State of Hawaii 

Department of Health 

Clean Air Branch

Documentation for Natural Events Excluded Data 

Kona Air Monitoring Station, AQS ID 15-001-1012 

2011-2012 PM2.5 Exceedances

Final Report 

December 2013 

Image by crew of Space Shuttle Atlantis, May 13, 2009 

Vog

Vog

Ocean entry

N

Kona
This page was intentionally left blank.
i 

Introduction 

During 2011 and 2012, the Kona air monitoring station recorded annual average 

particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers in diameter (PM2.5) 

concentrations of 12.1 μg/m3and 16.2 μg/m3, respectively. These values exceed the 

annual PM2.5 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) of 12 μg/m3. 

This report is solely to demonstrate that these exceedances at the Kona station, 

and Kona station alone, were caused by naturally occurring volcanic emissions, were 

not reasonably controllable or preventable, were associated with measured 

concentrations in excess of normal historical fluctuations, and would not have occurred 

-

the U.S. Environmental Protection Ag

Table I-1 below is a summary of the flagged PM2.5 data for 2011 and 2012. A table with 

a complete listing all the dates that were flagged is included in Appendix B. 

Kona (AQS ID 150011012): 2011 and 2012 24-hr PM2.5 Flagged Data

Year Quarter Date Range Number of Flagged Days 

2011 1 February13 March 9 2 

2012 1 January 1 to March 31 62 

2012 2 April 1 to June 30 87 

2012 3 July 1 to September 30 23 

2012 4 October 1 to December 28 28 

Table I-1. Summary of Flagged Days in 2011 and 2012 

There were no exceedances of the 24-hour PM2.5 NAAQS of 35 μg/m3 at the Kona 

station in 2011 and 2012. 

Section 1 of this report provides a summary of the exceptional events rules and 

requirements and details how those rules are met within the report. 

Section 2 of this report introduces the conceptual model of the volcanic event that 

occurred during 2011-2012, providing a background narrative of the natural event and 

an explanation that it affected air quality. Section 2 also provides evidence that the 

exceedances were due to a natural event. 

Section 3 of this report establishes a clear causal relationship between the natural 

events and the exceedances of the annual PM2.5 standard at the monitoring station. 

This section also discusses how sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas from the volcano turns into 

sulfate particles as it travels to the Kona coast. 

Section 4 of this report provides information on existing anthropogenic sources in the 

Kona area and the emissions control measures required of these sources. It 

demonstrates that despite the regulation of these man-made sources, the exceedances 

were not reasonably controllable or preventable. 
ii 

Section 5 of this report provides information which help illustrate that the exceptional 

event produced PM2.5 concentrations in excess of normal historical fluctuations. 

Section 6 of this report summarizes the demonstration, showing a clear causal 

relationship between the natural event and the exceedances, and concludes that these 

-

Appendix A of this report includes additional figures and tables with supporting 

information. 

Appendix B of this report includes a table with a complete listing all the dates that were 

flagged. 

Appendix C of this report will have the affidavits of publication in three local newspapers 

(when available) notifying the public of the availability for inspection of this document. 

The three newspapers are the Honolulu Star-Advertiser (State-wide distribution), the 

Hawaii Tribune-Herald (East Hawaii newspaper distribution) and the West Hawaii Today 

(West Hawaii newspaper distribution). 
iii 

Table of Contents 

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. i

LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................iv 

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................ v 

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS.....................................................................vi 

Section 1 

EXCEPTIONAL EVENTS RULE (EER) REQUIREMENTS............................................. 1

Section 2 

CONCEPTUAL MODEL.................................................................................................. 3

Section 3 

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP............................................................................................. 15 

Section 4 

NOT REASONABLY CONTROLLABLE OR PREVENTABLE ...................................... 43 

Section 5 

HISTORICAL NORM......................................................................................................54 

Section 6 

BUT-FOR ANALYSIS/CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................55 

Appendix A: Additional Figures and Charts 

Appendix B: Kona Station Flagged Data for 2011 and 2012 

Appendix C: Public Review Documentation 

Cover graphic illustrates the volcanic emission plumes (vog) from 

ocean entry point being blown to the southern end of Hawaii Island then travelling up to the Kona coast during 

predominant trade wind regime. 
iv 

List of Figures 

Figure Title Page

2-1 Kona Air Station Photos ....................................................................................... 3 

2-2 Google Earth photo of Kona Air Station................................................................ 4 

2-3 Hawaii Island Wind Patterns................................................................................. 5 

2-4 .............................................. 6 

2-5 ............................................... 6 

2-6 Hawaii Island Topographical Map......................................................................... 7 

2-7 Hawaiian Islands Topographical Map................................................................... 8 

2-8 Hawaiian Islands Population Map......................................................................... 9 

2-9 Satellite Image of Vog ........................................................................................ 10 

2-10 Kilauea Volcano Annual SO2 Emission Rates 1992-2010.......................................... 11 

2-11 Kilauea Volcano Average Daily Output of SO2 for 2011 ..................................... 12 

2-12 Kilauea Volcano Average Daily Output of SO2 for 2012 ..................................... 12 

3-1 Photo of Honolulu on Hazy Kona Wind Day ....................................................... 16 

3-2 2011 Time History of Kona and Ocean View PM2.5 Concentrations ................... 22 

3-3 2011 Time History of Kona and Ocean View Normalized PM2.5 Concentrations 23 

3-4 2012 Time History of Kona & Ocean View PM2.5 Concentrations....................... 24 

3-5 2012 Time History of Kona & Ocean View Normalized PM2.5 Concentrations.... 25 

3-6 2011 Time History of Kona & Ocean View Normalized SO2 Concentrations...... 26 

3-7 2012 Time History of Kona & Ocean View Normalized SO2 Concentrations...... 27 

3-8 Kona Area AN155 Windrose Plots for 2011 and 2012........................................ 28 

3-9 2012 Kamuela & Keaumo Windrose................................................................... 31 

3-10 2012 Kaunakakai, Molokai Airport & Kaneohe, Marine Corp Air Station 

Windrose ............................................................................................................ 32 

3-11 2012 Waikoloa & Kaupulehu Lava Flow Windrose............................................. 33 

3-12 2012 PTA Range 17 & Hilo International Airport Windrose ................................ 34 

3-13 2012 Pahala and Ocean View Windrose ............................................................ 35 

3-14 2011 Time History of Kona PM2.5 Concentrations w/Flagged days .................... 37 

3-15 Time History of Kona & Ocean View Normalized PM2.5 Concentrations 

w/Flagged Days ................................................................................................. 38 

3-16 2011 Time History of Kona & Ocean View Normalized SO2 Concentrations 

w/Flagged Days.................................................................................................. 39 

3-17 2012 Time History of Kona PM2.5 Concentrations with Flagged Days ................ 40 

3-18 2011 Time History of Kona & Ocean View Normalized PM2.5 Concentrations 

w/Flagged Days.................................................................................................. 41 

3-19 2012 Time History of Kona & Ocean View Normalized SO2 Concentrations 

w/Flagged Days.................................................................................................. 42 

4-1 Comparison of Emissions for 2011..................................................................... 48 

4-2 Comparison of Emissions for 2012..................................................................... 48 

5-1 Annual Average of Measured SO2 at Various Air Stations ................................. 54 
v 

List of Tables 

Table Title Page 

I-1 Summary of Flagged Days in 2011 and 2012 ....................................................... i

3-1 2011-2012 USGS preliminary SO2 emissions data compiled by DOH ............... 18

3-2 2011-2012 AQS Data Mart Hourly PM2.5 Data: Annual Averages ...................... 21 

3-3 2011-2012 AQS Data Mart Hourly SO2 Data: Annual Averages ......................... 21 

4-1 NAAQS Concentrations...................................................................................... 43

4-2 Stationary Sources ............................................................................................. 44 

4-3 Temporary Sources ............................................................................................ 45 

4-4 Kona International Airport................................................................................... 45 

4-5 Kilauea Volcano.................................................................................................. 45 

4-6 Stationary Source Emissions.............................................................................. 46 

4-7 Temporary Source Emissions............................................................................. 47 

4-8 Kona International Airport Emissions.................................................................. 47 

4-9 Anthropogenic Emissions ................................................................................... 47 

4-10 Kilauea Volcano Emissions ................................................................................ 48 

4-11 Regulatory Measures for Anthropogenic Sources .............................................. 50 

4-12 Air Pollution Control Measures for Anthropogenic Sources................................ 52 

 
vi 

List of Acronyms and Definitions 

QS Air Quality System 

ASAS Air Surveillance and Analysis Section (State of Hawaii, Department 

of Health) 

BACT Best Available Control Technology 

CEMS Continuous Emissions Monitoring System 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations 

COMS Continuous Opacity Monitoring System 

DOH-CAB Department of Health Clean Air Branch (State of Hawaii) 

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency 

HAR Hawaii Administrative Rules 

HAVO Hawaii Volcano Observatory 

HAVO OB Hawaii Volcano Observatory Kilauea Observatory 

HAVO VC 

Hp Horsepower 

Kona winds 

This refers to periods of light, variable to southerly winds that 

typically occur when a subtropical ridge rests over the state. 

kW Kilowatt 

MMBtu/hr One million British Thermal Units per hour 

MW Megawatt 

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

NEI National Emissions Inventory 

NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide 

NESHAPS National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Polllutants 

NPS National Park Service 

NSPS New Source Performance Standards 

Particulate Matter 

A mixture in the air of very small particles and liquid droplets. This 

micrometers in diameter. 

PM2.5 Particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers in diameter 

ppb parts per billion 

PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration 

SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction 

SO2 Sulfur dioxide gas 

TPH Tons per hour 

TPY Tons per year 

Trade winds 

Refers to the predominant winds in the state of Hawaii which is 

from the east/northeasterly direction. 

USGS United States Geological Survey 

μg/m3 micrograms per cubic meter 

Vog 

or a hazy air 

pollution condition attributed to the active volcano. 
1 

Section 1. Exceptional Event Rule (EER) Requirements

Technical and procedural requirements are contained within the EER and must be met 

in order for EPA to concur with the flagged air monitoring data. This section of the 

report details the Hawaii Department of Health, Clean Air Branch (DOH-CAB) effort to 

address those requirements as required by 40 CFR 50.14 (Treatment of Air Quality 

Monitoring Data Influenced by Exceptional Events). 

1.1 Procedural Requirements 

Public notification that event was occurring (40 CFR 50.14 (c)(1(i)) 

Immediate public notification of NAAQS exceedances is provided on the DOH-CAB 

website at http://health.hawaii.gov/cab/notification-of-exceedance-of-a-national-ambientair-quality-standard. Notification of the 2012 exceedances of the annual PM2.5 NAAQS 

was posted once the data was validated. 

Place informational flag on data in AQS (40 CFR 50.14 (c)(2(ii)) 

The Department of Health Laboratory Division, Air Surveillance and Analysis Section 

(ASAS), submits the 

repository of ambient air quality data. A preliminary flag is submitted for data collected 

that may be influenced by exceptional events. 

Notify EPA of intent to flag through submission of initial event description by 

July 1 of calendar year following event (40 CFR 50.14 (c)(2(iii)) 

This report is our initial event description. All data has been flagged in AQS. 

Document that the public comment process was followed for event 

documentation (40 CFR 50.14 (c)(3(iv)) 

Due to time constraints, the public notice for this document will be concurrent with the 

submittal to EPA. This report will be placed on the DOH-CAB website as well as be 

available at the DOH-CAB offices in Honolulu, Hilo and Kona for public review for a 

period of thirty (30) days beginning December 16, 2013 and ending January 14, 2014. 

Submit demonstration supporting exceptional event flag (40 CFR 50.14 (a)(1-2)) 

The deadline for the submittal of this demonstration package is December 12, 2013. 

DOH-CAB will submit this document to EPA Region IX by the deadline. Any significant 

comments received during the public comment period along with DOH-CAB

corresponding responses will be forwarded to EPA. Affidavits of the public notice 

through the three local newspapers will be submitted to EPA once they are available. 

1.2 Documentation Requirements 

Pursuant to 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 50.14(c)(3)(iii) of the 

Exceptional Event Rule (EER), the following six elements must be addressed when 

requesting the EPA exclude event-related concentrations from regulatory requirements: 
2 

1) The event affected air quality; 

2) The event was not reasonably controllable or preventable; 

3) The event was caused by human activity that is unlikely to recur at a particular 

location, or was a natural event; 

4) There exists a clear causal relationship between the specific event and the 

monitored concentration; 

5) The event is associated with a measured concentration in excess of normal 

historical fluctuations including background; and 

6) There would have been no exceedances or violation but for the event. 

