photographs with a Hasselblad 

camera, exercised with a bungee cord device,saw lightning 

in the atmosphere, broadcast the first live message from an 

American spacecraft to radio and TV listeners below, and 

made the first splashdown in the Pacific Ocean.This was 

the highest flight of the Mercury program, with an apogee 

of 283.24 kilometers (176 statute miles), but Schirra later 

claimed to be unimpressed with space scenery as compared 

to the view from high-flying aircraft.“Same old deal,nothing new,” he told debriefers after the flight. 

Mercury-Atlas 9 (Faith 7)


15–16 May 1963


Crew: L. Gordon Cooper, Jr.


If Schirra’s mission was an endurance test,the final Mercury 

flight was a marathon. Gordon Cooper circled Earth 22.5 

times and released the first satellite from a spacecraft, a 

152.4-millimeter (6-inch) sphere with a beacon for testing the astronaut’s ability to track objects visually in space. 

Although a balloon for measuring atmospheric drag failed 

to deploy properly, Cooper finally completed another 

Mercury experiment when he was able to spot a powerful, 

44,000-watt xenon lamp shining up from the ground. (He 

also claimed to be able to see individual houses from orbit 

and even to see smoke from chimneys in theTibetan highlands.) During his 34 hours in space, Cooper slept, spoke a 

prayer into his tape recorder,and took the best photographs 

of the Mercury program,including pictures of Earth’s limb 

and infrared weather photographs.His mission was deemed 

a “great success.” It was so successful, in fact, that it allowed 

Mercury officials to cancel a planned seventh flight and 

move on to the two-man Gemini program. 

John Glenn in flight on Mercury-Atlas 6. (62-MA6-168) 

Navy divers install a stabilizing flotation collar around Gordon 

Cooper’s Mercury space capsule shortly after splashdown. 

(S63-07717) 


GEMINI 

Overview 

Gemini was not a purely pioneering program like 

Mercury, nor did it have the excitement of Apollo—but 

its success was critical to the achievement of President 

Kennedy’s goal of reaching the Moon “by decade’s end.” 

The program was announced to the public on 3 January 

1962, after Apollo was already well under way. Gemini’s 

primary purpose was to demonstrate space rendezvous 

and docking, which are techniques that would be used 

during Apollo, when the lunar lander would separate 

from the Command Module (CM) in orbit around the 

Moon and then meet up with it again after the astronauts 

left the lunar surface. Gemini also sought to extend astronauts’ stays in space to two weeks, longer than even the 

Apollo missions would require. 

It was during the Gemini program that spaceflight 

became routine.Ten piloted missions left the launchpads 

of Cape Canaveral, Florida, in less than 20 months, and 

the Manned Spacecraft Center (renamed the Johnson 

Space Center in 1973) outside Houston,Texas, took over 

the role of Mission Control. Ground operations became 

smooth and efficient,due in part to fleetingly short launch 

windows—the Gemini XI window opened for only 2 

seconds—dictated by the need to rendezvous with targets 

already in orbit. Meanwhile, 16 new astronauts chalked 

up experience in space. 

The Gemini spacecraft (originally called Mercury Mark 

II) was an improvement on Mercury in both size and 

capability.Gemini weighed more than 3,628.72 kilograms 

(7,983.20 pounds)—twice the weight of Mercury—but, 

ironically,seemed more cramped,having only 50 percent 

more cabin space for twice as many people. Ejection 

seats replaced Mercury’s escape rocket, and more storage space was added for the longer Gemini flights.The 

long-duration missions also required fuel cells instead of 

batteries for generating electrical power. 

Unlike Mercury, which had only been able to change its 

orientation in space, Gemini needed real maneuvering 

capability in order to rendezvous with another spacecraft. Gemini would have to move forward, backward, 

and sideways in its orbital path, and even change orbits. 

The complexity of rendezvous demanded two people 

on board and more piloting than had been possible with 

Mercury. It also required the first on-board computers to 

calculate complicated rendezvous maneuvers. 

Gemini rode into orbit on a Titan II launch vehicle.The 

target for rendezvous operations was an unpiloted Agena 

upper stage, which was launched ahead of the Gemini. 

After meeting up in orbit,the nose of the Gemini capsule 

then fit into a docking collar on the Agena. 

To avoid long delays between flights, Gemini spacecraft were made more serviceable, with subsystems 

that could be removed and replaced easily. An adapter 

module fitted to the rear of the capsule (and jettisoned 

before reentry) carried on-board oxygen, fuel, and 

other consumable supplies. 

Gemini gave U.S. astronauts their first real experience 

with living and working in space. They had to learn to 

sleep and keep house on long flights in crowded quarAstronauts James McDivitt and Ed White inside the Gemini spacecraft for a 

simulated launch at Cape Canaveral, Florida. (65P-0074) 

The Gemini IX spacecraft was successfully 

launched from Kennedy Space Center on 3 

June 1966. (S66-34098) 


ters, both of which were difficult. Gemini astronauts 

also made the first forays outside their spacecraft, which 

required a new spacesuit design. Spacewalks proved more 

difficult than expected. Following Ed White’s successful 

solo spacewalk on Gemini IV, it was not until the final 

Gemini flight that another extravehicular activity went as 

smoothly as planned. 

By Gemini’s end, an important new capability—orbital 

rendezvous and docking—had become routine, and 

doctors who had monitored the astronauts’ health had 

gained confidence that humans could live, work, and 

stay healthy in space for days or even weeks at a time. 

Gemini also completed a long list of on-board science 

experiments, including studying the space environment 

and photographing Earth. Above all, the program added 

nearly 1,000 hours of valuable spaceflight experience in 

the years between Mercury and Apollo, which by 1966 

was nearing flight readiness. Five days before the launch 

of the last Gemini, Lunar Orbiter 2 had been sent to the 

Moon, already scouting out Apollo landing sites. 

Gemini Statistics 

Dates: 1965–1966 

Vehicles: Titan II launcher, Gemini spacecraft 

Number of People Flown: 20 

Highlights: First orbital rendezvous and docking, first 

U.S. spacewalk 

Gemini Bibliography 

NASA Sources 

Dethloff, Henry C. “Suddenly Tomorrow Came . . .”: 

A History of the Johnson Space Center. NASA SP-4307, 

1993. Available online at http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/ 

suddenly_tomorrow/suddenly.htm. 

Grimwood, James M., and Barton C. Hacker, with 

Peter J. Vorzimmer. Project Gemini Technology and 

Operations:A Chronology. NASA SP-4002, 1969.Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4002/cover.htm. 

Hacker, Barton C., and James M. Grimwood. On 

Shoulders of Titans:A History of Project Gemini. NASA SP4203, 1977.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP4203/cover.htm. 

Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned 

Space Program to 1980. NASA SP-4213, 1985. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4213/sp4213.htm. 

Non-NASA Sources 

Collins, Michael. Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut Journeys. 

Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1974. 

Harland, David M. How NASA Learned To Fly in Space: 

An Exciting Account of the Gemini Missions.Apogee Books, 

2004. 

Shayler, David. Gemini: Steps to the Moon. Springer-Praxis, 

2001. 

During the Gemini missions, Mission Control shifted to Houston. 

(GPN-2000-001405) 

Gemini capsule being tested in Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel. (GPN-2000-001737) 


Gemini Missions 

Gemini III 

23 March 1965 

Crew:Virgil I.“Gus” Grissom and John W.Young 

In a playful reference to the Broadway hit The Unsinkable 

Molly Brown, Gus Grissom nicknamed the Gemini III 

spacecraft Molly Brown, hoping that it would not duplicate his experience with Liberty Bell 7. (All Gemini flights 

were designated by a Roman numeral. Gemini III was 

the only flight to use both a Roman numeral and a callsign/nickname given by an astronaut.) The mission’s 

primary goal was to test the new, maneuverable Gemini 

spacecraft. In space, the crew fired thrusters to change the 

shape of their orbit, shift their orbital plane slightly, and 

drop to a lower altitude.The spacecraft was supposed to 

have enough lift for a precision landing, but reality did 

not match wind tunnel predictions: Gemini III splashed 

down some 111.1 kilometers (69 statute miles) short of 

its intended target.The capsule was designed to land on 

its side, suspended at two points from a parachute. But 

during the descent, when the astronauts threw a switch 

to shift Molly Brown to its landing position, they were 

thrown forward with such force that Grissom’s faceplate 

cracked. Still, the first test of the two-seat spacecraft, and 

of Gemini ground operations, had been a success. 

Gemini IV 

3–7 June 1965 

Crew: James A. McDivitt and Edward H.White II 

The plan for this four-day,62-orbit mission was for Gemini 

IV to fly in formation with the spent second stage of its 

Titan II booster in orbit. On this first attempt, however, 

spaceflight engineers learned something about the complication of orbital rendezvous.Thrusting toward their target, 

the astronauts only moved farther away.They finally gave 

up after using nearly half their fuel. (On later rendezvous 

missions, a spacecraft chasing another in orbit would first 

drop to a lower, faster orbit before rising again.) The mission’s highlight was Edward White’s 22-minute spacewalk, 

the first ever for an American.Tied to a tether and using 

a handheld “zip gun” to maneuver himself, White swam 

through space while James McDivitt took photographs. 

Gemini IV set a record for flight duration and eased fears 

about the medical consequences of longer missions. The 

new Mission Control Center outside Houston was put 

into use for the first time. It had to conduct the first threeshift operations because of the long flight duration. 

GeminiV 

21–29 August 1965 

Crew: L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., and Charles “Pete” 

Conrad, Jr. 

Gemini V doubled the spaceflight record to eight days, 

thanks to new fuel cells that generated enough electricity to power longer missions. Gordon Cooper and Pete 

Conrad were to have made a practice rendezvous with a 

“pod” deployed from the spacecraft, but problems with the 

electricity supply forced a switch to a simpler “phantom 

rendezvous,”whereby the Gemini maneuvered to a predetermined position in space. Mercury veteran Cooper was 

the first person to travel into space twice. He and Conrad 

took high-resolution photographs for the Department 

of Defense (DOD), but problems with the fuel cells and 

maneuvering system forced the cancellation of several 

other experiments.The astronauts found themselves markEd White steps out during Gemini IV. (S65-30431) 

Gus Grissom visible through the window of Gemini III before launch. 

(S65-24721) 


ing time in orbit, and Conrad later lamented that he had 

not brought along a book. On-board medical tests, how

ever, continued to show the feasibility of longer flights. 

­

GeminiVII 

4–18 December 1965 

Crew: Frank Borman and James A. Lovell, Jr. 

This 14-day mission required NASA to solve problems of 

long-duration spaceflight,not the least of which was stowage (the crew had practiced stuffing waste paper behind 

their seats before the flight). Timing their workday to 

match that of ground crews, both men worked and slept 

at the same time. Gemini VII flew the most experiments 

(20) of any Gemini mission,including studies of nutrition 

in space.The astronauts also evaluated a new, lightweight 

spacesuit, which proved uncomfortable if worn for a long 

time in Gemini’s hot, cramped quarters.The high point 

of the mission was the rendezvous with Gemini VI. But 

the three days that followed were something of an endurance test, and both astronauts, heeding Pete Conrad’s 

Gemini V advice, brought books along. Gemini VII was 

the longest spaceflight in U.S. history, until the Skylab 

missions of the 1970s. 

GeminiVI-A 

15–16 December 1965 

Crew:Walter M. Schirra, Jr., andThomas P. Stafford, Jr. 

A rendezvous and docking with an unpiloted Agena 

target was this mission’s original objective, but when 

Mission Control lost contact with the Agena during an 

October launch attempt, an alternate mission was substituted: a meeting in space of two Gemini spacecraft. Eight 

days after the launch of Borman and Lovell’s Gemini 

VII, Walter Schirra and Thomas Stafford tried to join 

them, but their Titan II launcher shut down on the pad 

(the cool-headed Schirra did not eject, even though the 

countdown clock had started ticking—he felt no motion 

and trusted his senses).Three days later, Gemini VI made 

it into orbit.Using guidance from the computer as well as 

his own piloting, Schirra rendezvoused with the companion spacecraft in orbit on the afternoon of 15 December. 

Once in formation, the two Gemini capsules flew around 

each other, coming within 0.3048 meters (1 foot) of each 

other but never touching. The two spacecraft stayed in 

close proximity for 5 hours. One of Gemini’s primary 

goals—orbital rendezvous—had been achieved. 

GeminiVIII 

16 March 1966 

Crew: Neil A.Armstrong and David R. Scott 

A second major objective of the Gemini program was 

completed less than 6 hours after launch, when Neil 

Armstrong brought Gemini VIII within 0.9144 meters (3 

feet) of the prelaunched Agena target and slowly docked, 

completing the first orbital docking ever.What followed, 

however, were some of the most hair-raising minutes 

in space program history. The Gemini VIII capsule, still 

docked to the Agena, began rolling continuously. The 

crew undocked from the Agena, but the problem was a 

stuck thruster on the spacecraft that now tumbled even 

faster, at the dizzying rate of one revolution per second. 

The only way to stop the motion was to use the capsule’s 

reentry control thrusters, which meant that Armstrong 

and David Scott had to cut short their mission and make 

an emergency return to Earth 10 hours after launch. 

They were still nauseated after splashdown, as well as disappointed: Scott had missed out on a planned spacewalk. 

NASA attempted to launch Gemini VI at 9:54 a.m.,12 December 

1965. However, seconds after ignition, the first-stage engine of the 

Gemini Launch Vehicle shut down due to the faulty release of a liftoff 


umbilical plug. (S65-59967)


This photograph of the Gemini VII spacecraft was taken from the hatch 

window of the Gemini VI spacecraft during rendezvous and stationkeeping maneuvers at an altitude of approximately 160 miles on 15 


December 1965. (S65-63197)



Gemini IX 

3–6 June 1966 

Crew:Thomas P. Stafford, Jr., and Eugene A. Cernan 

Thomas Stafford and Eugene Cernan became the first 

multiperson backup crew to fly in space after the intended 

first crew of Elliott See and Charles Bassett died in a plane 

crash four months before the flight.The highlight of the 

mission was to have been a docking with a shortened 

Agena called the Augmented Target Docking Adapter 

(ATDA).The docking was canceled,though,after Stafford 

and Cernan rendezvoused with the target and found its 

protective shroud still attached, which made it look, in 

Stafford’s words, like an “angry alligator.” Cernan also was 

to have tested an Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU), a 

jet-powered backpack stowed outside in Gemini’s adapter 

module to which the spacewalking astronaut was to have 

strapped himself. But Cernan’s spacewalk was troubled 

from the start. His visor fogged, he sweated and struggled 

with his tasks,and he had problems moving in microgravity. Everything took longer than expected, and Cernan 

had to go inside before getting a chance to fly the AMU. 

The device was not finally tested in space until Skylab, 

seven years later. 

Gemini X 

18–21 July 1966 

Crew: John W.Young and Michael Collins 

Gemini established that radiation at high attitude was 

not a problem. After docking with their Agena booster 

in low orbit, John Young and Michael Collins used it to 

climb another 482.8 kilometers (300 statute miles) to 

meet with the dead, drifting Agena left over from the 

aborted Gemini VIII flight, thus executing the program’s 

first double rendezvous.With no electricity on board the 

second Agena, the rendezvous was accomplished using 

only the astronauts’ eyes for guides—no radar. After the 

rendezvous, Collins spacewalked over to the dormant 

Agena at the end of a 15.24-meter (50-foot) tether, making Collins the first person to meet another spacecraft in 

orbit. He retrieved a cosmic dust-collecting panel from 

the side of the Agena but returned no pictures of his close 

encounter—in the complicated business of keeping his 

tether clear of the Gemini and Agena,Collins’s Hasselblad 

camera worked itself free and drifted off into orbit. 

Gemini XI 

12–15 September 1966 

Crew: Charles “Pete” Conrad, Jr., and Richard F. 

Gordon, Jr. 

With Apollo looming on the horizon, Gemini project 

managers wanted to accomplish a rendezvous immediately after reaching orbit, just as it would have to be done 

around the Moon. Only 85 minutes after launch, Pete 

Conrad and Richard Gordon matched orbits with their 

Agena target stage and docked several times. Conrad had 

originally hoped for a Gemini flight around the Moon but 

had to settle for the highest Earth orbit—1,367.94 kilometers (850 statute miles)—ever reached by an American 

manned spacecraft. Gordon’s first spacewalk once again 

proved more difficult than ground simulations and had 

to be cut short when he became overtired. A second, 2­

hour “stand-up” spacewalk went more smoothly. Gordon 

even fell asleep while floating halfway out the hatch. 

An experiment to link the Agena and Gemini vehicles 

with a 15.24-meter (50-foot) tether (which Gordon 

The Agena Target Vehicle as seen from the Gemini VIII spacecraft during rendezvous. (S66-25781) 

The Augmented Target Docking Adapter (ATDA) as seen from 

the Gemini IX spacecraft during one of their three rendezvous 

in space. Failure of the docking adapter protective cover to 

fully separate on the ATDA prevented the docking of the two 

spacecraft. The ATDA was described by the Gemini IX crew as 

an “angry alligator.” (S66-37923) 
had attached during his spacewalk) and rotate the joined 

pair was troublesome. Conrad had problems keeping the 

tether taut but was able to generate a modicum of “artificial gravity.” The mission ended with the first totally 

automatic, computer-controlled reentry, which brought 

Gemini XI down only 4.5 kilometers (2.8 statute miles) 

from its recovery ship. 

Gemini XII 

11–15 November 1966 

Crew: James A. Lovell, Jr., and Edwin E. 

“Buzz”Aldrin, Jr. 

By the time of the last Gemini flight, the program still 

had not demonstrated that an astronaut could work easily and efficiently outside the spacecraft. In preparation 

for Gemini XII, new, improved restraints were added to 

the outside of the capsule, and a new technique—underwater training—was introduced, which would become 

a staple of all future spacewalk simulation. Buzz Aldrin’s 

2-hour-and-9-minute tethered spacewalk, during which 

he photographed star fields, retrieved a micrometeorite 

collector, and did other chores, at last demonstrated the 

feasibility of extravehicular activity. Two more stand-up 

spacewalks also went smoothly, as did the by now routine 

rendezvous and docking with an Agena, which was done 

“manually” using the on-board computer and charts 

when a rendezvous radar failed. The climb to a higher 

orbit, however, was canceled because of a problem with 

the Agena booster. 

0

Gemini VII, viewed from Gemini VI. (S65-63189) Atlas Agena target vehicle liftoff for Gemini XI from Pad 14. 

(GPN-2000-001019) 


APOLLO 

Overview 

The Apollo program had been under way since July 1960, 

when NASA announced a follow-on to Mercury that 

would fly astronauts around the Moon.But with President 

John F. Kennedy’s speech on 25 May 1961 declaring the 

goal of landing an astronaut on the surface of the Moon 

and returning to Earth by decade’s end, Apollo shifted 

its focus. That goal was achieved with five months to 

spare when on 20 July 1969, Neil Armstrong and Edwin 

“Buzz”Aldrin touched down in the Sea of Tranquility. 

Apollo was one of the great triumphs of modern technology. Six expeditions landed on the Moon, and one, 

Apollo 13, was forced to return without landing. Before 

that, there had been two crewed checkouts of Apollo 

hardware in Earth orbit and two lunar orbit missions. 

The Apollo Lunar Module was the first true spacecraft 

designed to fly only in a vacuum,with no aerodynamic qualities whatsoever.Launched attached to theApollo Command 

and Service Module (CSM), it separated in lunar orbit and 

descended to the Moon with two astronauts inside.At the 

end of its stay on the surface, the Lunar Module’s ascent 

stage fired its own rocket to rejoin the Command/Service 

Module in lunar orbit. 

The teardrop-shaped Apollo Command Module (CM), 

the living quarters for the three-person crews, had a different shape than that of the conical-nosed Gemini and 

Mercury.The attached cylindrical Service Module contained supplies as well as the Service Propulsion System 

engine that placed the vehicle in and out of lunar orbit. 

Boosting the Apollo vehicles to the Moon was the job of 

the giant Saturn V—the first launch vehicle large enough 

that it had to be assembled away from the launchpad and 

transported there. A fueled Saturn V weighed more than 

2.7 million kilograms (2,970 tons) at liftoff and stood 

110.64 meters (362.9 feet) high with the Apollo vehicle 

on top.The vehicle had three stages—the S-IC, S-II, and 

S-IVB—the last of which burned to send Apollo out of 

Earth orbit and on its way to the Moon. 

The Apollo program greatly increased the pace and 

complexity of ground operations, both before launch 

and during the missions, when ground controllers had to 

track two spacecraft at the same time.The lunar missions 

also required extensive training.Apollo astronauts logged 

some 84,000 hours—their combined time equaled nearly 

10 years—practicing for their flights,including everything 

from simulations of lunar gravity to geology field trips to 

flying the lunar lander training vehicle. 

On 27 January 1967, just as the program was nearing readiness for its first manned flight, tragedy struck.A fire inside 

an Apollo Command Module took the lives of astronauts 

Virgil “Gus” Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee, 

who were training inside it at the time.The fire resulted in 

delays and modifications to the spacecraft, but by October 

1968,Apollo 7 was ready to carry three astronauts into Earth 

orbit.There, they checked out the Command and Service 

Module (which had been tested in an unpiloted mode during the November 1967 Apollo 4 mission, which was also 

the first flight of the SaturnV). By December 1968,Apollo 

8 was ready to try for lunar orbit (on the Saturn V’s third 

outing), and seven months later, Apollo 11 made the first 

lunar landing. 

The Saturn V first stages, S-1C-10, S-1C-11, and S-1C-9, are in the 

horizontal assembly area for the engine (five F-1 engines) installation at 

Michoud Assembly Facility. (GPN-2000-000048) 

A technician works atop the white room through which the Apollo 

11 astronauts will enter their spacecraft. The vehicle is being prepared for the first piloted lunar landing mission. 

(GPN-2000-000625) 


By the time the Apollo program ended in 1972, astronauts 

had extended the range and scope of their lunar explorations. 

The final three lunar missions were far more sophisticated 

than the first three, in large part because the astronauts carried a lunar rover that allowed them to roam miles from their 

base.Apollo 11’s NeilArmstrong and BuzzAldrin spent only 

2.5 hours walking on the Moon’s surface.OnApollo 17,the 

moonwalks totaled 22 hours and the astronauts spent three 

days “camped out” in the Moon’sTaurus-Littrow valley. 

After six lunar landings, the Apollo program came to a 

conclusion (the Apollo 18, 19, and 20 missions had been 

canceled in 1970 because of budget limitations),and with it 

ended the first wave of human exploration of the Moon. 

Apollo Statistics 

Dates: 1967–1972 

Vehicles: Saturn IB and Saturn V launch vehicles, 

Apollo Command and Service Module, 

Lunar Module 

Number of People Flown: 33 

Highlights: First humans to leave Earth orbit, first 

human landing on the Moon 

Apollo Bibliography 

NASA Sources 

Benson, Charles D., and William Barnaby Faherty. 

Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and 

Operations. NASA SP-4204, 1978. Available online at 

http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4204/cover.html. 

Bilstein, Roger E. Stages to Saturn: A Technological History 

of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. NASA SP-4206, 

1980.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ 

sp4206.htm. 

Brooks, Courtney G., and Ivan D. Ertel. The Apollo 

Spacecraft:A Chronology,Volume III:October 1,1964–January 

20, 1966. NASA SP-4009, 1973. Available online at 

http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4009/cover.htm. 

Brooks, Courtney G., James M. Grimwood, and Loyd S. 

Swenson, Jr. Chariots for Apollo:A History of Manned Lunar 

Spacecraft.NASA SP-4205, 1979.Available online at http:// 

history.nasa.gov/SP-4205/cover.html. 

Compton, W. David.Where No Man Has Gone Before: A 

History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions. NASA SP4214, 1989.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP4214/cover.html. 

Cortright, Edgar. Apollo Expeditions to the Moon. NASA 

SP-350, 1975. Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/ 

SP-350/cover.html. 

Dethloff, Henry C. “Suddenly Tomorrow Came . . .”: A 

History of the Johnson Space Center. NASA SP-4307, 1993. 

Available online at http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/suddenly_ 

tomorrow/suddenly.htm. 

Ertel,Ivan D.,and Mary Louise Morse.TheApollo Spacecraft: 

A Chronology, Volume I. NASA SP-4009, 1969. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4009/cover.htm. 

Ertel, Ivan D., and Roland W. Newkirk, with Courtney 

G.Brooks. The Apollo Spacecraft:A Chronology,Volume IV: 

January 21, 1966–July 13, 1974. NASA SP-4009, 1978. 

Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4009/ 

cover.htm. 

The Apollo 10 space vehicle is launched from Pad B, 

Launch Complex 39, Kennedy Space Center, on 18 May 

1969. (S69-34481) Diagram of the Lunar Module. (http://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.html) 
23

Fries, Sylvia D. NASA Engineers and the Age of Apollo. 

NASA SP-4104, 1992. Available online at http://history. 

nasa.gov/SP-4104/sp4104.htm. 

Hansen, James R. Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley 

Research Center from Sputnik to Apollo. NASA SP-4308, 

1995.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4308/ 

sp4308.htm. 

Herring,Mack R.Way Station to Space:A History of the John 

C. Stennis Space Center. NASA SP-4310, 1997. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4310/sp4310.htm. 

Levine, Arnold S. Managing NASA in the Apollo Era. 

NASA SP-4102, 1982. Available online at http://history. 

nasa.gov/SP-4102/sp4102.htm. 

Morse, Mary Louise, and Jean Kernahan Bays. The Apollo 

Spacecraft:A Chronology,Volume II:November 8,1962–September 

30,1964.NASA SP-4009,1973.Available online at http:// 

history.nasa.gov/SP-4009/cover.htm. 

Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned 

Space Program to 1980. NASA SP-4213, 1985. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4213/sp4213.htm. 

Non-NASA Sources 

Armstrong,Neil A.,Michael Collins,and Edwin E.Aldrin. 

First on the Moon. Little, Brown and Company, 1970. 

Chaikin,Andrew. A Man on the Moon. Viking, 1994. 

Cooper, Henry S. F. Apollo on the Moon. Dial Press, 1969. 

———. Moon Rocks. Dial Press, 1970. 

———. Thirteen:The Flight that Failed. Dial Press, 1973. 

Harland, David M. The First Men on the Moon:The Story of 

Apollo 11. Springer-Praxis, 2006. 

Lambright, W. Henry. Powering Apollo: James E. Webb of 

NASA. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. 

Lewis, Richard S. The Voyages of Apollo:The Exploration of 

the Moon. Quadrangle, 1974. 

Logsdon, John M. The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project 

Apollo and the National Interest.The MIT Press, 1970. 

McDougall, Walter A. . . .The Heavens and the Earth: A 

Political History of the Space Age. Johns Hopkins University 

Press, rep. ed. 1997. 

Murray, Charles A., and Catherine Bly Cox. Apollo:The 

Race to the Moon. Simon and Schuster, 1989. 

Orloff, Richard W., and David M. Harland. Apollo: The 

Definitive Sourcebook. Springer-Praxis, 2006. 

Pellegrino,Charles R.,and Joshua Stoff.Chariots for Apollo: 

The Making of the Lunar Module.Atheneum, 1985. 

Wilhelms, Don E. To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist’s History 

of Lunar Exploration. University of Arizona Press, 1993. 

Web Sites 

NASA History Division Apollo Web site: http://history. 

nasa.gov/apollo.html 

The Apollo Surface Journal: http://history.nasa.gov/alsj/ 

KippTeague’sApolloWeb site: http://www.apolloarchive.com/ 

Lunar Module as David Scott egresses. (AS09-20-3064) 

View of docked Apollo 9 Command and Service Module and 

Apollo 9 Lunar Module in lunar landing configuration (AS09-21-3199)


Apollo Missions 

Apollo 7 

11–22 October 1968 

Crew:Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, 

Walter Cunningham 

Apollo 7 was a confidence builder. After the January 1967 

Apollo launchpad fire, the Apollo Command Module had 

been extensively redesigned.Walter Schirra,the only astronaut 

to fly Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo missions, commanded 

this Earth-orbital shakedown of the Command and Service 

Modules.With no lunar lander,Apollo 7 could use the Saturn 

IB booster rather than the giant SaturnV. The Apollo hard

ware and all mission operations worked without any signifi

cant problems, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS), the 

all-important engine that would place Apollo in and out of 

lunar orbit, made eight nearly perfect firings. Even though 

Apollo’s larger cabin was more comfortable than Gemini’s, 

11 days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts.The food was 

bad,and all three astronauts developed colds.But their mission 

proved the spaceworthiness of the basic Apollo vehicle. 

­

­

Apollo 8 

21–27 December 1968 

Crew: Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., 

William A.Anders 

The Apollo 8 astronauts were the first human beings to 

venture beyond low-Earth orbit and visit another world. 

What was originally to have been an Earth-orbit check

out of the lunar lander became instead a race with the 

Soviets to become the first nation to orbit the Moon. 

The Apollo 8 crew rode inside the Command Module 

with no lunar lander attached.They were the first astro

­

­

nauts to be launched by the Saturn V, which had flown 

only twice before.The booster worked perfectly, as did 

the Service Propulsion System engines that had been 

checked out on Apollo 7. Apollo 8 entered lunar orbit 

on the morning of 24 December 1968. For the next 20 

hours, the astronauts circled the Moon, which appeared 

out their windows as a gray, battered wasteland. They 

took photographs, scouted future landing sites, and on 

Christmas Eve read from the Book of Genesis to TV 

viewers back on Earth.They also photographed the first 

Earthrise as seen from the Moon. Apollo 8 proved the 

ability to navigate to and from the Moon and gave a 

tremendous boost to the entire Apollo program. 

Apollo 9 

3–13 March 1969 

Crew: James A. McDivitt, David R. Scott, Russell L. 

“Rusty” Schweickart 

Apollo 9 was the first space test of the third critical piece 

of Apollo hardware—the Lunar Module (LM). For 10 

days, the astronauts put all three Apollo vehicles through 

their paces in Earth orbit, undocking and then redocking 

the lunar lander with the Command Module (CM), just 

as they would in lunar orbit. For this and all subsequent 

Apollo flights, the crews were allowed to name their own 

spacecraft.The gangly Lunar Module was Spider, and the 

CM was Gumdrop. Rusty Schweickart and David Scott 

performed a spacewalk, and Schweickart checked out 

the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own lifesupport system rather than being dependent on an 

umbilical connection to the spacecraft. Apollo 9 gave 

proof that the Apollo machines were up to the task of 

orbital rendezvous and docking. 

