NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-70

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Alaska Fisheries Science Center

February 1997

Diversity and Abundance of

Neustonic Zooplankton in the

North Pacific Subarctic Frontal Zone

by

B. D. Ebberts and B. L. Wing
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS

The National Marine Fisheries Service's Alaska Fisheries Science Center

uses the NOAA Technical Memorandum series to issue informal scientific and

technical publications when complete formal review and editorial processing

are not appropriate or feasible. Documents within this series reflect sound

professional work and may be referenced in the formal scientific and technical

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Science Center continues the NMFS-F/NWC series established in 1970 by the

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the Northwest Fisheries Science Center.

This document should be cited as follows:

Ebberts, B. D., and B. L. Wing. 1997. Diversity and abundance of 

neustonic zooplankton in the North Pacific Subarctic Frontal Zone. 

U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-AFSC-70, 34 p.

Reference in this document to trade names does not imply endorsement by

the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA.
February 1997

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-70

Diversity and Abundance of

Neustonic Zooplankton in the

North Pacific Subarctic Frontal Zone

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

William M. Daley, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

D. James Baker, Under Secretary and Administrator

National Marine Fisheries Service

Rolland A. Schmitten, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries

by

B. D. Ebberts and B. L. Wing

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CENPP-PE-RRF

333 S.W. First Avenue

Portland, OR 97208

Auke Bay Laboratory

Alaska Fisheries Science Center

11305 Glacier Highway

Juneau AK 99801-8626

1 2

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iii

ABSTRACT

Neustonic zooplankton were collected at 42 stations between latitude 31°N and

47°N during research on the biogeography of the North Pacific Subarctic Frontal Zone.

Sea surface temperatures at the stations during the 4 October-9 November 1989 research

period ranged from 9.7 at the northernmost station to 24.1°C at the southernmost station.

Distribution of nine phyla (134 taxa) was characterized by low abundance and high species

diversity in the southerly latitudes (warm waters), and high abundance with low species

diversity in the northerly latitudes (cool waters). Highest abundance was about 1 degree

north of the area separating subarctic and subtropical waters (43°30'N) in the North Pacific

Subarctic Frontal Zone. Arthropods (77 taxa) were the most abundant and most frequently

collected zooplankton group. Molluscs (19 taxa) were the second most frequently

collected group. This study indicates that because zooplankton distribution and abundance

may be affected by frontal zones, neuston distribution and diversity may be used as

indicators of various North Pacific Ocean water masses.
V

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................... 4

Diversity and Abundance ...................................... 5

Zooplankton Diversity .................................. 6

Zooplankton Abundance ................................ 8

SYNOPSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

CITATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
INTRODUCTION

The Driftnet Impact Monitoring, Assessment, and Control Act of 1987 required the

U.S. Government to negotiate with foreign governments conducting North Pacific driftnet

fisheries to assess the number of commercial and non-commercial fisheries resources

impacted by the driftnet fisheries. Although a primary target of these fisheries was the

flying squid, Ommastrephes bartrami, driftnets also captured non-target species including

salmonids, sharks, other fish, seabirds, and mammals (INPFC 1990). Much of this fishery

was concentrated in the North Pacific Transition Region or Subarctic Frontal Zone.

Because of the large ‘area covered by the driftnet fisheries in the North Pacific Ocean, the

impact on non-target species was believed to be substantial (Wetherall 1991). This

potential impact prompted U.S. scientists to examine the biological and physical aspects of

the North Pacific Subarctic Frontal Zone (NPSFZ) to better understand factors influencing

the distribution and co-occurrence of target and non-target species.