Section 2 of this report introduces the conceptual model of the volcanic event that 

occurred during 2011-2012, providing a background narrative of the natural event and 

exceedances were due to a natural event. 

Section 4 of this report provides information on existing anthropogenic sources in the 

Kona area and the emissions control measures required of these sources. It 

demonstrates that despite the regulation of these man-made sources, the exceedances 

events and the exceedances of the annual PM2.5 standard at the monitoring station. 

This section also discusses how sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas from the volcano turns into 

sulfate particles as it travels to the Kona coast. The evidence in this section also 

confirms that the event in question both affected air quality and were the result of a 

Section 5 of this report provides information which help illustrate that the exceptional 

event produced PM2.5 concentrations in excess of normal historical fluctuations. 

Section 6 of this report summarizes the demonstration, showing a clear causal 

relationship between the natural event and the exceedances, and concludes that these 

-
3 

Section 2. Conceptual Model 

The Kona air station is located on the upper campus of Konawaena High School, at 

81-1043 Konawaena School Road, in Kailua-Kona, on the Island of Hawaii. The photos 

below in Figure 2-1 show the station and the surrounding view from the station. The 

station is at 517.2 meters (~1,697 feet) elevation on the lower slopes of Mauna Loa and 

approximately 2.6 miles inland from the west coast of the island. For more detailed 

information on the air station, please see pages 42-

Monitoring Network plan available at our CAB website 

http://health.hawaii.gov/cab/files/2013/05/Air_Monitoring_Network_Plan_2013.pdf. 

The closest emission source, Captain Cook Coffee Company, is approximately 

1.7 miles away from the Kona station. The permitted equipment at this facility consists 

of two (2) 20 hp Coffee Bean Peelers, and has the maximum potential emissions of 

2.2 TPY of PM2.5, and 0.0 TPY of NO2 and SO2.

 Northwest North Northeast 

 West Station East 

 Southwest South Southeast 

Figure 2-1. Kona Air Station Photos 
4 

Figure 2-2 below is a satellite image taken from Google Earth of the Kona air station 

and the surrounding area. The image shows that the surrounding area is a mix of 

residential lots, agricultural lots, small business, forests, and grasslands. 

Figure 2-2. Google Earth Photo of Kona Air Station

2.2 Topography and Climate of Hawaii 

There are six major populated islands in the state of Hawaii with Kauai being 

geologically the oldest and Hawaii the youngest. It is the only state that is surrounded 

by ocean. The islands are actually the summit regions of a long range of undersea 

volcanic mountains with the largest peaks being Mauna Loa, and Mauna Kea on the 

island of Hawaii both rising over 13,000 feet above sea level. 

Situated in the tropics, there 

extends from May to September and winter from October to April. Hawaii has a 

temperate climate with a relatively small annual temperature variation with the coldest 

and warmest months usually occurring in February and August, respectively. Rainfall is 

influenced by the mountainous nature of the islands with the highest amounts being 

recorded on the lower flanks of the large peaks of Haleakala, Mauna Loa and Mauna 

Kea normally during the winter months. There is a large difference in average rainfall 
5 

amounts between the east side of the island of Hawaii (Hilo) and the west side (Kona). 

The average rainfall amount from 2000 to 2011 for the Hilo side of the island was 

114 inches, while the Kona side averaged 9 inches for the same period (ref. State of 

Hawaii 2012 Data Book). 

The northeasterly trade winds are the predominant wind regime for the islands. These 

winds are produced by an area of high pressure called the Pacific High which is at its 

northern most position in summer. Therefore, during May to September, the trades 

predominate about 80 to 95 percent of the time and diminish when they move south 

with the sun during the winter months. Additionally, subtropical cyclones, often called 

Kona lows or Kona storms, occur more often in the winter months. The term Kona is 

used to describe these storms due to the replacement of the normal northeast trade 

winds with southerly winds. 

The average wind speeds are highest during the trade wind months of May to 

September and decrease from October to April. When the trade winds are stronger, 

they prevail over most of the lowlands. However, in some areas such as the Kona 

coast and the Kihei area on Maui local sea and land breezes may actually be 

strengthened by the trade winds. 

Figure 2-3 below show that the prevailing trade winds from the northeast usually travel 

over the island of Hawaii and then wraps around the south point of the island up to the 

Kona coast. A diurnal pattern of land-sea breezes occurs along the Kona coast. During 

Kona or southerly winds, the wind travels from the south of the island towards the 

eastern coast of the island. 

Figure 2-3. Hawaii Island Wind Patterns (courtesy USGS). 

Figures 2-4 and 2-5 show how different weather/wind conditions can affect plume 

behavior. During typical trade wind days, the plume can be seen blowing in the 

southwesterly direction. During calm winds or Kona wind days, the vent emissions can 

be seen fumigating the summit and surrounding area. 
6 

Figure 2-4. looking southeast from the 

Jagger Museum on trade wind day (taken by DOH staff) 

Figure 2-5. looking south from the Visitor 

Center on Kona wind day (taken by DOH staff) 

The Kilauea volcano is situated on the southeastern part of the island of Hawaii. 

levation of 
7 

Figure 2-6 is a topographical map of the Big Island showing the locations of the two 

vents, the ambient air stations operated by DOH, and the location of large emission 

sources that include five power plants. Figure 2-7 is a topographical map of the main 

Hawaiian Islands with information on Meso West and NPS locations. Figure 2-8 is a 

map of the Hawaiian Islands showing the population bases. 

Figure 2-6. Hawaii Island Topographical Map.
8 

Figure 2-7. Hawaiian Islands Topographical Map.
9 

Figure 2-8. Hawaiian Islands Population Map.
10 

2.3 Transformation of SO2 to Sulfates (PM2.5) 

The SO2 released from the Kilauea volcano creates vog when SO2 reacts chemically 

with sunlight and constituents in the air to form sulfate aerosols. Effects from vog are 

evident from annual PM2.5 concentration exceedances measured at the Kona air 

monitoring station as well as the effects on visibility around the Big Island and on other 

islands hundreds of miles away from the Kilauea volcano. 

As the SO2 gas travels around the southern end of the island, it interacts with other 

atmospheric constituents to form particulates that affect communities farther away from 

the vents, such as Kona. When the winds shift to a southerly direction, the volcanic 

emissions, mainly as SO2 gas, are carried to towns northeast of the volcano, such as 

Mountain View and Hilo. Figure 2-9 is a satellite image that depicts this phenomenon. 

Figure 2-9. Satellite Image of Vog (courtesy NOAA). 

The transformation of SO2 from the Kilauea volcano into aerosol particles, of which 

PM2.5 is a subset, is discussed in Ref. 7. The reference notes that SO2 is depleted from 

the air by deposition (dry or wet) in the boundary layer or through chemical reaction to 

sulphuric acid (H2SO4). It notes that for the time period from 2007-2012, Kilauea SO2 

persists in the environment in the range of 16 to 57 hours, and states: "lifetimes are 

highest in summer when cloud cover is smallest, and shorter for higher cloud fractions 

in spring and autumn". It further states: "On average, we find a mean SO2 lifetime of 

1.56 days, which is consistent with previous studies." 
11 

2.4 SO2 Emissions 

The Kilauea volcano on the island of Hawaii has been erupting almost continuously 

since1983 typically emitting approximately 2,000 tons of SO2 per day. The SO2 is 

currently bei

craters. Prior to December 2007, approximately 200 tons of SO2 came from the 

2007, the SO2 emission rate began to increase; and on March 13, 2008, a new gas vent 

2 from this location ten-fold, from 200 to 

2,000 tons per day. 

Figure 2-10 below represents the emissions in tons per year from the Kilauea volcano at 

the Ha

United States Geological Survey (USGS), who provides periodic updates of final 

emissions estimates; the most recent report (Ref. 4) includes data through 2010. 

Figure 2-10. Kilauea Volcano Annual SO2 Emission Rates 1992-2010

Figures 2-11 and 2-12 below show the average daily output of SO2 during 2011 and 

2012 as gathered from the Hawaii Volcanoes Observatory Daily Updates. Preliminary 

emissions estimates are provided in the 

The daily averages for each month were derived by totaling the daily output from each 

vent for each month, and dividing the total by the number of days in the month. 

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1992199319941995199619971998199920002001200220032004200520062007200820092010

SO

Tons per year

Year 

Kilauea Volcano Annual SO Emission Rate 1992-

 

Halema'uma'u

Pu'u O'o
12 

Figure 2-11. Kilauea Volcano Average Daily Output of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) for 2011 

Figure 2-12. Kilauea Volcano Average Daily Output of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) for 2012

impact on air 

located at a higher elevation and more inland, volcanic emissions would tend to drift 

more over the island than out to the ocean. Conversely, trade winds would tend to push 

331 331 

1224 

98 

608 

999 985 925 

477 501 424 498 

683 

524 

520 

456 

686 

709 793 

654 

528 526 

518 

660 

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tons of SO

Month 

Kilauea Volcano Average Daily Output of Sulfur Dioxide (SO ) for 2011 

Halema'uma'u

Pu'u O'o

316 

599 565 586 473 445 352 348 266 282 313 262 

1092 

718 736 742 

708 834 

732 833 

841 869 

621 

861 

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tons of SO

Month 

Kilauea Volcano Average Daily Output of Sulfur Dioxide (SO ) for 2012 

Halema'uma'u

Pu'u O'o
13 

ent more over the ocean because this vent is 

located at a lower elevation and closer to the coast. 

The higher annual PM2.5 concentration recorded at the Kona air monitoring station in 

2012 is likely the result of a much greater release of SO2

2012 than in 2011. In 2012, SO2

tons per year greater than what it released in 2011. The quantity of SO2 released from 

ear greater than that 

 This correlates to the premise that the 

 

Emissions from the volcano are considerably higher than those from anthropogenic 

sources in Kona. The SO2 emissions from the volcano were as high as 447,566 tons 

per year and 438,958 tons per year for 2011 and 2012, respectively. A comparison of 

volcano emissions to those from significant anthropogenic sources in Kona found that 

PM2.5 and PM2.5 precursors of NO2 and SO2 are only 1% of the total emissions 

(anthropogenic PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 + volcanic SO2). This shows that Kilauea volcano 

is the primary source contributing to annual PM2.5 concentration exceedances. 

 

Concentration versus time plot comparisons of annual PM2.5 and SO2 from Kona and 

Ocean View air monitoring stations show plots that match well between the two stations 

over the 2011 to 2012 time frame. It should be noted that these stations are 28 miles 

apart. Similar plots for the two monitoring stations indicate a large regional source is 

affecting the air quality at the monitoring sites. The Kilauea volcano is a large regional 

source that is not reasonably controllable or preventable and is the most likely source of 

emissions responsible for this correlation. 

 

Air pollution control measures provided by regulations that apply to anthropogenic 

sources in the Kona area, including the HAR, PSD/BACT, NSPS, and NESHAP, are 

adequate and should be considered reasonable for minimizing PM2.5 and PM2.5 

precursors from permitted sources. Please refer to Section 4.12 for the applicable 

regulations. As stated in Section 4.13, Title V sources, which include all large facilities 

in the Kona area, are inspected each year to ensure equipment is operated within the 

terms of the permits. 

Air monitoring data for 2011 and 2012 shows a decrease in annual SO2 concentration 

from the Pahala to the Ocean View stations and a further decrease from the Ocean 

View to Kona stations while there is an increase in annual PM2.5 concentration from 

Kona to the Ocean View stations and an additional increase from the Ocean View to 

Pahala stations. This supports the concept that SO2 is converting to sulfates in the 

wake of th -to-Ocean 

View-to-Kona. Figure 2.9 shows vog created from gases released by the Kilauea 

volcano. The presentation by Rudy Husar also illustrates the conversion of SO2 to 

http://datafedwiki.wustl.edu/images/6/6d/130919_Hawaii_EE_DSS.ppt. The transport 
14 

path for SO2 released by the volcano is consistent with what would be expected based 

on wind patterns for the island. As indicated in Section 2.2, prevailing trade winds from 

the northeast usually travel over the island, wrap around South Point, and then travel up 

the Kona coast. In Section 3, additional information is provided on the diurnal wind 

pattern that traps pollutants in the Kona area. 

It should be noted that emissions from sources located on the Hilo side of the Big Island 

would rarely follow the identical transport path as emissions from either the 

o craters. At minimum, a northeast trade wind would be 

required for emissions from sources located in Hilo to follow the same transport path as 

that o vents. Although the Hawaiian Islands are 

dominated by northeast trade winds, the winds in the Hilo area are heavily influenced by 

Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, producing a dominant southerly wind flow. 