The prime crew of the first piloted Apollo space mission, from left to right, 

are Command Module pilot Donn Eisele, commander Walter Schirra, Jr., and 

Lunar Module pilot Walter Cunningham. (GPN-2000-001160) 

The Transporter nears the top of the 5-percent incline at 

Launch Complex 39A with the Apollo 11 Saturn V. (69P-0410) 


Apollo 10 

18–26 May 1969 

Crew:Thomas P. Stafford, Jr., John W.Young, 

Eugene A. Cernan 

This dress rehearsal for a Moon landing brought 

Thomas Stafford and Eugene Cernan’s Lunar Module 

named Snoopy, to within 9 miles of the lunar surface. 

Except for the final stretch, the mission went exactly 

as a landing would have gone both in space and on 

the ground, where Apollo’s extensive tracking and 

control network was put through a dry run. Shortly 

after leaving low-Earth orbit, the Lunar Module and 

the Command and Service Module separated then 

redocked top to top. Upon reaching lunar orbit, they 

separated again. While John Young orbited the Moon 

alone in his Command Module, Charlie Brown, Stafford 

and Cernan checked out the Lunar Module’s radar and 

ascent engine, rode out a momentary gyration in the 

lunar lander’s motion (due to a faulty switch setting), 

and surveyed the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of 

Tranquility. This test article of the Lunar Module was 

not equipped to land, however. Apollo 10 also added 

another first—broadcasting live color TV from space. 

Apollo 11 

16–24 July 1969 

Crew: Neil A.Armstrong, Michael Collins, 

Edwin E.“Buzz”Aldrin, Jr. 

Half of Apollo’s primary goal—a safe return—was 

achieved at 4:17 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time (EDT) on 

20 July 1969 when Neil Armstrong piloted the Eagle to 

a touchdown on the Moon, with less than 30 seconds’ 

worth of fuel left in the Lunar Module. Six hours later, 

Armstrong took his famous “one giant leap for man

kind.” Buzz Aldrin joined him, and the two spent 2.5 

hours drilling core samples, photographing what they 

saw, and collecting rocks. After more than 21 hours on 

the lunar surface, they returned to Michael Collins on 

board Columbia,bringing 20.87 kilograms (45.91 pounds) 

of lunar samples with them.The two moonwalkers had 

left behind scientific instruments, an American flag, and 

other mementos, including a plaque bearing the inscrip

tion:“Here Men From Planet Earth First Set Foot Upon 

the Moon. July 1969 A.D. We Came in Peace For All 

Mankind.” 

­

­

Apollo 12 

14–24 November 1969 

Crew: Charles “Pete” Conrad, Jr., Richard F. Gordon, Jr., 

Alan L. Bean 

The second lunar landing was an exercise in precision tar

geting.The descent was automatic,with only a few manual 

corrections by Pete Conrad.The landing in the Ocean of 

Storms brought the Lunar Module Intrepid within walking 

distance (182.88 meters [600 feet]) of a robotic spacecraft 

that had touched down there two-and-a-half years earlier. 

Conrad and Alan Bean brought pieces of the Surveyor 

3 back to Earth for analysis and took two moonwalks 

that lasted just under 4 hours each.They collected rocks 

and set up experiments that measured the Moon’s seis

micity, solar wind flux, and magnetic field. Meanwhile, 

Richard Gordon, aboard the Yankee Clipper in lunar orbit, 

took multispectral photographs of the surface.The crew 

stayed an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs. 

When Intrepid’s ascent stage was dropped onto the Moon 

­

­

The Apollo 11 crew conducts a crew compartment fit and functional 

check of the equipment and storage locations in their Command Module. 

Peering from the hatch are, from left to right, Neil Armstrong, commander; 

Michael Collins, Command Module pilot; and Buzz Aldrin, Lunar Module 

pilot. (69-H-957) 

Buzz Aldrin, Lunar Module pilot, is photographed walking near 

the Lunar Module during the Apollo 11 extravehicular activity. 

Photographed by Neil Armstrong. (AS11-40-5903) 


after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in orbit, the 

seismometers the astronauts had left on the lunar surface

registered the vibrations for more than an hour. 

Apollo 13 

11–17 April 1970 

Crew: James A. Lovell, Jr., Fred W. Haise, Jr., John L. 

“Jack” Swigert, Jr. 

The crew’s understated radio message to Mission Control 

was “Okay, Houston, we’ve had a problem here.”Within 

321,860 kilometers (199,553.2 statute miles) of Earth, an 

oxygen tank in the Service Module exploded.The only 

solution was for the crew to abort their planned landing, 

swing around the Moon, and return on a trajectory back 

to Earth. Since their Command Module Odyssey was 

almost completely dead, the three astronauts had to use 

the Lunar Module Aquarius as a crowded lifeboat for the 

return home.The four-day return trip was cold, uncom

fortable, and tense. But Apollo 13 proved the program’s 

ability to weather a major crisis and bring the crew back 

home safely. 

­

Apollo 14 

31 January–9 February 1971 

Crew:Alan B. Shepard, Jr., Stuart A. Roosa, Edgar D. 

Mitchell 

­

to carry their equipment.A planned rock-collecting trip 

to the 304.8-meter-wide (1,000-foot-wide) Cone Crater 

was dropped, however, when the astronauts had trouble 

finding their way around the lunar surface.Although later 

estimates showed that they had made it to within 30.48 

meters (100 feet) of the crater’s rim, the explorers had 

become disoriented in the alien landscape. Stuart Roosa, 

meanwhile, took pictures from on board Command 

Module Kitty Hawk in lunar orbit. On the way back to 

Earth, the crew conducted the first U.S. materials pro

cessing experiments in space. The Apollo 14 astronauts 

were the last lunar explorers to be quarantined upon their 

return from the Moon. 

After landing the Lunar Module Antares in the Fra Mauro 

region—the original destination for Apollo 13—Alan 

Shepard and Edgar Mitchell took two moonwalks, add

ing new seismic studies to the by now familiar Apollo 

experiment package and using a “lunar rickshaw”pullcart 

­

Apollo 15 

26 July–7 August 1971 

Crew: David R. Scott, James B. Irwin,Alfred M. 

Worden 

The first of the longer, expedition-style lunar landing 

missions was also the first to include the lunar rover, a 

car-like vehicle that extended the astronauts’ range.The 

Lunar Module Falcon touched down near the sinuous 

channel known as Hadley Rille. David Scott and James 

Irwin rode more than 27 kilometers (16.74 statute miles) 

in their rover and had a free hand in their geological field 

studies compared to earlier lunar astronauts.They brought 

back one of the prize trophies of the Apollo program—a 

sample of ancient lunar crust nicknamed the “Genesis 

Rock.” Apollo 15 also launched a small subsatellite for 

measuring particles and fields in the lunar vicinity. On the 

way back to Earth, Alfred Worden, who had flown solo 

on board Endeavour while his crewmates walked on the 

Astronaut Alan Bean holds a Special Environmental Sample Container 

during an EVA on the Apollo 12 mission. (AS12-49-7278) 

A sweeping view showing astronaut Alan Shepard, mission 

commander, and the Apollo 14 Lunar Module. (AS14-68-9487) 


surface, conducted the first spacewalk between Earth and 

the Moon to retrieve film from the side of the spacecraft. 

Apollo 16 

16–27 April 1972 

Crew: John W.Young,Thomas K. Mattingly II, 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

A malfunction in the main propulsion system of the Lunar 

Module Orion nearly caused their Moon landing to be 

scrubbed, but John Young and Charles Duke ultimately 

spent three days exploring the Descartes highland region, 

while Thomas Mattingly circled overhead in Casper. 

What was thought to have been a region of volcanism 

turned out not to be, based on the astronauts’ discover

ies. Their collection of returned specimens included an 

11.34-kilogram (24.95-pound) chunk that was the largest 

single rock returned by the Apollo astronauts.The Apollo 

16 astronauts also conducted performance tests with the 

lunar rover, at one time getting up to a top speed of 17.7 

kilometers per hour (10.94 miles per hour). 

­

Apollo 17 

7–19 December 1972 

Crew: Eugene A. Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, 

Harrison H.“Jack” Schmitt 

The last man to set foot on the Moon was also the first 

scientist—astronaut/geologist Jack Schmitt. While 

Ronald Evans circled in America, Schmitt and Eugene 

Cernan collected a record 108.86 kilograms (239.49 

pounds) of rocks during three moonwalks. The crew 

roamed for 33.8 kilometers (20.96 statute miles) through 

the Taurus-Littrow valley in their rover, discovered 

orange-colored soil, and left behind a plaque attached 

to their lander Challenger, which read:“Here Man com

pleted his first exploration of the Moon, December 

1972 A.D. May the spirit of peace in which we came be 

reflected in the lives of all mankind.”The Apollo lunar 

program had ended. 

­

Charles Duke explores the Plum Crater during Apollo 16. 

(AS16-114-18423) 

Astronaut David Scott, commander of Apollo 15, works at the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) 

during the third lunar surface EVA of the mission at the Hadley-Apennine landing site. 

(AS15-82-11121) 

Apollo 17 glides to a safe landing in the Pacific 

Ocean. (72-H-1550) 



SKYLAB 

Overview 

NASA had studied concepts for space stations, including an inflatable, donut-shaped station, since the earliest days of the space program. But it was not until the 

Saturn rocket came into existence in the mid-1960s that 

the Skylab program was born. Initially called the Apollo 

Applications Program,Skylab was designed to use leftover 

Apollo hardware to achieve extended stays by astronauts 

in Earth orbit. 

At first there were two competing concepts.The first was 

the so-called “wet” workshop, where a Saturn IB rocket 

would be launched and fueled and its S-IVB upper stage 

vented and refurbished in orbit.The second was the “dry” 

workshop, in which the outfitting of an empty S-IVB 

stage would be done on the ground beforehand and 

launched on a Saturn V. In July 1969, while the Apollo 

11 astronauts were completing their historic lunar landing mission, program managers made their decision: the 

“dry” workshop concept won. 

The Skylab space station weighed approximately 907,108 

kilograms (100 tons). It was placed into orbit by the last 

Saturn V launch vehicle. Three separate astronaut crews 

then met up with the orbiting workshop using modified 

Apollo Command and Service Modules (CSM) launched 

by smaller Saturn IB rockets. 

Skylab had a habitable volume of just over 283.17 cubic 

meters (10,000 cubic feet). It was divided into two levels 

separated by a metal floor, which was actually an open 

grid into which the astronauts’ cleated shoes could be 

locked. The “upper” floor had storage lockers; a large, 

empty volume for conducting experiments; plus two 

scientific airlocks, one pointing down at Earth, the other 

toward the Sun. The lower floor had compartmented 

“rooms” with many of the comforts of home: a dining 

room table, three bedrooms, a work area, a shower, and 

a bathroom. 

The largest piece of scientific equipment, attached to one 

end of the cylindrical workshop,was the Apollo Telescope 

Mount (ATM), used to study the Sun in different wavelengths with no atmospheric interference.The ATM had 

its own electricity-generating solar panels. Skylab also had 

an airlock module for spacewalks (required for repairs, 

experiment deployments, and routine changing of film 

in the ATM).The Apollo Command and Service Module 

remained attached to the station’s multiple docking 

adapter while the astronauts were on board. 

The space station itself was launched 14 May 1973,on the 

unpiloted Skylab 1 mission. Beginning only 63 seconds 

after the launch, however, the workshop’s combination 

meteorite shield and sunshade was torn loose by aerodynamic stress, taking one of the two electricity-producing 

solar arrays with it and preventing the other from deploying properly. The crew was supposed to have launched 

the next day, but they waited on the ground for 10 days 

while a fix was worked out (see Skylab 2). 

In the course of the next nine months, three different crews lived aboard Skylab for one, two, then three 

months at a time. The station, which orbited at an 

altitude of 434.52 kilometers (269.4 statute miles), was 

deactivated between flights. Together, the nine Skylab 

astronauts chalked up a combined total of 513 days in 

orbit, during which they conducted thousands of experiSkylab shroud installed in NASA Lewis 

Research Center’s (now known as Glenn 

Research Center) Plum Brook Station Space 

Power Facility. The shroud protected the upper 

section of the Skylab space station, including its 

solar power arrays. (GPN-2000-001462) 

On 23 May 1973, Dr. James Fletcher, Administrator for NASA, appeared before the United States 

Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. Dr. Fletcher explained to the committee 

what methods would be attempted to repair the damaged Skylab. He stated that if the planned 

repairs were successful, it would be possible to accomplish most of the activities scheduled for 

the two subsequent Skylab missions, each lasting 56 days. (GPN-2000-001627) 
0

ments and observations, studying (in decreasing order 

of the amount of crew time spent) solar astronomy, life 

sciences, Earth observations, astrophysics, human/systems 

studies, Comet Kohoutek observations (Skylab 4 only), 

materials science, and student experiments. 

Skylab showed the value of having humans working for 

long periods in orbit on a wide variety of scientific studies and proved that they could survive the ordeal. The 

empty Skylab station reentered and burned up in the 

atmosphere on 11 July 1979, more than five years after 

the last crew left. 

Skylab Statistics 

Dates: 1973–1974 

Vehicles: Skylab orbital workshop (launched on a Saturn 

V rocket), Saturn IB launch vehicle (for crews) 

Number of People Flown: 9 

Highlights: Longest-duration spaceflights in U.S. history 

Bibliography 

NASA Sources 

Compton, W. David, and Charles D. Benson. Living and 

Working in Space: A History of Skylab. NASA SP-4208, 

1983.Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/ 

sp4208.htm. 

Newkirk, Roland W., and Ivan D. Ertel, with Courtney G. 

Brooks.Skylab:A Chronology. NASA SP-4011,1977. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4011/cover.htm. 

Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned 

Space Program to 1980. NASA SP-4213, 1985. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4213/sp4213.htm. 

Non-NASA Sources 

Shayler, David. Skylab: America’s Space Station. SpringerPraxis, 2001. 

Skylab 2 

25 May–22 June 1973 

Crew: Charles “Pete” Conrad, Jr., Paul J.Weitz, 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

The first crew to visit the Skylab space station started its 

mission with home repairs. Skylab’s combination meteorite shield and sunshield had torn loose during launch 

and one of its two remaining solar panels was jammed. 

Because of concerns that high temperatures inside the 

workshop—the result of having no sunshield—would 

release toxic materials and ruin on-board film and food, 

the crew had to work fast.After a failed attempt to deploy 

the stuck solar panel, they set up a “parasol” as a replacement sunshade.The fix worked, and temperatures inside 

dropped low enough that the crew could enter. Two 

weeks later, Pete Conrad and Joseph Kerwin conducted a 

spacewalk and, after a struggle, were able to free the stuck 

solar panel and begin the flow of electricity to their new 

“home.” For nearly a month they made further repairs to 

the workshop, conducted medical experiments, gathered 

solar and Earth science data, and returned some 29,000 

frames of film.The Skylab 2 astronauts spent 28 days in 

space, a time that doubled the previous U.S. record. 

Gerald Carr balances William Pogue on 

his finger. (SL4-150-5080) 

Two seamstresses stitch together a sunshade for the Skylab Orbital 

Workshop, the first U.S. experimental space station in orbit, which lost its 

thermal protection shield during the launch on 14 May 1973. (7040525) 


Skylab 3 

28 July–25 September 1973 

Crew:Alan L. Bean, Jack R. Lousma, Owen K. 

Garriott 

After an early bout of motion sickness, the three-person 

Skylab 3 crew settled down to a 59-day stay aboard the 

space station. During the flight, Owen Garriott and Jack 

Lousma deployed a second sunshield on a spacewalk 

lasting 6.5 hours, the first and longest of three Skylab 

3 spacewalks. During their two months in orbit, the 

astronauts continued a busy schedule of experiments, 

including a student experiment to determine whether 

spiders could spin webs in weightlessness (they could). 

They also tested a jet-powered Astronaut Maneuvering 

Unit (AMU) backpack inside the spacious volume of 

Skylab’s forward compartment, which had been carried 

but never flown on Gemini missions in the 1960s. The 

AMU proved a capable form of one-man space transpor

tation and helped engineers design the more sophisticated 

Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) used on the Space 

Shuttle in the 1980s. 

­

Skylab 4 

16 November 1973–8 February 1974 

Crew: Gerald P. Carr,William R. Pogue, Edward G. 

Gibson 

Clocking in at 84 days,1 hour,15 minutes,and 31 seconds, 

Skylab 4 remains the longest U.S. spaceflight to date.To 

help keep the crew in shape, a treadmill was added to the 

on-board bicycle-like ergometer.As a result of the exercise, 

the Skylab 4 crew was in better physical condition upon 

their return to Earth than previous Skylab crews, even 

though an excessive work pace had caused some tension 

during the flight.Comet Kohoutek was among the special 

targets observed by the Skylab 4 crew,as were a solar eclipse 

and solar flares.The astronauts conducted four spacewalks, 

including one on Christmas Day to view Kohoutek, and 

set records for time spent on experiments in every dis

cipline from medical investigations to materials science. 

­

Scientist-astronaut Owen Garriott, Skylab 3 science pilot, is seen performing an extravehicular activity at the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) 

of the Skylab space station cluster in Earth orbit. (GPN-2002-000065) 

View of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit from the 

Command and Service Module. (SL4-143-4706) 

The crew members of Skylab 3: foreground, astronaut Alan Bean, 

commander; left, scientist-astronaut Owen Garriott, science pilot; and 

astronaut Jack Lousma, pilot. (72-HC-90) 



APOLLO-SOYUZ

Overview 

The final mission of the Apollo era, in July 1975, was the 

first in which spacecraft from two nations rendezvoused 

and docked in orbit.The idea for this U.S./Soviet “handshake in space” had been initiated three years earlier with 

an agreement signed by U.S. President Richard Nixon 

and Soviet President Aleksey Kosygin. 

The American crew for this goodwill flight included 

Thomas Stafford, a veteran of three flights,Vance Brand, 

who had never flown in space, and Mercury astronaut 

Deke Slayton, the only one of the original seven astronauts who had never flown (due to a heart condition). 

The American astronauts traveled into orbit inside a 

three-person Apollo spacecraft. 

Similar in function to the Apollo Command Module, 

the two-person Soyuz capsule flown by the Soviets had 

debuted in 1967.Aboard the Soviet spacecraft were Alexei 

Leonov, who had made history’s first spacewalk in 1965, 

and rookie Valery Kubasov. 

The Apollo-Soyuz mission, aside from its political significance, resulted in a number of technical developments, including a common docking system, which had 

to be specially designed so that the different spacecraft 

could connect in orbit. The joint mission also gave 

both “sides” a view of one another’s space programs. 

In preparation for the flight, Soviet cosmonauts and 

their backups visited and trained at the Johnson Space 

Center, and the American crew and their backups paid 

visits to Moscow. Flight controllers from both nations 

also conducted joint simulations. 

Although Apollo-Soyuz was a one-time-only event, it 

created a sense of goodwill that transcended the simple 

“handshake in space” that was its most visible symbol. 

Apollo-Soyuz Statistics 

Date: 1975 

Vehicles: Saturn IB launcher,Apollo Command Module 

Number of People Flown: 3 

Total Time in Space: 9 days 

Highlights: First international space mission 

Bibliography 

NASA Sources 

Ezell, Edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman Ezell. The 

Partnership:A History of the Apollo Soyuz Test Project. NASA 

SP-4209, 1978. Available online at http://history.nasa. 

gov/SP-4209/cover.htm. 

NASA History Division Apollo-Soyuz 30th Anniversary 

Web site: http://history.nasa.gov/30thastp/index.html. 

The Apollo commander, astronaut Thomas P. Stafford (in foreground), 

and the Soyuz commander, cosmonaut Alexei A. Leonov, make 

their historic handshake in space during the joint Russian-American 

docking mission known as the ASTP, or Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. 


(S75-29432)


Astronaut Deke Slayton (left) and cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov are 


photographed together in the Soyuz Orbital Module during the joint 


U.S.-USSR ASTP docking in Earth orbit. (AST-05-298)



Apollo-Soyuz Mission 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) 

15–24 July 1975 

Crew:Thomas P. Stafford, Jr.,Vance D. Brand, 

Donald K.“Deke” Slayton 

The Soyuz 19 and Apollo 18 craft launched within 7.5 

hours of each other on 15 July and docked on 17 July. 

Three hours later,Thomas Stafford and Alexei Leonov 

exchanged the first international handshake in space 

through the open hatch of the Soyuz.The two space

craft remained linked for 44 hours, long enough for 

the three Americans and two Soviets to exchange flags 

and gifts (including tree seeds that were later planted 

in the two countries), sign certificates, pay visits to 

each other’s ships, eat together, and converse in each 

other’s languages.There were also docking and redock

ing maneuvers, during which the Soyuz reversed 

roles and became the “active” spacecraft. The Soviets 

remained in space for five days and the Americans for 

nine, during which time the Soviets also conducted 

experiments in Earth observation. 

­

­

Internal arrangement of docked configuration. (S74-05269) 

Artist’s concept of Apollo-Soyuz. (MSFC-73A-S1905B) 

Dawn breaks behind the ASTP Saturn IB launch vehicle during the 

Countdown Demonstration Test. (75PC-0332) 


SPACE SHUTTLE 

Overview 

Before the Space Shuttle, launching cargo into space was 

a one-way proposition. Satellites could be sent into orbit, 

but they could not return.The world’s first reusable space 

vehicle changed that and revolutionized the way people 

worked in space. 

The Space Shuttle was approved as a national program in 

1972. Part spacecraft and part aircraft, the Shuttle required 

several technological advances, including thousands of 

insulating tiles able to stand the heat of reentry over the 

course of many missions and sophisticated engines (Space 

Shuttle Main Engines [SSMEs]) that could be used again 

and again without being thrown away. 

The airplane-like orbiter has three of these SSMEs, which 

burn liquid hydrogen and oxygen stored in the large 

External Tank (ET), the single largest structure in the 

Shuttle “stack.”Attached to the tank are two Solid Rocket 

Boosters (SRBs),which provide most of the vehicle’s thrust 

at liftoff.Two minutes into the flight, the spent SRBs drop 

into the ocean to be recovered, while the orbiter’s own 

engines continue burning until approximately 8 minutes 

into the flight. 

The Shuttle was developed throughout the 1970s.Enterprise, 

a test vehicle not suited for spaceflight, was used for the 

approach and landing tests in 1977 that demonstrated the 

orbiter’s aerodynamic qualities and ability to land (after 

separating from an airplane).The first spaceworthy Shuttle 

orbiter, Columbia, made its orbital debut in April 1981. 

The first four missions of the new Space Transportation 

System (STS) were test flights to evaluate the Shuttle’s 

engineering design, thermal characteristics, and performance in space. Operational flights began with STS-5 in 

November 1982, with a four-person crew on board. Over 

time, the crews grew in size: five people flew on STS-7 in 

1983 and six on STS-9 later that same year.The first sevenperson crew flew on STS-41C in 1984, and in 1985, eight 

people—a Shuttle record—flew on STS-61A. 

The Space Shuttle changed the sociology of spaceflight. 

With such large crews,Shuttle astronauts were divided into 

two categories:pilots,responsible for flying and maintaining 

the orbiter, and mission specialists, responsible for experiments and payloads.A new class of space traveler, payload 

specialists (who are not even necessarily career astronauts), 

was also created to tend to specific on-board experiments. 

The reusable Shuttles together make up a fleet, with each 

vehicle continually being processed on the ground in 

preparation for its next flight.The second orbiter, Challenger, 

debuted in 1983, followed by Discovery in 1984 and Atlantis 

in 1985.The Challenger orbiter was destroyed and the sevenmember crew of STS-51L died when the vehicle exploded 

73 seconds after liftoff on 28 January 1986. A fifth orbiter, 

Endeavour, joined the fleet in 1991 to replace Challenger. 

The Space Transportation System introduced several new 

tools to the business of spaceflight.The Remote Manipulator 

System (RMS), a 15.24-meter (50-foot) crane built by the 

Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and designed to mimic the 

humanarm,isable tomove large andheavy payloadsinandout 

of the Shuttle’s 18.29-meter-long (60-foot-long) cargo bay. 

A cloud of extremely hot steam boils out of the flame deflector at the A-1 test 

stand during a test firing of a Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) at the John C. 

Stennis Space Center, Hancock County, Mississippi. (88-072-11) 

A remote camera captures a close-up view of a Space 

Shuttle Main Engine during a test firing at Stennis. 

(GPN-2000-000543) 


The Spacelab module, built by the European Space Agency 

(ESA), provides a pressurized and fully equipped laboratory 

for scientists to conduct experiments ranging in subject matter from astronomy to materials science to biomedical investigations.The Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) backpack 

allows spacewalking astronauts to “fly” up to several hundred 

meters from the orbiter with no connecting tether. 

The MMU has figured in several of the Shuttle program’s 

most spectacular accomplishments. On STS-41C in April 

1984,the ailing Solar Max satellite was retrieved,repaired,and 

reorbited by the astronaut crew, all on the same flight. Later 

that same year,on STS-51A,two malfunctioning commercial 

communications satellites were retrieved in orbit and brought 

back to Earth in the Shuttle cargo bay.Another malfunctioning 

satellite was fixed in orbit by the crew of STS-51I in 1985. 

Early in the Shuttle program, communications satellites 

were common payloads, with as many as three delivered 

into orbit on the same mission.The January 1986 Challenger 

accident, which resulted in the loss of the crew and vehicle 

due to a failed seal in one of the two Solid Rocket Boosters, 

led to a change in that policy, however. Since returning to 

flight in September 1988,the Shuttle has carried only those 

payloads unique to the Shuttle or those that require a human 

presence. Most of these payloads have been scientific and 

defense missions.Among those payloads have been some of 

the decade’s most important space science projects, including the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the Galileo Jupiter 

spacecraft, and the Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). 

In 1995, the Shuttle program added a new capability 

to its repertoire. In preparation for deployment of the 

International Space Station (ISS), the crew of the Space 

Shuttle began a series of eight dockings and five crew 

exchanges with the Russian space station Mir. U.S. astronauts spent time aboard Mir—sometimes several months 

at a time—acclimating themselves to living and working 

in space.They carried out many of the types of activities 

they would perform on the Space Station and simulated 

conditions they would possibly encounter. 

The Shuttle would be an instrumental participant in 

another orbital outpost, the International Space Station. 

The SpaceTransportation System would be called upon as 

the major workhorse for the assembly of the ISS, bringing 

major parts to orbit and carrying the crews that would 

inhabit the research facility. 

Shuttle flights to build the ISS and conduct other tasks 

continued smoothly until 1 February 2003. As the crew 

of STS-107 reentered Earth’s atmosphere, their Columbia 

orbiter became engulfed in flames and broke apart over the 

western United States. NASA immediately grounded the 

Shuttle fleet and commissioned the Columbia Accident 

Investigation Board to conduct an inquiry into the disaster. 

Investigators found that upon launch of STS-107, a piece of 

foam from the ExternalTank fell onto Columbia’s underside 

and cracked a heatshield tile.This damage later allowed hot 

gases from reentry to penetrate the structure of the Shuttle. 

To resume spaceflights, NASA conducted modifications to 

the External Tank, including using additional cameras to 

document liftoff, a new foam application procedure, and 

other redesigned structures.Additionally, missions were limited to daytime launches, and, once in orbit, an extensive 

survey of the Shuttle’s thermal tiles with a boom attached to 

the spacecraft’s robotic arm was required. Following modiSpace Shuttle Enterprise is lifted into the Dynamic Test 

Stand. (7992403) 

The orbiter Enterprise turns and banks during the second approach 

and landing test. (ECN-8607) 


fications to the ExternalTank,the Space Shuttle returned to 

flight on 26 July 2005 with STS-114.While regular flights 

to the Station resumed after another year of modifications in 

summer 2006, the SpaceTransportation System is slated for 

retirement by 2010. 

As of STS-116, the Space Shuttle has flown 305 men and 

women into orbit during 117 missions into space.The Shuttle 

had also logged approximately 1,082 days, 7 hours, and 49 

minutes in space and performed 17,331 Earth orbits. 

Space Shuttle Statistics 

Dates: 1981–present 

Vehicles: Space Shuttle orbiter, External Tank, 

Solid Rocket Boosters 

Number of People Flown (not counting astronauts 

who have flown several times): 305 (through 

December 2006) 

Orbiter Fleet (OV = Orbiter Vehicle): 

Enterprise (OV-101, test vehicle, no spaceflight; status: 

property of National Air and Space Museum) 

Columbia (OV-102; status: vehicle lost during reentry on 

mission STS-107, 1 February 2003) 

Challenger (OV-099; status: vehicle lost during STS-51L 

launch on 28 January 1986) 

Discovery (OV-103; status: active) 

Atlantis (OV-104; status: active) 

Endeavour (OV-105; status: active) 

Highlights: First reusable spacecraft, first in-space 

satellite repairs and retrievals 

Bibliography 

NASA Sources 

Allaway, Howard. The Space Shuttle at Work. NASA SP432/EP-156, 1979.Available online at http://history.nasa. 

gov/SP-432/sp432.htm. 

Froelich, Walter. Spacelab: An International Short-Stay 

Orbiting Laboratory. NASA EP-165. Available online at 

http://history.nasa.gov/EP-165/ep165.htm. 

Guilmartin, John F., and John Maurer. A Space Shuttle 

Chronology. NASA Johnson Space Center, 1988. 

Heppenheimer,T.A.The Space Shuttle Decision:NASA’s Search 

for a Reusable Space Vehicle. NASA SP-4221, 1999. Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/sp4221.htm. 

Launius, Roger D., and Aaron K. Gillette, comps. Toward 

a History of the Space Shuttle: An Annotated Bibliography. 

Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 1, 1992.Available 

online at http://history.nasa.gov/Shuttlebib/cover.html. 

NASA Space Shuttle Reference Web site,http://spaceflight. 

nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/. 

Science in Orbit:The Shuttle & Spacelab Experience: 1981– 

1986. NASA NP-119, Marshall Space Flight Center, 

1988. Available online at http://history.nasa.gov/NP-119/ 

NP-119.htm. 

The Space Shuttle.NASA SP-407,1976.Available online at 

http://history.nasa.gov/SP-407/sp407.htm. 

STS-1 crew members: John Young, commander, and Robert Crippen, 

pilot. (S79-31775) 

Launch view of Columbia for the STS-1 mission 

on 12 April 1981. (81PC-0373) 


Non-NASA Sources 

Allen,Joseph.Entering Space.Stewart,Tabori & Chang,1984. 

Cooper, Henry S. F., Jr. Before Liftoff:The Making of a Space 

Shuttle Crew. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. 

Evans, Ben. Space Shuttle Challenger:Ten Journeys into the 

Unknown. Springer/Praxis, 2007. 

———. Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews. 

Springer/Praxis, 2005. 

Forres, George. Space Shuttle: The Quest Continues. Ian 

Allen, 1989. 

Furniss,Tim. Space Shuttle Log. Jane’s, 1986. 

Gurney, Gene, and Jeff Forte. The Space Shuttle Log:The 

First 25 Flights.Aero Books, 1988. 