Oceanic neuston were sampled during a multidisciplinary study of the

biogeography of the NPSFZ conducted during fall 1989 by elements of the National

Marine Fisheries Service (Auke Bay Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center [AFSC];

Honolulu Laboratory, Southwest Fisheries Science Center; and National Marine Mammal

Laboratory, AFSC) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The neuston layer is a unique

habitat with obligate and facultative residents (Zaitsev 1970; Hempel and Weikert 1972;

Cheng 1975; Peres 1982). Some components of this assemblage may indicate changes in

the physical oceanography of a region (Soule and Kleppel 1988). Assemblages may also

reflect changes in biological and physical factors that influence the distribution of marine

resources (Russell 1939; Aron 1962; Fager and McGowan 1963). Neuston are important
2

food for seabirds, juvenile salmonids, and other fishes (Peterson et al. 1982; Turner 1984;

Prince and Morgan 1987; Schreiber and Clapp 1987; Brodeur 1989), and prey availability

is a major factor influencing the distribution of marine resources. Thus, changes in the

neustonic zone provide an important “first look” into the physical and biological factors

that affect marine fish, seabirds, and mammals.

This report presents the results of neuston sampling from the NOAA ship Miller

Freeman during the 1989 survey. The primary objective was to evaluate changes in

neuston relative to physical oceanographic variables and marine resources (birds, fish, and

mammals) within the NPSFZ. Our report complements other results of the survey,

including subsurface zooplankton, nekton, hydroacoustic backscattering, seabirds,

mammals, and physical oceanographic data. Results of those studies will be published

separately.

METHODS

Neuston samples were collected at 42 stations from 4 October to 9 November

1989. All but two stations were between lat. 37°N and 47°N and along five north-south

transects: long. 155°W, 158°W, 161°W, 168°W, and 171°W (Fig. 1). Samples were

collected using a rectangular 50 cm x 30 cm Sameoto neuston net (Sameoto and

Jaroszynski 1969), mesh size 0.505 mm, towed for 10 minutes at 7.4 km/h (weather

dependent). After retrieval, the net was thoroughly washed down to collect specimens;

catches were preserved in a 4% formaldehyde-seawater solution buffered with sodium

tetraborate and were later processed at the Auke Bay Laboratory.
3

Processing of samples consisted of scanning, subsampling if necessary, and

identifying taxa present. Samples were scanned using a binocular dissecting microscope,

and large organisms such as fish larvae and squid larvae were removed. Large samples

were split using a Cushing subsampler (Cushing 1961) to facilitate processing. Animals

were identified to the lowest taxon possible and enumerated; mean lengths were

determined from subsamples. Additionally, animals that were observed in the original

sample but were not present in the split portion, or were observed as pieces (e.g.,

Siphonophora), were listed as “present,” as were the larger gelatinous animals (e.g.,

Thaliacea). Displacement volume of each sample was measured to + 0.1 ml in graduated

cylinders. The area sampled during each tow (distance x net width) was calculated using

ship’s speed, and catches were standardized to number of animals per 100 m2 [(number of

animals/area sampled) x 100]. Because the neuston net lacked a flow meter, and tow

depth varied with wave conditions, we assumed that the net was, on average, half

submerged.

Most neuston samples were collected between sunset and sunrise in conjunction

with other sampling. Sampling at sunset consisted of a conductivity-temperature-depth

(CTD) profile to 1,000 m, a macrozooplankton trawl to 150 m, a neuston tow, and a midwater diamond trawl (175-250 m) for nekton. A midnight CTD cast was taken after the

mid-water nekton trawl was completed. Sampling at sunrise consisted of a CTD cast,

mid-water nekton trawl, macrozooplankton trawl, and neuston tow. In some cases, the

sunset and sunrise stations were as close as 0.6 km. Morning neuston tows were

completed after sunrise.
4

Frequency of occurrence and mean abundance of all taxa were calculated for sea

surface temperature (SST) intervals representing the oceanographic regimes encountered

during the cruise. Tables of zooplankton abundance and frequency of occurrence were

formatted numerically in ascending order using the National Oceanographic Data Center

(NODC) taxonomic codes (NODC 1984). Abundance was defined as the number of

animals per area sampled. Taxonomic nomenclature and groupings follow Brusca and

Brusca (1990).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The NPSFZ is a complex oceanographic area to which a confusing descriptive

terminology has been applied by physical and biological oceanographers. In this report,

we follow the terminology of Roden (1991) and Pearcy (1991), which is based on the

physical and chemical characteristics of the water column, rather than that of McGowan