This phenomenon can be seen by examining wind roses of two (2) sites. Section 3, 

Figure 3-10 (left) illustrates a dominant northeast trade wind flow from a meteorological 

site at Molokai Airport. This site is not influenced by high mountain ranges. In contrast, 

Section 3 Figure 3-12 (left) illustrates the dominant southerly wind flow at the Hilo 

International Airport due to the diurnal heating and cooling effects of Mauna Kea and 

Mauna Loa. 

The Waimea area of the Big Island, approximately 55 miles nort u

u o craters was also examined to address the effects of source emissions 

from this location. The winds in this area are also heavily influenced by Mauna Kea and 

most likely prevents emissions from the Waimea area to follow the same transport path 

as emi o vents. 

2.6 Hawaii Island Attainment Status 

The Big Island of Hawaii attainment/non-attainment status is currently unclassifiable for 

PM2.5, NO2 and SO2 due to the Kilauea volcano. 
15 

Section 3. Causal Relationship 

The primary purpose of this effort is to analyze PM2.5 monitoring data sets from the 

Kona monitor on the island of Hawaii with respect to the significant volcanic emissions 

from the Kilauea volcano. This work is intended to provide supporting documentation 

for the exclusion of datasets under the Exceptional Events Rule (EER). To accomplish 

this: 

Volcanic SO2 emission information from the United States Geological Survey 

(USGS) and SO2 and PM2.5 pollutant and wind monitoring data from the United 

States National Parks Service (NPS) were examined (Ref. 9); 

SO2, PM2.5, and wind monitoring data sets from the United States Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA; Ref. 10) and University of Utah MesoWest (MesoWest) 

were analyzed (Ref. 11); 

Additional relevant wind monitoring data was examined with respect to potential 

pollutant transport paths; and 

The proposed exceptional event days for Kona were examined relative to 

relevant monitoring data. 

located at a higher elevation and further inland, appears 

to have a greater impact on the more 

vent, which is situated at a lower elevation and closer to the coast. The prevailing 

more directly to the town of Pahala and 

Ocean View, and subsequently up the Kona coast. During days with southerly winds, 

the Kona area clears up as 

to Hilo and Mountain View. 

During Kona or southerly winds, the vog from Kilauea travels up to the other islands in 

the chain. The DOH-CAB monitors the weather forecasts for these Kona wind days as 

the vog creates widespread haze (see Figure 3-1) and elevated PM2.5 levels can be 

seen at the stations on Maui, Oahu, and/or Kauai. To date, the vog has not resulted in 

PM2.5 exceedances on these islands. However, on such days, the DOH-CAB often 

declares no-burn for agricultural burning on these islands as well as for the 

east side of Hawaii Island in order to protect human health and prevent additional 

particulate pollution. Historically, the majority of no-burn days occur during the winter 

months, when Kona winds are more likely to occur. 

The analysis shows that high PM2.5 concentrations measured at the Kona air monitoring 

station are the result of SO2

vents (Figure 2-7). SO2 transported from north of Kona would have the SO2 decreasing 

from Kona, through Ocean View, and on to Pahala. PM2.5 would grow from Kona to 

Pahala; neither of these is the case. A very large PM2.5 north of Kona would not explain 

the increasing SO2 concentrations monitored as the postulated pollutant is transported 

from Kona, to Ocean View and to Pahala. 
16 

-10, 

2-11, and 2-12 are consistent with the USGS observations (Ref. 1, 3, and 4). If there 

was a potentially large SO2 emission source other than the volcano upwind of Pahala, it 

would be a second candidate for causal analysis. However, as shown in Figure 2-6, 

there is no such source.

The diurnal nature of the winds at Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala provides the coupling 

between the elevated aerosol concentrations that are observed by satellite observations 

(e.g. Figure 2-9) and PM2.5 and SO2 concentrations measured at the sites. The good 

correspondence between time histories of PM2.5 and SO2 concentrations measured at 

Kona and Ocean View for both 2011 and 2012 is consistent with this transport. 

These examinations of pollutant and wind monitoring data indicate that SO2 emissions 

from the Kilauea volcano are the cause for the elevated levels of PM2.5 at the Kona 

monitoring site. 

 

Figure 3-1. Honolulu on a Hazy Kona Wind Day (taken by DOH staff) 

3.1 Volcanic emissions and pollutant monitoring data from the Kilauea Volcano 

3.1.A Overview 

The magnitude of SO2 emissions from the Kilauea volcano on the island of Hawaii is 

well documented, as is the impact on the Hawaiian Islands. The USGS noted in 2012 

that SO2 plumes from both major Kilauea volcano emission vents, Pu'u 'O'o (rift zone) 

and summit), significantly impact the Kona area, stating (Ref. 1): 
17 

"Unfortunately, both plumes eventually reach the west side of Hawai`i Island in a 

"doublewhammy" of combined effects, resulting in an especially dense and 

nearly constant haze of vog along the Kona coast." 

The use of the term "nearly constant haze of vog" is consistent with the nearly constant 

elevated level of PM2.5 and SO2 measured at the Kona monitoring station; monitoring 

site location and general information available at reference 2. The USGS noted the 

direct relationship between Kilauea SO2 emissions and elevated levels of SO2 and 

sulfate particles at Kona in their March 7, 1997 "Hawaii Volcano Observatory, Volcano 

Watch" webpage stating (Ref. 2a): 

"This 90% decrease in released SO2 gas from Kilauea is very good news for 

Kona residents, for it means that there is simply much less gas to be blown by 

the prevailing trade winds from degassing sources on Kilauea around South 

Point, and up along the Kona coast, where it is trapped by the onshore-offshore 

daily wind regime. On this journey, there is also less gas to react chemically with 

sunlight, oxygen, dust and water to form the sulfuric acid and other sulfate 

particles that cause the visible pollution that had become so ubiquitous for Kona 

residents and visitors." 

In 2008, the USGS discussed the connection between elevated SO2 emissions from the 

Halema`uma`u vent and PM2.5 exceedances around Kona and Pahala (Ref. 2b); this 

would also include the Ocean View area. Key conditions and observations described by 

USGS in the article were: 

"During prevailing trade winds, the east rift gas plume is generally blown out to 

sea, where it is dispersed and diluted before being carried back onshore to 

impact downwind communities. The Halema`uma`u plume remains onshore and 

is generally blown through the Ka`u desert to directly affect downwind 

communities." 

"Since the new activity at Halema`uma`u began, the EPA standards for SO2 have 

been exceeded on numerous occasions in Pahala, and for particulate matter they 

have been exceeded in both Pahala and Kona. The Pahala air quality monitoring 

station, which was installed in August 2007, only measured exceedance of SO2

standards after the opening of the Halema`uma`u vent in March 2008." (See 

Figure 2-10) 

To further examine the link between the volcano and Kona PM2.5 measurements, the 

SO2 emission time history was examined. The USGS monitors SO2 emissions from 

Kilauea vents at the rift zone and summit and reports preliminary values at their "Recent 

Kilauea Status Reports, Updates, and Information Releases" webpage (Ref.3). While 

these values are preliminary, the USGS provides periodic updates of final emissions 

estimates, the most recent of which includes data from 2007 through 2010. This latest 

report (Ref. 6) includes one reference that estimates Kilauea's 2007-2010 SO2 average 

of 751,000 metric tonnes per year (approximately 828,000 tpy), and notes that this is 
18 

approximately 6% of the global volcanic SO2 emissions. In addition to providing the 

total emissions, the report also documents the time history of relative emission from the 

summit and rift zone from 2000 through the end of 2010, showing the shift in emissions 

from being dominated by the rift zone through 2007, to a more even division in 2009, 

with somewhat greater emissions from the summit into 2010 (see Figure 31 of Ref. 6). 

The NPS monitors SO2 and PM2.5 levels, along with weather information within the 

Kilauea National Park from the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park - Visitor Center and 

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park - Observatory, located near and to the northeast and 

northwest of the summit vent (See Figure A-1). 

3.1.B USGS SO2 Emissions Estimates & NPS Pollutant and Wind data 

Using the preliminary SO2 emissions information posted on the USGS website (Ref. 5), 

DOH calculations show a slight decrease in the total SO2 emissions from the summit 

and rift zone vents between calendar years 2011 and 2012 (see Figures A-2, A-3), with 

summit emissions increasing by approximately 33% and rift zone decreasing by 35%. 

These DOH calculation result in total annual SO2 emissions for 2011 and 2012 of 

approximately 448,000 tons per year and 439,000 tons per year, respectively. The 

increase in SO2 emissions from the summit of Kilauea is noteworthy since, consistent 

with the USGS 2008 web posting (Ref. 4) discussed previously, it would indicate an 

expectation for increased SO2 and particulate levels for the Pahala, Ocean View, and 

Kona areas for 2012 relative to 2011. 

 

Table 3-1. 2011-2012 USGS preliminary SO2 emissions data compiled by DOH 

The preliminary USGS SO2 emission estimate was compared to the SO2 and PM2.5

monitoring data from the Kilauea Observatory (HAVO OB), and SO2 monitoring data 

from the Kilauea Visitor Center (HAVO VC). For the time-wise comparisons of SO2

emissions and pollutant monitoring, daily values were normalized to their respective 

annual averages to account for magnitude differences. Figures A-4 through A-9 present 

the preliminary SO2 emission estimates with blue lines and the NPS monitoring data 

(Ref. 9) with red dots. The normalized emission levels are seen to generally be 

relatively flat compared to the monitored levels, and there is no significant correlation 

between any of the paired emission and monitored datasets. While these paired data 

sets corresponded poorly, this is consistent with the local wind patterns, which tend to 

transport volcanic emissions away from the two monitoring sites. The pronounced 

2011 Daily 

Average

2012 Daily 

Average

2011 to 2012

USGS webpage based DOH 

estimate of Kilauea Volcano 

SO2 Emission Rate 

SO2 

(Tonnes / day) 

SO2 

(Tonnes / day) % change

Summit 550 726 32%

Rift Zone 563 362 -36%

Total 1,112 1,088 -2%
19 

difference between the prevailing winds and pollutant approach direction is indicated in 

Figures A-10 through A-13. For each figure, the windrose and pollution windroses are 

presented on the left and right, respectively. The windroses graphically present the total 

hourly occurrences of winds approaching from the indicated 15 degree quadrants during 

the monitoring year. The pollution windroses graphically present the total hourly 

pollutant levels associated with winds approaching from the indicated 15 degree 

quadrants during the monitoring year. Figures A-10 and A-11 show winds approaching 

HAVO OB for 2011 and 2012 from the northeast, while SO2 approaches from the north 

and southeast. Figures A-12 and A-13 show winds approaching HAVO VC from the 

northeast, with SO2 approaching from the southwest. As can be seen with the aid of 

Figure A-1, the southerly approach directions for indicated by the pollution windroses for 

HAVO OB and HAVO VC are consistent with approximate line of sight transport from 

the nearby summit (Halema`uma`u ) vent. The northern approach of SO2 to HAVO OB 

would be consistent with the partial return of Kilauea summit emissions that are initially 

transported north of HAVO OB and then return. 

Recent satellite based Kilauea SO2 emission estimates have indicated that emission 

levels for March through November 2008 that are about 3 times larger than those 

previously estimated by the USGS using ground based measurements (Ref. 7). The 

USGS is reviewing these preliminary Kilauea SO2 emission estimates, as well as values 

in prior published reports (e.g. Ref. 6), for possible revision. Changes in the USGS 

ground based measurement methods are also being developed to improve 

measurement accuracy and address the estimate differences reported in reference 7. 

The emission levels after revision are currently expected to result in day to day 

variations that will appear similar to those previously published, but with larger values 

overall (Ref. 8). 

3.1.C Discussion 

While the USGS SO2 emissions estimates for 2011 and 2012 are preliminary, and may 

be revised upward by USGS, they provide an indication of the magnitude of the total 

emissions as well as relative emissions associated with the summit and rift zone. 

Based on the 2008 USGS assessment (Ref. 4), the growth in Kilauea summit SO2

emissions from 2011 to 2012, from about 221,000 tpy to 293,000 tpy, is consistent with 

the increase in SO2 and particulate levels at Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala between 

2011 and 2012. 

3.2 Pollutant monitoring data from Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala 

3.2.A Overview 

The locations of DOH pollutant and weather monitors at Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala 

are shown in Figure 2-7. PM2.5 and SO2 monitoring data from these monitors were 

downloaded from the EPA AQS Data Mart (Ref. 10). The AQS designations for the 

Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala monitors are 150011012, 150012020, and 150012016, 

respectively. The AQS designation for the PM2.5 and SO2 pollutants are 88101 and 
20 

42401, respectively; there is an extra "1" at the end of the AQS ID number for datasets 

downloaded from the AQS Data Mart Data (e.g. the Kona PM2.5 ID number is 

150011012881011). For each monitoring site and pollutant, pollutant concentrations 

are nominally reported hourly. The measurement units for PM2.5 and SO2 presented in 

ion (ppb), 

respectively. Wind direction data associated with these three monitors, as well as for 

other relevant monitors, was obtained from the University of Utah MesoWest website 

(Ref. 11). The weather monitors associated with the Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala 

pollutant monitoring sites are identified by MesoWest as AN155, AN738, and AN157. 