Harland, David M. The Space Shuttle: Roles, Missions, 

Accomplishments. John Wiley & Sons/Praxis, 1998. 

———.The Story of the Space Shuttle. Springer-Verlag/ 

Praxis, 2004. 

Jenkins, Dennis. Space Shuttle:The History of the National 

Space Transportation System:The First 100 Missions. 3rd edition. Dennis Jenkins, 2001. 

Joels, Kerry Mark, and Greg Kennedy. Space Shuttle 

Operator’s Manual. Ballantine Books, 1982. 

Lewis, Richard S. The Last Voyage of Challenger. Columbia 

University Press, 1988. 

———. The Voyages of Columbia:The First True Spaceship. 

Columbia University Press, 1984. 

Nelson, Bill, with Jamie Buckingham. Mission: An 

American Congressman’s Voyage to Space. Harcourt, Brace, 

Jovanovich, 1988. 

Stockton,William,and John NobleWilford.Spaceliner:Report 

on Columbia’sVoyage intoTomorrow.Times Books, 1981. 

Useful Shuttle Web Sites 

Shuttle History: http://history.nasa.gov/shuttlehistory.html 

Pre-Mission Information (Shuttle press kits): 

Recent Missions: http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/ 

index.html 

Older Missions: http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/ 

shuttle_pk/shuttle_press.htm 

Shuttle Mission Summaries (postflight): http://www.nasa.


gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/list_main.html


Shuttle-Mir: http://spaceflight1.nasa.gov/history/shuttle-mir/


Shuttle Images/Audio/Video: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/


gallery/images/shuttle/index.html


Shuttle Images (early flights): http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/


NASA Shuttle Home Page: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_


pages/shuttle/main/index.html


STS-1 25th Anniversary Web Site: http://history.nasa.


gov/sts25th/index.htm


Challenger STS-51L Accident Web Site: http://history.


nasa.gov/sts51l.html


Columbia STS-107 Accident Web Site: http://history.nasa.


gov/columbia/index.html


This photograph of Columbia soaring toward Earth orbit at the 

beginning of STS-2 was captured by astronaut and mission 

specialist Kathryn Sullivan from the rear station of a T-38 jet 

aircraft. (S81-39527) 

Huge crowds flocked to a public viewing site on the east shore of 

Rogers Dry Lake to watch the first Space Shuttle landing. 

(http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/145977main1_sts1_camping.jpg) 


Shuttle Missions 

Note: Cdr = Commander; MS = Mission Specialist; PS = 

Payload Specialist; PC= Payload Commander 

Foreign (Non-NASA) Space Agencies: AEB = Agência 

Espacial Brasileira (Brazilian SpaceAgency);ASI =Agenzia 

Spaziale Italiana (Italian Space Agency); CNES = Centre 

National d’Études Spatiales (French SpaceAgency);CSA = 

Canadian Space Agency; ESA = European Space Agency; 

NASDA = National Space and Development Agency 

(Japanese Space Agency), now called JAXA = Japan 

Aerospace Exploration Agency; NSAU = National Space 

Agency of Ukraine; RSA = Russian Space Agency; RSC 

Energia = Rocket & Space Corporation Energia (Russia) 

STS-1 (First Shuttle flight)


12–14 April 1981 


Columbia (First flight)


Crew: John W.Young (Cdr) and Robert L.


Crippen (Pilot) 

On its debut flight, the Space Shuttle proved that it could 

safely reach Earth orbit and return through the atmosphere to land like an airplane. In space, John Young and 

Robert Crippen tested Columbia’s on-board systems; 

fired the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) used for 

changing orbits and the Reaction Control System (RCS) 

engines used for attitude control; opened and closed 

the payload bay doors (the bay was empty for this first 

flight); and, after 36 orbits, made a smooth touchdown 

at Edwards Air Force Base in California, the landing site 

for most of the early Shuttle missions. STS-1 was the first 

time a crewed space vehicle was tested with people on 

board and the first time that a human-rated spacecraft 

used solid propellant as fuel. Shock waves from the ignition of the Space Shuttle Main Engines caused damage to 

the orbiter’s thermal tiles. 

STS-2 (Second Shuttle flight)


12–14 November 1981 


Columbia (Second flight)


Crew: Joe H. Engle (Cdr) and Richard H.


Truly (Pilot) 

Originally intended to last five days, the Shuttle’s second 

test flight was cut short when problems developed with 

one of three on-board fuel cells that produce electricity. 

Joe Engle and Richard Truly conducted the first tests of 

the 15.24-meter (50-foot) Remote Manipulator System 

arm and operated the Shuttle’s first payload: a package 

of Earth-viewing instruments stored in the cargo bay. A 

sound-suppressing system was installed to eliminate the 

problem created by the Shuttle’s main engine’s shock 

wave at ignition. 

STS-3 (Third Shuttle flight)


22–30 March 1982 


Columbia (Third flight)


Crew: Jack R. Lousma (Cdr) and Charles G.“Gordo”


Fullerton (Pilot) 

The longest of the Shuttle test flights, STS-3 carried 

space-viewing instruments for the first time. The crew 

also continued engineering evaluations of Columbia.After 

rains flooded the dry lakebed at the primary landing site 

in California, Columbia made the Shuttle program’s first 

landing at White Sands, New Mexico. 

Space Shuttle Columbia’s first landing was at NASA’s Dryden Flight 

Research Center, Edwards Air Force Base, California. (http://www.nasa. 

gov/images/content/145978main2_sts1_landing.jpg) 

Space Shuttle Columbia on Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards AFB after 

completing its first orbital mission on 14 April 1981. (S81-31163) 
0

STS-4 (Fourth Shuttle flight)


27 June–4 July 1982 


Columbia (Fourth flight)


Crew:Thomas K. Mattingly II (Cdr) and Henry W.


“Hank” Hartsfield (Pilot) 

The last Shuttle test flight was the first mission to carry payloads for the Department of Defense.It also included the first 

small“Get-Away Special”experiments mounted in the cargo 

bay and further tested the mechanical and thermal performance of Columbia as well as the environment surrounding 

the spacecraft. Thomas Mattingly made the first Shuttle 

landing on a concrete runway instead of the dry lakebed at 

Edwards Air Force Base. 

STS-5 (Fifth Shuttle flight)


11–16 November 1982 


Columbia (Fifth flight)


Crew:Vance D. Brand (Cdr), Robert F. Overmyer


(Pilot), Joseph P.Allen (MS1),William B. 

Lenoir (MS2) 

The Shuttle’s first operational mission also was the first 

spaceflight with four people on board. Two commercial 

communications satellites, SBS-3 and Anik C-3, were 

launched into orbit from the cargo bay (another first) using 

the Payload Assist Module (PAM) upper stage designed for 

the Shuttle.A planned spacewalk was canceled when problems developed with the two on-board spacesuits. 

STS-6 (Sixth Shuttle flight)


4–9 April 1983 


Challenger (First flight)


Crew: Paul J.Weitz (Cdr), Karol J. Bobko (Pilot), 

F. Story Musgrave (MS1), Donald H. 

Peterson (MS2) 

Challenger’s debut flight included the Shuttle program’s first 

spacewalks. Story Musgrave and Donald Peterson spent 

more than 4 hours testing new Shuttle spacesuits and mobility aids and evaluated their own ability to work outside in 

the Shuttle’s cargo bay. The first of NASA’s Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellites (TDRS) was launched. The communications satellite initially failed to reach its proper orbit 

because of an upper stage guidance error, but it was eventually maneuvered into the correct position. 

STS-7 (Seventh Shuttle flight)


18–24 June 1983 


Challenger (Second flight)


Crew: Robert L. Crippen (Cdr), Frederick H.“Rick”


Hauck (Pilot), John M. Fabian (MS1), Sally K. 

Ride (MS2), Norman E.Thagard (MS3) 

Except for Robert Crippen, all the members of this crew 

were from the “class” of 1978, the first astronauts chosen 

for the Shuttle program. STS-7 had a record five people 

on board, including Sally Ride, the first American woman 

in space. The crew deployed, rendezvoused with, and 

retrieved the German-built Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS) 

experiment platform,which took the first full pictures of a 

Shuttle orbiter in space.The crew also released two communications satellites, Anik C-2 and Palapa B-l,into orbit 

and activated a series of materials processing experiments 

fixed in Challenger’s cargo bay. 

View of Columbia’s RMS arm and end effector grasping 

the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor (IECM) 

during STS-4. (http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/images/ 

pao/STS4/10060812.jpg) 

A view of the cargo bay of the orbiter Challenger at launch facility 39A, with the 

STS-7 payload in position. (S83-33870) 
41

STS-8 (Eighth Shuttle flight)


30 August–5 September 1983 


Challenger (Third flight)


Crew: Richard H.Truly (Cdr), Daniel C. Brandenstein


(Pilot), Dale A. Gardner (MS1), Guion S. 

Bluford (MS2),William E.Thornton (MS3) 

STS-8 featured the Shuttle program’s first night launch and 

landing.The crew launched India’s Insat 1-B communications satellite,conducted the first tests of Shuttle-to-ground 

communications with the new Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellites, and exercised the Remote Manipulator System 

arm with a test article weighing nearly 3,383.8 kilograms 

(7,460 pounds).William Thornton, a doctor of medicine 

(M.D.), conducted biomedical experiments, and Guion 

Bluford became the first African American in space. 

STS-9 (Ninth Shuttle flight)


28 November–8 December 1983 


Columbia (Sixth flight)


Crew: John W.Young (Cdr); Brewster H. Shaw, Jr.


(Pilot); Owen K. Garriott (MS1); Robert A. R. 

Parker (MS2); Ulf D. Merbold (PS1), ESA 

(Germany); Byron K. Lichtenberg (PS2) 

The first flight of the European-built Spacelab module was 

a multidisciplinary science mission, with 73 experiments in 

a wide range of fields,including space physics,materials processing, life sciences, Earth and atmospheric studies, astronomy,and solar physics.The record six-person crew included 

the first Shuttle payload specialists: Byron Lichtenberg 

of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Ulf 

Merbold, a West German physicist who became the first 

non-U.S. citizen to fly on an American spacecraft. 

STS-41B (10th Shuttle flight)


3–11 February 1984 


Challenger (Fourth flight)


Crew:Vance D. Brand (Cdr), Robert L.“Hoot”


Gibson (Pilot), Ronald E. McNair (MS1), 

Robert L. Stewart (MS2), Bruce 

McCandless II (MS3) 

With this flight, the number designations for Shuttle missions changed.The “4” indicates the (originally scheduled) 

year of the launch, 1984.The second digit represents the 

launch site (“1” for Florida, “2” for California), and the 

“B” indicates the second launch of the fiscal year. The 

first-ever untethered spacewalks were performed by 

Bruce McCandless and Robert Stewart, who tested new 

Manned Maneuvering Unit backpacks that allowed them 

to travel as far as almost 97.54 meters (320 feet) from the 

orbiter.Two satellites deployed from the Shuttle,Westar 

V-I and Palapa B-2, failed to reach their proper orbits 

when their Payload Assist Module upper stages did not 

ignite. Both were later retrieved and brought back to 

Earth (see STS-51A). Challenger made the Shuttle’s first 

landing at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. 

STS-41C (11th Shuttle flight)


6–13 April 1984 


Challenger (Fifth flight)


Crew: Robert L. Crippen (Cdr), Francis R.“Dick”


Scobee (Pilot),Terry J. Hart (MS1), James D. 

van Hoften (MS2), George D. Nelson (MS3) 

In the space program’s first satellite service call, the crew 

rendezvoused with and retrieved the Solar Maximum 

Mission (Solar Max) satellite, which had failed after four 

Astronaut Bruce McCandless, mission specialist, participates in an extravehicular activity (EVA) during STS-41B. He is using a nitrogen-propelled, handcontrolled manned maneuvering unit (MMU). He is performing this EVA without 

being tethered to the Shuttle and is approaching his maximum distance from 

Challenger. Below him is a cloudy view of Earth. (S84-27019) 

STS-41C mission specialists repair the captured

Solar Maximum Mission Satellite.

(STS41C-37-1711) 


years in orbit.With the satellite anchored in Challenger’s 

cargo bay,George Nelson and James van Hoften replaced a 

faulty attitude control system and one science instrument, 

and the repaired satellite was re-released into orbit.The 

Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), a passive satellite for testing the effects of space exposure on different 

materials, also was deployed on the flight. Originally, the 

LDEF was to have remained in orbit for only 10 months, 

but it was not returned to Earth until STS-32 in January 

1990 due to the Challenger accident (see STS-51L). 

STS-41D (12th Shuttle flight)


30 August–5 September 1984 


Discovery (First flight)


Crew: Henry W.“Hank” Hartsfield (Cdr), Michael L.


Coats (Pilot), Richard M. Mullane (MS1), 

Steven A. Hawley (MS2), Judith A. 

Resnick (MS3), Charles D.Walker (PS1) 

The first flight of Discovery was the first Shuttle mission 

to deploy three communications satellites: Syncom IV-2, 

SBS-4, and TELSTAR 3-C.The crew also experimented 

with a 31.09-meter-high (102-foot-high) solar cell array, 

which was unfurled from a stowage container only 177.8 

millimeters (7 inches) deep, located in the cargo bay.The 

experiments included testing the structure’s stability when 

the Shuttle’s attitude control engines were fired. Charles 

Walker, a McDonnell Douglas engineer, was the Shuttle’s 

first commercially sponsored payload specialist, on board 

to tend to the company’s Continuous Flow Electrophoresis 

System for separating materials in microgravity. 

STS-41G (13th Shuttle flight) 

5–13 October 1984 

Challenger (Sixth flight) 

Crew:Robert L.Crippen (Cdr);Jon A.McBride (Pilot); 

Kathryn D.Sullivan (MS1);Sally K.Ride (MS2); 

David C. Leestma (MS3); Paul D. Scully-Power 

(PS1); Marc Garneau (PS2), CSA (Canada) 

The Shuttle’s first seven-member crew included two payload specialists:Paul Scully-Power,a Navy oceanographer, 

was on board to observe ocean dynamics from orbit, and 

Marc Garneau, the first Canadian in space, operated the 

multidisciplinary CANEX (Canadian Experiment) package. In Challenger’s cargo bay was a suite of instruments 

dedicated to Earth observation, the primary purpose 

of this mission. During a 3.5-hour spacewalk, Kathryn 

Sullivan and David Leestma also tested connections for 

an orbital refueling system in the bay. Sullivan was the 

first American woman to walk in space. 

STS-51A (14th Shuttle flight)


8–16 November 1984 


Discovery (Second flight)


Crew: Frederick H. “Rick” Hauck (Cdr), David M.


Walker (Pilot), Joseph P. Allen (MS1), Dale A. 

Gardner (MS3) 

The STS-51A crew delivered two satellites,Anik D-2 and 

Syncom IV-I, into orbit, then brought two others, Palapa 

B-2 and Westar V-I, whose on-board boosters had failed 

after being deployed on STS-41B, back to Earth. In separate spacewalks using Manned Maneuvering Unit backpacks, Dale Gardner and Joseph Allen each docked with 

an orbiting satellite, stopped its rotation, then assisted as 

it was stowed in Discovery’s cargo bay. Both satellites were 

then returned for refurbishment on the ground in a dramatic demonstration of the Shuttle’s salvage capability. 

Astronaut Kathryn Sullivan checks the latch of the SIR-B antenna in 

Challenger’s open cargo bay during STS-41G. The orbital refueling 

system (ORS) is just beyond the mission specialist’s helmet. To the 

left is the large format camera (LFC). The LFC and ORS are stationed 

on a device called the mission peculiar experiment support structure 

(MPESS). (STS41G-13-032) Astronauts Dale Gardner and Joseph Allen during the loading of Palapa 

B-2 into the payload bay on mission STS-51A. (STS51A-41-058) 


STS-51C (15th Shuttle flight)


24–27 January 1985 


Discovery (Third flight)


Crew:Thomas K. Mattingly II (Cdr), Loren J.


Shriver (Pilot), Ellison S. Onizuka (MS1), 

James F. Buchli (MS2), Gary E. Payton (PS1) 

The crew for the Shuttle’s first flight dedicated to the 

Department of Defense included payload specialist Gary 

Payton of the U.S.Air Force.The cargo and details of the 

mission are classified. 

STS-51D (16th Shuttle flight)


12–19 April 1985 


Discovery (Fourth flight)


Crew: Karol J. Bobko (Cdr), Donald E.Williams


(Pilot), Margaret R. Seddon (MS1), Stanley D. 

Griggs (MS2), Jeffrey A. Hoffman (MS3), 

Charles D.Walker (PS1), E. Jacob Garn (PS2) 

When a booster attached to Syncom IV-3, the second 

of two communications satellites released into orbit 

(the other was Anik C-l), failed to ignite, the crew, with 

the help of engineers on the ground, attempted a fix. 

Jeffrey Hoffman and Stanley Griggs took an unscheduled 

spacewalk to attach an improvised “flyswatter” device to 

the Remote Manipulator System arm in the hope that 

it could trip the satellite booster’s sequence start lever. 

The plan failed, however, and the satellite was eventually “jump-started” by STS-51I astronauts four months 

later. Utah Senator Jake Garn was the first member of 

Congress to fly in space. 

STS-51B (17th Shuttle flight)


29 April–6 May 1985 


Challenger (Seventh flight)


Crew: Robert F. Overmyer (Cdr), Frederick D.


Gregory (Pilot), Don L. Lind (MS1), Norman 

E.Thagard (MS2),William E.Thornton (MS3), 

Taylor G.Wang (PS1), Lodewijk van den Berg 

(PS2) 

The Shuttle’s second Spacelab mission included 15 

experiments in topics including materials processing, 

fluid behavior, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and life 

sciences. The crew worked around the clock in shifts. 

They also had trouble with a leaky animal-holding facility that was making its first test flight.Taylor Wang, a Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) scientist, concentrated on 

studies of fluid behavior in microgravity, while Lodewijk 

van den Berg of EG&G, Inc., focused on crystal growth 

experiments.Don Lind,an astronaut since 1966,made his 

first spaceflight. 

STS-51G (18th Shuttle flight)


17–24 June 1985 


Discovery (Fifth flight)


Crew: Daniel C. Brandenstein (Cdr); John O.


Creighton (Pilot); John M. Fabian (MS1);


Steven R. Nagel (MS2); Shannon W. Lucid


(MS3); Sultan Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (PS1),


Saudi Arabia; Patrick Baudry (PS2),


CNES (France)


Patrick Baudry of France and Sultan Abdul Aziz Al-Saud 

of Saudi Arabia were the international payload specialists 

for this flight, which successfully launched three commuMission specialist Ellison Onizuka, wearing the Kamakze headband, 

appears to be keeping a sleeping Loren Shriver, pilot, from floating in 

his sleep restraints through the middeck of Discovery during the STS51C mission. (STS51C-08-035) 

A drop centered in this 35mm frame served as a test subject for the 

principal investigator of the Drop Dynamics Module Experiment on mission 

STS-51B. (STS51B-14-037) 


nications satellites into orbit: MORELOS 1,ARABSAT 

1-B, and TELSTAR 3-D. Shuttle Pointed Autonomous 

Research Tool for Astronomy (SPARTAN-I), a reusable, 

free-flying payload carrier with astronomy instruments 

on board, also was released then retrieved by the Remote 

Manipulator System arm. The crew conducted materials science and biomedical experiments and participated 

in a Defense Department tracking experiment in which 

a laser beam directed from Hawaii was bounced from a 

reflector on board Discovery back to the ground. 

STS-51F (19th Shuttle flight)


29 July–6 August 1985 


Challenger (Eighth flight)


Crew: Charles G. “Gordo” Fullerton (Cdr), Roy D.


Bridges (Pilot), Karl G. Henize (MS1), 

F. Story Musgrave (MS2), Anthony W. 

England (MS3), Loren W. Acton (PS1), 

John-David F. Bartoe (PS2) 

The Spacelab 2 mission replaced the Spacelab’s enclosed 

“long module” with open pallets containing 13 instruments dedicated to astronomy. Despite problems with an 

instrument pointing system, the crew was able to collect 

data on the Sun and other celestial targets. Earlier in the 

flight, Challenger made the Shuttle program’s first “abort 

to orbit” when one of its three main engines shut down 

during the ascent. Karl Henize and Anthony England had 

waited a long time for a spaceflight—both were astronauts 

during the Apollo era. England had resigned from NASA 

in 1972, only to rejoin the astronaut corps in 1979. 

STS-51I (20th Shuttle flight) 

27 August–3 September 1985 

Discovery (Sixth flight) 

Crew: Joe H. Engle (Cdr), Richard O. Covey (Pilot), 

James D. van Hoften (MS1), John M. “Mike” 

Lounge (MS2),William F. Fisher (MS3) 

The Syncom IV-3 satellite (also known as “Leasat’’), 

stranded in orbit on STS-51D,was repaired and reboosted 

as a result of two spacewalks by James van Hoften and 

William Fisher that were among the most challenging 

in the history of the space program. After van Hoften, 

standing on the end of the Remote Manipulator System 

arm, grabbed the satellite manually, he and Fisher worked 

on the satellite in Discovery’s cargo bay. The astronauts 

attached hardware that allowed ground crews to activate 

Syncom’s still-live rocket motor after van Hoften re-released 

it into orbit with a shove from the cargo bay.Earlier in the 

flight, the crew had launched three new communications 

satellites into orbit:ASC 1,AUSSAT I,and Syncom IV-4 

(which was nearly identical to the one that was rescued). 

STS-51J (21st Shuttle flight)


3–7 October 1985 


Atlantis (First flight)


Crew: Karol J. Bobko (Cdr), Ronald J. Grabe (Pilot),


David C. Hilmers (MS1), Robert L. Stewart 

(MS2),William A. Pailes (PS1) 

The first flight of Atlantis was the second Shuttle mission 

dedicated to the Department of Defense. The payload 

and on-board activities are classified. 

STS-61A (22nd Shuttle flight) 

30 October–6 November 1985 

Challenger (Ninth flight) 

Astronaut James van Hoften working with 

the Syncom IV-3 satellite on mission STS51I. (STS51I-102-029) 

Space Shuttle Atlantis is readied for launch 

on STS-51J in this low-angle night scene at 

complex 39. (108-KSC-85PC-417). Payload specialist Wubbo Ockels, a Dutch 

scientist, crawls from a unique sleeping 

restraint in the D-1 science module during 

STS-61A. (STS61A-18-008) 


Crew: Henry W. “Hank” Hartsfield (Cdr); Steven R. 

Nagel (Pilot); Bonnie J. Dunbar (MS1); 

James F. Buchli (MS2); Guion S. Bluford (MS3); 

Reinhard Furrer (PS1), Germany; Ernst W. 

Messerschmid (PS2), Germany;Wubbo J. 

Ockels (PS3), ESA (the Netherlands) 

The Spacelab D-1 mission was the first U.S. manned 

spaceflight with a primary payload sponsored by another 

country:West Germany. On board were 76 experiments, 

including investigations in fluid physics, materials science, 

plant physiology, and human adaptation to weightlessness. Science experiments were directed from a German 

Space Operations Center in Oberpfaffenhofen, and two 

of the payload specialists, Reinhard Furrer and Ernst 

Messerschmid, were German.With eight people working 

around the clock in shifts, it was the largest Shuttle crew 

to date. 

STS-61B (23rd Shuttle flight)


26 November–3 December 1985 


Atlantis (Second flight)


Crew: Brewster H. Shaw, Jr. (Cdr); Bryan D.


O’Connor (Pilot); Jerry L. Ross (MS1); 

Mary L. Cleave (MS2); Sherwood C. 

“Woody” Spring (MS3); Charles D.Walker 

(PS1); Rodolfo N.Vela (PS2), Mexico 

After the crew deployed three communications satellites 

(SATCOM Ku-2,MORELOS 2,andAUSSAT-2)Woody 

Spring and Jerry Ross conducted the first construction 

experiments in space, assembling and disassembling two 

Tinkertoy®-like structures called Experimental Assembly 

of Structures in Extravehicular Activity (EASE) and 

Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space 

Structures (ACCESS) in the cargo bay of Atlantis.The two 

spacewalking astronauts attached beams, nodes, and struts 

to evaluate different methods of assembling large structures 

in space. Rodolfo Vela was the first Mexican citizen in 

orbit, while Charles Walker made his third flight with the 

commercially sponsored electrophoresis experiment. 

STS-61C (24th Shuttle flight)


12–18 January 1986 


Columbia (Seventh flight)


Crew: Robert L. “Hoot” Gibson (Cdr), Charles F.


Bolden, Jr. (Pilot), George D. Nelson (MS1), 

Steven A. Hawley (MS2), Franklin R. 

Chang-Diaz (MS3), Robert J. Cenker (PS1), 

C.William “Bill” Nelson (PS2) 

Florida Representative Bill Nelson was the second member of Congress to fly on the Shuttle.The crew deployed 

a communications satellite for the RCA company and 

conducted a number of smaller experiments, including 

several materials science investigations mounted in the 

cargo bay of Columbia.An attempt to photograph Comet 

Halley through an overhead window was unsuccessful, 

however, due to problems with the instrument’s battery. 

STS-51L (25th Shuttle flight)


28 January 1986 


Challenger (10th flight)


Crew: Francis R. “Dick” Scobee (Cdr), Michael J.


Smith (Pilot), Ellison S. Onizuka (MS1), 

Judith A. Resnick (MS2), Ronald E. McNair 

(MS3), Sharon Christa McAuliffe (Space 

Flight Participant; PS1), Gregory B. Jarvis (PS2) 

Jerry Ross stands on the end of the Remote Manipulator 

System during a spacewalk on STS-61B. 

(STS61B-41-019) 

Ice on the pad on the day of STS-51L’s launch. The ice caused the loss of elasticity 

in the SRB O-ring seals. (GPN-2004-00011) 


Challenger and all seven members of the crew—including Gregory Jarvis, a Hughes employee, and Christa 

McAuliffe, the designated “Teacher in Space”—were lost 

73 seconds into the flight when the vehicle exploded as 

the result of a leak in one of two Solid Rocket Boosters. 

The Shuttle program was delayed for nearly three years 

while the boosters were redesigned and other safety 

measures were added.A change in U.S. space policy also 

resulted from the accident—no longer would the Shuttle 

carry commercial satellites into orbit. 

STS-26 (26th Shuttle flight)


29 September–3 October 1988 


Discovery (Seventh flight)


Crew: Frederick H. “Rick” Hauck (Cdr), Richard 


O. Covey (Pilot), John M. “Mike” Lounge 

(MS1), David C. Hilmers (MS2), George D. 

Nelson (MS3) 

The first Shuttle mission after the Challenger accident was 

a conservative, four-day flight that proved the safety of the 

redesigned Solid Rocket Boosters. Aboard Discovery was 

the first all-veteran astronaut crew since Apollo 11. During 

launch and reentry, the astronauts wore new partial-pressure 

flight suits,and in orbit they practiced using a new emergency 

escape system.The principal payload was a NASA Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite (TRDS) similar to the one lost on 

STS-51L,which was released into orbit on the first day. 

STS-27 (27th Shuttle flight)


2–6 December 1988 


Atlantis (Third flight)


Crew: Robert L. “Hoot” Gibson (Cdr), Guy S.


Gardner (Pilot), Richard M. Mullane (MS1), 

Jerry L.Ross (MS2),William M. Shepherd (MS3) 

This was a dedicated and classified mission for the 

Department of Defense. 

STS-29 (28th Shuttle flight)


13–18 March 1989 


Discovery (Eighth flight)


Crew: Michael L. Coats (Cdr), John E. Blaha (Pilot),


Robert C. Springer (MS1), James F. Buchli 

(MS2), James P. Bagian (MS3) 

Six hours into this mission, the crew released the fourth 

NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite into orbit. The 

astronauts conducted experiments in plant growth, crystal 

growth, and the human body’s adaptation to weightlessness, 

and tested a new Shuttle “fax” machine. They also took 

large-format IMAX movie pictures of Earth and returned 

clear photographs of the jettisoned ExternalTank in space. 

STS-30 (29th Shuttle flight)


4–8 May 1989 


Atlantis (Fourth flight)


Crew: David M.Walker (Cdr), Ronald J. Grabe (Pilot),


Mark C. Lee (MS1), Norman E.Thagard (MS2), 

Mary L. Cleave (MS3) 

The Space Shuttle program’s first launch of a planetary 

spacecraft came on the first day of the mission, when 

the Magellan Venus Radar Mapper was released from 

Atlantis’s cargo bay with an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) 

booster attached. The booster fired shortly thereafter to 

send Magellan to Venus, where it arrived in August 1990 

to begin an eight-month mapping mission. Secondary 

experiments after the deployment included crystal growth 

studies and a search for thunderstorms in the atmosphere 

below, called the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment. 

Space Shuttle Atlantis takes flight on its STS-27 mission on 2 

December 1988. (8898508) 

The Magellan Venus Radar Mapper is released from Atlantis 

during STS-30. (P-34252BC) 


STS-28 (30th Shuttle flight)


8–13 August 1989 


Columbia (Eighth flight)


Crew: Brewster H. Shaw, Jr. (Cdr), Richard N. Richards


(Pilot),James C.Adamson (MS1), David C. 

Leestma (MS2), Mark N. Brown (MS3) 

This was a dedicated and classified mission for the 

Department of Defense. 

STS-34 (31st Shuttle flight)


18–23 October 1989 


Atlantis (Fifth flight)


Crew: Donald E.Williams (Cdr), Michael J. McCulley


(Pilot), ShannonW. Lucid (MS1), Franklin R. 

Chang-Diaz (MS2),Ellen Baker (-Shulman) (MS3) 

The Jupiter-bound Galileo spacecraft was the Shuttle’s 

second interplanetary cargo. Galileo’s mission got under 

way during Atlantis’s fifth orbit around Earth, when 

the spacecraft was released from the cargo bay to head 

toward Venus, where its intrumentation was checked and 

Venus’s clouds were studied. It then continued its voyage 

to Jupiter. After releasing Galileo, the crew worked on 

experiments that included materials science,plant growth, 

and measurements of ozone in the atmosphere. 

STS-33 (32nd Shuttle flight)


22–27 November 1989 


Discovery (Ninth flight)


Crew: Frederick D. Gregory (Cdr), John E. Blaha 


(Pilot), Manley L. “Sonny” Carter (MS1), 

F. Story Musgrave (MS2), Kathryn C. 

Thornton (MS3) 

This was a dedicated and classified mission for the 

Department of Defense. 

STS-32 (33rd Shuttle flight)


9–20 January 1990 


Columbia (Ninth flight)


Crew: Daniel C. Brandenstein (Cdr), James D.