(1971, 1974) based on recorded distribution of midwater organisms. Three different

oceanographic regimes encountered during this study: 1) the Subarctic Domain (SD),

characterized by a cool, low-salinity surface layer; 2) a Subtropical Domain, characterized

by a warm, saline surface layer, and 3) the Subarctic-Subtropical Transition Region

(SSTR), which shares thermohaline characteristics of the Subarctic and Subtropical

Domains (Garcia 1990). The SSTR may be subdivided into the Transitional Domain and

the Transition Zone (Pearcy 1991). The Transition Domain is narrow in the western

Pacific Ocean and broad in the eastern Pacific Ocean, where it expands into the California

Current and Alaska Current systems (Pearcy 1991). The northern edge of the Transition

Domain is variously defined as surfacing of the 33%0 isohaline, the intersection of the 7°C
5

isotherm and the upper halocline, or the intersection of the 4°C isotherm at 100 m. The

southern edge of the Transitional Domain is defined as the subarctic front distinguished by

a vertical 34%0 isohaline (Pearcy 1991). The Transition Zone extends from the subarctic

front to the subtropical front approximated by the 35%0 surface isohaline. Within the

Transition Region, temperature, salinity, and density fronts seldom coincide or penetrate to

the same depths (Garcia 1990; Roden 1991); thus, it is difficult to distinguish precisely the

Transition Domain and Transition Zone in a single quasisynoptic survey. Although these

water masses are usually defined by surface salinity and subsurface water properties, the

SSTs generally reflect latitudinal differences between these masses. We selected four SST

intervals to represent these regimes: 9.0°-12.O°C for the SD, 12.1°-15.O°C for the

Transition Domain, 15.l°-18.O°C for the northern portion of the Transition Zone, and

18.1°-25.O°C for the southern portion of the Transition Zone.

Die1 vertical migrations of certain zooplankton stages and types (Cushing 1951;

Vinogradov 1968) and time of collection differences could alter apparent species

abundance and distribution. We found no statistically significant day-night differences in

species richness, total counts, or displacement volumes for 14 pairs of adjacent stations

(Table 1). Although some species were caught only at night (e.g., Myctophidae), daynight differences were not considered further for this report.

Diversity and Abundance

Nine phyla, represented by 134 taxa, were collected during this study. Forty-five

taxa were identified to species level, 57 to genus, 14 to family, and 18 to order, class, or
6

phylum. Frequency of occurrence and mean abundance for all taxa are given for each

temperature interval (Table 2).

Zooplankton Diversity

Species richness was highest south of the NPSFZ, and lowest north of it (Fig. 2).

Number of species did not differ significantly between adjacent temperature intervals

because some taxa were found in two or more intervals; however, richness increased

significantly (F3.38 4.18, P < 0.01) from cool to warm waters. Only 31 taxa were found in

the coolest interval, whereas 75 taxa were collected in the warmest interval. Sixty-six taxa

were collected in the northern and 78 in the southern intervals of the NPSFZ (Table 2).

Although more taxa were collected in the southern NPSFZ than in the warmest interval,

the mean number of species per sample was slightly greater in the warmest interval (Fig.

2). Species richness is generally greater in tropical latitudes than in higher latitudes

(Omori and Ikeda 1984). Holdway and Maddock’s (1983a) survey of neuston from Fiji to

the Bay of Biscay found the same species diversity trends as other studies: only 3 of their

47 taxa were most common in boreal waters. Although Aron (1962) found that the

number of mid-water species in the eastern North Pacific Ocean increased markedly from

subarctic to warmer intermediate waters, these generalities are altered in frontal zones.

The circulation features of the NPSFZ may concentrate specific organisms at localized

areas of convergence (Olson 1986) and may also concentrate different taxa from both

southern and northern waters within the frontal zone.
Arthropods were the most abundant neuston group collected; 77 (57%) of the total

134 taxa collected were crustaceans. Amphipods and copepods were the most diverse

groups, represented by 52 (39%) taxa. The two most abundant species, Themisto pacifica

and Calanus pacificus, were also the most widely distributed and frequently collected

species, occurring in 64.3% and 69.1% of the samples, respectively, and in all temperature

intervals (Table 2). Their frequency of occurrence declined from north to south.