To confirm apparently erroneous wind direction measurements at the Kona site during 

the middle of calendar year 2012, data from 3 additional monitoring sites were 

examined. These sites are identified by MesoWest as D4261, KHOH1, and PHRH1. 

The locations of these monitoring sites and additional ones discussed in this Section 3.2 

are shown in Figure 2-7. 

It is important to note that the annual average values presented in throughout Section 

3.2 were calculated by averaging all daily values based on all hourly data downloaded 

from the AQS Data Mart for both PM2.5 and SO2. This calculation method was used to 

produce a value for normalizing individual datasets, and will not produce the exact 

results reported in the Introduction (e.g 12.1 μg/m3and 16.2 μg/m3for 2011 and 2012 

Kona PM2.5, respectively). However, for the purpose of normalizing the downloaded 

AQS dataset, it is an appropriate methodology and result. The calculations were made 

using heritage subroutines and limited time and the risk of introducing errors made 

revisions very unwise considering that the calculation results were used only for this 

section's visualization and trend establishment purposes. 

3.2.B Annual Average for Normalization of PM2.5 and SO2 Pollutant Concentrations 

Annual average PM2.5 and SO2 concentration levels from the Kona, Ocean View, and 

Pahala monitoring sites were calculated for dataset normalization purposes with data 

from the EPA AQS Data Mart. For all datasets, the nominal hourly measurement values 

were averaged for each day, and annual averages were calculated by averaging the 

daily values for a given calendar year. Negative concentration values were included in 

the averaging process. The annual average for concentrations for PM2.5 and SO2, as 

well as the percentage increase between 2011 and 2012 (using 2011 as the baseline) 

are shown in Tables 3-2 and 3-3, respectively. Two important characteristics appear 

very clear from these values. First, all monitoring sites show pollutant concentration 

increases between 2011 and 2012. These results, when coupled with the 2008 USGS 

web posting (Ref. 4), are consistent with the estimated 32% increase in SO2 emissions 

from the Kilauea summit; while a range of sources may have had a similar level of 

change between years, the very large nature of the Kilauea source and it's associated 

regional impact is unique. Second, the effect of the chemical transformation from SO2

into PM2.5 as the prevailing winds carry the pollutants from Pahala, to Ocean View, and 

finally up to Kona (as discussed in the 1997 USGS web posting, Ref. 3). For both 

years, the annual average PM2.5 concentrations increase from the smallest values at 

Pahala, to Ocean View, and finally at the Kona site (Table 3-2). Likewise, the annual 
21 

average SO2 concentrations decrease from the largest values at Pahala, to Ocean 

View, and the Kona site (Table 3-3). 

Table 3-2. 2011-2012 AQS Data Mart Hourly PM2.5 Data: Annual Averages 

Table 3-3. 2011-2012 AQS Data Mart Hourly SO2 Data: Annual Averages 

Thus, annual average concentration levels for normalization are consistent with both the 

annual average SO2 emissions from the Kilauea summit, the expected pollutant 

transport path, and the expected chemical transformation process. 

3.2.C 2011 PM2.5 and SO2 Pollutant Concentrations at Kona & Ocean View 

The USGS well outlines the expected transport path for pollutants originating from the 

Kilauea volcano (Refs. 2, 3, 4), and the annual average pollutant levels are consistent 

with this description. However, it was recognized that additional confirmation of the 

linkage between volcanic emissions and monitoring levels could potentially be gleaned 

from the pollutant time histories measured at the Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala 

monitoring sites. The linkage between Kona and Ocean View datasets, particularly for 

the PM2.5 pollutant, are very evident from a casual comparison of the plotted time 

histories (Figure 3-2). The PM2.5 concentration peaks and valleys are seen to match 

quite well throughout 2011. 

Note that the time histories presented in this section plot the average of the three daily 

average values for normalization, centered on the middle (second) day. This smoothing 

was performed to represent time lag associated with pollutant transport between Ocean 

View and Kona, as well as provide some smoothing of the large short scale 

concentration variations that are characteristic of these datasets. The degree of 

smoothing, plus and minus one day about the center point, is also consistent with the 

estimated SO2 average lifetime of 1.56 days discussed in Section 2-3 (Ref. 7). 

2011 Annual Ave 2012 Annual Ave 2011 to 2012

Monitor % change

Kona 12.23 16.18 32%

Ocean View 10.03 12.97 29%

Pahala 6.18 7.59 23%

2011 Annual Ave 2012 Annual Ave 2011 to 2012

Monitor SO2 (ppb) SO2 (ppb) % change

Kona 2.88 5.36 86%

Ocean View 13.38 23.06 72%

Pahala 33.64 52.16 55%
22 

Figure 3-2. 2011 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) PM2.5 Concentrations 

For comparison, the plot without smoothing is shown in Figure A-14. In both figures, the 

Pearson correlation (r2 ; Ref. 12), a quantitative indication of how well the two 

concentration time histories match, are given below the "AQS Date (Month / Year)" label 

and are seen to be similar; approximately 0.65 for the smoothed case shown in Figure 

3-2 versus approximate 0.56 without smoothing (Fig. A-14); a r2value of one is the 

maximum correlation value. The annual average values are calculated using the daily 

values used for plotting. Because the smoothing weights the concentration values for 

the first and last data values at half the value as the remaining 363 for calendar year 

2011, the annual average values are seen to be very slightly different between the 

smoothed and unsmoothed pl 3

for 2011 Kona with smoothing 

3

, the value represented in Table 3-2, without smoothing). 

At the bottom of Figure 3-2, the annual average PM2.5 concentrations for Kona and 

Ocean View are shown. The Kona concentration is seen to be approximately 20% 

larger than for Ocean View. The time histories for Kona and Ocean View show the 

Kona PM2.5 concentrations are generally slightly higher than those at Ocean View. This 

is consistent with the USGS description of the expected transport path of Kilauea 

volcano SO2 and its chemical conversion into sulfate particulates. In an attempt to 

better visualize the correspondence between the pollutant concentrations at the 

monitoring sites, their time histories were normalized with respect to their annual 

averages. 
23 

In Figure 3-3, for example, Kona PM2.5 concentrations throughout 2011 were divided by 

the annual average of the daily PM2.5 concentrations (after smoothing), and likewise for 

Ocean View PM2.5 concentrations. Through normalization, the relative similarities and 

differences in the two time histories appear easier to identify. Because the annual 

averages for the two sites differ by only about 20%, Figure 3-2 and 3-3 appear quite 

similar. 

Figure 3-3. 2011 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) normalized PM2.5

Concentrations 

However, Figure 3-3 does assist in showing that the PM2.5 concentration time histories 

at Kona and Ocean View correspond well. It should be noted that correlation values (r2) 

shown in the two figures are identical. This is a feature of the Pearson correlation 

algorithm, which remains unchanged if one or both datasets are multiplied by a 

constant. 

The good correspondence between the Kona and Ocean View PM2.5 time histories 

though 2011 is continued in 2012. Figure 3-4 shows the smoothed concentrations for 

2012; the unsmoothed plot is shown in Figure A-15, and is seen to be similar. As would 

be expected from the increased SO2 emissions from the Kilauea summit, the annual 

average of the PM2.5 concentrations at both sites are greater in 2012 than in 2011. The 
24 

correlation value (r2) associated with 2012 is only slightly smaller in 2012 than in 2011, 

approximately 0.57 versus 0.64. 

Figure 3-4. 2012 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) PM2.5 Concentrations 

While the seasonal PM2.5 concentration highs and lows are noticeably different between 

2011 and 2012, this is to be expected considering the coupling of Kilauea SO2

emissions variability winds. 

The normalized 2012 PM2.5 time histories for Kona and Ocean View are shown in 

Figure 3-5. Perhaps more than with the 2011 datasets, it appears that the good 

correspondence between pollutant time histories is more evident when the datasets are 

normalized. 
25 

Figure 3-5. 2012 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) Normalized PM2.5

Concentrations

The very large SO2 emissions from the Kilauea volcano would be expected to follow a 

similar path to Kona as particulates. To examine this assertion, the correspondence 

between the time histories of SO2 concentrations at Kona and Ocean View is presented 

for 2011 and 2012 in Figures 3-6 and 3-7, respectively. These figures include the same 

temporal smoothing (3 day center average) and normalization that were used in Figures 

3-3 and 3-5. 
26 

Figure 3-6. 2011 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) Normalized SO2

Concentrations

For 2011, the time histories of normalized SO2 concentrations at Kona and Ocean View 

are seen to correspond similarly well as those seen for PM2.5; the correlation value (r2) 

is approximately 0.62. The seasonal trends in the SO2 concentration time histories are 

seen to correspond well. This relatively high level of correlation between two datasets 

seems particularly noteworthy considering the absolute concentration difference in the 

annual averages. Kona has an annual average of approximately 2.8 ppb compared to 

Ocean View's value of approximately 13.2 ppb. For 2012, with almost twice the annual 

average SO2 concentrations at both sites, the correlation value decreases to 

approximately 0.17. However, the seasonal trends appear to still be well matched in 

2012, as are many of the concentration peaks and valleys. There are several large 

concentration peaks in the Ocean View dataset that appear to be proportionally less 

prominent by the time they reach Kona. While it is unknown if these differences result 

from spatial in homogeneities in the volcanic plume, time dependent changes in the 

chemical conversion rate of SO2, or some other reason, the SO2 concentration data 

appears consistent with the transport of a large pollutant plume from the Kilauea 

volcano. 
27 

Figure 3-7. 2012 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) Normalized SO2

Concentrations

The 1997 USGS webpage (Ref. 3) described the Kona pollutants of volcanic origin 

being "trapped by the onshore-offshore daily wind regime". This description was 

evaluated. Hourly monitored PM2.5 pollutant concentrations for 2011 and 2012 were 

combined with hourly wind direction data from the collocated AN155 monitor. Hourly 

wind direction data was also examined. During the review of hourly wind data from the 

AN155 monitor, it was noted that the windrose for AN155 had an increased frequency of 

wind approaching from the west (Figure 3-8). Upon further review, it was found that 

concern about this issue had previously been noted in an October 2012 memo (Ref. 9) 

which identified that "Kona - Wind direction sensor, all readings were approximately 180 

degrees off". An examination of the 2011 AN155 wind direct data showed the 

consistent diurnal wind pattern indicated in the USGS document. In Figure A-16, the 

windrose plots for the 12 morning hours are presented in 12 plots. 
28 

Figure 3-8. Kona Area AN155 Windrose Plots for 2011 (left) and 2012 (right)

The hours begin in the upper left and advance from left to right, beginning at midnight 

(hour 0) through 2AM (hour 2) in the top row, with each of the subsequent rows 

continuing the pattern; times are given in Hawaii Standard Time (HST). In Figure A-17, 

the windrose plots for the 12 evening hours are presented in 12 plots. The morning 

hours through about 7 AM were dominated by winds approaching from the east (inland). 

The 8 AM hour showed winds from both the east and west directions. Beginning in the 

9 AM hour and extending through 5 PM, winds approached from the west (offshore). 

From 6 PM through the 11 PM hour, winds again approached from the east (inland). 

This diurnal pattern was not reflected in the 2012 dataset. The reason for this 

difference in the 2011 and 2012 datasets is illustrated in Figures A-18 and A-19 which 

show the 2012 hourly wind directions as a function of the date. Consistent with the 

DOH memo, the dominant wind direct associated with each hour is seen to change by 

about 180 degrees during the middle months of 2012. 

With the wind data quality for 2011 confirmed, and the problem with the 2012 dataset 

understood, hourly wind data and hourly PM2.5 concentration for Kona were combined. 

The hourly pollutant concentrations were binned according to matching hourly wind 

directions into four 90 degree quadrants. Each quadrant was centered about the four 

compass points. Figure A-20 shows the individual 2011 hourly PM2.5 concentration 

measurements associated with winds approaching from the north, east, south, and west 
29 

(from top to bottom in the figure). The average concentrations associated with the 

3

from the west (offshore) and 13.5 

3

from the east (onshore); the values associated with the less frequent approaches 

3

 

3

, respectively. The relatively 

small difference between the average 2011 PM2.5 concentrations approaching from 

onshore versus offshore is consistent with the USGS description of pollutants trapped 

by the local wind pattern. 