Wetherbee (Pilot), Bonnie J. Dunbar (MS1),


Marsha S. Ivins (MS2), G. David Low (MS3)


The Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), released 

into orbit on STS-41C in 1984,was finally retrieved after 

nearly six years in space. After rendezvousing with the 

large, cylindrical satellite—one of the most complicated 

space rendezvous operations ever—the crew photographed the LDEF in orbit, grappled it with the Remote 

Manipulator System arm, and then stowed it in the cargo 

bay of Columbia. Scientists who examined the LDEF after 

landing found evidence of erosion and micrometeorite 

impacts, as expected.The Syncom IV-5 satellite also was 

deployed on the mission. Lasting almost 11 days, STS-32 

was the longest Shuttle flight to date. 

STS-36 (34th Shuttle flight)


28 February–4 March 1990 


Atlantis (Sixth flight)


Crew: John O. Creighton (Cdr), John H. Casper 


(Pilot), Richard M. Mullane (MS1), David C. 

Hilmers (MS2), Pierre J.Thuot (MS3) 

This was a dedicated and classified mission for the 

Department of Defense. 

Mission specialist Mark Brown juggles food containers on 

Columbia during STS-28. (10063140) 

LDEF retrieval over South America during STS-32. (STS032-85-051) 


STS-31 (35th Shuttle flight)


24–29 April 1990 


Discovery (10th flight)


Crew: Loren J. Shriver (Cdr), Charles F. Bolden, Jr.


(Pilot), Bruce McCandless II (MS1), Steven A. 

Hawley (MS2), Kathryn D. Sullivan (MS3) 

The Hubble SpaceTelescope,the first large optical telescope 

ever to be placed above Earth’s atmosphere and the first of 

NASA’s Great Observatories, was released into orbit by the 

Remote Manipulator System arm on the second day of the 

flight to begin at least a decade of astronomical observations 

in space. After the telescope was deployed, the astronauts 

conducted experiments in crystal growth and monitored the 

radiation environment on board the orbiter. Because of the 

need to place the telescope above most of the atmosphere, 

Discovery flew the highest Shuttle orbit to date, reaching an 

altitude of more than 531 kilometers (329.22 statute miles). 

STS-41 (36th Shuttle flight)


6–10 October 1990 


Discovery (11th flight)


Crew: Richard N. Richards (Cdr), Robert D. Cabana


(Pilot), Bruce E. Melnick (MS1),William M. 

Shepherd (MS2),Thomas D. Akers (MS3) 

Deployment of the European SpaceAgency’s Ulysses spacecraft to explore the polar regions of the Sun was the highlight of this four-day mission. On the first day of the flight, 

the crew sprung Ulysses from Discovery’s cargo bay and fired 

Ulysses’s on-board rockets to send the spacecraft toward a 

gravity assist at Jupiter.After the deployment, the astronauts 

conducted a number of secondary experiments, including taking measurements of atmospheric ozone, studying 

the effects of atomic oxygen on spacecraft materials, and 

evaluating a new “hands-off” voice command system in the 

Shuttle crew cabin. 

STS-38 (37th Shuttle flight)


15–20 November 1990 


Atlantis (Seventh flight)


Crew: Richard O. Covey (Cdr), Frank L. Culbertson,


Jr. (Pilot), Robert C. Springer (MS1), Carl J. 

Meade (MS2), Charles D.“Sam” Gemar (MS3) 

This was a dedicated and classified mission for the 

Department of Defense. 

STS-35 (38th Shuttle flight)


2–10 December 1990 


Columbia (10th flight)


Crew:Vance D. Brand (Cdr), Guy S. Gardner (Pilot),


Jeffrey A. Hoffman (MS1), John M. “Mike” 

Lounge (MS2), Robert A. R. Parker (MS3), 

Samuel T. Durrance (PS1), Ronald A. Parise 

(PS2) 

STS-35 was the first Spacelab mission since the Challenger 

accident and the first Shuttle flight dedicated to a single 

discipline: astrophysics. Discovery carried a group of astronomical telescopes called ASTRO-1, as well as four mission 

specialists with Ph.D.’s in astronomy: Jeffrey Hoffman, 

Robert Parker, Samuel Durrance, and Ronald Parise. 

Despite several hardware malfunctions, the crew was able 

to make observations of a wide variety of astronomical 

targets, from comets to quasars, with particular attention 

to x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths. 

Kathryn Sullivan on Discovery’s flight deck during STS-31. 

(STS031-101-053) 

STS-38 pilot Frank Culbertson (top) and mission specialist Charles Gemar 

enjoy a meal on Atlantis. (STS038-25-023) 


STS-37 (39th Shuttle flight)


5–11 April 1991 


Atlantis (Eighth flight)


Crew: Steven R. Nagel (Cdr), Kenneth D. Cameron 


(Pilot), Linda M. Godwin (MS1), Jerry L. 

Ross (MS2), Jerome “Jay” Apt (MS3) 

The Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) was released by 

Atlantis’s Remote Manipulator System arm on the third 

day of the flight, after Jerry Ross and Jay Apt made an 

unscheduled spacewalk to repair an antenna on the 

spacecraft. GRO is the second of NASA’s four Great 

Observatories satellites. It was designed for a long-term 

program of astronomical observations from Earth orbit 

and was the heaviest science satellite ever launched from 

the Shuttle. Later in the mission, Ross and Apt returned 

to the cargo bay to test rail-mounted mechanical pushcarts planned for use on Space Station Freedom. These 

two spacewalks were the first in more than five years. 

STS-39 (40th Shuttle flight)


28 April–6 May 1991 


Discovery (12th flight)


Crew: Michael L. Coats (Cdr), L. Blaine Hammond 


(Pilot), Gregory J. Harbaugh (MS1), Donald 

R. McMonagle (MS2), Guion S. Bluford (MS3), 

Charles LacyVeach (MS4),Richard J. Hieb (MS5) 

The first unclassified defense-related mission of the 

Shuttle program included experiments sponsored by 

the Air Force and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 

organization. The studies included extensive infrared, 

ultraviolet, visible, and x-ray observations of the space 

environment and the Shuttle itself.On-board instruments 

also returned high-quality images of Earth’s aurora. In an 

experiment related to ballistic missile defense, Discovery 

released a Shuttle Pallet Satellite instrument platform 

equipped with infrared sensors to fly in formation and 

observe rocket thruster plumes as the Shuttle performed 

a complicated series of maneuvers. 

STS-40 (41st Shuttle flight)


5–14 June 1991 


Columbia (11th flight)


Crew: Bryan D. O’Connor (Cdr), Sidney M. Gutierrez


(Pilot), James P. Bagian (MS1),Tamara E. 

Jernigan (MS2), M. Rhea Seddon (MS3), 

F. Andrew “Drew” Gaffney (PS1), Millie E. 

Hughes-Fulford (PS2) 

The Spacelab Life Sciences (SLS-1) mission was the first 

dedicated entirely to understanding the physiological effects 

of spaceflight.An extensive series of biomedical experiments 

was conducted on crew members during the nine-day mission, and the results were compared with baseline data collected on the ground before and after the flight.Along with 

the human subjects,rodents and jellyfish also were on board 

to be tested for their ability to adapt to microgravity. 

STS-43 (42nd Shuttle flight)


2–11 August 1991 


Atlantis (Ninth flight)


Crew: John E. Blaha (Cdr), Michael A. Baker (Pilot),


Shannon W. Lucid (MS1), G. David Low 

(MS2), James C. Adamson (MS3) 

This mission marked the first scheduled landing at Kennedy 

Space Center’s Shuttle Landing Facility since January 1986. 

STS-35 ASTRO-1 telescopes documented in Columbia’s payload 

bay. (STS035-604-058) 

Discovery’s reaction control system jets fire during an on-orbit 

maneuver on STS-39. (STS039-27-016) 
0

The Tracking and Data Relay Satellite-5 (TDRS-5) was 

the mission’s primary payload. The satellite became the 

fourth member of the orbiting TDRS cluster, which now 

consisted of two operating satellites plus two spares in the 

space network. 

STS-48 (43rd Shuttle flight)


12–18 September 1991 


Discovery (13th flight)


Crew: John O. Creighton (Cdr), Kenneth S.


Reightler, Jr., (Pilot), Charles D. “Sam” Gemar 

(MS1), James F. Buchli (MS2), Mark N. 

Brown (MS3) 

The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was 

deployed on this mission.The 6,577.2-kilogram (14,469.8­

pound) observatory would investigate the stratosphere, 

mesosphere, and lower thermosphere. The satellite had 

10 sensing and measuring devices for collecting data on 

particular aspects of the upper atmosphere that could affect 

the global environment. 

STS-44 (44th Shuttle flight)


24 November–1 December 1991 


Atlantis (10th flight)


Crew: Frederick D. Gregory (Cdr),Terence T. “Tom”


Henricks (Pilot), James S.Voss (MS1), F. Story 

Musgrave (MS2), Mario Runco, Jr. (MS3), 

Thomas J. Hennen (PS1) 

This unclassified Department of Defense mission deployed 

the Defense Support Program satellite on the first day of 

the flight. On-board payloads focused on contamination 

experiments and medical research. 

STS-42 (45th Shuttle flight)


22–30 January 1992 


Discovery (14th flight)


Crew: Ronald J. Grabe (Cdr); Stephen S. Oswald 


(Pilot); Norman E.Thagard (PC-MS1); 

William F. Readdy (MS2); David C. Hilmers 

(MS3); Roberta L. Bondar (PS1), CSA 

(Canada); Ulf D. Merbold (PS2), ESA (Germany) 

This mission’s primary payload was the International 

Microgravity Laboratory (IML-1), which made its first 

flight. Working in the pressurized Spacelab module, the 

international crew split into two teams for 24-hour research 

on the human nervous system’s adaptation to low gravity 

and the effects of microgravity on other life forms. The 

crew also conducted materials processing experiments. 

STS-45 (46th Shuttle flight)


24 March–2 April 1992 


Atlantis (11th flight)


Crew: Charles F. Bolden, Jr. (Cdr); Brian K. Duffy 


(Pilot); Kathryn D. Sullivan (PC-MS1); David C. 

Leestma (MS2); C. Michael Foale (MS3); 

Dirk D. “Dick” Frimout (PS1), ESA 

(Belgium); Byron K. Lichtenberg (PS2) 

This mission marked the first flight of the Atmospheric 

Laboratory for Applications and Science-1 (ATLAS-1), 

which was mounted on non-deployable Spacelab pallets 

in the orbiter’s cargo bay. An international team made 

up of the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, the 

United Kingdom,Switzerland,the Netherlands,and Japan 

provided 12 instruments that performed investigations in 

the atmospheric sciences. 

STS-42 crew members take a look at Earth from Discovery’s aft flight deck. 

(STS042-22-006) 

Defense Support Program (DSP)/Inertial Upper Stage spacecraft tilted to predeployment position in Atlantis’s payload 

bay on STS-44. (STS044-71-011) 


STS-49 (47th Shuttle flight)


7–16 May 1992 


Endeavour (First flight)


Crew: Daniel C. Brandenstein (Cdr), Kevin P. Chilton


(Pilot), Richard J. Hieb (MS1), Bruce E. Melnick 

(MS2), Pierre J.Thuot (MS3), Kathryn C. 

Thornton (MS4),Thomas D. Akers (MS5) 

STS-49 was marked by a number of “firsts.” Four spacewalks, the most ever on a single mission, highlighted the 

first voyage of the orbiter Endeavour.Two of these were 

the longest in U.S. spaceflight history to date, with one 

lasting 8 hours and 29 minutes and the other lasting 7 

hours and 45 minutes.The flight also featured the longest 

spacewalk to date by a female astronaut and was the first 

spaceflight where three crew members worked outside 

the spacecraft at the same time. It also was the first time 

that astronauts attached a live rocket motor to an orbiting 

satellite. The crew also successfully captured and redeployed the Intelsat-VI satellite, which had been stranded 

in an unusable orbit since its launch in March 1990. 

STS-50 (48th Shuttle flight)


25 June–9 July 1992 


Columbia (12th flight)


Crew: Richard N. Richards (Cdr), Kenneth D.


Bowersox (Pilot), Bonnie J. Dunbar (MS1), 

Ellen Baker (-Shulman) (MS2), Carl J. Meade 

(MS3), Lawrence J. DeLucas (PS1), Eugene H. 

Trinh (PS2) 

The U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1 (USML-1) made its 

first flight on this mission. It was the first in a planned 

series of flights to advance microgravity research efforts 

in several disciplines. Mission duration surpassed all previous U.S. crewed spaceflights to date with the exception of the three Skylab missions in 1973–74. It was the 

first Shuttle mission equipped with Extended Duration 

Orbiter (EDO) hardware, which provides additional fuel 

and allows the Shuttle to remain in orbit for longer periods of time. 

STS-46 (49th Shuttle flight)


31 July–8 August 1992 


Atlantis (12th flight)


Crew: Loren J. Shriver (Cdr);Andrew M.Allen (Pilot);


Claude Nicollier (MS1), ESA (Switzerland); 

Marsha S. Ivins (MS2); Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

(PC-MS3); Franklin R. Chang-Diaz (MS4); 

Franco A. Malerba (PS1), ASI (Italy) 

The primary mission objective was deployment of the 

European Space Agency’s European Retrievable Carrier 

(EURECA) and operation of the NASA/Italian Space 

Agency Tethered Satellite System (TSS).After a delay and 

a shorter-than-planned thruster firing, the satellite was 

successfully boosted to operational orbit. During TSS 

deployment, the satellite at the end of the tether reached 

a distance of only 256 meters (839.68 feet) rather than its 

planned 20 kilometers (12.4 statute miles) because of a 

jammed tether line.The satellite it carried was restowed 

for return to Earth. 

The STS-49 crew captures Intelsat VI above Endeavour’s payload

bay during EVA. (STS049-91-029) 

Crew members working on the Spacelab Drop Physics Module, Rack 9, 

on STS-50. (STS050-02-020) 


STS-47 (50th Shuttle flight)


12–20 September 1992 


Endeavour (Second flight)


Crew: Robert L. “Hoot” Gibson (Cdr); Curtis L.


Brown, Jr. (Pilot); Mark C. Lee (MS1); Jerome 

“Jay” Apt (MS2); N. Jan Davis (MS3); Mae C. 

Jemison (MS4); Mamoru M. Mohri (PS1), 

NASDA (Japan) 

Spacelab-J, the first Japanese space laboratory, debuted on 

this flight. Jointly sponsored by NASA and the National 

Space Development Agency of Japan,the mission included 

24 materials science and 20 life sciences experiments.Test 

subjects included members of the crew, Japanese koi fish, 

cultured animal and plant cells, chicken embryos, fruit 

flies, fungi and plant seeds, and frogs and frog eggs.The 

crew also included the first African American woman to 

fly in space, Mae Jemison; the first married couple, Mark 

Lee and Jan Davis; and the first Japanese person to fly on 

the Shuttle, Mamoru Mohri. 

STS-52 (51st Shuttle flight)


22 October–1 November 1992 


Columbia (13th flight)


Crew: James D.Wetherbee (Cdr); Michael A. Baker


(Pilot); Charles Lacy Veach (MS1);William M. 

Shepherd (MS2);Tamara E. Jernigan (MS3); 

Steven G. MacLean (PS1), CSA (Canada) 

This mission deployed the Laser Geodynamic Satellite 

II (LAGEOS), a joint effort of NASA and the Italian 

Space Agency (ASI), and operated the U.S. Microgravity 

Payload-1 (USMP-1).The Italian Research Interim Stage 

(IRIS) was used for the first time to boost LAGEOS into 

orbit. Studies focused on the influence of gravity on basic 

fluid and solidification processes. 

STS-53 (52nd Shuttle flight)


2–9 December 1992


Discovery (15th flight)


Crew: David M.Walker (Cdr), Robert D. Cabana 


(Pilot), Guion S. Bluford (MS1), James S.Voss 


(MS2), Michael R. Clifford (MS3) 


This was the last Shuttle flight for the Department of 

Defense. Discovery deployed a classified payload, after 

which flight activities became unclassified. Ten secondary payloads were contained in or attached to Get-Away 

Special (GAS) hardware in the cargo bay or located on 

the middeck. 

STS-54 (53rd Shuttle flight)


13–19 January 1993 


Endeavour (Third flight)


Crew: John H. Casper (Cdr), Donald R. McMonagle 


(Pilot), Mario Runco, Jr. (MS1), Gregory J. 

Harbaugh (MS2), Susan J. Helms (MS3) 

The fifth Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-F), 

part of NASA’s orbiting communications system, was 

deployed on this mission. On the fifth day of the flight, 

mission specialists Mario Runco and Gregory Harbaugh 

spent almost 5 hours walking in the open payload bay performing a series of extravehicular activity tasks designed 

to increase NASA’s knowledge of working in space. 

The astronauts tested their abilities to move freely in the 

cargo bay and climb into foot restraints without using 

their hands; they also simulated carrying large objects in a 

Hurricane Bonnie, seen here northeast of Bermuda in the Atlantic Ocean 

during STS-47. (STS047-151-618)	 During STS-54, Gregory Harbaugh carries Mario Runco during 

Detailed Test Objective 1210, extravehicular activity operations 

procedure/training. (STS054-80-000U) 


microgravity environment.A Hitchhiker experiment collected data on stars and galactic gases. Hitchhiker experiments are housed in canisters or attached to mounting 

plates inside the Shuttle’s cargo bay and were created to 

provide a quick reaction and low-cost capability for flying small payloads. 

STS-56 (54th Shuttle flight)


8–17 April 1993 


Discovery (16th flight)


Crew: Kenneth D. Cameron (Cdr). Stephen S.


Oswald (Pilot), C. Michael Foale (MS1), Kenneth D.


Cockrell (PC-MS2), Ellen Ochoa (MS3)


The primary payload was the Atmospheric Laboratory 

for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), which collected data on the relationship between the Sun’s energy 

output and Earth’s middle atmosphere and their effect on 

the ozone layer. ATLAS-2 was one element of NASA’s 

Mission to Planet Earth program.The crew also used the 

Remote Manipulator System to deploy the SPARTAN201, a free-flying science instrument platform that 

studied velocity and acceleration of solar wind and 

observed the Sun’s corona. Using the Shuttle Amateur 

Radio Experiment II (SAREX II), the crew also contacted schools around the world and briefly contacted the 

Russian Mir space station, the first contact between the 

Shuttle and Mir using amateur radio equipment. 

STS-55 (55th Shuttle flight) 

26 April–6 May 1993 

Columbia (14th flight) 

Crew: Steven R. Nagel (Cdr);Terence T. “Tom” 

Henricks (Pilot); Jerry L. Ross (MS1); Charles J. 

Precourt (MS2); Bernard A. Harris, Jr. (MS3); 

Ulrich Walter (PS1), DARA (Germany); 

` Hans W. Schlegel (PS2), ESA (Germany) 

This mission marked the second German Spacelab mission, designated D2. Around-the-clock crews conducted 

some 88 experiments, covering materials and life sciences, 

technology applications, Earth observations, astronomy, 

and atmospheric physics. 

STS-57 (56th Shuttle flight)


21 June–1 July 1993 


Endeavour (Fourth flight)


Crew: Ronald J. Grabe (Cdr), Brian K. Duffy (Pilot),


G. David Low (MS1), Nancy J. Sherlock (MS2), 

Peter J. K. “Jeff”Wisoff (MS3), Janice E.Voss 

(MS4) 

STS-57 marked the first flight of the commercially developed SPACEHAB, a laboratory designed to more than 

double pressurized workspace for crew-tended experiments. Altogether, 22 experiments were flown, covering 

materials and life sciences and a wastewater recycling 

experiment for the future International Space Station. A 

5-hour-and-50-minute spacewalk succeeded in retrieving and stowing the 4,275-kilogram (9,405-pound) 

EURECA science satellite inside Endeavour’s payload bay. 

The satellite had been deployed on the STS-46 mission 

in 1992.Two crew members also carried out maneuvers 

using the robot arm. During the mission, the crew also 

spoke with President Bill Clinton. 

STS-56 view of the free-flying SPARTAN-201 backdropped 

against heavy cloud cover. (STS056-90-034) 

Kenneth Cameron (left) and Stephen Oswald (right) in Discovery’s forward 

flight deck during STS-56. (STS056-39-010) 


STS-51 (57th Shuttle flight)


12–22 September 1993 


Discovery (17th flight)


Crew: Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. (Cdr),William F.


Readdy (Pilot), James H. Newman (MS1), 

Daniel W. Bursch (MS2), Carl E.Walz (MS3) 

The Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

(ACTS) was deployed on this mission. The attached 

Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) booster was used for the 

first time to propel the communications technology 

spacecraft to geosynchronous transfer orbit.The second 

primary payload, the Orbiting and Retrievable Far and 

Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrograph-Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

(ORFEUS-SPAS), first in a series of AstronomicalSPAS (ASTRO-SPAS) astronomical missions, was also 

deployed. The joint German-U.S. astrophysics payload 

was controlled from the SPAS Payload Operations 

Control Center at Kennedy Space Center, the first time 

a Shuttle payload was managed from Florida.Two crew 

members also performed a spacewalk that lasted 7 hours, 

5 minutes, and 28 seconds. It was the last in a series of 

generic spacewalks begun earlier in the year. 

STS-58 (58th Shuttle flight)


18 October–1 November 1993 


Columbia (15th flight)


Crew: John E. Blaha (Cdr), Richard A. Searfoss (Pilot),


Margaret R. Seddon (PC-MS1),William S. 

McArthur, Jr. (MS2), David A.Wolf (MS3), 

Shannon W. Lucid (MS4), Martin J. Fettman 

(PS1) 

STS-58 was the second dedicated Spacelab Life Sciences 

(SLS-2) mission. Fourteen experiments were conducted 

in fields such as regulatory physiology, cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary science, musculoskeletal science, and neuroscience. Eight of the experiments centered on the crew 

and six focused on 48 rodents carried on board. With 

the completion of her fourth spaceflight, Shannon Lucid 

accumulated the most flight time for a female astronaut 

on the Shuttle: 838 hours. 

STS-61 (59th Shuttle flight)


2–13 December 1993 


Endeavour (Fifth flight)


Crew: Richard O. Covey (Cdr); Kenneth D.


Bowersox (Pilot); Kathryn C.Thornton (MS1); 

Claude Nicollier (MS2), ESA (Switzerland); 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman (MS3); F. Story Musgrave 

(PC-MS4);Thomas D. Akers (MS5) 

This Shuttle flight was one of the most challenging and 

complex missions ever attempted. During a record five 

back-to-back spacewalks,totaling 35 hours and 28 minutes, 

two teams of astronauts completed the first servicing of the 

Hubble SpaceTelescope and installed technologies that corrected the spherical aberration manufacturing error of the 

Hubble. On the first spacewalk, which lasted 7 hours and 

54 minutes,the two-person team replaced two Rate Sensor 

Units, two Electronic Control Units, and eight electrical 

fuse plugs.On the second spacewalk,which lasted 6 hours 

and 35 minutes, two astronauts installed new solar arrays. 

On the third spacewalk, theWide Field/Planetary Camera 

(WF/PC) was replaced in about 40 minutes rather than in 

the 4 hours that had been anticipated.The same team of 

The Peru-Bolivia border, part of the Amazon Basin, and the 

SLS-2 Laboratory Module as seen during STS-58. 

(STS058-76-041) 

Story Musgrave performs repairs on the Hubble Space Telescope 

during STS-61. (STS061-104-007) 


astronauts also installed two new magnetometers at the top 

of the telescope. On the fourth spacewalk, crew members 

removed and replaced the High-Speed Photometer with 

the Corrective Optics SpaceTelescopeAxial Replacement 

unit. During this 6-hour-and-50-minute EVA, astronaut 

Thomas Akers set a new U.S. spacewalking record of 29 

hours and 14 minutes. The final spacewalk replaced the 

SolarArray Drive Electronics unit and installed the Goddard 

High Resolution Spectrograph Redundancy kit and also 

two protective covers over the original magnetometers. 

STS-60 (60th Shuttle flight)


3–11 February 1994 


Discovery (18th flight)


Crew: Charles F. Bolden, Jr. (Cdr); Kenneth S.


Reightler, Jr. (Pilot); N. Jan Davis (MS1); 

Ronald M. Sega (MS2); Franklin R. ChangDiaz (MS3); Sergei K. Krikalev (MS4), RSA 

(Russia) 

This first Shuttle flight of 1994 marked the first flight 

of a Russian cosmonaut on the U.S. Space Shuttle, 

which was part of an international agreement on 

human spaceflight. The mission also was the second 

flight of the SPACEHAB pressurized module and 

marked the 100th Get-Away Special payload to fly in 

space. Also on this mission, Discovery carried the Wake 

Shield Facility (WSF) to generate new semiconductor 

films for advanced electronics. 

STS-62 (61st Shuttle flight)


4–18 March 1994 


Columbia (16th flight)


Crew: John H. Casper (Cdr),Andrew M.Allen (Pilot),


Pierre J.Thuot (MS1), Charles D. “Sam” 

Gemar (MS2), Marsha S. Ivins (MS3) 

The primary payloads for this mission were the U.S. 

Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) and the Office 

of Aeronautics and Space Technology-2 (OAST-2). 

USMP-2 included five experiments investigating 

materials processing and crystal growth in microgravity. 

OAST-2’s six experiments focused on space technology and spaceflight. Both payloads were located in the 

payload bay, activated by crew members, and operated 

by teams on the ground. 

STS-59 (62nd Shuttle flight)


9–20 April 1994 


Endeavour (Sixth flight)


Crew: Sidney M. Gutierrez (Cdr), Kevin P. Chilton


(Pilot), Jerome “Jay” Apt (MS1), Michael R. 

Clifford (MS2), Linda M. Godwin (PC-MS3), 

Thomas D. Jones (MS4) 

The Space Radar Laboratory-1 (SRL-1) was the primary 

payload for this mission. It gathered data about Earth and 

the effect of humans on its carbon, water, and energy 

cycles.It was located in the payload bay,activated by crew 

members, and operated by teams on the ground. The 

German Space Agency (DARA) and the Italian Space 

Agency (ASI) provided one instrument, the X-band 

Synthetic Aperture Radar (X-SAR). This instrument 

imaged more than 400 sites and covered approximately 

Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev uses SAREX gear to talk to schoolchildren 

during STS-60. (STS060-29-009) 

Aboard Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-62), mission commander 

John Casper (right) and mission specialist Sam Gemar prepare to 

take pictures of their home planet. (STS062-06-030) 


38.5 million square miles (61.9 million square kilometers) of Earth. 

STS-65 (63rd Shuttle flight)


8–23 July 1994 


Columbia (17th flight)


Crew: Robert D. Cabana (Cdr); James D. Halsell, Jr.


(Pilot); Richard J. Hieb (PC-MS1); Carl E. 

Walz (MS2); Leroy Chiao (MS3); Donald A. 

Thomas (MS4); Chiaki H. Naito-Mukai (PS1), 

NASDA (Japan) 

STS-65 was Columbia’s last mission before its scheduled 

modification and refurbishment. This flight saw the first 

Japanese woman fly in space—payload specialist Chiaki 

Naito-Mukai. She also set the record for the longest 

flight to date by a female astronaut. The International 

Microgravity Laboratory flew for the second time, carrying more than twice the number of experiments and 

facilities as on its first mission. Crew members split into 

two teams to perform around-the-clock research on the 

behavior of materials and life in near weightlessness. More 

than 80 experiments, representing more than 200 scientists from six space agencies, were located in the Spacelab 

module in the payload bay. This flight also marked the 

first time that liftoff and reentry were captured on videotape from the crew cabin. This flight was the longest 

Shuttle flight to date, lasting 14 days and 18 hours. 

STS-64 (64th Shuttle flight) 

9–20 September 1994 

Discovery (19th flight) 

Crew: Richard N. Richards (Cdr), L. Blaine 

Hammond, Jr. (Pilot), Jerry M. Linenger (MS1), 

Susan J. Helms (MS2), Carl J. Meade (MS3), 

Mark C. Lee (MS4) 

STS-64 marked the first flight of the Lidar In-Space 

Technology Experiment (LITE), which was used to perform atmospheric research.It also included the first untethered U.S. EVA in 10 years. LITE involved the first use 

of lasers for environmental research. During the mission, 

the crew also released and retrieved the SPARTAN-201 

using the Remote Manipulator System arm. 

STS-68 (65th Shuttle flight)


30 September–11 October 1994 


Endeavour (Seventh flight)


Crew: Michael A. Baker (Cdr),Terrence W.Wilcutt 


(Pilot), Steven L. Smith (MS1), Daniel W. Bursch 


(MS2), Peter J. K. “Jeff”Wisoff (MS3),Thomas D.


Jones (PC-MS4) 


This mission marked the second 1994 flight of the Space 

Radar Laboratory (SRL-2), part of NASA’s Mission to 

Planet Earth. Flying the SRL in different seasons allowed 

investigators to compare observations between the two 

flights. The mission also tested the ability of SRL-2 

imaging radar to distinguish between changes caused 

by human-induced phenomena such as oil spills and 

naturally occurring events. Five Get-Away Specials were 

among the other cargo bay payloads.These included two 

by the U.S. Postal Service that held 500,000 commemorative stamps honoring the 25th anniversary of Apollo 11. 

STS-68 set another duration record, lasting more than 

16.5 days. 

Donald Thomas (left) and Robert Cabana (right) pose in front of Columbia 

following STS-65. (STS065(S)068) 

This thermal tile damage to one of the pods protecting Space 

Shuttle Endeavour’s Orbital Maneuvering System occurred during 

STS-68. (STS068-067-013) 


STS-66 (66th Shuttle flight)


3–14 November 1994 


Atlantis (13th flight)


Crew: Donald R. McMonagle (Cdr); Curtis L.


Brown, Jr. (Pilot); Ellen Ochoa (PC-MS1); 

Joseph R.Tanner (MS2); Jean-François 

Clervoy (MS3), ESA (France); Scott E. 

Parazynski (MS4) 

STS-66 advanced data collection about the Sun’s energy 

output, as well as the chemical makeup of Earth’s middle 

atmosphere and how these factors affect global ozone 

levels, with the third flight of its Atmospheric Laboratory 

for Applications and Science (ATLAS-3).The other primary payloads were Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers 

and Telescopes for the Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

(CRISTA-SPAS), which continued the joint NASAGerman Space Agency series of scientific missions, and 

the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet spectrometer 

(SSBUV). CRISTA-SPAS was released and retrieved 

using the Remote Manipulator System arm. 

STS-63 (67th Shuttle flight) 

3–11 February 1995 

Discovery (20th flight) 

Crew: James D.Wetherbee (Cdr); Eileen M. Collins 

(Pilot); Bernard A. Harris, Jr. (PC-MS1); C. Michael 

Foale (MS2); Janice E.Voss (MS3);Vladimir G. 

Titov (MS4), RSA (Russia) 

This mission had special importance as a precursor and 

dress rehearsal for the series of missions that would rendezvous and dock with the Russian space station Mir. 