Crustacean diversity was greatest (46 taxa) within the warmest interval. Thirty-four and

45 crustacean taxa were collected in the southern and northern regions of the NPSFZ,

respectively, and 57 in the combined intervals. Eighteen crustacean taxa were collected in

the SD (Table 2):

Molluscs were second to arthropods in frequency of occurrence. Pteropods were

the most diverse group and squid larvae the most frequent group of molluscs encountered.

Twelve taxa of pteropods were collected, two or more taxa in each temperature interval.

Pteropod species richness did not follow the general trend of “simple” community

structure in temperate latitudes and more “complex” community structure in subtropical

latitudes. Pteropod species richness was greatest in the 12.l°-15.O°C interval, where all

genera were represented and all but three species were collected (Table 2). Five of the

pteropod species were. included in Fager and McGowan’s (1963) analysis of zooplankton

co-occurrence in the North Pacific Ocean. They grouped Limacina helicina, three

euphausiids, and one chaetognath as subarctic species. This agrees with our finding of

100% occurrence at the six stations in the coolest interval, 7% in the 12. lo

-15.O°C

interval, and 0% in the two warmest intervals (Table 2). Fager and McGowan (1963)
8

grouped Clio pyramidata and two other pteropods as “subtropical” species. We found,

however, that the frequency of C. pyramidata increased from warmer to cooler waters

(Table 2) and was most abundant in the 12.1°-15.O°C waters, corresponding to its frequent

occurrence in the Gulf of Alaska (Wing1).

Fishes representing 10 taxa were collected; species richness increased from cool to

warmer intervals. Pacific saury, Cololabis saira, was the most frequently caught species

(Table 2). Ahlstrom and Stevens (1976) similarly noted that in eastern Pacific neuston,

saury were the most frequently collected fish. Of the nine remaining fish taxa (excluding

fish eggs and unidentified fish larvae), only the myctophids Symbolophorus sp. and

TarZetonbeania sp. were collected in more than one temperature interval (Table 2). This

low ichthyoplankton diversity may be an artifact of 1) sampling after dawn, 2) sampling in

rough waters, 3) sampling in the fall, after most species have grown beyond a size

vulnerable’ to capture by a neuston net, or 4) the small area (low volume) sampled (Clarke

1991).

Zooplankton Abundance

Of the 134 taxa collected, only 22 had an abundance greater than 10 animals/l00

m

2

 at any station. At almost 25% of the stations sampled, no taxon had an abundance

greater than 10 animals/l00 m2

. On the 63 occasions when abundance of a taxon

exceeded 10 animals/l00 m2

, 30 occasions were due to the three most abundant taxa:

Themisto pacifica, Calanus pacificus, and Euphausia pacifica.

‘Wing, B. L. (unpubl. data). Auke Bay Lab, Alaska Fish. Sci. Cent., 11305 Glacier Hwy., Juneau, AK 99801-

8626. Clio pyromidata occur more frequently in 9.0°-12.°C waters than in warmer waters.
9

Some taxa were more abundant locally or in particular temperature intervals. Mean

abundance of the copepod Scolecithricella minor was 57 animals/l00 m2 in the

9.0°-12.O°C interval, but less than 1 animal/l00 m2 in the 12.1°-15.O°C interval; they

were not collected in the two warmer intervals (Table 2). In contrast, pontellid copepods,

although not abundant, were collected only in the warmest interval (Table 2). Mean

abundance of the siphonophore Sulculeolaria sp. was 12.0 animals/l00 m2 in the

12.1°-15.O°C interval (Table 2); however, this value was influenced by one sample that

contained over 1,000 animals.