The 2012 hourly PM2.5 and wind datasets were plotted without attempting to correct for 

the know issue with the wind direction. Figure A-21 shows the result of this combining 

of the two datasets. While an accurate correction of the wind direction could have been 

made based on the prevailing diurnal wind pattern, it was felt that the significance of this 

effort would have been negligible for the purposes of this effort. By visual inspection, 

the east approaching and west approaching data values for the middle of 2012 do not 

appear to be significantly different. Without correction, the average PM2.5 concentration 

for winds approac 3 3

 

from the east (onshore); the values associated with the less frequent approaches from 

3 3

, respectively. As with 2011, the 

relatively small difference between the average 2012 PM2.5 concentrations approaching 

from onshore versus offshore is consistent with the USGS description of Kilauea 

pollutants trapped by the local wind pattern. 

3.2.D Seasonal PM2.5 and SO2 Correlations at Kona, Ocean View and Pahala 

An examination of the effect of seasonality has on the correlation between PM2.5 and 

SO2 concentrations at Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala for 2011 and 2012 was made. 

Each year was divided into four quarters, each three months in length, beginning with 

January. The results are shown for 2011 and 2012 in figures A-22 and A-23, 

respectively; note that these correlation calculations were made with the "unsmoothed" 

AQS datasets. The following observations were noted: 

For 2011 and 2012 Kona and Ocean View PM2.5, the first quarter of the year had the 

best correlation (0.615 and 0.483 for 2011 and 2012, respectively). For 2011, the 

third quarter correlation value (0.613) was almost as large as the first quarter 

(0.615). For 2012, the second and third quarters were equal (0.384) and a fair 

amount less than the first quarter (0.483). 

For 2011 Ocean View and Pahala PM2.5, the first and fourth quarters had the best 

correlations (0.239 and 0.178 for the first and fourth quarters, respectively). This 

was also the case for 2012, with first and fourth quarter values of 0.117 and 0.133, 

respectively. For both 2011 and 2012, the second and fourth quarters had 

significantly lower correlation values, never exceeding 0.022. 

 

2011 Kona SO2 correlated best with Kona PM2.5 during the second and third quarter 

with values of 0.469 and 0.499, respectively. 2011 Kona SO2 correlated best with 

the second and third quarters of Ocean View PM2.5 with values of 0.357 and 0.351, 
30 

respectively. 2011 Kona SO2 correlated best with the first and fourth quarters of 

Pahala SO2 with values of 0.351 and 0.281, respectively. 2012 Kona SO2

correlations had lower values than in 2011. The best correlations were with the 

second, third, and fourth quarters of Kona PM2.5 with values of 0.242, 0.252, and 

0.271, respectively. 

2011 Pahala SO2 correlated best with Ocean View SO2 in the first and second 

quarters, with values of 0.348 and 0.468, respectively. As previously noted, 2011 

Pahala SO2 also correlated relatively well with the first and fourth quarters of Kona 

SO2. For 2012, Pahala SO2 correlated best with the first, third and fourth quarters of 

Pahala PM2.5, with values of 0.426, 0.219, and 0.207, respectively. 

With only two years of data, the observations above seem insufficient to draw 

conclusions pertaining to seasonal effects. However, evaluation of the data by quarter 

does help to further illustrate the linkage between the Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala 

SO2 and PM2.5 datasets. 

3.2.E Additional Relevant Wind Data 

The wind patterns associated with the island of Hawaii were discussed previously in 

Section 2-2 and illustrated in Figure 2-3. In this section, additional wind direction 

monitoring data from the Meso West website will be presented and discussed with 

respect to candidate pollutant transport pathways and source locations. 2012 data is 

presented, but 2011 data was also examined and is consistent with the 2012 data. The 

locations and elevations of the monitors are presented in Figure 2-7. 

While diurnal wind patterns dominate Kona monitoring site, trade winds can be seen to 

be predominant at higher elevations on the island of Hawaii (Fig. 3-9). In addition to the 

previously discussed HAVO VC and HAVO OB sites near the Kilauea summit vent, the 

Kamuela monitor (PHMU) situated in the northern part of Hawaii at an elevation of 814 

meters. Winds from the north are also predominant for the Keaumo monitor located on 

the eastern side of Mauna Loa at an elevation of 1682 meters. 
31 

Figure 3-9. 2012 Kamuela (PHMU)(left) & Keaumo (KKUH1)(right) Windrose

The predominance of trade winds can also be seen at lower elevations when the impact 

of local mountain are small, such as for the Kaunakakai, Molokai Airport (PHMK, 138 

meter elevation) and Kaneohe Marine Corps Air Station (PHNG, 5 meter elevation) data 

sets shown in Figure 3-10. The PHMK and PHNG monitors are located on the islands 

Molokai and Oahu, respectively. 
32 

 

Figure 3-10. 2012 Kaunakakai, Molokai Airport (PHMK)(left) & Kaneohe, Marine Corps Air 

Station (PHNG)(right) Windrose

In the region north of Kona shown in Figure 2-3, the winds are seen to travel largely 

from east to west. That figure is consistent with the wind data from the Waikoloa 

monitor (WKVH1) (Fig. 3-11, left side). Hourly windrose plots are included in Appendix 

A (Fig. A-24 & A-25) and show the diurnal pattern of the wind for this monitor, with the 

dominant flow path being from the east. The Kaupulehu Lava Flow (KPLH1) monitor is 

also north of the Kona monitor, and like the Waikoloa monitor, is near the western 

coast. The winds associated with KPLH1 come mostly from the west and also the 

southeast (Fig. 3-12, right side). The diurnal wind pattern can be seen in the hourly 

windrose plots (Fig. A-26 & A-27). 

 
33 

Figure 3-11. 2012 Waikoloa (WKVH1)(left) & Kaupulehu Lava Flow (KPLH1)(right) Windrose

Nearer to the center of the island, wind direction data from the PTA Range 17 monitor 

(PTRH1) was examined for consistency with Figure 2-3. The windrose plot shows the 

predominant winds are from the south east, with some from the northwest (Fig 3-12, 

left). The daytime diurnal winds coming from the western coast would seem to be a 

likely explanation for the winds from the northwest, with nighttime and morning winds 

coming from the southeast (Fig. A-28 & A-29). 

The Hilo International Airport (PHTO) winds are seen to be dominated by winds from 

the south west, as indicated by the red arrow approaching Hilo in Figure 2-3. However, 

while the red "KONA WINDS" designation in Figure 2-3 relates to the less frequent 

Kona winds, the windrose for PHTO (Fig 3-12, right) is based on year round data. The 

predominance of winds from the southwest are shown to be associated with a diurnal 

wind pattern (Fig. A-30 & A-31). Other than the late morning and early afternoon, the 

winds are predominantly from the southwest. 
34 

Figure 3-12. 2012 PTA Range 17 (left) & Hilo International Airport (right) Windrose

Annual windroses for Pahala (AN157) and Ocean View (AN738) monitors show 

relatively even distributions of winds from two directions each. For Pahala (Fig. 3-13, 

left), winds arrive from the northwest and the east. For Ocean View, winds arrive from 

the northeast and the southwest. The diurnal nature of the winds can be seen in Fig A32 and A-33 for Pahala, and Fig A-34 and A-35 for Ocean View. In both cases, morning 

and evening winds arrive from the direction of the mountain, and daytime winds arrive 

from the direct of the ocean. 

In section 3.2.B, the presence of diurnal winds at the Kona (AN155) monitor was 

discussed. The wind data presented in this section shows that diurnal wind patterns 

dominate in many areas, including those near the Ocean View (AN738) and Pahala 

(AN157) monitors. This diurnal pattern will couple with the bulk transport of pollutants 

from the Kilauea summit, around the bottom of the island, and up the western coast as 

described by the USGS (Ref. 3, 4). 

 
35 

Figure 3-13. 2012 Pahala (AN157)(left) and Ocean View (AN738)(right) Windrose

Considering the wind data discussed in this section the following observations are 

noted: 

As indicated in Figure 3-9 and 3-10, the predominance of trade winds is such that it 

seems unlikely that the occasional Kona winds would impact the analysis of seasonal 

average concentrations. Based on the SO2 chemical transformation description given in 

reference 7, it seems much more likely that seasonal weather conditions such as cloud 

cover, humidity, and precipitation would have a much great influence on SO2 and PM2.5 

concentration variability. 

The predominance of winds from the south west monitored in the Hilo area reduce the 

likely hood that pollutants originating in Hilo would impact the pollutant levels monitored 

by the Kona monitor. 

3.2.F Discussion 

The pollutant monitoring data from Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala shows decreasing 

SO2 concentrations (and increasing PM2.5) as prevailing coastal winds travel clockwise 

from Pahala, to Ocean View, and up to Kona. The monitoring data are consistent with 
36 

the Kilauea volcano SO2 transport and chemical conversion process described in 

references 3, 4, and 7, and discussed in Section 2-3. 

SO2 transported from north of Kona would have the SO2 decreasing from Kona, through 

Ocean View, and on to Pahala. PM2.5 would grow from Kona to Pahala. Neither of 

these is the case. A very large PM2.5 north of Kona would not explain the increasing 

SO2 concentrations monitored as the postulated pollutant is transported from Kona, to 

Ocean View and to Pahala. 

The magnitude of the Kilauea volcano SO2 emissions is well documented. The elevated 

Figures 2-10, 2-11, and 2-12 are 

consistent with the USGS observations (Ref. 1, 3, and 4). If there was a potentially 

large SO2 emission source other than the volcano upwind of Pahala, it would be a 

second candidate for causal analysis. However, as shown in Figure 2-6, there is no 

such source. 

The diurnal nature of the winds at Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala provides the coupling 

between the elevated aerosol concentrations that are observed by satellite observations 

(e.g. Figure 2-9) and PM2.5 and SO2 concentrations measured at the sites. The good 

correspondence between time histories of PM2.5 and SO2 concentrations measured at 

Kona and Ocean View for both 2011 and 2012 is consistent with this transport. 

Note that while a direct comparison of the time histories of volcanic SO2 emissions are 

monitoring site pollutant measurements was not provided in the document, data sets 

were compared and the correspondence was not very good. This is not surprising 

considering the combination of emission characteristics (e.g. buoyancy), weather, wind, 

and chemistry involved. 

These examinations of pollutant and wind monitoring data indicate that SO2 emissions 

from the Kilauea volcano are the cause for the elevated levels of PM2.5 at the Kona 

monitoring site. 

3.3 Examination of Proposed Kona Exceptional Events Days 

3.3.A Overview 

The DOH identified days during 2011 and 2012 that are flagged for exclusion from the 

Kona dataset (see Appendix B). In 2011, there are two flagged days. In 2012, due to 

the added impact of the increased Kilauea summit SO2 emissions, there are 200 

flagged days. In this section, the flagged days are presented with respect to annual 

PM2.5 time histories (unsmoothed) at Kona and normalized PM2.5 and SO2

concentrations at Kona and Ocean View. The purpose of these comparisons is to 

illustrate that the appropriateness of the flagging of these days. 
37 

3.3.B 2011 Flagged Days 

The daily average PM2.5 concentrations for 2011 are indicated in red on Figure 3-14. 

Figure 3-14. 2011 Time History of Kona (red) PM2.5 Concentrations with Flagged Days (green)

The flagged days and measurement values are indicated by the green vertical lines and 

green dots. The average PM2.5 concentration used for normalization purposes of the 

3

versus the annual average of all days (before flagging) of 

3

. The linkages discussed in Section 3.2.F between volcanic 

emissions, the pollutant transport path / chemical conversion process, and the 

monitored concentration levels establish the causal link between elevated PM2.5

concentrations and the Kilauea volcano. 

As indicated in Figure 3-15, the two flagged days occur during peak periods of PM2.5

concentration (smoothed using 3 day center average, then normalized) at the Kona and 

Ocean View monitors. 
38 

Figure 3-15. Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) Normalized PM2.5

Concentrations with Flagged Days (vertical broken lines)

Figure 3-16 presents the normalized SO2 concentration data (smoothed using 3 day 

center average) for Kona and Ocean View with respect to the two flagged days. While 

the second flagged day is clearly associated with an SO2 peak at both monitoring sites, 

the first flagged day occurs during a period of time that indicates a good 

correspondence between measurements at the two monitoring sites. While SO2

concentration for the second day does not occur at relative peak, that is not surprising 

considering the range of weather and chemistry effects that can influence SO2

concentrations. 
39 

Figure 3-16. 2011 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) Normalized SO2

Concentrations with Flagged Days (vertical broken lines)

The time history data presented in Figures 3-15 and 3-16 clearly indicates that PM2.5

and SO2 pollutant levels at Kona and Ocean View are strongly linked, and that linkage 

is due to the large SO2 emissions from the Kilauea volcano. Though only two days are 

flagged, the data indicates that pollutant levels are elevated throughout most of the year 

only because of those volcanic emissions. 