Discovery approached within 12.2 meters (40 feet) of Mir, 

then backed off to about 122 meters (400 feet) and performed a flyaround. The six-person crew included the 

second Russian cosmonaut to fly on the Space Shuttle. 

The mission also deployed the SPARTAN-204, a freeflying spacecraft that made astronomical observations in 

the far ultraviolet spectrum. The mission also included 

the third operation of the commercially developed 

SPACEHAB module, with its array of technological, biological, and other scientific experiments. Two 

crew members performed a spacewalk to test spacesuit 

modifications and demonstrate large-object handling 

techniques. On this mission, Eileen Collins became the 

first female Shuttle pilot and Bernard Harris became the 

first African American to walk in space. 

STS-67 (68th Shuttle flight)


2–18 March 1995 


Endeavour (Eighth flight)


Crew: Stephen S. Oswald (Cdr),William G. Gregory


(Pilot), John M. Grunsfeld (MS1),Wendy B. 

Lawrence (MS2),Tamara E. Jernigan (PC-MS3), 

Samuel T. Durrance (PS1), Ronald A. Parise 

(PS2) 

ASTRO-2 was the primary payload to fly on this mission. 

Its objective was to obtain scientific data on astronomical objects in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Its 

three telescopes made observations in complementary 

regions of the spectrum and gathered data that would add 

to scientists’ understanding of the universe’s history and 

the origins of stars. STS-67 set a new mission-duration 

record of 16.5 days. 

ATLAS-3 payload in the cargo bay of Atlantis, seen in orbit during STS-66. 

(STS066-129-005) 

Astronaut Bernard Harris checks the response of astronaut Janice 

Voss’s muscles to microgravity during STS-63. (STS063-86-016) 


STS-71 (69th Shuttle flight)


27 June 27–7 July 1995 


Atlantis (14th flight)


Crew: Robert L. “Hoot” Gibson (Cdr); Charles J.


Precourt (Pilot); Ellen Baker (-Shulman) 

(PC-MS1); Gregory J. Harbaugh (MS2); 

Bonnie J. Dunbar (MS3); Anatoly Y. Solovyev, 

Mir-19 (Cdr), up, Russia; Nikolai M. Budarin, 

RSC Energia (Russia), Mir-19 (flight engineer), 

up;Vladimir N. Dezhurov, Mir-18 (Cdr), down; 

Gennady M. Strekalov, RSC Energia (Russia), 

Mir-18 (flight engineer); Norman E.Thagard, 

Soyuz TM-21 (researcher), down 

This flight marked the 100th U.S. human spaceflight and 

was the first of a series of flights that docked with the 

Russian space station Mir. On STS-71, Atlantis and Mir 

remained docked for five days.The seven-person Shuttle 

crew included two Russian cosmonauts who remained 

on Mir after Atlantis returned to Earth.Two other cosmonauts and the U.S. astronaut Norman Thagard, who had 

flown to Mir aboard the Russian Soyuz spacecraft in March 

1995, returned to Earth on Atlantis.The mission demonstrated the successful operation of the Russian-designed 

docking system,which was based on the concepts used in 

the Apollo-Soyuz test program flown in 1975. 

STS-70 (70th Shuttle flight)


13–22 July 1995 


Discovery (21st flight)


Crew:Terence T. “Tom” Henricks (Cdr), Kevin R.


Kregel (Pilot), Nancy J. Currie (formerly 

Sherlock) (MS1), Donald A.Thomas (MS2), 

Mary E.Weber (MS3) 

The deployment of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

(TDRS-7) marked the completion of NASA’s TDRS 

system that provided communication, tracking, telemetry, 

data acquisition,and command services to the Shuttle and 

other low-orbital spacecraft missions.STS-70 also marked 

the first flight of the new Block I Space Shuttle Main 

Engine (SSME).The engine featured improvements that 

increased the stability and safety of the main engines. 

STS-69 (71st Shuttle flight)


7–18 September 1995 


Endeavour (Ninth flight)


Crew: David M.Walker (Cdr), Kenneth D. Cockrell


(Pilot), James S.Voss (PC-MS1), James H. 

Newman (MS2), Michael L. Gernhardt (MS3) 

STS-69 deployed the Wake Shield Facility, which, flying 

separately from the Shuttle, produced an “ultra vacuum” in 

its wake and allowed experimentation in the production of 

advanced,thinfilmsemiconductormaterials.The SPARTAN 

spacecraft also was deployed and retrieved.The spacewalk on 

this mission was the 30th Shuttle extravehicular activity. 

STS-73 (72nd Shuttle flight)


20 October–5 November 1995


Columbia (18th flight)


Crew: Kenneth D. Bowersox (Cdr); KentV. Rominger


(Pilot); Kathryn C.Thornton (PC); Catherine G. 

“Cady” Coleman (MS1); Michael E. LopezAlegria (MS2); Fred W. Leslie (PS1); Albert 

Sacco, Jr. (PS2) 

The second United States Microgravity Laboratory 

(USML-2) was the primary payload on STS-73. Some of 

Atlantis is shown docked with Mir during STS-71’s visit to the Russian space 

station. (STS071-S-072) 

Payload specialist Albert Sacco, Jr., inspects a crystal in a cylindrical autoclave on the middeck of the Earth-orbiting Space 

Shuttle Columbia, mission STS-73. (STS073-353-018) 


the experiments on USML-2 resulted from the outcome 

of investigations on the first USML mission that flew 

aboard Columbia on STS-50. 

STS-74 (73rd Shuttle flight)


12–20 November 1995 


Atlantis (15th flight)


Crew: Kenneth D. Cameron (Cdr); James D. Halsell,


Jr. (Pilot); Chris A. Hadfield (MS1), CSA 

(Canada); Jerry L. Ross (MS2);William S. 

McArthur, Jr. (MS3) 

STS-74 was the second in a series of Mir linkups. The 

mission delivered the Russian Docking Module to Mir, 

and it was attached permanently to the Kristall module, 

which gave better clearance for future Shuttle-Mir dockings. It also marked the first time that astronauts from the 

European Space Agency, Canada, Russia, and the United 

States were in space on the same complex at one time. 

STS-72 (74th Shuttle flight)


11–20 January 1996 


Endeavour (10th flight)


Crew: Brian K. Duffy (Cdr); Brent W. Jett, Jr. (Pilot);


Leroy Chiao (MS1);Winston E. Scott (MS2); 

Daniel T. Barry (MS3); Koicho Wakata (MS4), 

NASDA (Japan) 

The crew of STS-72 captured and returned to Earth 

a Japanese microgravity research spacecraft, the Space 

Flyer Unit (SFU), which had been launched by Japan in 

March 1995.The mission also deployed and retrieved the 

OAST-Flyer spacecraft, the seventh in a series of missions 

aboard reusable free-flying SPARTAN carriers.The flight 

also included two spacewalks by three astronauts to test 

hardware and tools that will be used in the assembly of 

the International Space Station. 

STS-75 (75th Shuttle flight)


22 February–9 March 1996


Columbia (19th flight)


Crew: Andrew M. Allen (Cdr); Scott J. Horowitz


(Pilot); Franklin R. Chang-Diaz (PC); Jeffrey 

A. Hoffman (MS1); Maurizio Cheli (MS2), 

ESA (Italy); Claude Nicollier (MS3), ESA 

(Switzerland); Umberto Guidoni (PS1), ASI 

(Italy) 

This mission was the 75th Shuttle flight and 50th 

Shuttle flight since NASA’s return to flight following 

the Challenger accident. Its mission was a reflight of the 

Tethered Satellite System. The tether broke three days 

into the mission. 

STS-76 (76th Shuttle flight)


22–31 March 1996 


Atlantis (16th flight)


Crew: Kevin P. Chilton (Cdr); Richard A. Searfoss


(Pilot); Ronald M. Sega (PC-MS1); Michael 

R. Clifford (MS2); Linda M. Godwin (MS3); 

Shannon W. Lucid (MS4), up 

This mission featured the third docking between the 

Space Shuttle Atlantis and the Russian space station Mir. 

It included a spacewalk, logistics operations,and scientific 

research. More than 862 kilograms (1,896.4 pounds) of 

equipment were transferred from Atlantis to Mir, including a gyrodyne, transformer, batteries, food, water, film, 

The Russian-built Docking Module (DM) sits in the back 

of Atlantis’s payload bay. It was attached to Mir during 

STS-74. (KSC-95EC-1616) 

Pilot Scott Horowitz looks over tools he may use to perform an 

Inflight Maintenance (IFM) chore on the middeck of the Earthorbiting Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-75. 

(STS075-333-032) 
0

and clothing. Astronaut Shannon Lucid was the second 

American astronaut to stay on Mir and the first female 

American astronaut to fly to the station.This flight was 

the beginning of what would turn out to be Lucid’s 

marathon stay aboard the space station. 

STS-77 (77th Shuttle flight)


19–29 May 1996 


Endeavour (11th flight)


Crew: John H. Casper (Cdr); Curtis L. Brown, Jr.


(Pilot); Andrew S.W.Thomas (MS1); Daniel 

W. Bursch (MS2); Mario Runco, Jr. (MS3); 

Marc Garneau (MS4), CSA (Canada) 

During this flight, the six-person Endeavour crew performed microgravity research aboard the commercially 

owned and operated SPACEHAB module.The crew also 

deployed and retrieved the SPARTAN-207 Inflatable 

Antenna Experiment (SPARTAN-IAE) satellite. A suite 

of four technology experiments called the Technology 

Experiments for Advancing Mission in Space (TEAMS) 

also flew in the Shuttle’s payload bay. 

STS-78 (78th Shuttle flight)


20 June 20–7 July 1996 


Columbia (20th flight)


Crew:Terence T. “Tom” Henricks (Cdr); Kevin R.


Kregel (Pilot); Richard M. Linnehan (MS1); 

Susan J. Helms (PC-MS2); Charles E. Brady, Jr. 

(MS3); Jean-Jacques Favier (PS1), CNES 

(France); Robert B.Thirsk (PS2), CSA (Canada) 

The Life and Microgravity Spacelab (LMS) mission, building on previous Shuttle Spacelab flights dedicated to life 

sciences and microgravity investigations, studied the effects 

of long-duration spaceflight on human physiology and 

conducted the type of experiments that would fly on the 

International Space Station.The duration of this flight surpassed the longest Shuttle flight to date, lasting almost 17 

days. Five space agencies participated in this mission. 

STS-79 (79th Shuttle flight)


16–26 September 1996


Atlantis (17th flight)


Crew:William F. Readdy (Cdr);Terrence W.Wilcutt 


(Pilot); Jerome “Jay” Apt (MS1);Thomas D. 

Akers (MS2); Carl E.Walz (MS3); John E. Blaha 

(MS4), up; Shannon W. Lucid (MS4), down 

On this mission, astronaut Shannon Lucid set the world’s 

women’s and the U.S. record for length of time in space: 

188 days and 5 hours.The mission was the fourth Shuttle 

docking with the Mir space station. Astronaut Lucid 

returned to Earth on Atlantis, and astronaut John Blaha 

replaced her on Mir. 

STS-80 (80th Shuttle flight)


19 November–7 December 1996


Columbia (21st flight)


Crew: Kenneth D. Cockrell (Cdr), Kent V. Rominger 


(Pilot),Tamara E. Jernigan (MS1),Thomas D. 

Jones (MS2); F. Story Musgrave (MS3) 

STS-80 marked the third flight of the Wake Shield 

Facility (WSF) that flew on STS-60 and STS-69 and 

This view of the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) end 

effector over an Earth limb with a solar starburst pattern 

behind it was taken during STS-77. (STS077-702-039) 

Recovery convoy equipment greets Columbia following main gear touchdown on 

Runway 33 of Kennedy Space Center’s Shuttle Landing Facility on 7 December 

1996 (STS-80). (KSC-96EC-1339) 


the third flight of the German-built ORFEUS-SPAS II. 

Both the WSF and the ORFEUS-SPAS were deployed 

and retrieved during the mission, making it the first time 

that two satellites were flying freely at the same time.The 

record for the longest Shuttle flight was broken again, 

with this flight lasting slightly more than 17.5 days. 

STS-81 (81st Shuttle flight)


12–22 January 1997 


Atlantis (18th flight)


Crew: Michael A. Baker (Cdr); Brent W. Jett, Jr.


(Pilot); Peter J. K. “Jeff”Wisoff (MS1); John 

M. Grunsfeld (MS2); Marsha S. Ivins (MS3); 

Jerry M. Linenger (MS4), up; John E. Blaha 

(MS4), down 

This mission was the fifth of nine planned missions to Mir 

and the second involving an exchange of U.S. astronauts. 

Astronaut Jerry Linenger replaced astronaut John Blaha 

aboard Mir after Blaha’s 128 days in space. Atlantis carried 

the SPACEHAB double module, which provided additional middeck locker space for secondary experiments. 

STS-82 (82nd Shuttle flight)


11–21 February 1997


Discovery (22nd flight)


Crew: Kenneth D. Bowersox (Cdr), Scott J. Horowitz


(Pilot), Joseph R.Tanner (MS1), Steven A. 

Hawley (MS2), Gregory J. Harbaugh (MS3), 

Mark C. Lee (PC-MS4), Steven L. Smith (MS5) 

STS-82 was the second in a series of planned servicing missions to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). 

The orbiter’s robot arm captured the HST so it could 

be serviced. In five spacewalks, the crew replaced the 

Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph and the Faint 

Object Spectrograph with the Space Telescope Imaging 

Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared Camera and 

Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS). Crew members 

also replaced other hardware with upgrades and spares. 

HST received a refurbished Fine Guidance Sensor and 

a refurbished spare Reaction Wheel Assembly (RWA) 

to replace one of four RWAs. A Solid State Recorder 

replaced one reel-to-reel tape recorder.The crew members also replaced the HST’s insulation, which had deteriorated due to rapid heating and cooling as the telescope 

moved into and out of sunlight and also due to constant 

exposure to the molecular oxygen encountered in the 

upper reaches of the atmosphere. 

STS-83 (83rd Shuttle flight)


4–8 April 1997


Columbia (22nd flight)


Crew: James D. Halsell, Jr. (Cdr), Susan L. Still (Pilot),


Janice E.Voss (MS1), Michael L. Gernhardt 

(MS2), Donald A.Thomas (MS3), Roger K. 

Crouch (PS1), Gregory T. Linteris (PS2) 

This mission lasted only 4 days and returned to Earth 

12 days early due to a problem with one of the fuel cells 

that provided electricity and water to the orbiter. The 

Microgravity Science Laboratory-1 (MSL-1) was rescheduled for a later mission. 

Attached to the Remote Manipulator System, the Hubble Space 

Telescope is unberthed and lifted up into the sunlight during 

STS-82, the second servicing mission. (STS082-709-097) 

Pilot Susan Still floats into the Spacelab Module in the early phases of its 

activation. Still, a member of the 1995 astronaut class, joined four other 

NASA astronauts and two scientist payload specialists for the Microgravity 

Science Laboratory 1 (MSL-1) mission aboard the Earth-orbiting Space 

Shuttle Columbia. (STS083-303-002) 


STS-84 (84th Shuttle flight)


15–24 May 1997


Atlantis (19th flight)


Crew: Charles J. Precourt (Cdr); Eileen M. Collins


(Pilot); Jean-François Clervoy (PC-MS1), ESA 

(France); Carlos I. Noriega (MS2); Edward T. 

Lu (MS3);Yelena V. Kondakova (MS4), RSC 

Energia (Russia); C. Michael Foale (MS5), up; 

Jerry M. Linenger (MS5), down 

This was the sixth docking with the Mir space station 

and the third involving an exchange of U.S. astronauts. Astronaut Mike Foale replaced astronaut Jerry 

Linenger, who had been in space for 132 days. The 

mission resupplied materials for experiments to be 

performed aboard Mir and also returned experiment 

samples and data to Earth. 

STS-94 (85th Shuttle flight)


1–17 July 1997


Columbia (23rd flight)


Crew: James D. Halsell, Jr. (Cdr); Susan L. Still (Pilot);


Janice E.Voss (MS1); Michael L. Gernhardt 

(MS2); Donald A.Thomas (MS3); Roger K. 

Crouch (PS1); Gregory T. Linteris (PS2) 

The reflight of the Microgravity Science Laboratory 

(MSL-1),which had flown on STS-83,took place on this 

mission.(STS-83 was cut short due to fuel cell problems.) 

The mission involved the same vehicle, crew, and experiment activities as planned on the earlier mission. MSL-1 

focused on the phenomena associated with the routine 

influence of gravity, including the behavior of materials 

and liquids in a microgravity environment.The laboratory 

was a collection of 19 microgravity experiments housed 

inside a European Spacelab Long Module. 

STS-85 (86th Shuttle flight)


7–19 August 1997 


Discovery (23rd flight)


Crew: Curtis L. Brown, Jr. (Cdr); Kent V. Rominger


(Pilot); Robert L. Curbeam (MS2); N. Jan Davis 

(PC-MS1); Stephen K. Robinson (MS3); 

Bjarni V.Tryggvason (PS1), CSA (Canada) 

The primary payload for STS-85 was the second flight of 

the Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers andTelescopes for the 

Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite-2 (CRISTA-SPAS-2).It 

was the fourth in a series of cooperative ventures between 

the German Space Agency and NASA. CRISTA-SPAS-2 

was deployed and retrieved using Discovery’s robot arm.Two 

other instruments on board also studied Earth’s atmosphere: 

the Middle Atmosphere High Resolution Spectrograph 

Instrument (MAHRSI) measured hydroxyl and nitric oxide, 

while the Surface Effects Sample Monitor (SESAM) carried 

state-of-the-art optical surfaces to study the impact of the 

atomic oxygen and the space environment on materials and 

services.TheTechnologyApplications and Science (TAS-1), 

the Manipulator Flight Demonstration, supplied by Japan, 

and the international Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker were 

other mission payloads. 

In the SPACEHAB Payload Processing Facility, McDonnell Douglas-SPACEHAB technicians prepare a Russian-made oxygen generator for flight in a SPACEHAB Double 

Module. The oxygen generator was delivered to Mir during STS-84. (KSC-97PC-0676) 

Space Shuttle orbiter Discovery’s payload bay doors are closed in preparation for the flight of mission STS-85. 

(KSC-97PC-1130) 


STS-86 (87th Shuttle flight)


25 September–6 October 1997


Atlantis (20th flight)


Crew: James D.Wetherbee (Cdr); Michael J.


Bloomfield (Pilot);Vladimir G.Titov (MS1), 

RSA (Russia); Scott E. Parazynski (MS2); 

Jean-Loup Chrétien (MS3), CNES (France); 

Wendy B. Lawrence (MS4); David A.Wolf 

(MS5), up; C. Michael Foale, down 

This was the seventh docking between Atlantis and the 

Russian Mir space station and the fourth exchange of U.S. 

astronauts. The mission included a flyaround of Mir to 

determine the location of the puncture on the hull of the 

Spektr module. The Mir crew pumped air into the Spektr 

module, and the Shuttle crew observed that the leak 

seemed to be located at the base of damaged solar panel. 

U.S. astronaut Mike Foale returned aboard Atlantis after a 

stay of 134 days on Mir. His was the second longest single 

spaceflight in U.S. spaceflight history, behind Shannon 

Lucid’s 188-day flight in 1996. Atlantis also carried the 

SPACEHAB double module to support the transfer of 

logistics and supplies for Mir and the return of experiment 

hardware and specimens to Earth. 

STS-87 (88th Shuttle flight)


19 November–5 December 1997 


Columbia (24th flight)


Crew: Kevin R. Kregel (Cdr); StevenW. Lindsey (Pilot);


Kalpana Chawla (MS1);Winston E. Scott (MS2); 

Takao Doi (MS3), NASDA (Japan); Leonid K. 

Kadenyuk (PS1), NSAU (Ukraine) 

Experiments that studied how the weightless environment of space affected various physical processes and 

two spacewalks highlighted STS-87. During this mission, 

payload specialist Leonid Kadenyuk became the first 

Ukrainian to fly aboard the Space Shuttle. The mission 

was marked by an unexpected event when the attitude 

control system aboard the free-flying SPARTAN solar 

research satellite malfunctioned, causing the satellite to 

rotate outside the Shuttle. Crew members successfully 

recaptured the satellite and lowered it onto its berth in the 

payload bay.The capture took place during a spacewalk 

that lasted 7 hours and 43 minutes. A second spacewalk 

that lasted 7 hours and 33 minutes tested a crane to be 

used for constructing the International Space Station and 

a free-flying camera to monitor conditions outside the 

Station without requiring spacewalks. 

STS-89 (89th Shuttle flight)


22–31 January 1998


Endeavour (12th flight)


Crew:Terrence W.Wilcutt (Cdr); Joe F. Edwards, Jr.


(Pilot); James F. Reilly (MS1); Michael P. 

Anderson (MS2); Bonnie J. Dunbar (PC-MS3); 

Salizhan S. Sharipov (MS4), RSA (Russia); 

Andrew S.W.Thomas (MS5), up; David A. 

Wolf (MS6), down 

STS-89 featured the eighth Mir-Shuttle linkup and the 

fifth crew exchange.Astronaut David Wolf,who had been 

on Mir since September 1997, was replaced by astronaut 

Andrew Thomas. 

The orbiter drag chute deploys after Space Shuttle Atlantis lands on runway 

15 of the Kennedy Space Center Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) after STS-86. 

(97PC-1492) 

Columbia is lifted into high bay 3 in the 

Vehicle Assembly Building in preparation 

for STS-87. (KSC-97PC-1559) 


STS-90 (90th Shuttle flight)


17 April–3 May 1998


Columbia (25th flight)


Crew: Richard A. Searfoss (Cdr); Scott D. Altman


(Pilot); Richard M. Linnehan (MS1); Kathryn 

P. Hire (MS2); Dafydd R.Williams (MS3), CSA 

(Canada); Jay C. Buckey (PS1); James A. 

Pawelczyk (PS2) 

STS-90 featured the 16th and final scheduled flight of the 

Spacelab science module in which Columbia’s astronauts 

conducted their research. Spacelab served as a science 

platform for Shuttle-based research over the previous 

15 years.The key scientific aspects of the flight involved 

Neurolab, a set of investigations focusing on the effects of 

microgravity on the nervous system. Experiments studied 

the adaptation of the vestibular system and space adaptation syndrome, the adaptation of the central nervous 

system and the pathways that control the ability to sense 

location in the absence of gravity,and the effect of microgravity on a developing nervous system. 

STS-91 (91st Shuttle flight)


2–12 June 1998


Discovery (24th flight)


Crew: Charles J. Precourt (Cdr); Dominic L. P. Gorie 


(Pilot); Franklin R. Chang-Diaz (MS1); 

Wendy B. Lawrence (MS2); Janet L. Kavandi 

(MS3);Valery V. Ryumin (MS4), RSC Energia 

(Russia); Andrew S.W.Thomas (MS5), down 

STS-91 marked the ninth and final Mir docking for the 

Shuttle fleet, but the first for Discovery. Astronaut Andrew 

Thomas was brought back to Earth after a 130-day stay 

on the Russian station.This final mission to the Mir station marked the end of Phase 1 of the International Space 

Station (ISS). U.S. experiments present on the Station, 

including the Space Acceleration Measurement System 

(SAMS), the tissue engineering coculture (COCULT) 

investigations, two crystal growth experiments and eight 

Get-Away Special experiments, were transferred to 

SPACEHAB’s single module. The Shuttle’s robot arm’s 

new electronics and software were tested in preparation 

for the construction of the ISS. STS-91 also marked the 

first mission to use the Super Lightweight External Tank, 

made of a new alloy combination that reduced the tank’s 

weight by about 3,375 kilograms (7,425 pounds). 

STS-95 (92nd Shuttle flight)


29 October–7 November 1998


Discovery (25th flight)


Crew: Curtis L. Brown, Jr. (Cdr); Steven W. Lindsey


(Pilot); Stephen K. Robinson (MS1); Scott E. 

Parazynski (MS2); Pedro Duque (MS3), ESA 

(Spain); Chiaki H. Naito-Mukai (PS1), NASDA 

(Japan); John H. Glenn, Jr. (PS2) 

The main objectives of the STS-95 mission were to deploy 

and retrieve the SPARTAN-201 free-flyer payload and 

conduct scientific experiments in the SPACEHAB module. In the payload bay, two experiments were carried 

out: the International Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker 

payload and the Hubble Orbiting Systems Test (HOST). 

The scientific nature of the mission was overshadowed 

by the presence of John Glenn on the crew, flying again 

36 years after becoming the first American to orbit Earth. 

President Bill Clinton was in attendance, marking the 

James Pawelczyk, payload specialist, 

participates in a sensory motor and 

performance test on STS-90. Canadian 

astronaut Dafydd Williams is in the background. (STS090-349-019) 

Backdropped against the darkness of space, Russia’s Mir space station is captured 

on film as it moves away from Space Shuttle Discovery during the Shuttle-Mir final 

flyaround in June 1998. (STS091-711-028) 


first time in Shuttle program history that a U.S. president 

attended a launch. 

STS-88 (93rd Shuttle flight)


4–15 December 1998


Endeavour (13th flight)


Crew: Robert D. Cabana (Cdr); Frederick W. “Rick”


Sturckow (Pilot); Jerry L. Ross (MS1); Nancy 

J. Currie (formerly Sherlock) (MS2); James H. 

Newman (MS3); Sergei K. Krikalev (MS4), 

RSA (Russia) 

The STS-88 flight marked the first U.S. International 

Space Station (ISS) assembly flight, denoted 2A. The 

Remote Manipulator System arm grabbed the Unity (also 

known as Node 1) module from the Shuttle’s cargo bay 

and connected it to the orbiter’s docking system. Then, 

the robot arm grabbed the Zarya Control Module (also 

known as the Functional Cargo Block) and mated it to 

Unity. The Zarya module was launched on 20 November 

1998 aboard a Russian Proton rocket. Three spacewalks 

were conducted by Jerry Ross and James Newman to 

attach cables, connectors and handrails between Zarya 

and Unity. The two astronauts also tested the Simplified 

Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER) unit, a self-rescue device 

for spacewalkers who become separated from the spacecraft during EVA. Two satellites were also deployed, 

MightySat and SAC-A. 

STS-96 (94th Shuttle flight) 

27 May–6 June 1999 

Discovery (26th flight) 

Crew: Kent V. Rominger (Cdr); Rick D. Husband 

(Pilot);Tamara E. Jernigan (MS1); Ellen Ochoa 

(MS2); Daniel T. Barry (MS3); Julie Payette 

(MS4), CSA (Canada);Valery I.Tokarev (MS5), 

RSA (Russia) 

STS-96 was the second ISS mission, denoted 2A.1, and 

marked the first Shuttle docking with the Station.Discovery 

docked to the Unity module, allowing the crew to enter 

the Station to perform maintenance and outfitting tasks. 

A spacewalk allowed Tamara Jernigan and Daniel Barry 

to install a U.S.-built crane and a Russian-built crane on 

the Station. Having been linked with the ISS for five 

days, Discovery undocked and performed a flyaround of 

the Station to obtain a detailed photographic record of 

the outpost.After the flyaround,the Starshine satellite was 

deployed from Discovery’s cargo bay. 

STS-93 (95th Shuttle flight)


23–27 July 1999


Columbia (26th flight)


Crew: Eileen M. Collins (Cdr); Jeffrey S.Ashby (Pilot);


Catherine G. “Cady” Coleman (MS1); Steven 

A. Hawley (MS2); Michel Tognini (MS3), 

CNES (France) 

The objective of this mission, the shortest since 1990, 

was the deployment of the Chandra X-ray Observatory 

(previously known as Advanced X-ray Astronomy Facility 

[AXAF]).It was the third of NASA’s Great Observatories. 

The deployment and two Inertial Upper Stage burns 

went as planned. Secondary scientific experiments occupied the crew for the rest of the mission. 

The SPARTAN 201-05 is in the grasp of Space Shuttle Discovery’s Remote 

Manipulator System prior to release during STS-96. (STS095-E-5084) The primary duty of the STS-93 crew was to deploy the 

Chandra X-ray Observatory, the world’s most powerful x-ray 

telescope. (STS093-702-048) 


STS-103 (96th Shuttle flight)


19–27 December 1999


Discovery (27th flight)


Crew: Curtis L. Brown, Jr. (Cdr); Scott J. Kelly (Pilot);


Steven L. Smith (MS1); Jean-Francois Clervoy 

(MS2), ESA (France); John M. Grunsfeld 

(MS3); C. Michael Foale (MS4); Claude 

Nicollier (MS5), ESA (Switzerland) 

This was the third mission to repair and upgrade the 

Hubble Space Telescope. After the telescope’s capture 

by the robotic arm, it was placed on the Flight Support 

System in Discovery’s cargo bay.The repairs and upgrades 

were completed over the course of three spacewalks, performed by Steven Smith and John Grunsfeld, Mike Foale 

and Claude Nicollier, and again by Smith and Grunsfeld. 

During these spacewalks, the crew members changed 

and installed three new Rate Sensor Units (containing 

gyroscopes), six Voltage/Temperature Improvement Kits 

between the solar panels and the telescope’s batteries, 

a computer, a fine guidance sensor, a transmitter, and a 

digital recorder. 

STS-99 (97th Shuttle flight)


11–22 February 2000


Endeavour (14th flight)


Crew: Kevin R. Kregel (Cdr); Dominic L. P. Gorie


(Pilot); Gerhard P. J.Thiele (MS1), ESA 

(Germany); Janet L. Kavandi (MS2); Janice E. 

Voss (MS3); Mamoru M. Mohri (MS4), 

NASDA (Japan) 

STS-99’s major payload was the Shuttle Radar Topography 

Mission.The orbiter’s mast was deployed and the antenna 

was turned to its operation position so that mapping could 

begin 12 hours after launch. The mapping area covered a 

region ranging from 60 degrees north to 56 degrees south 

of the equator.Three crew members split into two shifts to 

operate 24 hours a day. The collected data, which approximated 20,000 CDs’ worth, were sent to the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory for analysis.A secondary payload was a student 

experiment, EarthKam, which took Earth photos trough 

one of Endeavour’s overhead flight-deck windows. 

STS-101 (98th Shuttle flight)


19–29 May 2000


Atlantis (21st flight)


Crew: James D. Halsell, Jr. (Cdr); Scott J. Horowitz


(Pilot); Mary E.Weber (MS1); Jeffrey N. 

Williams (MS2); James S.Voss (MS3); Susan J. 

Helms (MS4);Yury V. Usachev (MS5), RSA 

(Russia) 

This mission was the third ISS flight, denoted 2A.2a. 