Although not statistically significant, neuston abundance (F3,381 .95, P = 0.14) and

biomass (F,,,,O.57, P = 0.64) generally appeared highest in the NPSFZ (Figs. 3, 4). The

greatest numerical abundance (1,591 animals/100 m*) was at 43”50’N, in the northern

portion of the NPSFZ as defined by Garcia (1990). Based on displacement volume,

average biomass (Fig. 4) was greatest in the 15. lo

-18.O”C interval (southern NPSFZ) as a

result of one large catch of Velella. Although knowledge of the processes that regulate

productivity in the NPSFZ is limited (Pearcy 1991), frontal dynamics and mesoscale

circulation of that region may concentrate organisms at localized areas of convergence,

thereby causing localized high densities of zooplankton (Olson 1986).

The most abundant neuston group was made up of arthropods; Themisto pad&a

and Calanus pacificus were the most abundant species (81.6 and 48.7 animals/l00 m*,

respectively) for all temperature intervals (Table 2). The third most abundant species was

Euphausia paciJica, with 16.4 animals/100 m2 for all temperature intervals sampled (Table

2). The general trend for these three species was increased abundance in the two middle
10

temperature intervals, representing the northern and southern portions of the NPSFZ

(Table 2).

Generally, planktonic amphipods are dominated by the Hyperiidae and rank third in

numerical abundance behind copepods and euphausiids (Bowman 1960). They are often

very abundant in high latitude regions, where they are important in the diets of seabirds,

fish, and mammals (Wing 1976; Ogi et al. 1980; Ogi and Hamanaka 1982). The shallowdwelling Themisto pacifica is the most abundant northeastern Pacific hyperiid, with a wide

geographic distribution and broad thermal tolerance. It frequently swarms near the

surface, which may account for its high abundance and dominance in our samples.

The copepod Culunus pacificus, a widely distributed and abundant species in the

eastern North Pacific Ocean, occupies extensions of the NPSFZ in the Gulf of Alaska to

Prince William Sound and of the California Current south to northern Mexico (Gardner

and Szabo 1982). This species is a facultative neustonic species; its high abundance in our

samples indicates its generally high abundance throughout the upper water column and in

most of the transition and subarctic regions. The pontellid copepods, however, are often

neustonic, and many neustonic ones are restricted to tropical and subtropical waters;

pontellids were collected at only our two southernmost stations.

Fishes, 10 taxa including unidentified fish larvae and eggs, were generally scarce.

No fish had a mean abundance greater than 10 animals/100 m2 for any temperature

interval. Abundance of Cololabis saira, the only fish larvae with more than 1 anima1/100

m* for any station, increased from cooler to warmer waters (Table 2). The only other
11

locally abundant Osteichthyes were unidentified fish eggs: 65 were collected at one

station within the NPSFZ.

Although amphipods were our most abundant zooplankton, most studies in the

North Pacific Ocean and other oceans have found calanoid copepods to be the most

abundant group. Holdway and Maddock (1983b), in a broad survey of neuston between

Fiji and the Bay of Biscay, found copepods to be the dominant taxon in every area

sampled, comprising over 50% of the neuston in all but one area. In the northeastern

subtropical Atlantic Ocean, crustaceans constituted 94% of the invertebrate neuston; 50%

of these crustaceans were copepods, dominated by calanoids (Hempel and Weikert 1972).

LeBrasseur (1965), using both surface and vertical tows, found that two groups of

zooplankton predominate in the northeastern Pacific Ocean: copepods in April-June and

amphipods in July-September.

SYNOPSIS

These results should be viewed with the caveat that many factors can influence

species distribution, frequency of occurrence, and abundance. Such factors include

biological and physical parameters and sampling techniques (Zaitsev 1970; Hempel and

Weikert 1972; Holdway and Maddock 1983a,b; Kendall and Dunn 1985). We found that

“normal” patterns (high species richness and low abundance in warmer waters, and low

species richness and high abundance in cooler waters) appear to be altered within frontal

zones. Time of day and season dramatically affect zooplankton composition and

abundance (Zaitsev 1970; Hempel and Weikert 1972; Ahlstrom arid Stevens 1976;

Holdway and Maddock 1983b).
12

We did not attempt a comprehensive analysis of all 134 taxa collected. Although

most taxa were infrequent, scarce, or both, they are not necessarily unimportant

components of their particular habitats (Soule 1988).