3.3.C 2012 Flagged Days 

The daily average PM2.5 concentrations for 2012 are indicated in red on Figure 3-17. 

The flagged days and measurement values are indicated by the green vertical lines and 

green dots. The average PM2.5

3

versus 

the annual average of all days (before flagging, used for normalization purposes) of 

3

. For 2012, 200 days are flagged. The large number of 

flagged days is a direct result of the significant and persistent impact that Kilauea SO2

emissions have on the Kona area. 
40 

Figure 3-17. 2012 Time History of Kona (red) PM2.5 Concentrations with Flagged Days (green)

As indicated in Figure 3-18, the flagged days occur during periods of elevated PM2.5

concentration (smoothed using 3 day center average, then normalized) at the Kona and 

Ocean View monitors. 

Figure 3-19 presents the normalized SO2 concentration data (smoothed using 3 day 

center average) for Kona and Ocean View with respect to the flagged days. While the 

correlation between the SO2 concentration levels at the two sites is not as strong for 

SO2 as PM2.5, the seasonal trend is evident. As is the case with 2011, the 2012 data 

indicates that pollutant levels are elevated throughout most of the year only because of 

volcanic emissions from Kilauea. 
41 

Figure 3-18. 2011 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) Normalized PM2.5

Concentrations with Flagged Days (vertical broken lines)
42 

Figure 3-19. 2012 Time History of Kona (red) and Ocean View (blue) Normalized SO2

Concentrations with Flagged Days (vertical broken lines)

3.3.D Conclusion 

The USGS descriptions of the significant impact on the Kona area, as well as the 

southern region of Hawaii, of the very large SO2 emissions from the Kilauea volcano are 

consistent with the observed monitoring data for 2011 and 2012. The time histories of 

PM2.5 concentrations from the Kona and Ocean View monitors indicate a large pollutant 

plume of common origin impacting both sites. The relative magnitudes of PM2.5 and 

SO2 measured at the Kona, Ocean View, and Pahala are consistent with the transport 

path described by the USGS. The hourly PM2.5 concentrations at Kona, when coupled 

with local wind data, present no indication of any local source significantly impacting the 

measurements. As such, the Kilauea volcano is the only source that could reasonably 

be considered responsible for the highly elevated levels of PM2.5 measured by the Kona 

monitor. The data and associated analysis fully supports the proposed flagged days 

from the 2011 and 2012 data sets. 
43 

Section 4. Not Reasonably Controllable or Preventable 

The ongoing release of SO2 from Kilauea Volcano is the primary source contributing to 

annual PM2.5 concentration exceedances measured at the Kona air monitoring station in 

2011 and 2012. Anthropogenic emissions in the Kona area are significantly lower in 

comparison to those from the volcano. Control measures for PM2.5 and PM2.5 

precursors of NO2 and SO2 from permitted sources in the Kona area are considered 

reasonable for minimizing emissions. 

Emissions were quantified from sources in the Kona area to provide information for this 

exceptional event demonstration to address the exceedances of the 12 μg/m3annual 

NAAQS for PM2.5. Annual PM2.5 concentration exceedances being addressed were 

recorded at the Kona air quality monitoring station for years 2011 and 2012. Table 4-1 

below summarizes the air quality exceedances: 

KONA AIR MONITORING STATION, AQS ID 15-001-1012

Year Annual PM2.5 NAAQS (μg/m3

) Annual Concentration Measured (μg/m3) 

2011 12 12.1 

2012 12 16.2 

Table 4-1. NAAQS Concentrations 

4.1 Pollutant Emissions 

Emissions were quantified among significant sources in the Kona area for comparison 

to SO2 emissions from Kilauea Volcano. The ton per year (TPY) maximum potential 

emissions of PM2.5 and PM2.5 precursors of NO2 and SO2 were quantified from stationary 

and temporary permitted sources. Actual PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 emissions from Kona 

International Airport were added to the total anthropogenic emissions. The 

anthropogenic sources emit PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 from fuel burning equipment. 

Anthropogenic emissions also include fugitive dust from vehicle travel on unpaved roads 

and plant processing (crushing and screening of aggregate, grinding of green waste, 

and asphalt production). 

4.2 Stationary Sources 

There are a number of permitted stationary sources operating in the Kona. Locations of 

these sources are identified on the map from Figure A-1 in Appendix A. The Keahole 

Power Plant is the largest stationary source that includes three (3) combustion turbine 

generators. The remaining facilities are smaller sources of emissions. Stationary 

sources operating in the Kona area are listed in the table 4-2: 
44 

STATIONARY SOURCES 

No. Facility Type Equipment Distance From 

Kona Station 

(miles) 

Distance From 

Ocean View 

Station (miles) 

1 BRE/Waikoloa, LLC Resort Two 5.07 MMBtu/hr 

Boilers 

27.90 55.43 

2 Waste Management 

of Hawaii, Inc. 

Aggregate 

Processing 

340 TPH Crushing Plant 

and 275 TPH Screening 

Plant 

26.11 53.37 

3 Captain Cook Coffee 

Company, Ltd. 

Wholesale 

Coffee 

Two 20 hp Coffee Bean 

Peelers 

1.69 30.11 

4

a Hawaiian Electric 

Light Company 

Electric 

Generation 

Two 20 MW Combustion 

Turbine generators, 

Three 2.5 MW Diesel 

Engine Generators, and 

One 500 kW Black Start 

Diesel Engine Generator 

17.06 45.32 

5

a

 Hawaiian Electric 

Light company 

Electric 

Generation 

One 18 MW Combustion 

Turbine Generator 

17.33 45.66 

6 Hawaiian Electric 

Light Company 

Electric 

Generation 

One 1.5 MW Diesel 

Engine Generator 

4.76 32.79 

7 Grace Pacific, LLC Asphalt 

Plant 

325 TPH Asphalt Plant 13.82 41.99 

8 Jas W. Glover, Ltd. Concrete 

Batching 

150 yd3/hr Concrete 

Batch Plant 

13.55 41.92 

9 West Hawaii 

Concrete 

Concrete 

Batching 

150 yd3/hr Concrete 

Batch Plant 14.80 42.93 

10 Cremation Services 

of West Hawaii 

Funeral 

Service 

150 lb/hr Pathological 

Waste Incinerator 

14.65 43.13 

11 A Hui Hou Funeral 

and Tribute Service 

Funeral 

Service 

150 lb/hr Human 

Crematory Unit 38.42 10.22 

a: Nos. 4 and 5 designate equipment servicing one facility at the same location. There are two permits for 

equipment at this one facility. These permits are currently being consolidated into one permit. 

Table 4-2. Stationary Sources 

4.3 Temporary Sources 

A majority of temporary permit sources in the Kona area emitting PM2.5 and PM2.5 

precursors are crushing and screening plants that move from one site to another. Other 

temporary sources include portable asphalt plants, water well drilling rig, and green 

waste processing facility. The temporary sources may operate outside Kona or on other 

islands. Temporary sources on outer islands may also relocate to Kona. Each 

temporary source must submit a Change of Location Request that requires the 

elocating equipment. Table 4-3 summarizes information 

for these sources: 
45 

TEMPORARY SOURCES 

Facility Type Equipment 

Various 

Arrow of Oregon/Hawaiian, LLC 

(random representative company) 

Aggregate 

Processing 

Various Equipment 

Arrow of Oregon/Hawaiian, LLC has a 

300 TPH Impact Plant, 400 TPH Impact 

Plant, and 500 TPH Screening Plant 

Black Maui Rose, LLC Asphalt Plant 300 TPH Portable Asphalt Plant 

Road and Highway Builders, LLC Asphalt Plant 400 TPH Portable Asphalt Plant 

Keauhou Kona Construction Cor. Asphalt Plant 120 TP Portable Asphalt Plant 

Water Resources International, Inc. Water Well Drilling Two 300 hp Diesel Engines, One 400 

hp Diesel Engine, and Two 665 hp 

Diesel Engines 

Menehune Green, LLC dba Hawaiian 

Earth Products 

Green Waste 

Processing 

69 TPH Horizontal Grinder with 765 hp 

Diesel Engine 

Table 4-3. Temporary Sources 

4.4 Kona International Airport 

The Kona International Airport is another source of primary and secondary PM2.5 

emissions in the Kona area. Currently, there are no permitted sources at the airport. 

Mobile sources, such as aircraft, and portable ground support equipment for servicing 

and starting aircraft are exempt from air permit requirements. Table 4-4 below lists 

information for the airport. 

KONA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT 

Source Distance From Kona 

Station (miles) 

Distance From Ocean 

View Station (miles) 

Kona International Airport Various 18.2 46.7 

Table 4-4. Kona International Airport 

4.5 Kilauea Volcano 

Kilauea Volcano is an extremely large source of SO2 emissions that affect the Kona 

area. As indicated by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the SO2 emitted from the 

volcano interacts chemically with atmospheric moisture, oxygen, dust, and sunlight to 

produce vog. Table 4-5 below lists information for Kilauea volcano. 

KILAUEA VOLCANO 

Source 

 

Distance From Kona Station (miles) Distance From Ocean View 

Station (miles) 

42.2 38.0 

53.5 47.9 

Table 4-5. Kilauea Volcano 

4.6 Stationary Source Emissions 

Maximum potential PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 emissions from permitted stationary sources, 

assuming controls and permit limits, are shown in Table 4-6. 
46 

STATIONARY SOURCE EMISSIONS

No. Facility Equipment Total Combined Emissions (TPY)

PM2.5 NO2 SO2

1 BRE/Waikoloa, LLC Two 5.07 MMBtu/hr Boilers 0.01 3.2 0.4 

2 Waste Management of 

Hawaii, Inc. 

340 TPH Crushing Plant and 

275 TPH Screening Plant 1.2 6.6 1.9 

3 Captain Cook Coffee 

Company, Ltd. 

Two 20 hp Coffee Bean Peelers 2.2 0 0 

4 Hawaiian Electric 

Light Company 

Two 20 MW Combustion 

Turbine Generators, Three 2.5 

MW Diesel Engine Generatorsb, 

and One 500 kW Black Start 

Diesel Engine Generator 

221.8a 983.5 1,067.6 

5 Hawaiian Electric 

Light company 

One 18 MW Combustion 

Turbine Generators 

87.6a 170.8 481.8 

6 Hawaiian Electric 

Light Company 

One 1.5 MW Diesel Engine 

Generator 

1.8 99.1 0.1 

7 Grace Pacific, LLC 325 TPH Asphalt Plant 1.4 21.8 4.6 

8 Jas W. Glover, Ltd. 150 yd3/hr Concrete Batch Plant 29.4 10.4 3.2 

9 West Hawaii Concrete 150 yd3/hr Concrete Batch Plant 13.3 0 0 

10 Cremation Services of 

West Hawaii 

Two 150 lb/hr Pathological 

Waste Incinerators 

0.8c 2.8 1.2 

11 A Hui Hou Funeral 

and Tribute Service 

One 150 lb/hr Human 

Crematory Unit 0.1 1.2 0.7 

 Total 359.6 1,299.4 1,561.5 

a: PM2.5 emissions based on data for PM10. 

b: Two of three 2.5 MW diesel engine generators can operate 8,760 hr/yr. The third 2.5 MW diesel engine 

generator is limited to 70,000 gal/yr fuel consumption. 

c: PM2.5 emissions based on data for PM. 

Table 4-6. Stationary Source Emissions 

4.7 Temporary Source Emissions 

Maximum potential PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 emissions, assuming controls and permit limits, 

are listed in Table 4-7 for temporary permitted sources that would typically operate in 

the Kona area. 
47 

TEMPORARY SOURCE EMISSIONS

Source Typical 

Number 

of Plants 

Equipment Total Emissions (TPY) 

PM2.5 NO2 SO2 

Various 20 Various Equipment 

Arrow of Oregon/Hawaiian, LLC 

has a 300 TPH Impact Plant, 

400 TPH Impact Plant, and 500 

TPH Screening Plant 

46.0a 456.0a 82.0a 

Asphalt Production 

Plants 3 

300 TPH Portable Asphalt Plant 

400 TPH Portable Asphalt Plant 

120 TPH Portable Asphalt Plant 

27.9 104.0 50.1 

Well Drilling Rig with 

Diesel Engines 

1 Two 300 hp Diesel Engines, 

One 400 hp Diesel Engine, and 

Two 665 hp Diesel Engines 

2.1b 39.2 0.1 

Green Waste Grinder 

and Diesel Engine 

1 69 TPH Horizontal Grinder with 

765 hp Diesel Engine 1.1 44.7 0.1 

 Total 77.1 643.9 132.3 

a. Based on emissions from Arrow of Oregon/Hawaiian LLC (CSP No. 0738-01-CT) as a random representative 

source. Emissions from this facility were multiplied by 20 to approximate total combined emissions from all 

twenty (20) of the crushing and screening plants. 

b. PM2.5 emissions are based on emission estimates for PM10.