The mission consisted of one spacewalk, during which 

James Voss and Jeffrey Williams secured the U.S.-built 

crane, installed final parts of the Russian-built Strela 

crane, and replaced a faulty antenna. The Station was 

outfitted with different equipment outside during the 

spacewalk and inside after the Shuttle’s crew opened the 

hatches between Atlantis and the Station.While inside the 

Station, the crew replaced or installed equipment consisting of batteries, smoke detectors, cooling fans, computer 

cables, a new communications memory unit and power 

distribution box, as well as supplies to support human 

activity aboard the Station. All items were stored in the 

SPACEHAB double module inside Atlantis’s cargo bay. 

STS-101 readied the Station for the arrival the of the 

Astronaut John Grunsfeld, positioned on a foot retraint on 

the end of Discovery’s Remote Manipulator System (RMS), 

prepares to replace a radio transmitter in one of the Hubble 

Space Telescope’s electronics bays on mission STS-103. 

(STS103-713-048) 

Part of the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) hardware is seen here 

through Endeavour’s aft flight-deck windows about halfway through the scheduled 11-day SRTM flight on STS-99. The mast, only partially visible at lower right, 

is actually 60 meters (196.9 feet) in length. (S99-E-5476) 


Zvezda Service Module, which launched 12 July 2000 on 

a Russian Proton rocket and docked two weeks later. 

STS-106 (99th Shuttle flight)


8–20 September 2000


Atlantis (22nd flight)


Crew:Terrence W.Wilcutt (Cdr); Scott D. Altman


(Pilot); Edward T. Lu (MS1); Richard A. 

Mastracchio (MS2); Daniel C. Burbank 

(MS3);Yuri I. Malenchenko (MS4), RSA 

(Russia); Boris V. Morukov (MS5), RSA 

(Russia) 

STS-106 was the fourth flight to the ISS, denoted 

2A.2b. A spacewalk performed by Edward Lu and Yuri 

Malenchenko involved routing and connecting power, 

data, and communications cables between the Zvezda 

and Zarya modules. The other objective of the spacewalk was to install a magnetometer, which serves as a 

compass.After the crew entered the ISS, more than three 

tons of hardware and supplies were transferred from the 

SPACEHAB double module to the Station in preparation for the outpost’s first crew later in the fall. 

STS-92 (100th Shuttle flight)


11–24 October 2000


Discovery (28th flight)


Crew: Brian K. Duffy (Cdr); Pamela A. Melroy (Pilot);


Leroy Chiao (MS1);William S. McArthur, Jr. 

(MS2); Peter J. K. “Jeff”Wisoff (MS3); 

Michael E. Lopez-Alegria (MS4); Koicho 

Wakata (MS5), NASDA (Japan) 

This mission was the fifth ISS flight, denoted 3A, and 

the third construction flight.The primary objectives were 

the installation of the Zenith 1 (Z1) truss and the third 

pressurized mating adapter (PMA3), which is used as a 

docking port. STS-92 also included four spacewalks.The 

first, by Leroy Chiao and William McArthur, involved 

connecting electrical umbilicals to provide power on 

the Z1 truss, relocating and deploying two antennas, 

and installing a toolbox for future on-orbit construction. The second spacewalk, made by Jeff Wisoff and 

Michael Lopez-Alegria, included the attachment of the 

PMA3 to the Station and preparation of the Z1 truss for 

installation of solar arrays planned for STS-97.The third 

spacewalk, performed by Chiao and McArthur, consisted 

of the installation of electrical converter units on the 

Z1 truss. The fourth and final spacewalk, by Wisoff and 

Lopez-Alegria, involved work on the Z1 truss.The final 

spacewalkers also tested SAFER. Equipment and supplies 

to support the first resident crew were transferred from 

Discovery to the Station. 

STS-97 (101st Shuttle flight)


30 November–11 December 2000


Endeavour (15th flight)


Crew: Brent W. Jett, Jr. (Cdr); Michael J. Bloomfield


(Pilot); Joseph R.Tanner (MS1); Marc 

Garneau (MS2), CSA (Canada); Carlos I. 

Noriega (MS3) 

STS-97 was the sixth ISS flight,denoted 4A.Three spacewalks were performed by astronauts Joseph Tanner and 

Carlos Noriega, who accomplished the mating of the 

Port 6 (P6) truss and the first set of U.S.-provided solar 

arrays to the Station’s Z1 truss, the preparation of the 

Michael Lopez-Alegria works on the 

ISS during a long spacewalk as part of 

STS-92. (STS092-301-006) 

In the Space Station Processing Facility, STS-97 mission specialists Carlos 

Noriega (far left) and Joe Tanner (right) check out the mission payload, the P6 

integrated truss segment. (KSC-00PP-1720) 


Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 (PMA2) docking port, the 

installation of Floating Potential Probes (FPP) to measure electrical potential surrounding the Station, and the 

attachment of a camera cable outside the Unity module. 

On 8 December, hatches between Endeavour and the ISS 

were opened, allowing the transfer of supplies from the 

orbiter to the Expedition 1 crew aboard the Station. 

STS-98 (102nd Shuttle flight)


7–20 February 2001


Atlantis (23rd flight)


Crew: Kenneth D. Cockrell (Cdr), Mark L. Polansky


(Pilot), Robert L. Curbeam (MS1), Marsha S. 

Ivins (MS2),Thomas D. Jones (MS3) 

STS-98 was the seventh ISS flight, denoted 5A.The purpose of the mission was to deliver, attach, and activate 

the U.S. Destiny laboratory module to the Station.Three 

spacewalks involved outfitting Destiny’s exterior, moving 

the PMA2 from the Z1 truss to the Destiny module, and 

attaching a spare communications antenna to the Station. 

Mission specialists Robert Curbeam and Thomas Jones 

performed the three spacewalks in 19 hours and 49 minutes. Supplies were also delivered to the Station’s crew. 

STS-102 (103rd Shuttle flight)


8–21 March 2001


Discovery (29th flight)


Crew: James D.Wetherbee (Cdr), James M. Kelly


(Pilot), Andrew S.W.Thomas (MS1), Paul W. 

Richards (MS2) 

ISS Expedition 2 (launch): James S.Voss; Susan J. 

Helms;Yury V. Usachev, RSA (Russia) 

ISS Expedition 1 (return): Sergei K. Krikalev, RSA 

(Russia);William M. Shepherd;Yuri P. 

Gidzenko, RSA (Russia) 

STS-102 was the eighth ISS flight, denoted 5A.1. The 

flight’s objectives were to replace the Expedition 1 crew 

and to unload supplies, equipment,and science racks from 

the first Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM).This 

Italian-built module, named Leonardo, was lifted from 

Discovery’s cargo bay and attached to the Unity module. 

This took place after a spacewalk by Susan Helms and 

James Voss was performed to make room on the Unity 

module for Leonardo. Astronauts placed the emptied 

module back in the Shuttle’s cargo bay and returned it to 

Earth.A second spacewalk, by Paul Richards and Andrew 

Thomas that lasted 6 hours and 21 minutes, continued 

the outfitting of the Station through the installation of 

a coolant pump, an External Stowage Platform for spare 

Station parts, and connecting cables. 

STS-100 (104th Shuttle flight)


19 April–1 May 2001


Endeavour (16th flight)


Crew: KentV. Rominger (Cdr); Jeffrey S.Ashby (Pilot);


Chris A. Hadfield (MS1), CSA (Canada); 

John L. Phillips (MS2); Scott E. Parazynski 

(MS3); Umberto Guidoni (MS4), ESA (Italy); 

Yuri V. Lonchakov (MS5), RSA (Russia) 

In the Operations and Checkout Building, the U.S. Lab named Destiny 

reaches the open floor after being lifted out of the vacuum chamber 

where it was tested for leaks. During STS-98, the crew installed the Lab 

on the Space Station during a series of three spacewalks in February of 


2001. (KSC-00PP-0870)


Astronaut Chris Hadfield, mission specialist representing the Canadian 

Space Agency, is seen near the Canadarm 2 as the new robotics tool 

for the ISS grasps the Spacelab pallet. Scott Parazynski participated in 


two days of extravehicular activity on the STS-100 mission.


(STS100-342-010)



STS-100 was the ninth ISS flight, denoted 6A.The mission carried the Canadian-built Canadarm 2, which was 

attached outside the Station’s Destiny module. Crew 

members also transferred supplies and scientific equipment racks to the Station via the second Multi-Purpose 

Logistics Module, named Raffaello. Scott Parazynsky and 

Chris Hadfield conducted two spacewalks to install an 

ultrahigh frequency (UHF) antenna to the Destiny module,connect cables between Canadarm 2 and Destiny, and 

continue the outfitting of the robot arm and Destiny.All 

of the mission’s EVAs totaled 14 hours and 50 minutes. 

STS-104 (105th Shuttle flight)


12–24 July 2001


Atlantis (24th flight)


Crew: Steven W. Lindsey (Cdr), Charles O. Hobaugh


(Pilot), Michael L. Gernhardt (MS1), Janet L. 

Kavandi (MS2), James F. Reilly (MS3) 

The 10th flight to the ISS was designated assembly flight 

7A.The primary objective of the mission was to deliver 

the Quest Airlock,which allowed for spacewalks from the 

Station. The airlock was unloaded from Atlantis’s cargo 

bay and placed on the Unity node by Expedition 2 crew 

member Susan Helms. During this process, astronauts 

Michael Gernhardt and James Reilly provided guidance from outside the Station during their first of three 

planned spacewalks. The second spacewalk involved 

installing tank assemblies for the Joint Airlock. The 

third, during which the astronauts exited the ISS via the 

new airlock, consisted of installing another nitrogen tank 

to the airlock’s shell. A total of four tanks were installed, 

and their purpose is to pressurize the airlock and resupply 

spacesuits. Gerhardt and Reilly spent 16 hours and 30 

minutes outside the Station. 

STS-105 (106th Shuttle flight)


10–22 August 2001


Discovery (30th flight)


Crew: Scott J. Horowitz (Cdr), Frederick W. “Rick”


Sturckow (Pilot), Patrick G. Forrester (MS1), 

Daniel T. Barry (MS2) 

ISS Expedition 3 (launch): Frank L. Culbertson, Jr.; 

Vladimir N. Dezhurov, RSA (Russia); Mikhail 

V.Tyurin, RSA (Russia) 

ISS Expedition 2 (return):Yury V. Usachev, RSA 

(Russia); James S.Voss; Susan J. Helms 

Atlantis performed the 11th ISS flight, denoted 7A.1, 

whose main objective was to replace Expedition 2 crew 

members with Expedition 3 crew members. The mission also used Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) 

Leonardo to unload 3,175.2 kilograms (7,000 pounds) 

of supplies, equipment, and science racks to the Station. 

Daniel Barry and Patrick Forrester completed two spacewalks, installing the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS) and 

outfitting the Station in preparation for the arrival of the 

Starboard-Zero (S-Zero, S0) Integrated Truss Structure. 

Barry and Forrester spent a total of 11 hours and 45 minutes during EVAs. Discovery’s crew also deployed a small 

satellite, Simplesat, via a spring ejection system at the rear 

of the Shuttle’s cargo bay. 

STS-104, backdropped against the blue and white Earth some 237 

miles below, the Quest Airlock is in the process of being installed onto 

the starboard side of Unity Node 1 of the ISS. Astronaut Susan Helms, 

Expedition 2 flight engineer, used controls on board the Station to 

maneuver the airlock into place with the Canadarm 2, or Space 

Station Remote Manipulator System. (STS104-E-5068) 

View of Space Shuttle Discovery as it approaches the ISS during 

the STS-105 mission. Visible in the payload bay of Discovery are the 

MPLM Leonardo, which stores various supplies and experiments to be 

transferred into the ISS, and the Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC), which 

carries the Early Ammonia Servicer and two Materials International Space 

Station Experiment (MISSE) containers. (ISS002-E-9749) 
0

STS-108 (107th Shuttle flight)


5–17 December 2001


Endeavour (17th flight)


Crew: Dominic L. P. Gorie (Cdr), Mark E. Kelly


(Pilot), Linda M. Godwin (MS1), Daniel M. 

Tani (MS2) 

ISS Expedition 4 (launch):Yuriy I. Onufriyenko, RSA 

(Russia); Daniel W. Bursch; Carl E.Walz 

ISS Expedition 3 (return): Frank L. Culbertson, Jr.; 

Vladimir N. Dezhurov, RSA (Russia); Mikhail 

V.Tyurin, RSA (Russia) 

Endeavour completed the 12th ISS flight, denoted 

Utilization Flight-1 (UF-1). STS-108 docked to the 

Destiny module, hatches were opened, and the Station 

crew exchanges took place. Aside from the crew swap, 

the mission also moved Multi-Purpose Logistics Module 

Raffaello,making its second spaceflight,from the Shuttle’s 

cargo bay to a docking port on the Unity module to allow 

the transfer of 2,268 kilograms (5,000 pounds) of supplies 

from Raffaello to the Station. One spacewalk, lasting 4 

hours and 12 minutes, was performed by Linda Godwin 

and Daniel Tanni to outfit the exterior of the Station. 

Endeavour carried several Expedition 3 experiments back 

to Earth, as well as experiments located inside Endeavour’s 

cargo bay. A small satellite, Starshine 2, was deployed 

from a canister located in the cargo bay. 

STS-109 (108th Shuttle flight)


1–12 March 2002


Columbia (27th flight)


Crew: Scott D.Altman, (Cdr), Duane G. Carey (Pilot),


John M. Grunsfeld (MS1), Nancy J. Currie 

(formerly Sherlock) (MS2), Richard M. 

Linnehan (MS3), James H. Newman (MS4), 

Michael J. Massimino (MS5) 

Although the mission was designated 3B, it was the fourth 

Hubble SpaceTelescope servicing mission.John Grunsfeld, 

Richard Linnehan, James Newman, and Michael 

Massimino performed a record five spacewalks to upgrade 

the telescope. The spacewalks, lasting 35 hours and 45 

minutes, involved removal and installation of a new thirdgeneration solar array, the attachment of a new module to 

dispense the power provided by the solar arrays, replacement of the original Faint Object Camera (FOC) with the 

Advanced Camera for Survey (ACS), and the installation 

a new experimental cooling system for the Near-Infrared 

Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS). 

STS-110 (109th Shuttle flight)


8–19 April 2002


Atlantis (25th flight)


Crew: Michael J. Bloomfield (Cdr), Stephen N. Frick


(Pilot), Rex J.Walheim (MS1), Ellen Ochoa 

(MS2), Lee M. E. Morin (MS3), Jerry L. Ross 

(MS4), Steven L. Smith (MS5) 

The crew members of STS-106 pose for a traditional crew portrait on board the 

ISS. Front row, from left: Yuri Malenchenko, Terrence Wilcutt, and Scott Altman. 

Back row, from left: Daniel Burbank, Edward Lu, Richard Mastracchio, and Boris 

Morukov. (STS106-373-019) 

This close-up view of the ISS, newly equipped with the 

12,247-kilogram (27,000-pound) S0 truss, was photographed by one of the astronauts on board Space Shuttle 

Atlantis during STS-110. S0 is the first segment of the 

Station’s truss structure, which will ultimately expand the 

Station to the length of a football field. (STS110-729-055) 


The 13th flight to the ISS was designated Station flight 

8A.The main objective of the mission was to install the 

Starboard Zero (S0) truss and the Mobile Transporter, 

both of which were lifted out of Atlantis’s cargo bay and 

attached on top of the Destiny module.The truss contains 

navigational devices, computers, and cooling and power 

systems needed to attach additional laboratories to the 

outpost.The Mobile Transporter gives extra mobility to 

the Station’s Canadarm 2. Rex Walheim, Steven Smith, 

Jerry Ross, and Lee Morin completed the installation of 

the S0 truss during four spacewalks totaling 28 hours and 

22 minutes. In between spacewalks, astronauts also transferred oxygen and nitrogen, gases used to repressurize the 

module after spacewalks, to the Quest Airlock. 

STS-111 (110th Shuttle flight)


5–19 June 2002


Endeavour (18th flight)


Crew: Kenneth D. Cockrell (Cdr); Paul S. Lockhart


(Pilot); Franklin R. Chang-Diaz (MS1); 

Philippe Perrin (MS2), CNES (France) 

ISS Expedition 5 (launch):Valery G. Korzun, RSA 

(Russia); Peggy Whitson; Sergei Y.Treschev, 

RSC Energia (Russia) 

ISS Expedition 4 (return):Yuriy I. Onufriyenko, RSA 

(Russia); Daniel W. Bursch; Carl E.Walz 

Endeavour completed the 14th flight to the ISS, named 

flight Utilization Flight-2 (UF-2). The Shuttle docked 

to the Destiny module, moved Multi-Purpose Logistics 

Module Leonardo from the Shuttle’s cargo bay to the 

Unity module, and transferred more than 2,540 kilograms 

(5,600 pounds) of equipment, supplies, and experiments. 

The crew also moved the Mobile Remote Service Base 

System (MBS) from Endeavour to the Mobile Transporter 

on the Destiny lab. The MBS, part of the Station’s Mobile 

Servicing System, will allow the Canadarm 2 to travel the 

length of the Station for construction tasks. Three spacewalks by Franklin Chang-Diaz and Phillipe Perrin, lasting 19 hours 31 minutes in total, continued the outfitting 

and maintenance of the Station.The astronauts replaced a 

wrist-roll joint on Canadarm 2, restoring it to full use.The 

mission also marked the arrival of Expedition 5, replacing 

Expedition 4, which returned to Earth aboard Endeavour. 

STS-112 (111th Shuttle flight)


7–18 October 2002


Atlantis (26th flight)


Crew: Jeffrey S.Ashby (Cdr); Pamela A. Melroy (Pilot);


David A.Wolf (MS1); Sandra H. Magnus (MS2); 

Piers J. Sellers (MS3); Fyodor N.Yurchikhin 

(MS4), RSC Energia (Russia) 

STS-112, denoted ISS flight 9A, was the 15th flight to the 

Station and carried the S1 integrated truss segment and the 

Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA) cart A to 

the Station. The CETA is the first of two human-powered 

carts to ride along the ISS railway, providing mobile 

work platforms for future spacewalking astronauts.Three 

spacewalks by David Wolf and Piers Sellers accomplished 

the installation of these primary payloads and spent 19 

hours and 41 minutes performing these tasks. 

STS-111 mission specialists Franklin Chang-Diaz (left) and, representing 

the French Space Agency (CNES), Philippe Perrin (right) work on the 

Mobile Remote Servicer Base System (MBS) on the ISS. (MSFC-0201905) A view of the Starboard One (S1) truss, newly installed on the ISS, as 

photographed during the STS-112 mission’s first scheduled session 

of extravehicular activity. (STS112-325-018) 


STS-113 (112th Shuttle flight)


23 November–7 December 2002


Endeavour (19th flight)


Crew: James D.Wetherbee (Cdr), Paul S. Lockhart


(Pilot), Michael E. Lopez-Alegria (MS1), John B. 

Herrington (MS2) 

ISS Expedition 6 (launch): Kenneth D. Bowersox; 

Nikolai M. Budarin, RSC Energia (Russia); 

Donald Pettit 

ISS Expedition 5 (return):Valery G. Korzun, RSA 

(Russia); Peggy Whitson; Sergei Y.Treschev, 

RSC Energia (Russia) 

This 16th flight to the ISS, flight 11A, replaced the 

Expedition 5 crew with Expedition 6 astronauts. Crew 

members also lifted the Port 1 (P1) truss, stored in 

Endeavour’s cargo bay, with the Shuttle’s robotic arm and 

handed it to the Station’s Canadarm 2, which placed it to 

the installation position.Three spacewalks took place to 

outfit and activate the truss. Michael Lopez-Alegria and 

John Herrington performed the EVAs, which totaled 19 

hours and 55 minutes. 

STS-107 (113th Shuttle flight)


16 January–1 February 2003


Columbia (28th flight)


Crew: Rick D. Husband (Cdr);William C. McCool


(Pilot); Michael P. Anderson (PC); David M. 

Brown (MS1); Kalpana Chawla (MS2); Laurel 

B. S. Clark (MS3); Ilan Ramon (PS1), Israel 

The first Shuttle flight of 2003 carried the first Israeli 

crew member, Ilan Ramon. STS-107 was primarily a 

microgravity and space science research mission, carrying aboard the SPACEHAB experiment module and a 

number of external experiments.The mission included 

the Freestar research payload, which consisted of several experiments. During reentry on 1 February, the 

orbiter and crew were lost as Columbia broke apart 

over central Texas. Sensors in the left main landing 

gear wheel well first detected abnormally high temperatures, and similar readings spread throughout the 

orbiter. Later investigation revealed that leading edge 

wing tile was damaged by shed External Tank foam on 

liftoff, and the compromised tile allowed superheated 

gas to enter the orbiter during reentry. 

STS-114 (114th Shuttle flight)


26 July–9 August 2005


Discovery (31st flight)


Crew: Eileen M. Collins (Cdr); James M. Kelly (Pilot);


Soichi Noguchi (MS1), JAXA (Japan); Stephen 

K. Robinson (MS2); Andrew S.W.Thomas 

(MS3);Wendy B. Lawrence (MS4); Charles J. 

Camarda (MS5) 

Discovery’s flight marked the return to flight for the Shuttle 

fleet, two and half years after the loss of Columbia and 

its crew on mission STS-107, and the 17th flight to the 

International Space Station, and was denoted Logistics 

Flight 1 (LF1). During launch, Discovery’s condition was 

extensively documented through a system of new and 

upgraded ground-based cameras, radar systems, and airborne cameras aboard high-altitude aircraft.The imagery 

captured of Discovery’s launch and additional imagery 

from laser systems on Discovery’s new Orbiter Boom 

Sensor System (OBSS), which is a 15.24-meter (50-foot) 

Astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria, STS-113 mission specialist, works 

on the newly installed P1 truss on the International Space Station during a session of extravehicular activity. (ISS005-E-21771) 

The STS-107 crew members strike a “flying” pose for their 

traditional in-flight crew portrait in the SPACEHAB Research 

Double Module (RDM) aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. 

(STS107-735-032) 


long boom extension of the Shuttle robotic arm laserscanner, as well as data from sensors embedded in the 

Shuttle’s wings helped determine the health of Discovery’s 

thermal protection system. As Discovery approached the 

International Space Station, crew members aboard the 

Station photographed the orbiter’s thermal protective 

tiles as well as areas around its main and nose landing 

gear doors. Discovery’s commander also performed the 

first Rendezvous Pitch Maneuver. During the mission, 

Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Raffaello was lifted from 

Discovery’s cargo bay for attachment to the Unity module 

by the Station’s Canadarm 2, allowing the transfer of supplies and equipment to the station.Three thousand two 

hundred kilograms (7,055 pounds) of unneeded equipment and trash were transferred from the Station to the 

Raffaello module prior to its stowage inside Discovery’s 

cargo bay.Three spacewalks were planned and performed 

by Stephen Robinson and Soichi Noguchi for a total of 

20 hours and 5 minutes. During those spacewalks, the 

astronauts tested repair techniques on thermal tiles and 

reinforced carbon-carbon tiles;rerouted power to one the 

four Station gyroscopes; replaced another gyroscope with 

a new one; pulled the two protruding gap fillers from 

between thermal protection tiles; and, finally, installed a 

fifth Materials International Space Station Experiment 

(MISSE), which exposes samples of various materials to 

the harsh space environment for several months. 

STS-121 (115th Shuttle flight)


4–17 July 2006


Discovery (32nd flight)


Crew: Steven W. Lindsey (Cdr); Mark E. Kelly (Pilot);


Michael E. Fossum, (MS1); Lisa M. Nowak 

(MS2); Stephanie D.Wilson (MS3); Piers J. 

Sellers (MS4);Thomas Reiter (MS5), ISS 

(Flight Engineer), ESA (Germany), up 

Discovery’s flight marked the 18th ISS flight, denoted 

Utilization and Logistics Flight 1.1 (ULF 1.1). STS121 carried on the analysis of safety improvements that 

debuted on the previous mission, STS-114, following 

the same inspection procedures carried on during that 

flight. Discovery carried the Italian-built Multi-Purpose 

Logistics Module Leonardo, which was moved from 

the Shuttle’s cargo bay to the Unity module using the 

Station’s Canadarm 2. Leonardo carried more than 3,357 

kilograms (7,400 pounds) of supplies to the Station and 

brought back more than 2,086 kilograms (4,600 pounds) 

of experiments, unnecessary hardware, and trash to Earth. 

European Space Agency astronaut Thomas Reiter of 

Germany was delivered to the ISS as the newest member 

of ISS Expedition 13.The mission was extended one day, 

allowing time for an additional spacewalk. Piers Sellers 

and Michael Fossum performed three spacewalks in total, 

lasting 21 hours and 29 minutes total, to test the Shuttle’s 

Remote Manipulator System/Orbiter Boom Sensor 

System (RMS/OBSS) combination as a platform for 

spacewalking astronauts, to perform maintenance on the 

Mobile Transporter, and to perform imagery and repair 

techniques to Reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC) tiles. 

In the Space Station Processing Facility, the Control Moment 

Gyroscope (CMG), attached to the Small Adapter Plate Assembly, 

is lifted before being moved to the Lightweight Multi-Purpose 

Experiment Support Structure Carrier for flight. The CMG 

launched aboard Space Shuttle Discovery on Return to Flight 

mission STS-114. (KSC-05PD-0421) 

STS-121 mission specialists Michael Fossum and Piers Sellers (out of 

frame) install the new trailing umbilical system in the mobile transporter on the International Space Station during the mission’s second 

session of extravehicular activity. (S121-E-06211) 


STS-115 (116th Shuttle flight)


9–21 September 2006


Atlantis (27th flight)


Crew: Brent W. Jett, Jr. (Cdr); Christopher J. Ferguson


(Pilot); Joseph R.Tanner (MS1); Daniel C. 

Burbank (MS2); Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper 

(MS3); Steven G. MacLean (MS4), CSA 

(Canada) 

Atlantis’s flight marked the 19th flight to the ISS, 

denoted flight ISS-12A. The orbiter delivered truss section P3/P4, a pair of solar arrays, and batteries, along 

with other supplies to the Station. During the course of 

three spacewalks, two by Joseph Tanner and Heidemarie 

Stefanyshyn-Piper and one by Dan Burbank and Steve 

MacLean (for a grand total of 20 hours and 19 minutes), the astronauts installed the newest structural and 

power generation component of the Station. The newly 

unfurled solar panels extended more than 35 meters (115 

feet) in length, adding the power production capability 

for 60 kilowatts of electricity. The crew also conducted 

other maintenance work on the Station, preparing it for 

the next assembly mission. 

STS-116 (117th Shuttle flight)


9–22 December 2006


Discovery (33rd flight)


Crew: Mark L. Polansky (Cdr);William A. Oefelein


(Pilot); Nicholas J. M. Patrick (MS1); Robert L. 

Curbeam (MS2); Joan E. Higginbotham (MS4); 

Christer Fuglesang (MS3), ESA (Sweden); 

Sunita L.Williams (MS5), ISS (Flight Engineer), 

up;Thomas Reiter (MS5), ISS (Flight Engineer), 

ESA (Germany), down 

This mission was the 20th ISS assembly flight, denoted 

12A.1.STS-116 completed a major addition to ISS,adding the P5 truss segment and new solar arrays. Discovery 

also carried a SPACEHAB single logistics module in 

the cargo bay. This module contained 2,630 kilograms 

(5,800 pounds) of supplies and equipment that were 

transferred to the Station. In order to have enough 

clearance to deploy the new set of solar arrays, one of 

the power-generating arrays already on the Station and 

located on the P6 truss needed to fold up but failed to do 

so properly. Mission planners added a fourth spacewalk, 

which successfully corrected the malfunction. In addition 

to adding new Station components, the crew rewired 

the Station’s power system to prepare for its final configuration.Three spacewalks were performed by Robert 

Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang and one was completed 

by Curbeam and Sunita Williams, for a total of 25 hours 

and 45 minutes spent outside the Station.Williams, who 

launched with STS-116, replaced Thomas Reiter as ISS 

flight engineer. Reiter, from Germany, returned with 

the crew aboard Discovery, which had its last mission 

before a major overhaul. STS-116 was the first mission 

to launch during the night since the Columbia accident, 

which previously resulted in stricter launch requirements (primarily for imagery purposes). 

Astronaut Joe Tanner, STS-115 mission specialist, takes a break from 

the construction of the ISS to wave at the camera, held by Heidemarie 

Stefanyshyn-Piper. (S115-E-05753) Against a black night sky, Space Shuttle Discovery and its sevenmember crew head toward Earth orbit and a scheduled linkup with the 

International Space Station. (STS116-S-008) 


THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION 

Overview 

The International Space Station (ISS) represents the 

unprecedented cooperative efforts of 16 nations to undertake one of the largest and most complex scientific projects 

ever.The completed version of the ISS will be four times 

larger that the former Russian space station Mir and easily 

visible from Earth with the naked eye. Its massive interior space will be able to support a six-person crew that 

will conduct research and experiments that will help send 

humans back to the Moon, to Mars, and beyond. 

The origins of ISS date back to the 1980s, when NASA drew 

up plans for an expandable station constructed of pressurized 

modules. President Ronald Reagan gave the proposal, then 

named Space Station Freedom, his seal of approval during 

the 1984 State of the Union Address. The program faltered 

in the following years, however, with numerous design 

changes and increasing cost outlooks. In the late 1980s, 

members of Congress threatened to kill the program, and in 

1993, continued funding for the program was approved by 

a one-vote margin. 

The original concept for the outpost included three separate 

orbital facilities—one crewed component and two platforms 

for experiments and planetary observation. The proposal 

would be a modular station that could be expanded as time 

went on and as needs required.Due to budget constraints,the 

design was continuously scaled back as the European Space 

Agency (ESA), Canada, and Japan agreed to collaborate with 

NASA on the project. 

In 1994, a decade after Reagan’s approval of the project, 

the Station received renewed interest from NASA, which 

reworked the design through the input of a number of private 

aerospace companies. President Bill Clinton also argued for 

increased international participation on the project,bringing 

the Russians firmly on board along with the members of the 

ESA, Canada, and Japan, resulting in the current ISS. Brazil 

was later brought into the program, expanding the number 

of members working to build a truly international space station. Clinton also saw that the final Station design would 

not include a modular expansion capability,thus limiting the 

Station’s size and future budget requirements. 

Russia launched the Functional Cargo Block (FGB), the 

first component of the ISS, in November 1998.The following month, the Space Shuttle Endeavour began assembly by adding Node 1, a core element of the Station that 

connects several different modules.The ISS was uninhabited until November 2000, when the first crew arrived at 

the Station aboard a Russian Soyuz vehicle. Expedition 1 

included NASA astronaut William Shepherd and Russian 

cosmonauts Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev, all of 

whom spent 136 days in orbit aboard the ISS. 