Nevertheless, we believe that the neustonic animals are indicators of oceanic

changes in the North Pacific Ocean, and that the marked geographic variation of their

distribution and abundance is associated with water mass types and boundaries. Our

findings correspond to those of previous investigators, who also considered zooplankton to

be indicators of oceanic changes (e.g., Russell 1939; Aron 1962; Fager and McGowan

1963; Soule and Kleppel 1988). Notably, species densities (biomass) were not greatest in

the SD, as is usually assumed, but within the NPSFZ, near the subarctic boundary.

Species richness, generally greater in warm than in cool waters, was only slightly less in

the NPSFZ. than in the warmest interval. Clearly, our study indicates that neuston

distribution and diversity can indicate water masses in the central North Pacific Ocean.

The sampling gear‘is inexpensive and can be fished in most weather and at speeds up to

20 km/h (Sameoto and Jaroszynski 1969), making neuston samples practical for

monitoring fishery and oceanic conditions over large areas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Shannon Fitzgerald, Bryan Herczeg, the crew and officers of the NOAA

ship Miller Freeman, and scientists who assisted in the field collections. We thank

Thomas Shirley, Richard Brodeur, Earl Krygier, Evan Haynes, Kenneth Krieger, Richard

Carlson, Bryon Morris, and Michael Mullin for their thorough reviews of this manuscript.
13

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TABLES
21

Table l.--Comparison of night and day neuston catches at,stations within each temperature

interval. (Sta = Station, Spp = Number of taxa, Count = Total count

standardized to number per 100 m* rounded to the nearest whole number, and

Volume = Displacement volume as ml per 100 m*.)

Temp

°C

Night Day

Sta Spp Count Volume Sta Spp count Volume
Table 2. --Frequency of occurrence (FO) and mean abundance of all catches (No./100 m’) (MA) of taxa, grouped by sea surface

temperature intervals; n = number of samples.
Table 2. --Continued.
Table 2. --Continued.

Species
Table 2. --Continued.

Species
Table 2. --Continued.

Species
Table 2. --Continued.

Species
 FIGURES
Figure l. --Sampling stations in the North Pacific Transition Zone where neustonic zooplankton were collected 4 October-9

November 1989, and sea surface temperature contours. Inset shows the entire track of the RV Miller Freeman cruise 1

October-l3 November 1989.
SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE INTERVAL

Figure 2. --Number of taxa per station for each sea surface temperature interval.
Figure 3 .--Standardized abundance of neustonic zooplankton per 100 m2

 for each sea surface temperature interval.
SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE INTERVAL

Figure 4. --Standardized displacement volume of neuston samples for each sea surface temperature interval.
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66 KINOSHITA, R. K., and J. M. TERRY. 1996. Oregon, Washington, and Alaska exports of edible fishery

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63 KINOSHITA, R. K., and J. M. TERRY. 1996. Oregon, Washington, and Alaska exports of edible fishery

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62 KINOSHITA, R. K., A. GRIEG, and J. M. TERRY. 1996. Economic status of the groundfish fisheries off

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58 QUEIROLO, L. E., L. W. FRITZ, P. A. LIVINGSTON, M. R. LOEFFLAD, D. A. COLPO, and Y. L.

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57 SMALL, R. J., and D. P. DEMASTER. 1995. Alaska marine mammal stock assessments 1995-57, 93p.

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56 DORN, M. W., S. M. FITZGERALD, M. A. GUTTORMSEN, and M. R. LOEFFLAD. 1995. An evaluation

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55 PELLA, J., R. RUMBAUGH, and M. DAHLBERG. 1995. Incidental catches of salmonids in the 1991

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54 KINOSHITA, R. K., A. GRIEG, and J. M. TERRY. 1995. Economic status of the groundfish fisheries off

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