Table 4-7. Temporary Source Emissions 

4.8 Kona International Airport Emissions 

Table 4-8 shows estimated actual emissions of PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 from the Kona 

International Airport. Emissions were based on information from the National Emissions 

Inventory (NEI) for year 2011. The NEI data is not yet available for 2012. 

KONA INTERNATIONA AIRPORT EMISSIONS

Source Equipment Emissions (TPY)a

PM2.5 NO2 SO2 

Kona International Airport Various 11.6 226.7 27.2 

a: Based on NEI data for 2011. 

Table 4-8. Kona International Airport Emissions 

4.9 Anthropogenic Emissions 

Anthropogenic emissions of PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 from significant sources in the Kona 

area are shown in Table 4-9.

ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS

Source Emissions (TPY) 

PM2.5 NO2 SO2 

Stationary Permitted Sources 359.6 1,299.4 1,561.5 

Temporary Permitted Sources 77.1 643.9 132.3 

Kona International Airport 11.6 226.7 27.2 

 Total 448.3 2,170.0 1,721.0 

Table 4-9. Anthropogenic Emissions
48 

4.10 Kilauea Volcano Emissions 

As indicated by USGS, Kilauea volcano emits about 2,000 tons of SO2 gas each day 

during periods of sustained eruption. Emissions of SO2 from Kilauea Volcano were 

quantified for 2011 and 2012, based on information provided by the USGS - HAVO. 

Table 4-10 provides emissions from the volcano. 

KILAUEA VOLCANO EMISSIONS

Source Short Tons per Year Metric Tons per Year 

2011 2012 2011 2012 

221,154 292,738 200,630 265,570 

226,412 146,220 205,400 132,650 

 Total 447,566 438,958 406,030 398,220 

Table 4-10. Kilauea Volcano Emissions 

4.11 Anthropogenic and Volcanic Emissions 

Figures 4-1 and 4-2 provide a comparison between PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 emissions 

from anthropogenic sources and SO2 emissions from the volcano in 2011 and 2012. 

Figure 4-1. Comparison of Emissions for 2011 

Figure 4-2. Comparison of Emissions for 2012 

1% 

99% 

Comparison of Emissions for 2011 

Anthropogenic PM2.5, NO2,

and SO2

2011 Volcanic SO2

1% 

99% 

Comparison of Emissions for 2012 

Anthropogenic PM2.5, NO2,

and SO2

2012 Volcanic SO2
49 

4.12 Regulatory Measures and Air Pollution Controls 

The Department of Health is responsible for implementing measures specified in the 

applicable regulations to control pollutants from stationary and temporary sources. 

Requirements from the following regulations are incorporated into permits of facilities in 

the Kona area according to the applicable source category: 

1) Hawaii Administrative Rules (HAR); 

2) PSD/BACT, §52.21; 

3) 40 CFR Part 60, Subpart OOO, NSPS, Standards of Performance for 

Nonmetallic Mineral Processing Plants; 

4) 40 CFR Part 60, Subpart I, NSPS, Standards of Performance for Hot Mix Asphalt 

Facilities; 

5) 40 CFR Part 60, Subpart GG, NSPS, Standards of Performance for Stationary 

Gas Turbines; and 

6) 40 CFR Part 63, Subpart ZZZZ, NESHAP for Stationary Reciprocating Internal 

Combustion Engines. 

Table 4-11summarizes regulations that apply to sources in the Kona area that provide 

control requirements to minimize PM2.5 and PM2.5 precursors of NO2 and SO2. 
50 

No. Source Regulation(s) Regulatory Measures for PM2.5, NO2, 

and SO2

1 BRE/Waikoloa, LLCa,b 

Two 5.07 MMBtu/hr Boilers 

HAR Provides stack opacity standards. 

2 Waste Management of Hawaii, Inc.a

Crushing and & Screening Plant 

HAR Provides standards for stack opacity and 

visible emissions of fugitive dust from and 

beyond property. 

3 Captain Cook Coffee Company, 

Ltd. 

Two Coffee Bean Peelers 

HAR Provides stack opacity standards. 

4 Hawaiian Electric Light Companya

Two 20 MW Combustion Turbine 

Generators, Three 2.5 MW Diesel 

Engine Generators, and One 500 

kW Black Start Diesel Engine 

Generator 

HAR 

Subpart ZZZZ 

Subpart GG 

PSD 

Provides stack opacity standards. 

Specifies ultra-low sulfur fuel for diesel 

engine generators. Requires particulate 

control measures for engine crankcase. 

Specifies NO2 controls. 

Provides combustion turbine BACT 

emission limits for PM, NO2, and SO2 

among other pollutants. 

Provides diesel engine generator BACT 

emission limit for NO2. 

Continuous emission monitoring systems 

(CEMS) for combustion turbine NO2 limit as 

well as other pollutant emission limits. 

Continuous opacity monitor system 

(COMS) for combustion turbine opacity. 

Monthly visible emission evaluations 

performed for diesel engine generator 

stack opacity. 

Performance testing conducted at least 

every two years to determine compliance 

with combustion turbine BACT limits. 

5 Hawaiian Electric Light Companya

One 18 MW Combustion Turbine 

Generator 

HAR 

Subpart GG 

PSD 

Provides stack opacity standards. 

Specifies NO2 controls. 

Provides combustion turbine BACT 

emission limits for PM, NO2, and SO2

among other pollutants. 

CEMS for combustion turbine NO2 limit as 

well as other pollutant emission limits. 

COMS for combustion turbine opacity. 

Performance testing at least every two 

years for BACT emission limits. 

6 Hawaiian Electric Light Companya

One 1.5 MW Diesel Engine 

Generator 

HAR 

Subpart ZZZZ 

Provides opacity standards. 

Specifies ultra-low sulfur fuel for the diesel 

engine generator. Requires particulate 

control measures for engine crankcase. 
51 

No. Source Regulation(s) Regulatory Measures for PM2.5, NO2, 

and SO2

7 Grace Pacific, LLCa

325 TPH Asphalt Plant 

HAR 

Subpart ZZZZ 

Subpart I 

Provides standards for stack opacity and 

visible emissions of fugitive dust from and 

beyond the property. 

Specifies ultra-low sulfur fuel for diesel 

engine generator. Requires particulate 

control measures for engine crankcase. 

Provides opacity and particulate emissions 

standards for drum mixer dryer. 

Monthly visible emissions evaluations for 

stack opacity. 

Performance testing of drum mixer dryer at 

least every two years for particulate matter 

emission limit and opacity. 

8 Jas W. Glovera

150 yd3/hr Concrete Batch Plant 

HAR Provides standard for visible emissions of 

fugitive dust from and beyond the property. 

9 West Hawaii Concretea

150 yd3/hr Concrete Batch Plant 

HAR Provides standard for fugitive dust from 

and beyond the property. 

10 Cremation Services of West 

Hawaiia - 150 yd3/hr Pathological 

Waste Incinerator 

HAR Provides stack opacity standards. 

11 A Hui Hou Funeral and Tribute 

Servicea - 150 yd3/hr Crematory 

HAR Provides stack opacity standards. 

---- Arrow of Oregon/Hawaiian, LLCc,d,e 

(random representative company) 

Crushing and Screening Equipment 

HAR 

Subpart OOO 

Provides standards for stack opacity and 

visible emissions of fugitive dust from and 

beyond property. 

Provides fugitive dust opacity standards. 

Monthly visible emissions evaluations for 

fugitive emissions and stack opacity. 

Performance testing at least every two 

years for fugitive dust opacity limits. 

----- Black Maui Rose, LLCc

Road and Highway Builders, LLCc 

Keauhou Kona Construction 

Corporationc 

Portable Asphalt Plants 

 

HAR 

Subpart I 

Provides standards for stack opacity and 

visible emissions of fugitive dust from and 

beyond the property. 

Provides particulate emission limit and 

opacity standards for drum mixer dryer. 

Monthly visible emissions evaluations for 

stack opacity. 

Performance testing at least every two 

years for drum mixer dryers for opacity and 

particulate matter emission limits. 

----- Water Resources International, Inc.c

Temporary Water Well Drilling Rig 

with Portable Diesel Engine Gen. 

HAR Provides stack opacity standards. 

----- Menehune Green, LLC dba 

Hawaiian Earth Productsc 

Portable Green Waste Grinder 

HAR Provides standards for stack opacity and 

visible emissions of fugitive dust from and 

beyond the property. 

a. Stationary source. 

b. Subpart JJJJJJ, NESHAP for Area Sources: Industrial Commercial, and Institutional Boilers will apply in 2014 

that will require biennial boiler tune ups. 

c. Temporary source. 

d. Temporary sources consist of 19 covered sources and 1 noncovered source. 

e. Covered sources are subject to both HAR and Subpart OOO. Noncovered source is only subject to 

requirements from HAR.

Table 4-11. Regulatory Measures for Anthropogenic Sources 
52 

Table 4-12 summarizes control measures utilized by sources in the Kona area to 

minimize PM2.5 and PM2.5 precursors of NO2 and SO2. 

No. Source Air Pollution Control Measures 

1 BRE/Waikoloa, LLCa 

Two 5.07 MMBtu/hr Boilers 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

2 Waste Management of Hawaii, Inc.a

Crushing and & Screening Plant 

Wet suppression methods for fugitive dust. 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

3 Captain Cook Coffee Company, Ltd.a

Two Coffee Bean Peelers 

Cyclone dust collector for peelers to control particulate 

and for opacity. 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

4 Hawaiian Electric Light Companya

Two 20 MW Combustion Turbine 

Generators, Three 2.5 MW Diesel Engine 

Generators, and One 500 kW Black Start 

Diesel Engine Generator 

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and water injection for 

combustion turbine to control NO2. 

Burning ultra-low sulfur fuel to minimize SO2 from diesel 

engine generators. 

Crankcase filtration systems for diesel engine generators 

to control particulate. 

Proper equipment maintenance and operation for stack 

opacity. 

5 Hawaiian Electric Light Companya

One 18 MW Combustion Turbine Generator 

Water injection system for combustion turbine to control 

NO2. 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

6 Hawaiian Electric Light Companya

One 1.5 MW Diesel Engine Generator 

Ultra-low sulfur fuel fired by unit to minimize SO2. 

Crankcase filtration system for engine to minimize 

particulate emissions 

7 Grace Pacific, LLCa

325 TPH Asphalt Plant 

Wet suppression methods for fugitive dust. 

Baghouse for drum mixer dryers to control particulate for 

opacity and particulate matter emission limits. 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

8 Jas W. Glovera

150 yd3/hr Concrete Batch Plant 

Wet suppression measures for fugitive dust. 

Baghouses for transit mix truck and cement silo loading. 

9 West Hawaii Concretea

150 yd3/hr Concrete Batch Plant 

Wet suppression measures for fugitive dust. 

Baghouses for transit mix truck and cement silo loading. 

10 Cremation Services of West Hawaiia

150 yd3/hr Pathological Waste Incinerator 

Wet suppression measures for fugitive dust. 

Baghouses for transit mix truck and cement silo loading. 

11 A Hui Hou Funeral and Tribute Servicea

150 yd3/hr Crematory 

Secondary chamber to reduce particulate. 

Proper maintenance and secondary chamber for stack 

opacity. 

Visual alarm if opacity exceeds 10%. 

---- Arrow of Oregon/Hawaiian, LLCb

(random representative company) 

Crushing and Screening Equipment 

Wet suppression measures for fugitive dust. 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

----- Black Maui Rose, LLCb

Road and Highway Builders, LLCb 

Keauhou Kona Construction Corporationb 

Portable Asphalt Plants 

Wet suppression methods for fugitive dust. 

Baghouses to control particulate from drum mixer dryers 

for opacity and particulate matter emissions limit. 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

----- Water Resources International, Inc.b

Temporary Water Well Drilling Rig with 

Portable Diesel Engine Generators 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

----- Menehune Green, LLC dba Hawaiian Earth 

Productsb 

Portable Green Waste Grinder 

Wet suppression methods for fugitive dust. 

Proper maintenance and operation for stack opacity. 

a. Stationary source. 

b. Temporary source. 