While the Russian Soyuz and Progress vehicles made frequent resupply missions to the space-based outpost, the 

American Space Shuttle was established as the workhorse 

of the program.Not only are the Shuttle missions responsible for transporting the major components of the ISS 

into orbit, but they also carry the astronauts who actually 

put the massive modules, trusses, and solar arrays together 

more than 200 miles (321.8 kilometers) above Earth’s surface. Following the initial assembly mission, STS missions 

This is Johnson Space Center’s 1984 “roof” concept for a space station. The “roof” was covered with solar array cells that were to generate 

about 120 kilowatts of electricity. Within the V-shaped beams there 

would be five modules for living, laboratory space, and external areas 

for instruments and other facilities. (84-HC-17) 

This three-radial-module space station concept was intended to utilize 

Apollo hardware to deploy the station and to transfer crews to and from 

orbit. (GPN-2003-00103) 


continued to put the ISS together with several flights in 

2000, 2001, and 2002. 

In February 2003, the program became jeopardized when 

STS-107 (Columbia) burned up while re-entering Earth’s 

atmosphere, killing all seven crew members. As NASA 

worked to identify and correct the problem that caused the 

loss of Columbia,construction on the ISS came to a halt as the 

Shuttle fleet was grounded.The Station’s crew was reduced 

to two and Soyuz and Progress became the only means of 

transporting passengers and supplies to the Station. 

Shuttle flights resumed in July 2005 with the launch of 

STS-114. With the Space Shuttle program back on track 

by summer 2006, the crew complement was raised back to 

three and NASA picked up a regular construction schedule. 

The Shuttle’s return to flight also brought with it another 

change: theVision for Space Exploration. President George 

W. Bush unveiled this initiative in January 2004 following 

months of careful planning of America’s new space policy 

direction.The plan calls for the completion of the ISS and 

the retirement of the Shuttle by 2010, followed by a human 

mission to the Moon by 2020 and an eventual crewed mission to Mars.With a little less than 50 percent of the Station 

completed in 2006, NASA plans an aggressive schedule to 

finish construction on time so that the outpost will be ready 

to support research for NASA’s next missions. 

When completed, the ISS will be the largest manufactured 

object to orbit Earth.It will have a mass of 419,580 kilograms 

(925,000 pounds), more than twice its mass of 185,976 kilograms (410,000 pounds) as of June 2006,and a length of about 

two and a half football fields.The final structure will run on 

only 110 kilowatts of power, which is less than the typical 

electrical output of a wind turbine with moderate winds. 

Bibliography 

NASA Sources 

Kitmacher, Gary. Reference Guide to the International Space 

Station (NASA SP-2006-557).Available online at http:// 

www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/ISS_Reference_ 

Guide.html. 

Web Links 

NASA Station Home Page: 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html 

Station Images and Videos: 

http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/station/index.html 

Non-NASA Sources 

Hall, Rex (ed.). The International Space Station: From 

Imagination to Reality. British Interplanetary Society, 

London, 2002. 

———. The International Space Station:From Imagination to 

Reality,Volume 2. British Interplanetary Society, London, 

2005. 

Harland, David, and John E. Catchpole. Creating the 

International Space Station. Springer-Praxis, 2002. 

Launius, Roger D. Space Stations: Base Camps to the Stars. 

Smithsonian Books,Washington, 2003. 

McCurdy, Howard E. The Space Station Decision. 

Incremental Politics and Technological Choice (New Series 

in NASA History).The Johns Hopkins University Press, 

Baltimore, 2000. 

Crew portrait of the International Space Station (ISS) Expedition 1. From 

left to right are flight engineer Sergei Krikalev, commander Bill Shepherd, 

and Soyuz commander Yuri Gidzenko. (ISS01-S-002) 

The ISS prepares for docking with Atlantis during the STS-104 mission 

while the Expedition 2 crew operates the Station. (STS104-E-5027) 


International Space Station 

Expeditions 

Expedition 1 

31 October 2000–21 March 2001 

Docking: 2 November 2000; Undocking: 18 March 2001 

Launch aboard Soyuz TM-31, return aboard Discovery 

(STS-102) 

Crew:William M. “Bill” Shepherd (ISS Cdr);Yuri P. 

Gidzenko (Soyuz Cdr), RSA (Russia); Sergei K. 

Krikalev (Flight Engineer), RSA (Russia) 

Expedition 1 marked the first crew to inhabit the ISS. 

Upon docking with the Zvezda service module, the crew 

began setting up basic functions for the Station, including food preparation systems, sleeping quarters, and 

communication with mission controllers and NASA. In 

addition to conducting extensive press and documentary 

interviews,Expedition 1 also set up the computer systems 

required to run the Station. Along with logistical tasks, 

the crew also conducted experiments monitoring the 

environment of the ISS and investigating crew health and 

nutrition issues. 

Expedition 2 

8 March–22 August 2001 

Docking: 10 March 2001; Undocking: 20 August 2001 

Launch aboard Discovery (STS-102), return aboard 

Discovery (STS-105) 

Crew:YuryV. Usachev (ISS Cdr), RSA (Russia); 

James S.Voss (Flight Engineer); Susan J. Helms 

(Flight Engineer) 

Expedition 2 saw increased construction of the ISS during a series of four Space Shuttle missions and one Soyuz 

mission to the outpost. During the crew’s time in space, 

astronauts added the Space Station Remote Manipulator 

System (SSRMS), similar to the Space Shuttle’s robotic 

arm. ISS crew members used the SSRMS to install a new 

airlock. The arm would be used on future missions to 

assist with the construction of the Station. Expedition 

2 crew members also conducted an expanded number 

of science experiments compared to the previous crew, 

studying topics ranging from protein crystal growth to 

the ability of plants to survive in space. 

Expedition 3 

10 August–17 December 2001 

Docking: 12 August 2001; Undocking: 15 December 

2001 

Launch aboard Discovery (STS-105), return aboard 

Endeavour (STS-108) 

Crew: Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. (ISS Cdr);Vladimir N. 

Dezhurov (Soyuz Cdr), RSA (Russia); Mikhail 

V.Tyurin (Flight Engineer), RSA (Russia) 

During the course of four spacewalks, the Expedition 3 

crew continued with the on-orbit construction and maintenance of the ISS. Three spacewalks were dedicated to the 

installation of the Pirs Russian Docking Compartment, 

which allows the ISS to join with other spacecraft and 

provides egress for ISS crew spacewalks. One other extravehicular activity was dedicated to repairing an obstruction that prevented a Progress supply ship from mating 

with the Station. Expedition 3 was in space during the 11 

September 2001 terrorist attacks, and crew members took 

photos of the devastation at the World Trade Center site. 

Cosmonaut Vladimir Dezhurov, Expedition 3 flight engineer, floats in the 

pressurized adapter of the Functional Cargo Block on the International 

Space Station. (ISS003-E-6852) 

Expedition 3 commander Frank Culbertson receives a haircut from 

Mikhail Tyurin in the Zvezda Service Module on the ISS. Culbertson is 

holding a vacuum device to collect the clippings. (ISS003-E-5896) 


Expedition 4 

5 December 2001–19 June 2002 

Docking: 7 December 2001; Undocking: 15 June 2002 

Launch aboard Endeavour (STS-108), return aboard 

Endeavour (STS-111) 

Crew:Yuriy I. Onufriyenko (ISS Cdr), RSA (Russia); 

Daniel W. Bursch (Flight Engineer); Carl E. 

Walz (Flight Engineer) 

During the fourth crew stay on the ISS, flight engineers 

Carl Walz and Dan Bursch broke the U.S. spaceflight 

endurance record of 188 days by spending 231 and then 

227 total days in space.This record has since been broken. 

Expedition 4 saw the addition of one truss section, and 

each of the three crew members conducted spacewalks 

to perform modification and minor installation on the 

exterior of the ISS. 

Expedition 5 

5 June–7 December 2002 

Docking: 7 June 2002; Undocking: 2 December 2002 

Launch aboard Endeavour (STS-111), return aboard 

Endeavour (STS-113) 

Crew:Valery G. Korzun (ISS Cdr), RSA (Russia); 

Peggy Whitson (Flight Engineer); SergeiY. 

Treschev (Flight Engineer), RSC Energia 

(Russia) 

Expedition 5 crew members inhabited the ISS during a 

time of relatively few additions to the Station—only two 

truss sections were installed. The crew conducted two 

spacewalks to install several minor components on the outside of the Station;however,they made up for a lull in construction with more than 30 experiments. Crew members 

conducted research projects to study latent virus shedding 

in space, zeolite crystal growth, and liver cell functions. 

Expedition 6 

23 November 2002–3 May 2003 

Docking: 25 November 2002; Undocking: 3 May 2003 

Launch aboard Endeavour (STS-113), return aboard 

Soyuz TMA-2 

Crew: Kenneth D. Bowersox (ISS Cdr); Donald Pettit 

(Flight Engineer); Nikolai M. Budarin (Flight 

Engineer), RSC Energia (Russia) 

During Expedition 6’s time in space, Columbia broke apart 

during reentry,grounding all Shuttle missions and forcing the 

Station to rely on Russian vehicles. Despite the halt in the 

delivery of new Station components from the Space Shuttle, 

the crew conducted two spacewalks to outfit the exterior 

trusses and prepared them for future installation missions.Due 

to the inoperability of the Space Shuttle fleet, Expedition 6 

returned aboard Soyuz,marking the first time that U.S.astronauts returned to Earth in that Russian vehicle. 

Expedition 7 

25 April–27 October 2003 

Docking: 28 April 2003; Undocking: 27 October 2003 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-2 

Crew:Yuri I. Malenchenko (ISS Cdr), RSA (Russia); 

Edward T. Lu (Flight Engineer) 

Expedition 7 marked the first two-person crew to inhabit 

the Station. This change resulted from the ongoing grounding of the Shuttle fleet and investigation into the Columbia 

accident.Yuri Malenchenko and Ed Lu also did not see anyone else during close to 200 days in space,until the arrival of 

Moments prior to the undocking of Space Shuttle Atlantis from the 

ISS, an Expedition 4 crew member took this digital still photograph 

from a window in the Pirs Docking Compartment. Visible in this image 

are the Soyuz spacecraft, Space Station Remote Manipulator System 

(SSRMS)/Canadarm 2, and Pressurized Mating Adapter 3. 

(ISS004-E-10071) 

The Soyuz TMA-2 spacecraft, docked to the Functional Cargo Block’s 

nadir port on the ISS, was photographed by an Expedition 7 crew 

member. The blackness of space and Earth’s horizon provide the 

backdrop for the scene. (ISS007-E-05454) 


Expedition 8.The crew became focused on Station operations and experiments and conducted no EVAs. 

Expedition 8 

18 October 2003–29 April 2004 

Docking: 20 October 2003; Undocking: 29 April 2004 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-3 

Crew: C. Michael Foale (ISS Cdr);AlexanderY. Kaleri 

(Flight Engineer), RSC Energia (Russia); Pedro 

Duque (Flight Engineer; launched with 

Expedition 8 and returned with Expedition 7), 

ESA (Spain) 

Expedition 8 launched with three crew members, though 

only two of them were actually headed to spend a significant amount of time on the Station.Spanish flight engineer 

Pedro Duque launched with Expedition 8 but returned 

with the Expedition 7 crew.This began a trend that continued until the Station crew complement returned to three. 

While aboard the ISS, Mike Foale and Alexander Kaleri 

continued to maintain the Station as the Columbia investigation continued.The crew’s only spacewalk was cut short 

when Kaleri’s Russian Orlan spacesuit malfunctioned. 

Expedition 9 

18 April–23 October 2004 

Docking: 21 April 2004; Undocking: 23 October 2004 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-4 

Crew: Gennady I. Padalka (ISS Cdr), RSA (Russia;) 

E. Michael Fincke (Flight Engineer);André 

Kuipers (Flight Engineer; launched with 

Expedition 9 and returned with Expedition 8), 

ESA (the Netherlands) 

With the Space Shuttle fleet still out of service, the crew of 

Expedition 9 continued to focus on Station operations and 

scientific research. The crew’s first spacewalk ended early 

due to a pressure problem in Mike Fincke’s suit, but was 

rescheduled. Gennady Padalka and Fincke conducted three 

additional EVAs, replacing exterior Station parts; preparing 

the Station for the arrival of the first ESAAutomatedTransfer 

Vehicle (ATV),to be launched on top of anAriane 5 rocket; 

and installing additional communications antennas. 

Expedition 10 

13 October 2004–24 April 2005 

Docking: 15 October 2004; Undocking: 24 April 2005 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-5 

Crew: Leroy Chiao (ISS Cdr); Salizhan S. Sharipov 

(Flight Engineer), RSA (Russia);Yuri G. 

Shargin (Flight Engineer; launched with 

Expedition 10, returned with Expedition 9), 

RSA (Russia) 

Mission planners delayed the launch of the 10th crewed 

expedition to the ISS by five days after an explosive bolt 

on the Soyuz vehicle detonated during launch preparation. Following the delay, the mission ran smoothly, with 

the crew completing the installation of the Universal 

Work Platform outside the Station and installing navigational and communications equipment to facilitate the 

arrival of the first Automated Transfer Vehicle cargo ship. 

During the 2004 U.S. presidential election, Leroy Chiao 

became the first astronaut to vote in space, making his 

choice through an electronic ballot sent to the Station. 

Two days after launching from Kazakhstan, the Soyuz TMA-3 spacecraft, 

carrying the two Expedition 8 crew members, astronaut C. Michael Foale 

(American commander and NASA ISS science officer) and Russian cosmonaut Alexander Kaleri (flight engineer and Soyuz commander), along 

with European Space Agency astronaut Pedro Duque, docked with the 

International Space Station on 20 October 2003. (ISS007-E-17748)	 Salizhan Sharipov, Expedition 10 flight engineer, is reflected in a 

water bubble floating inside the ISS. (ISS010-E-13645) 
0

Expedition 11 

14 April–10 October 2005 

Docking: 16 April 2005; Undocking: 10 October 2005 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-6 

Crew: Sergei K. Krikalev (ISS Cdr), RSA (Russia); 

John L. Phillips (Flight Engineer); Roberto 

Vittori (Flight Engineer; launched with 

Expedition 11, returned with Expedition 10), 

ESA (Italy) 

Expedition 11 sent Sergei Krikalev, a space veteran, back 

to the Station for a second tour of duty. On 16 August 

2005,Krikalev broke the previous 748-day record for most 

time spent in space by a human.The crew conducted one 

spacewalk, removing experiment containers, installing a 

television camera on the Zvezda Service Module, and 

removing two exterior panels. While the Space Shuttle 

returned to flight with STS-114 in late July, Discovery and 

its crew did not make a visit to the ISS. 

Expedition 12 

30 September 2005–8 April 2006 

Docking: 3 October 2005; Undocking: 8 April 2006 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-7 

Crew:William S.“Bill” McArthur (ISS Cdr);Valery I. 

Tokarev (Flight Engineer), RSA (Russia) 

Instead of the brief third crew member visit during twoperson Station operations, American entrepreneur and 

space tourist Gregory Olsen joined the Expedition 12 

crew as they launched to the Station aboard Soyuz. Olsen 

returned with the Expedition 11 crew after a brief stay 

aboard the ISS. Both Expedition 12 crew members participated in two EVAs, installing a new camera, conducting minor repairs, and jettisoning an old Orlan spacesuit 

and a nonfunctional instrument. 

Expedition 13 

29 March–28 September 2006 

Docking: 31 March 2006; Undocking: 28 September 

2006 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-8 

Crew: Pavel V. Vinogradov (ISS Cdr), RSC Energia 

(Russia); Jeffrey N.Williams (Flight Engineer); 

Thomas Reiter (Flight Engineer; arrived at 

the ISS on 6 July 2006 aboard Discovery on 

STS-121), ESA (Germany); Marco Pontes 

(Flight Engineer; launched with Expedition 13, 

returned with Expedition 12), Brazilian Space 

Agency (Brazil) 

Though launched with only two crew members, 

Expedition 13 received a third astronaut from STS-121, 

the first Shuttle mission to the ISS following the Columbia 

accident. Though the Station’s crew complement was 

returned to three,Discovery did not deliver any new major 

components to the orbital outpost during its trip there. 

The 13th ISS crew conducted two spacewalks to conduct 

repairs and maintenance and the installation of an electric 

potential measurement device. 

Expedition 14 

18 September 2006–21 April 2007 

Docking: 20 September 2006 

Launch and return aboard Soyuz TMA-9 

While orbiting Earth aboard the ISS at a speed of 5 miles a second, 

astronaut John Phillips, NASA ISS science officer and flight engineer on 

Expedition 11, testifies via video screen before the House Subcommittee 

on Space and Aeronautics, chaired by Representative Ken Calvert 

(R-California). (JSC2005-E-22365)


Expedition 13 science officer Jeffrey Williams floats outside the ISS


during a spacewalk. (ISS013-E-63440)



Crew: Michael E. Lopez-Alegria (ISS Cdr); Mikhail 

V.Tyurin (Flight Engineer), RSA (Russia); 

Thomas Reiter (Flight Engineer; remained on 

the Station from Expedition 13, returned on 

Atlantis on STS-116 in December 2006), ESA 

(Germany); Sunita L.Williams (Flight Engineer, 

replaced Thomas Reiter after arriving on 

STS-116, returned on Atlantis on STS-117) 

Thomas Reiter remained on board the ISS for Expedition 

14 and was joined by two additional crew members. A 

second space tourist to ISS, American businesswoman 

Anousheh Ansari, launched with Expedition 14 and 

returned to Earth with the former crew. Expedition 14 

crew members continued construction on the Station 

with an operational Shuttle fleet. On Expedition 14’s first 

spacewalk, which involved installing experiments and 

equipment, Mikhail Tyurin hit a golf ball from the Pirs 

docking compartment. 

Starboard side view of the International Space Station as it appeared 

beginning 29 November 2004, represented by a computer-generated 

scene. (JSC2004-E-51834) 

An Expedition 13 crew member aboard the International Space Station 

took this digital still image of Space Shuttle Atlantis as the Shuttle, carrying a crew of six, approached the orbital outpost. (ISS013-E-79714) 

A Soyuz rocket launches from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, 

Kazakhstan, with Expedition 12 commander William McArthur, Jr., 

flight engineer and Soyuz commander Valery Tokarev, and U.S. 

spaceflight participant Gregory Olsen aboard. (jsc2005e40271) 



APPENDIX A: SHUTTLE MAIN PAYLOADS


Shuttle Mission Major Payloads 

01. STS-1 N/A 

02. STS-2 OSTA-1 

03. STS-3 OSS-1 

04. STS-4 Department of Defense and CFES 

05. STS-5 Anik C-3; SBS-C 

06. STS-6 TDRS-1 

07. STS-7 Anik C-2; Palapa B-1 

08. STS-8 Insat-1B 

09. STS-9 Spacelab-1 

10. 41-B Westar-VI; Palapa B2 

11. 41-C LDEF deploy 

12. 41-D SBS-D; Syncom IV-2;TELSTAR 

13. 41-G ERBS; OSTA-3 

14. 51-A TELESAT-H; Syncom IV-1 

15. 51-C Department of Defense 

16. 51-D TELESAT-I; Syncom IV-3 

17.51-B Spacelab-3 

18. 51-G MORELOS-A;ARABSAT-A; 

TELSTAR-3D 

19. 51-F Spacelab-2 

20. 51-I ASC-1;AUSSAT-1; Syncom IV-4 

21. 51-J Department of Defense 

22. 61-A Spacelab D-1 

23. 61-B MORELOS-B;AUSSAT-2; 

SATCOM KU-2 

24. 61-C SATCOM KU-1 

25. 51-L TDRS-2; SPARTAN-203 

26. STS-26 TDRS-C 

27. STS-27 Department of Defense 

28. STS-29 TDRS-D 

29. STS-30 Magellan 

30. STS-28 Department of Defense 

31. STS-34 Galileo; SSBUV 

32. STS-33 Department of Defense 

33. STS-32 Syncom IV-F5; LDEF retrieval 

34. STS-36 Department of Defense 

35. STS-31 HST deployment 

Shuttle Mission Major Payloads 

36. STS-41 Ulysses; SSBUV; ISAC 

37. STS-38 Department of Defense 

38. STS-35 ASTRO-1 

39. STS-37 GRO 

40. STS-39 Department of Defense:AFP675; IBSS; SPAS-II 

41. STS-40 SLS-1 

42. STS-43 TDRS-E; SSBUV; SHARE-II 

43. STS-48 UARS 

44. STS-44 Department of Defense: DSP 

45. STS-42 IML-1 

46. STS-45 ATLAS-1 

47. STS-49 Intelsat VI repair 

48. STS-50 USML-1 

49. STS-46 TSS-1; EURECA deploy 

50. STS-47 Spacelab-J 

51. STS-52 USMP-1; LAGEOS II 

52. STS-53 Department of Defense; 

ODERACS 

53. STS-54 TDRS-F; DXS 

54. STS-56 ATLAS-2; SPARTAN-201 

55. STS-55 Spacelab D-2 

56. STS-57 SPACEHAB-1; EURECA 

retrieval 

57. STS-51 ACTS/TOS; ORFEUS-SPAS 

58. STS-58 SLS-2 

59. STS-61 First HST servicing 

60. STS-60 WSF-1; SPACEHAB-2 

61. STS-62 USMP-2; OAST-2 

62. STS-59 SRL-1 

63. STS-65 IML-2 

64. STS-64 LITE; SPARTAN-201 

65. STS-68 SRL-2 

66. STS-66 ATLAS-3; CRISTA-SPAS 

67. STS-63 SPACEHAB-3; Mir rendezvous 

68. STS-67 ASTRO-2 

69. STS-71 First Mir docking 

70. STS-70 TDRS-G 


Shuttle Mission Major Payloads 

71. STS-69 SPARTAN 201-03;WSF-2 

72. STS-73 USML-2 

73. STS-74 Second Mir docking 

74. STS-72 SFU; OAST-Flyer 

75. STS-75 TSS-1R; USMP-3 

76. STS-76 Third Mir docking; SPACEHAB 

77. STS-77 SPACEHAB; SPARTAN (IAE) 

78. STS-78 LMS 

79. STS-79 Fourth Mir docking; SPACEHAB 

80. STS-80 ORFEUS-SPAS II;WSF-3 

81. STS-81 Fifth Mir Docking; SPACEHAB 

82. STS-82 Second HST servicing 

83. STS-83 MSL-1 

84. STS-84 Sixth Mir docking; SPACEHAB 

85. STS-94 MSL-1 (reflight) 

86. STS-85 CRISTA-SPAS 

87. STS-86 Seventh Mir docking; SPACE­ HAB 

88. STS-87 USMP-4; Spartan; CUE 

89. STS-89 Eighth Mir docking; SPACEHAB 

90. STS-90 Neurolab 

91. STS-91 Ninth and final Mir docking 

95. STS-95 Spartan; HOST; John Glenn 

flight 

93. STS-88 First ISS mission, 2A; Unity 

module 

94. STS-96 Second ISS mission, 2A.1; 

Equipment 

95. STS-93 Chandra X-ray 

Observatory 

96. STS-103 Third HST servicing 

97. STS-99 SRTM 

98. STS-101 Third ISS mission, 2A.2a; 

Equipment 

99. STS-106 Fourth ISS mission, 2A.2b; 

Magnetometer 

100. STS-92 Fifth ISS mission, 3A; Z1 truss; 

PMA 3 

101. STS-97 Sixth ISS mission, 4A; P6 truss 

Shuttle Mission Major Payloads 

102. STS-98 Seventh ISS mission, 5A; U.S. lab 

Destiny 

103. STS-102 

Eighth ISS mission, 5A.1; MPLM 

Leonardo; Expedition 2 crew 

exchange 

104. STS-100 Ninth ISS mission, 6A; Canadarm 

2; MPLM Raffaello 

105. STS-104 10th ISS mission,7A;Quest Airlock; 

High-Pressure Gas Assembly 

106. STS-105 

11th ISS mission, 7A.1; MPLM 

Leonardo; Expedition 3 crew exchange 

107. STS-108 

12th ISS mission, UF-1; MPLM 

Raffaello; Expedition 4 crew exchange; Starshine 2 

108. STS-109 Fourth HST servicing 

109. STS-110 13th ISS mission, 8A; S0 truss; 

Mobile Transporter 

110. STS-111 

14th ISS mission, UF-2; MPLM 

Leonardo; MBS; Expedition 5 

crew exchange 

111. STS-112 15th ISS mission, 8A; S1 truss; 

CETA cart A 

112. STS-113 16th ISS mission, 11A; P1 truss 

113. STS-107 Research mission; SPACEHAB; 

Hitchhiker pallet 

114. STS-114 17th ISS mission, LF-1, MPLM 

Raffaello 

115. STS-121 18th ISS mission, ULF-1.1; 

MPLM Leonardo 

116. STS-115 19th ISS mission, 12A; P3/P4 

truss 

117. STS-116 20th ISS mission, 12A.1; P5 truss 


APPENDIX B: ASTRONAUTS PAST AND PRESENT*


Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

ACTON, Loren W. STS-51F 

ADAMSON, James C. STS-28, STS-43 

AKERS,Thomas D. STS-41, STS-49, 

STS-61, STS-79 

ALDRIN, Edwin E.“Buzz,” Jr. 

AL-SAUD, Sultan Salman 

Abdul Aziz 

Gemini XII,Apollo 11 

STS-51G 

ALLEN,Andrew M. STS-46, STS-62, 

STS-75 

ALLEN, Joseph P. STS-5, STS-51A 

ALTMAN, Scott D. STS-90, STS-106, 

STS-109 

ANDERS,William A. Apollo 8 

ANDERSON, Michael P. STS-89, STS-107 

APT, Jerome “Jay” STS-37, STS-47, 

STS-59, STS-79 

ARMSTRONG, Neil A. 

ASHBY, Jeffrey S. 

GeminiVIII,Apollo 11 

STS-93, STS-100, 

STS-112 

BAGIAN, James P. STS-29, STS-40 

BAKER (-SHULMAN), Ellen STS-34, STS-50, 

STS-71 

BAKER, Michael A. STS-43, STS-52, 

STS-68, STS-81 

BARRY, Daniel T. STS-72, STS-96, 

STS-105 

BARTOE, John-David F. STS-51F 

BAUDRY, Patrick STS-51G 

BEAN,Alan L. Apollo 12, Skylab 3 

BLAHA, John E. 

STS-29, STS-33, 

STS-43, STS-58, 

STS-79 (up), STS-81 

(down) 

BLOOMFIELD, Michael J. STS-86, STS-97, 

STS-110 

BLUFORD, Guion S. STS-8, STS-61A, 

STS-39, STS-53 

BOBKO, Karol J. STS-6, STS-51D, STS-51J 

BOLDEN, Charles F., Jr. STS-61C, STS-31, 

STS-45, STS-60 

BONDAR, Roberta L. STS-42 

BORMAN, Frank GeminiVII,Apollo 8 

Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

BOWERSOX, Kenneth D. 

STS-50, STS-61, 

STS-73, STS-82, 

STS-113 (up) 

BRADY, Charles E., Jr. STS-78 

BRAND,Vance D. Apollo-Soyuz, STS-5, 

STS-41B, STS-35 

BRANDENSTEIN, Daniel C. STS-8, STS-51G, 

STS-32, STS-49 

BRIDGES, Roy D. STS-51F 

BROWN, Curtis L., Jr. 

STS-47, STS-66, 

STS-77, STS-85, 

STS-95, STS-103 

BROWN, David M. STS-107 

BROWN, Mark N. STS-28, STS-48 

BUCHLI, James F. STS-51C, STS-61A, STS-29, STS-48 

BUCKEY, Jay C. STS-90 

BUDARIN, Nikolai M. STS-71 (up), STS113 (up) 

BURBANK, Daniel C. STS-106, STS-115 

BURSCH, Daniel W. 

STS-51,STS-68, 

STS-77,STS-108 (up), 

STS-111 (down) 

CABANA, Robert D. STS-41, STS-53, 

STS-65, STS-88 

CAMARDA, Charles J. STS-114 

CAMERON, Kenneth D. STS-37, STS-56, 

STS-74 

CAREY, Duane G. STS-109 

CARPENTER, M. Scott Mercury-Atlas 7 

CARR, Gerald P. Skylab 4 

CARTER, Manley L.“Sonny” STS-33 

CASPER, John H. STS-36, STS-54, 

STS-62, STS-77 

CENKER, Robert J. STS-61C 

CERNAN, Eugene A. Gemini IX,Apollo 10, 

Apollo 17 

CHAFFEE, Roger B. Apollo 1** 

CHANG-DIAZ, Franklin R. 

STS-61C, STS-34, 

STS-46, STS-60, 

STS-75, STS-91, 

STS-111 

CHAWLA, Kalpana STS-87, STS-107 

CHELI, Maurizio STS-75 


Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

CHIAO, Leroy STS-65, STS-72, 

STS-92 

CHILTON, Kevin P. STS-49, STS-59, 

STS-76 

CHRÉTIEN, Jean-Loup STS-86 

CLARK, Laurel B. S. STS-107 

CLEAVE, Mary L. STS-61B, STS-30 

CLERVOY, Jean-Francois STS-66, STS-84, 

STS-103 

CLIFFORD, Michael R. STS-53, STS-59, 

STS-76 

COATS, Michael L. STS-41D, STS-29, 

STS-39 

COCKRELL, Kenneth D. 

STS-56, STS-69, 

STS-80, STS-98, 

STS-111 

COLEMAN, Catherine G. 

“Cady” STS-73, STS-93 

COLLINS, Eileen M. STS-63, STS-84, 

STS-93, STS-114 

COLLINS, Michael 

CONRAD, Charles,“Pete,” Jr. 

Gemini X,Apollo 11 

GeminiV, Gemini XI, 

Apollo 12, Skylab 2 

COOPER, L. Gordon, Jr. Mercury-Atlas 9, 

GeminiV 

COVEY, Richard O. STS-51I, STS-26, 

STS-38, STS-61 

CREIGHTON, John O. STS-51G, STS-36, 

STS-48 

CRIPPEN, Robert L. STS-1, STS-7, STS41C, STS-41G 

CROUCH, Roger K. STS-83, STS-94 

CULBERTSON, Frank L., Jr. 

STS-38, STS-51, 

STS-105 (up), STS108 (down) 

CUNNINGHAM,Walter Apollo 7 

CURBEAM, Robert L. STS-85, STS-98, 

STS-116 

CURRIE (-SHERLOCK), 

Nancy J. 

STS-57, STS-70, 

STS-88, STS-109 

DAVIS, N. Jan STS-47, STS-60, 

STS-85 

DELUCAS, Lawrence J. STS-50 

DEZHUROV, Vladimir N. 

STS-71 (down), STS105 (up), STS-108 

(down) 

DOI,Takao STS-87 

Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

DUFFY, Brian K. STS-45, STS-57, 

STS-72, STS-92 

DUKE, Charles M., Jr. Apollo 16 

DUNBAR, Bonnie J. 

STS-61A, STS-32, 

STS-50, STS-71, 

STS-89 

DUQUE, Pedro STS-95 

DURRANCE, Samuel T. STS-35, STS-67 

EDWARDS, Joe F., Jr. STS-89 

EISELE, Donn F. Apollo 7 

ENGLAND,Anthony W. STS-51F 

ENGLE, Joe H. STS-2, STS-51I 

EVANS, Ronald E. Apollo 17 

FABIAN, John M. STS-7, STS-51G 

FAVIER, Jean-Jacques STS-78 

FERGUSON, Christopher J. STS-115 

FETTMAN, Martin J. STS-58 

FISHER,Anna L. STS-51A 

FISHER,William F. STS-51I 

FOALE, C. Michael 

STS-45, STS-56, 

STS-63, STS-84 (up), 

STS-86 (down), 

STS-103 

FORRESTER, Patrick G. STS-105 

FOSSUM, Michael E. STS-121 

FRICK, Stephen N. STS-110 

FRIMOUT, Dirk D.“Dick” STS-45 

FUGLESANG, Christer STS-116 

FULLERTON, Charles G. “Gordo” STS-3, STS-51F 

FURRER, Reinhard STS-61A 

GAFFNEY, F.Andrew “Drew” STS-40 

GARDNER, Dale A. STS-8, STS-51A 

GARDNER, Guy S. STS-27, STS-35 

GARN, E. Jacob STS-51D 

GARNEAU, Marc 

STS-41G, STS-77, 

STS-97 

GARRIOTT, Owen K. Skylab 3, STS-9 

GEMAR, Charles D.“Sam” STS-38, STS-48, 

STS-62 


Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

GERNHARDT, Michael L. STS-69, STS-83, 

STS-94, STS-104 

GIBSON, Edward G. Skylab 4 

GIBSON, Robert L.“Hoot” 

STS-41B, STS-61C, 

STS-27, STS-47, 

STS-71 

GIDZENKO,Yuri P. STS-102 (down) 

GLENN, John H., Jr. Mercury-Atlas 6, 

STS-95 

GODWIN, Linda M. STS-37, STS-59, 

STS-76, STS-108 

GORDON, Richard F., Jr. 

GORIE, Dominic L. P. 

Gemini XI,Apollo 12 

STS-91, STS-99, 

STS-108 

GRABE, Ronald J. STS-51J, STS-30, 

STS-42, STS-57 

GREGORY, Frederick D. STS-51B, STS-33, 

STS-44 

GREGORY,William G. STS-67 

GRIGGS, Stanley D. STS-51D 

GRISSOM,Virgil I.“Gus” 

Mercury-Redstone 3, 

Gemini III, 

Apollo 1** 

GRUNSFELD, John M. STS-67, STS-81, 

STS-103, STS-109 

GUIDONI, Umberto STS-75, STS-100 

GUTIERREZ, Sidney M. STS-40, STS-59 

HADFIELD, Chris A. STS-74, STS-100 

HAISE, Fred W., Jr. Apollo 13 

HALSELL, James D., Jr. 

STS-65, STS-74, 

STS-83, STS-94, 

STS-101 

HAMMOND, L. Blaine, Jr. STS-39, STS-64 

HARBAUGH, Gregory J. STS-39, STS-54, 

STS-71, STS-82 

HARRIS Bernard A., Jr. STS-55, STS-63 

HART,Terry J. STS-41C 

HARTSFIELD, Henry W. “Hank” STS-4, STS-41D, STS-61A 

HAUCK, Frederick “Rick” H. STS-7, STS-51A, 

STS-26 

HAWLEY, Steven A. 

STS-41D, STS-61C, STS-31, STS-82, 

STS-93 

Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

HELMS, Susan J. 

STS-54, STS-64, 

STS-78, STS-101, 

STS-102 (up), STS105 (down) 

HENIZE, Karl G. STS-51F 

HENNEN,Thomas J. STS-44 

HENRICKS,Terence T. “Tom” STS-44, STS-55, 

STS-70, STS-78 

HERRINGTON, John B. STS-113 

HIEB, Richard J. STS-39, STS-49, 

STS-65 

HIGGINBOTHAM, Joan E. STS-116 

HILMERS, David C. STS-51J, STS-26, 

STS-36, STS-42 

HIRE, Kathryn P. STS-90 

HOBAUGH, Charles O. STS-104 

HOFFMAN, Jeffrey A. 

STS-51D, STS-35, 

STS-46, STS-61, 

STS-75 

HOROWITZ, Scott J. STS-75, STS-82, 

STS-101, STS-105 

HUGHES-FULFORD,Millie E. STS-40 

HUSBAND, Rick D. STS-96, STS-107 

IRWIN, James B. Apollo 15 

IVINS, Marsha S. 

STS-32, STS-46, 

STS-62, STS-81, 

STS-98 

JARVIS, Gregory B. STS-51L 

JEMISON, Mae C. STS-47 

JERNIGAN,Tamara E. 

STS-40, STS-52, 

STS-67, STS-80, 

STS-96 

JETT, Brent W., Jr. STS-72, STS-81, 

STS-97, STS-115 

JONES,Thomas D. STS-59, STS-68, 

STS-80, STS-98 

KADENYUK, Leonid K. STS-87 

KAVANDI, Janet L. STS-91, STS-99, 

STS-104 

KELLY, James M. STS-102, STS-114 

KELLY, Mark E. STS-108, STS-121 

KELLY, Scott J. STS-103 

KERWIN, Joseph P. Skylab 2 

KONDAKOVA,Yelena V. STS-84 


Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

KORZUN,Valery G. STS-111 (up), STS113 (down) 

KREGEL, Kevin R. STS-70, STS-78, 

STS-87, STS-99 

KRIKALEV, Sergei K. STS-60, STS-88, 

STS-102 (down) 

LAWRENCE,Wendy B. STS-67, STS-86, 

STS-91, STS-114 

LEE, Mark C. STS-30, STS-47, 

STS-64, STS-82 

LEESTMA, David C. STS-41G, STS-28, 

STS-45 

LENOIR,William B. STS-5 

LESLIE, Fred W. STS-73 

LICHTENBERG, Byron K. STS-9, STS-45 

LIND, Don L. STS-51B 

LINDSEY, Steven W. STS-87, STS-95, 

STS-104, STS-121 

LINENGER, Jerry M. STS-64, STS-81 (up), 

STS-84 (down) 

LINNEHAN, Richard M. STS-78, STS-90, 

STS-109 

LINTERIS, Gregory T. STS-83, STS-94 

LOCKHART, Paul S. 

LONCHAKOV, Yuri V. 

STS-111, STS-113 

STS-100 

LOPEZ-ALEGRIA, Michael E. STS-73, STS-92, 

STS-113 

LOUNGE, John M.“Mike” STS-51I, STS-26, 

STS-35 

LOUSMA, Jack R. Skylab 3, STS-3 

LOVELL, James A., Jr. 

GeminiVII, Gemini XII,Apollo 8, 

Apollo 13 

LOW, G. David STS-32, STS-43, 

STS-57 

LU, Edward T. STS-84, STS-106 

LUCID, Shannon W. 

STS-51G, STS-34, 

STS-43, STS-58, 

STS-76 (up), STS-79 

(down) 

MACLEAN, Steven G. STS-52, STS-115 

MAGNUS, Sandra H. STS-112 

MALENCHENKO,Yuri I. STS-106 

MALERBA, Franco A. STS-46 

MASSIMINO, Michael J. STS-109 

Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

MASTRACCHIO, Richard A. STS-106 

MATTINGLY,Thomas K., II Apollo 16, STS-4, 

STS-51C 

McARTHUR,William S., Jr. STS-58, STS-74, 

STS-92 

McAULIFFE, Sharon C. STS-51L 

McBRIDE, Jon A. STS-41G 

McCANDLESS, Bruce, II STS-41B, STS-31 

McCOOL,William C. STS-107 

McCULLEY, Michael J. STS-34 

McDIVITT, James A. 

McMONAGLE, Donald R. 

Gemini IV,Apollo 9 

STS-39, STS-54, 

STS-66 

McNAIR, Ronald E. 

MEADE, Carl J. 

STS-41B, STS-51L 

STS-38, STS-50, 

STS-64 

MELNICK, Bruce E. STS-41, STS-49 

MELROY, Pamela A. STS-92, STS-112 

MERBOLD, Ulf D. STS-9, STS-42 

MESSERSCHMID, Ernst W. STS-61A 

MITCHELL, Edgar D. Apollo 14 

MOHRI, Mamoru M. STS-47, STS-99 

MORIN, Lee M. E. STS-110 

MORUKOV, Boris V. STS-106 

MULLANE, Richard M. STS-41D, STS-27, 

STS-36 

MUSGRAVE, F. Story 

STS-6, STS-51F, STS-33, STS-44, 

STS-61, STS-80 

NAGEL, Steven R. STS-51G, STS-61A, 

STS-37, STS-55 

NAITO-MUKAI, Chiaki H. STS-65, STS-95 

NELSON, C.William “Bill” STS-61C 

NELSON, George D. STS-41C, STS-61C, STS-26 

NEWMAN, James H. STS-51, STS-69, 

STS-88, STS-109 

NICOLLIER, Claude STS-46, STS-61, 

STS-75, STS-103 

NOGUCHI, Soichi STS-114 

NORIEGA, Carlos I. STS-84, STS-97 

NOWAK, Lisa M. STS-121 


Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

O’CONNOR, Bryan D. STS-61B, STS-40 

OCHOA, Ellen STS-56, STS-66, 

STS-96, STS-110 

OCKELS,Wubbo J. STS-61A 

OEFELEIN,William A. STS-116 

ONIZUKA, Ellison S. 

ONUFRIYENKO,Yuriy I. 

STS-51C, STS-51L 

STS-108 (up), STS111 (down) 

OSWALD, Stephen S. STS-42, STS-56, 

STS-67 

OVERMYER, Robert F. STS-5, STS-51B 

PAILES,William A. STS-51J 

PARAZYNSKI, Scott E. STS-66, STS-86, 

STS-95, STS-100 

PARISE, Ronald A. STS-35, STS-67 

PARKER, Robert A. R. STS-9, STS-35 

PATRICK, Nicholas J. M. STS-116 

PAWELCZYK, James A. STS-90 

PAYETTE, Julie STS-96 

PAYTON, Gary E. STS-51C 

PERRIN, Philippe STS-111 

PETERSON, Donald H. STS-6 

PETTIT, Donald STS-113 (up) 

PHILLIPS, John L. STS-100 

POGUE,William R. Skylab 4 

POLANSKY, Mark L. STS-98, STS-116 

PRECOURT, Charles J. STS-55, STS-71, 

STS-84, STS-91 

RAMON, Ilan STS-107 

READDY,William F. STS-42, STS-51, 

STS-79 

REIGHTLER, Kenneth S., Jr. STS-48, STS-60 

REILLY, James F. STS-89, STS-104 

REITER,Thomas STS-121 (up), STS116 (down) 

RESNICK, Judith A. 

RICHARDS, Paul W. 

STS-41D, STS-51L 

STS-102 

RICHARDS, Richard N. STS-28, STS-41, 

STS-50, STS-64 

RIDE, Sally K. STS-7, STS-41G 

Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

ROBINSON, Stephen K. STS-85, STS-95, 

STS-114 

ROMINGER, Kent V. 

STS-73, STS-80, 

STS-85, STS-96, 

STS-100 

ROOSA, Stuart A. Apollo 14 

ROSS, Jerry L. 

STS-61B, STS-27, 

STS-37, STS-55, 

STS-74, STS-88, 

STS-110 

RUNCO, Mario, Jr. STS-44, STS-54, 

STS-77 

RYUMIN,Valery V. STS-91 

SACCO,Albert, Jr. STS-73 

SCHIRRA,Walter M., Jr. Mercury-Atlas 8, 

Gemini VI,Apollo 7 

SCHLEGEL, Hans W. STS-55 

SCHMITT, Harrison H.“Jack” Apollo 17 

SCHWEICKART, Russell L. 

“Rusty” Apollo 9 

SCOBEE, Francis R.“Dick” 

SCOTT, David R. 

STS-41C, STS-51L 

GeminiVIII,Apollo 9, 

Apollo 15 

SCOTT,Winston E. STS-72, STS-87 

SCULLY-POWER, Paul D. STS-41G 

SEARFOSS, Richard A. STS-58, STS-76, 

STS-90 

SEDDON, Margaret R. STS-51D, STS-40, 

STS-58 

SEGA, Ronald M. STS-60, STS-76 

SELLERS, Piers J. STS-112, STS-121 

SHARIPOV, Salizhan S. STS-89 

SHAW, Brewster H., Jr. STS-9, STS-61B, STS-28 

SHEPARD,Alan B., Jr. Mercury-Redstone 3, 

Apollo 14 

SHEPHERD,William M. 

STS-27, STS-41, 

STS-52, STS-102 

(down) 

SHRIVER, Loren J. STS-51C, STS-31, 

STS-46 

SLAYTON, Donald K.“Deke” Apollo-Soyuz 

SMITH, Michael J. STS-51L 

SMITH, Steven L. STS-68, STS-82, 

STS-103, STS-110 
0

Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

SOLOVYEV,Anatoly Y. STS-71 (up) 

SPRING, Sherwood C. 

“Woody” STS-61B 

SPRINGER, Robert C. STS-29, STS-38 

STAFFORD,Thomas P., Jr. 

GeminiVI, Gemini 

IX,Apollo 10, 

Apollo-Soyuz 

STEFANYSHYN-PIPER, 

Heidemarie STS-115 

STEWART, Robert L. STS-41B, STS-51J 

STILL Susan L. STS-83, STS-94 

STREKALOV, Gennady M. STS-71 (down) 

STURCKOW, Frederick W. 

“Rick” STS-88, STS-105 

SULLIVAN, Kathryn D. STS-41G, STS-31, 

STS-45 

SWIGERT, John L.“Jack,” Jr. Apollo 13 

TANI, Daniel M. STS-108 

TANNER, Joseph R. STS-66, STS-82, 

STS-97, STS-115 

THAGARD, Norman E. 

STS-7, STS-51B, 

STS-30, STS-42, 

STS-71 (down) 

THIELE, Gerhard P. J. STS-99 

THIRSK, Robert B. STS-78 

THOMAS,Andrew S.W. 

STS-77, STS-89 (up), 

STS-91 (down), STS102, STS-114 

THOMAS, Donald A. STS-65, STS-70, 

STS-83, STS-94 

THORNTON, Kathryn C. STS-33, STS-49, 

STS-61, STS-73 

THORNTON,William E. STS-8, STS-51B 

THUOT, Pierre J. STS-36, STS-49, 

STS-62 

TITOV, Vladimir G. STS-63, STS-86 

TOGNINI, Michel STS-93 

TOKAREV, Valery I. STS-96 

TRESCHEV, Sergei Y. STS-111 (up), STS113 (down) 

TRINH, Eugene H. STS-50 

TRULY, Richard H. STS-2, STS-8 

TRYGGVASON, Bjarni V. STS-85 

Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

TYURIN, Mikhail V. STS-105 (up), STS108 (down) 

USACHEV,Yury V. STS-101, STS-102 

(up), STS-105 (down) 

VAN DEN BERG, Lodewijk STS-51B 

VAN HOFTEN, James D. 

VEACH, Charles L. 

STS-41C, STS-51I 

STS-39, STS-52 

VELA, Rodolfo N. STS-61B 

VOSS, James S. 

STS-44, STS-53, 

STS-69, STS-101, 

STS-102 (up), STS105 (down) 

VOSS, Janice E. 

STS-57, STS-63, 

STS-83, STS-94, 

STS-99 

WAKATA, Koicho STS-72, STS-92 

WALHEIM, Rex J. STS-110 

WALKER, Charles D. STS-41D, STS-51D, 

STS-61B 

WALKER, David M. STS-51A, STS-30, 

STS-53, STS-69 

WALTER, Ulrich STS-55 

WALZ, Carl E. 

STS-51, STS-65, 

STS-79, STS-108 

(up), STS-111 (down) 

WANG,Taylor G. STS-51B 

WEBER, Mary E. STS-70, STS-101 

WEITZ, Paul J. Skylab 2, STS-6 

WETHERBEE, James D. 

STS-32, STS-52, 

STS-63, STS-86, 

STS-102, STS-113 

WHITE, Edward H., II 

WHITSON, Peggy 

Gemini IV,Apollo 1** 

STS-111 (up), STS113 (down) 

WILCUTT,Terrence W. STS-68, STS-79, 

STS-89, STS-106 

WILLIAMS, Dafydd R. STS-90 

WILLIAMS, Donald E. STS-51D, STS-34 

WILLIAMS, Jeffrey N. STS-101 

WILLIAMS, Sunita L. STS-116 

WILSON, Stephanie D. STS-121 

WISOFF, Peter J. K.“Jeff ” STS-57, STS-68, 

STS-81, STS-92 


Astronaut Mission(s) Flown 

WOLF, David A. 

STS-58, STS-86 

(up), STS-89 (down), 

STS-112 

WORDEN,Alfred M. Apollo 15 

YOUNG, John W. 

Gemini III, Gemini 

X,Apollo 10,Apollo 

16, STS-1, STS-9 

YURCHIKHIN, Fyodor N. STS-112 

* Note: In this table, the term “astronaut” refers to all 

individuals, U.S. and non-U.S. astronauts, who have flown 

aboard U.S. space missions (Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, 

Skylab, Apollo-Soyuz, and Space Shuttle) with the exception of Roger Chaffee, member of the Apollo 1 crew, who 

also is mentioned. Expedition crews that have flown to the 

International Space Station are not necessarily included in 

this list, as some crew members have been launched and 

returned to Earth aboard Russian Soyuz launch vehicles. 

Please turn to the ISS section for more information regarding ISS Expedition crews. 

** Died on the launchpad. Apollo 1 is not technically a 

spaceflight. 

Useful Web Site: 

http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/ (Astronaut Biographies) 



APPENDIX C: Acronyms 

ACCESS:Assembly Concept for Construction of 

Erectable Space Structures 

CSA: Canadian Space Agency 

CSM: Command and Service Module 

ACS:Advanced Camera for Survey 

CUE: Central Unit Electronics 

ACTS:Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

DARA: Deutsche Agentur fur Raumfahrtangelegenheiten 

AEB:Agência Espacial Brasileira (Brazilian Space 

Agency) 

(German Space Agency) 

DOD: Department of Defense 

AMU:Astronaut Maneuvering Unit 

DSP: Defense Support Program 

ASI:Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (Italian Space Agency) 

DTO: Development Test Objective 

ASTP:Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

DXS: Diffuse X-Ray Spectrometer 

ASTRO-SPAS:Astronomical SPAS 

EAS: Early Ammonia Servicer 

ATDA:Augmented Target Docking Adapter 

EASE: Experimental Assembly of Structures in 

ATLAS:Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Extravehicular Activity 

Science 

ECUs: Electronic Control Units 

ATM:Apollo Telescope Mount 

EDO: Extended Duration Orbiter 

ATV:Automated Transfer Vehicle 

EDT: Eastern Daylight Time 

AXAF:Advanced X-ray Astronomy Facility 

(now Chandra) ERBS: Earth Radiation Budget Satellite 

CANEX: Canadian Experiment ESA: European Space Agency 

Cdr: Commander ESC: Electronic Still Camera 

CDT: Central Daylight Time ET: External Tank 

CETA: Crew and Equipment Translation Aid EURECA: European Retrievable Carrier 

CFES: Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System EVA: Extravehicular Activity 

CM: Command Module; Combustion Module FARE: Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Equipment 

CNES: Centre National d’Études Spatiales (French FGB: Functional Cargo Block 

Space Agency) 

FOC: Faint Object Camera 

COCULT: Coculture 

FPP: Floating Potential Probes 

COSTAR: Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial 

Replacement GAS: Get-Away Special 

CRISTA-SPAS: Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and GRO: Gamma Ray Observatory 

Telescopes for the Atmosphere-SPAS 

HGA: High-Gain Antenna 


HHSMU: Hand-Held Self-Maneuvering Unit MSL: Microgravity Science Laboratory 

HOST: Hubble Orbiting Systems Test NASDA: National Space and Development Agency 

( Japanese Space Agency, now JAXA) 

HST: Hubble Space Telescope 

NICMOS: Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object 

IAE: Inflatable Antenna Experiment Spectrometer 

IBSS: Infrared Background Signature Satellite NSAU: National Space Agency of Ukraine 

ICC: Integrated Cargo Carrier OAST: Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology 

IML: International Microgravity Laboratory OBSS: Orbiter Boom Sensor System 

IRIS: Italian Research Interim Stage ODERACS: Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System 

ISAC: Interaction of Structures,Aerodynamics, and OMS: Orbital Maneuvering System 

Controls 

ORFEUS-SPAS: Orbiting and Retrievable Far and 

ISS: International Space Station Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrograph-SPAS 

IUS: Inertial Upper Stage OSS: Office of Space Science 

JAXA: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( Japanese OSTA: Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications 

Space Agency, formerly NASDA) 

OV: Orbital Vehicle 

JPL: Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

P: Port (i.e., Port 1, P6, etc.) 

LAGEOS: Laser Geodynamic Satellite 

PAL: Protuberance Air Load 

LDEF: Long Duration Exposure Facility 

PAM: Payload Assist Module 

LF: Logistics Flight 

PC: Payload Commander 

LITE: Lidar In-Space Technology Experiment 

PLB: Payload Bay 

LM: Lunar Module 

PMA: Pressurized Mating Adaptor 

LMS: Life and Microgravity Spacelab 

PS: Payload Specialist 

MBS: Mobile Remote Service Base System 

RCC: Reinforced Carbon-Carbon 

MAHRSI: Middle Atmosphere High Resolution 

Spectrograph Instrument RCS: Reaction Control System 

MISSE: Materials International Space Station RDM: Research Double Module 

Experiment 

RMS: Remote Manipulator System 

MIT: Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

RSA: Russian Space Agency 

MMU: Manned Maneuvering Unit 

RSC Energia: Rocket & Space Corporation Energia, 

MPLM: Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Russia 

MS: Mission Specialist RSUs: Rate Sensor Units 


RWA: Reaction Wheel Assembly TEAMS:Technology Experiments for Advancing 

Mission in Space 

S: Starboard (i.e., S1 or Starboard 1 truss) 

TDRS:Tracking and Data Relay Satellites 

S0: Starboard-Zero Truss 

TMA:Transportnyi (transport) Modifitsirovannyi 

SA: Solar Array (modified) Antropometricheskii (anthropometric) 

SBS-C: Satellite Business Systems C TOS:Transfer Orbit Stage 

SAFER: Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue TSS:Tethered Satellite System 

SAMS: Space Acceleration Measurement System UARS: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 

SAREX: Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment UF: Utilization Flight 

SDI: Strategic Defense Initiative UHF: ultrahigh frequency 

SESAM: Surface Effects Sample Monitor ULF: Utilization and Logistics Flight 

SFU: Space Flyer Unit USML: U.S. Microgravity Laboratory 

SHARE: Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator USMP: U.S. Microgravity Payload 

Element 

WSF:Wake Shield Facility 

SLS: Spacelab Life Sciences 

X-SAR: X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar 

Solar Max: Solar Maximum Mission 

Z1: Zenith 1 

SPARTAN: Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool 

for Astronomy 

SPAS: Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

SPS: Service Propulsion System 

SRB: Solid Rocket Booster 

SRL: Space Radar Laboratory 

SRTM: Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 

SSBUV: Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet 

SSME: Space Shuttle Main Engine 

SSRMS: Space Station Remote Manipulator System 

STIS: Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph 

STS: Space Transportation System 

TAS:Technology Applications and Science 



MONOGRAPHS IN AEROSPACE HISTORY 

(Most available from http://history.nasa.gov/series95.html) 

Launius, Roger D., and Aaron K. Gillette, comps. Toward 

a History of the Space Shuttle: An Annotated Bibliography. 

Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 1, 1992. 

Launius, Roger D., and J. D. Hunley, comps. An Annotated 

Bibliography of the Apollo Program. Monographs in Aerospace 

History, No. 2, 1994. 

Launius, Roger D. Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. Monographs 

in Aerospace History, No. 3, 1994. 

Hansen, James R. Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt 

and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept. 

Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 4, 1995. 

Gorn, Michael H. Hugh L. Dryden’s Career in Aviation and 

Space. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 5, 1996. 

Powers, Sheryll Goecke. Women in Flight Research at 

NASA Dryden Flight Research Center from 1946 to 1995. 

Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 6, 1997. 

Portree, David S. F., and Robert C. Trevino. Walking to 

Olympus: An EVA Chronology. Monographs in Aerospace 

History, No. 7, 1997. 

Logsdon, John M., moderator. Legislative Origins of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958: Proceedings of an 

Oral History Workshop. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

No. 8, 1998. 

Rumerman, Judy A., comp. U.S. Human Spaceflight, A 

Record of Achievement 1961–1998. Monographs in Aerospace 

History, No. 9, 1998. 

Portree, David S. F. NASA’s Origins and the Dawn of the 

Space Age. Monographs inAerospace History, No. 10, 1998. 

Logsdon,John M.Together in Orbit:The Origins of International 

Cooperation in the Space Station. Monographs in Aerospace 

History, No. 11, 1998. 

Phillips,W.Hewitt. Journey in Aeronautical Research:A Career 

at NASA Langley Research Center. Monographs in Aerospace 

History, No. 12, 1998. 

Braslow,Albert L. A History of Suction-Type Laminar-Flow 

Control with Emphasis on Flight Research. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 13, 1999. 

Logsdon, John M., moderator. Managing the Moon Program: 

Lessons Learned From Apollo. Monographs in Aerospace 

History, No. 14, 1999. 

Perminov,V. G. The Difficult Road to Mars:A Brief History 

of Mars Exploration in the Soviet Union. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 15, 1999. 

Maisel, Martin, Demo J. Giulanetti, and Daniel C. Dugan. 

The History of the XV-15 Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft: From 

Concept to Flight. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 

17, 2000 (NASA SP-2000-4517). 

Jenkins, Dennis R. Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise 

History of the X-15 Research Airplane. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 18, 2000 (NASA SP-2000-4518). 

Chambers, Joseph R. Partners in Freedom: Contributions of 

the Langley Research Center to U.S. Military Aircraft of the 

1990s. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 19, 2000 

(NASA SP-2000-4519). 

Waltman, Gene L. Black Magic and Gremlins:Analog Flight 

Simulations at NASA’s Flight Research Center. Monographs 

inAerospace History, No. 20, 2000 (NASA SP-2000-4520). 

Portree, David S. F. Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission 

Planning, 1950–2000. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

No. 21, 2001 (NASA SP-2001-4521). 

Thompson, Milton O., with J. D. Hunley. Flight Research: 

Problems Encountered and What They Should Teach Us. 

Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 22, 2001 (NASA 

SP-2001-4522). 

Tucker,Tom. The Eclipse Project. Monographs in Aerospace 

History, No. 23, 2001 (NASA SP-2001-4523). 

Siddiqi,Asif A. Deep Space Chronicle:A Chronology of Deep 

Space and Planetary Probes 1958–2000. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 24, 2002 (NASA SP-2002-4524). 

Merlin, Peter W. Mach 3+: NASA/USAF YF-12 Flight 

Research, 1969–1979. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

No. 25, 2001 (NASA SP-2001-4525). 

Anderson, Seth B. Memoirs of an Aeronautical Engineer: 

FlightTests at Ames Research Center: 1940–1970. Monographs 

inAerospace History, No. 26, 2002 (NASA SP-2002-4526). 

Renstrom,Arthur G. Wilbur and OrvilleWright:A Bibliography 

Commemorating the One-Hundredth Anniversary of the First 

Powered Flight on December 17, 1903. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 27, 2002 (NASA SP-2002-4527). 

No Monograph 28. 


Chambers, Joseph R. Concept to Reality: Contributions of 

the NASA Langley Research Center to U.S. Civil Aircraft 

of the 1990s. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 29, 

2003 (SP-2003-4529). 

Peebles,Curtis, ed.The Spoken Word:Recollections of Dryden 

History,The Early Years. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

No. 30, 2003 (SP-2003-4530). 

Jenkins, Dennis R.,Tony Landis, and Jay Miller. American 

X-Vehicles: An Inventory—X-1 to X-50. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 31, 2003 (SP-2003-4531). 

Renstrom,Arthur G. Wilbur and OrvilleWright:A Chronology 

Commemorating the One-Hundredth Anniversary of the First 

Powered Flight on December 17, 1903. Monographs in 

Aerospace History,No. 32, 2002 (NASA SP-2003-4532). 

Bowles, Mark D.,and Robert S.Arrighi. NASA’s Nuclear 

Frontier:The Plum Brook Research Reactor. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 33, 2003 (SP-2004-4533). 

Matranga, Gene J., C.Wayne Ottinger, Calvin R. Jarvis, and 

D. Christian Gelzer. Unconventional, Contrary, and Ugly:The 

Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. Monographs in Aerospace 

History,No.35,2006 (NASA SP-2006-4535). 

McCurdy, Howard E. Low Cost Innovation in Spaceflight:The 

History of the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) 

Mission. Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 36 

(NASA SP-2005-4536). 

Seamans, Robert C., Jr. Project Apollo:The Tough Decisions. 

Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 37 (NASA SP2005-4537). 

Lambright,W.Henry.NASA and the Environment:The Case of 

Ozone Depletion. Monographs inAerospace History, No. 38 

(NASA SP-2005-4538). 

Chambers, Joseph R. Innovation in Flight: Research of the 

NASA Langley Research Center on Revolutionary Advanced 

Concepts for Aeronautics. Monographs in Aerospace History, 

No. 39 (NASA SP-2005-4539) 

Phillips,W. Hewitt. Journey Into Space Research: Continuation 

of a Career at NASA Langley Research Center. Monographs in 

Aerospace History, No. 40. (NASA SP-2005-4540). 


On 20 July 1969, after a four-day trip, the Apollo 11 astronauts arrived at the Moon. This photo of Earth rising over the lunar horizon taken from 

the orbiting Command Module is one of the most famous images returned from the space program, although even the astronauts themselves 

cannot remember who actually took the picture. (AS11-44-6552) 
00

Mission specialist Bruce McCandless II ventured further away from the confines and safety of his ship than any previous astronaut ever had. 

This space first was made possible by the Manned Manuevering Unit (MMU), a nitrogen-jet-propelled backpack. After a series of test maneuvers inside and above Challenger’s payload bay, McCandless went “free-flying” to a distance of 320 feet away from the orbiter. The MMU is 

controlled by joysticks positioned at the ends of the armrests. Moving the joysticks left or right or by pulling them fires nitrogen jet thrusters 

propelling McCandless in any direction he chooses. A still camera is mounted on the upper right portion of the MMU. This stunning view 

shows McCandless with the MMU amongst the black and blue of Earth and space. (S84-27017) 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASA History Division 

Office of External Relations 

Washington, DC 20546 

SP-2007-4541 • December 2007