Table 4-12. Air Pollution Control Measures for Anthropogenic Sources
53 

4.13 Inspections 

Title V sources, which include all large facilities in the Kona area, are inspected each 

year to ensure equipment is operated within the terms of the permits.
54 

Section 5. Historical Norm 

Prior to the opening as no PM2.5 monitoring 

being conducted at the Kona station, nor at any of the other air monitoring stations on 

the Big Island. The earliest PM2.5 monitoring began at the Kona station in March 2008, 

Pahala in April 2008, and Hilo in May 2008, necessitated by the increase of volcanic 

emissions and concern for public health and safety. Since no PM2.5 data is available 

prior to 2008, there is no possible way to s the exceptional event is associated 

with a measured PM2.5

However, historical SO2 monitoring data is available for the Kona and Hilo stations 

beginning in 2000. Sampling for SO2 at the Pahala station began on August 10, 2007. 

Figure 5-1 below shows the annual average of measured SO2 at the three stations. The 

chart shows an increase in measured SO2 at the three stations beginning 2008, 

coinciding with the March 18, 2008 event. As explained in previous 

sections of this report, the increased SO2 emissions correlate with the increase in 

measured PM2.5 concentrations. 

Taking into consideration the correlation between SO2 emissions and measured PM2.5

concentrations, th

 Figure 5-1. Annual Average of Measured SO2 at Various Air Stations 

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

SO in ppm

Year 

Annual Average of Measured Sulfur Dioxide (SO ) at Various Air Stations 

Kona

Hilo

Pahala

Notes: Pahala Station began measuring SO2 on August 10, 2007. 

 New Halema'uma'u vent opened on March 13, 2008. 
55 

Section 6. - Analysis/Conclusions 

In accordance with 40 CFR 50.14(c)(3)(iv)(D), exceptional event packages must 

Based on the data evaluated, this exception event package has demonstrated that 

annual monitored PM2.5 concentrations in 2011 and 2012 were not reasonably 

controllable or preventable and there is a clear causal relationship between transported 

SO2 from the Kilauea volcano and measured PM2.5 exceedances from the Kona air 

monitoring station. Concentrations of SO2 in excess of historical fluctuations were also 

Considering the transport path 

and magnitude of SO2 emissions associated with the volcano plume, there would have 

been no exceedances of the annual PM2.5 standard but for the naturally occurring and 

ongoing eruption of Kilauea volcano. 

The ongoing release of SO2 from Kilauea Volcano is the primary source affecting air 

quality and contributing to annual PM2.5 concentration exceedances measured at the 

Kona air quality monitoring station in 2011 and 2012. According to the USGS, SO2

released from the volcano creates vog when SO2 reacts chemically with sunlight, 

oxygen, dust particles, and moisture in the air to form sulfate aerosols (fine particles and 

droplets). As discussed in section 2 of this report, the USGS indicates that trade winds 

blow the vog from its main source on the volcano to the southwest, where wind patterns 

send it up the Kona coast. Also, the vog becomes trapped along the Kona coast by 

daytime (onshore) and nighttime (offshore) breezes. Emissions of PM2.5 and PM2.5 

precursors of NO2 and SO2 from anthropogenic sources in the Kona area are only 1% of 

the total emissions (anthropogenic PM2.5, NO2, and SO2 + volcanic SO2). Please refer 

to Figures 4-1 and 4-2 of Section 4 for a comparison of the emissions. The air pollution 

control measures for permitted sources are adequate and should be considered 

reasonable for minimizing primary and secondary PM2.5. 

Table 4-1 from Section 4, shows a higher annual PM2.5 concentration measured at the 

Kona air monitoring station in 2012 than in 2011. The higher 2012 concentration is 

likely attributed to larger SO2 at 

were 71,584 tons per year higher in 2012 than in 2011. In 2012, the SO2 emissions 

-10 from Section 4 for volcano emissions. As 

elevation and further inland, appears to have a greater impact on the more populated 

closer to the coast. This would indicate a clear causal connection between the quantity 

2.5 exceedances 

measured in 2012 from the Kona air monitoring station.

Total emissions from permitted sou

maximum potential to emit which over estimates the emissions from anthropogenic 

sources in contributing to annual PM2.5 exceedances. 
56 

Air monitoring data for 2011 and 2012 in Tables 3-2 and 3-3 of Section 3 show a 

decrease in annual SO2 concentration from Pahala to Ocean View stations and a further 

decrease from Ocean View to Kona stations while there is an increase in annual PM2.5 

concentration from Kona to Ocean View stations and an additional increase from Ocean 

View to Pahala stations. This is consistent with what would be expected as SO2 is 

-toOcean View-to-Kona. This demonstrates a clear causal link between SO2 released by 

the volcano, the time necessary to form sulfates in the presence of sunlight and 

atmospheric constituents, the volcanic plume transport path, and monitored 

concentrations. Figure 2.7 in Section 2 shows vog created from gases released by the 

Kilauea volcano. 

Similar concentration versus time plots of air quality data from the Kona and Ocean 

View air monitoring stations indicate a large regional source is affecting air quality at the 

monitoring sites. The Kilauea volcano is a large regional source that is not reasonably 

controllable or preventable and overwhelms the quantity of emissions from 

anthropogenic sources. The volcano is the likely source responsible for the correlation 

in the concentration versus time plots. Emissions from permitted facilities and the 

airport are significantly lower than those from the volcano. These anthropogenic 

sources are also scattered in location on the island. Therefore, anthropogenic sources 

cannot be the cause of correlation at the Kona and Ocean View air monitoring sites. 

The PM2.5 and SO2 plot comparisons for the two monitoring stations are shown in 

Figures 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, and 3-7 of Section 3. 

Air monitoring data in Figure 5-1 of Section 5 shows that increased SO2 concentrations 

at the Kona, Hilo, 

vent. This demonstrates an event that is associated with a measured concentration in 

excess of normal fluctuations. 
57 

References: 

1. United States Geological Survey, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, "Volcanic Hazards, 

Frequently Asked Questions about Air Quality in Hawai`i", Updated: 18 December 2012; 

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/hazards/FAQ_SO2-Vog-Ash/P1.html 

2. State of Hawaii, Department of Health Environmental Management Division, Clean 

Air Branch and State Laboratories Division, Air Surveillance and Analysis Section, 

"State of Hawaii 2013 Air Monitoring Network Plan", Submitted to the U.S. EPA Region 

9: July, 1, 2013; 

http://health.hawaii.gov/cab/files/2013/05/Air_Monitoring_Network_Plan_2013.pdf

3. United States Geological Survey, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, "Volcano Watch, 

Kilauea sulfur dioxide emissions down by 90% ", March 7, 1997; 

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/archive/1997/97_03_07.html

4. United States Geological Survey, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, "Volcano Watch, In 

every volcanic paradise, a little vog must fall ", August 14, 2008; 

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/archive/2008/08_08_14.html

5. United States Geological Survey, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, "Recent Kilauea 

Status Reports, Updates, and Information Releases, HAWAIIAN VOLCANO 

OBSERVATORY DAILY UPDATE"; http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/hazards/FAQ_SO2-VogAsh/P1.html 

6. T. Elias and A.J. Sutton, United States Geological Survey, "Sulfur Dioxide Emission 

Rates from Kilauea 2010." ; http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1107/

7. S. Beirle, et. al., "Estimating the volcanic emission rate and atmospheric lifetime of 

SO2 from space: a case study for Kilauea volcano, Hawai'i", Atmos. Chem. Phys. 

Discuss., 13, 28695 28727, 2013. 

8. A.J. Sutton, United States Geological Survey, personal communications, 9 Dec 2013. 

9. United States National Park Service, "NPS Gaseous Pollutant and Met Data"; 

http://12.45.109.6/

10. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Technology Transfer Network 

(TTN), Air Quality System (AQS) Data Mart, Direct Interface; 

http://www.epa.gov/ttn/airs/aqsdatamart/access/interface.htm

11. University of Utah, MesoWest, Weather Observations; http://mesowest.utah.edu/

12. Wikipedia, "Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient"; 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient
58 

13. Hawaii, Department of Health, Clean Air Branch, "Clean Air Branch (CAB) 2012 

Performance Audit Data - Hilo, Kona, Mountain View, Pahala, Puna E., and Waikoloa 

Monitoring Stations", October 18, 2012, 12-850M&A CAB. 















A-16 

Figure A-16. 2011 Kona (AN155) Windrose - Morning Hours 
A-17 

Figure A-17. 2011 Kona (AN155) Windrose - Evening Hours
A-18 

Figure A-18. 2012 Kona (AN155) Wind Direction Time History - Morning Hours 
A-19 

Figure A-19. 2012 Kona (AN155) Wind Direction Time History - Evening Hours 
A-20 

Figure A-20. 2011 Kona (AN155) PM2.5 Pollution Time History by Wind Quadrant 
A-21 

Figure A-21. 2012 Kona (AN155) PM2.5 Pollution Time History by Wind Quadrant 
A-22 

Figure A-22. 2011 Kona (AN155), Ocean View (AN738), and Pahala (AN157) Annual and Seasonal (Quarterly) 

Correlations for SO2 and PM2.5 
A-23 

Figure A-23. 2012 Kona (AN155), Ocean View (AN738), and Pahala (AN157) Annual and Seasonal (Quarterly) 

Correlations for SO2 and PM2.5 
A-24 

Figure A-24. 2012 Wailoloa (WKVH1) Windrose - Morning Hours 
A-25 

Figure A-25. 2012 Wailoloa (WKVH1) Windrose - Evening Hours 
A-26 

Figure A-26. 2012 Kaupulehu Lava Flow (KPLH1) - Morning Hours 
A-27 

Figure A-27. 2012 Kaupulehu Lava Flow (KPLH1) - Evening Hours 
A-28 

Figure A-28. PTA Range 17 (PTRH1) Windrose - Morning Hours 
A-29 

Figure A-29. PTA Range 17 (PTRH1) Windrose - Evening Hours 
A-30 

Figure A-30. Hilo International Airport (PHTO) Windrose - Morning Hours 
A-31 

Figure A-31. Hilo International Airport (PHTO) Windrose - Evening Hours 
A-32 

Figure A-32.: Pahala (AN157) Windrose - Morning Hours 
A-33 

Figure A-33. Pahala (AN157) Windrose - Evening Hours 
A-34 

Figure A-34. Ocean View (AN738) Windrose - Morning Hours 
A-35 

Figure A-35. Ocean View (AN738) Windrose - Evening Hours
Q1 μg/m3 Q1 μg/m3 Q1 (cont'd) μg/m3 Q2 μg/m3 Q2 (cont'd) μg/m3

2/13/11 27.5 1/1/2012 16.2 3/20/2012 21.6 4/1/2012 26.5 5/23/2012 23.3

3/9/11 24.5 1/2/2012 20.3 3/21/2012 26.7 4/2/2012 27.0 5/24/2012 21.9

1/3/2012 16.9 3/22/2012 19.2 4/3/2012 27.5 5/25/2012 24.7

1/4/2012 17.2 3/23/2012 18.2 4/4/2012 29.3 5/26/2012 22.4

1/5/2012 20.0 3/24/2012 16.4 4/5/2012 26.5 5/27/2012 15.2

1/6/2012 17.8 3/27/2012 16.6 4/6/2012 16.9 5/28/2012 13.7

1/7/2012 18.0 3/28/2012 24.3 4/7/2012 18.4 5/29/2012 17.1

1/8/2012 20.1 3/29/2012 24.2 4/8/2012 16.0 5/30/2012 21.8

1/10/2012 16.2 3/30/2012 25.8 4/9/2012 16.4 5/31/2012 16.8

1/11/2012 22.2 3/31/2012 24.7 4/10/2012 20.1 6/1/2012 15.4

1/12/2012 18.5 4/11/2012 21.5 6/2/2012 15.3

1/13/2012 17.2 4/12/2012 21.9 6/3/2012 13.3

1/21/2012 19.5 4/13/2012 24.7 6/4/2012 15.5

1/22/2012 18.8 4/14/2012 26.9 6/5/2012 15.0

1/23/2012 16.9 4/15/2012 20.3 6/6/2012 13.9

1/25/2012 20.2 4/16/2012 18.5 6/7/2012 15.2

1/26/2012 19.0 4/17/2012 18.8 6/8/2012 15.7

1/27/2012 17.7 4/18/2012 19.4 6/9/2012 16.8

1/28/2012 17.0 4/19/2012 21.5 6/10/2012 17.1

1/29/2012 23.3 4/20/2012 15.8 6/14/2012 17.6

2/3/2012 20.2 4/21/2012 15.8 6/15/2012 17.7

2/14/2012 16.4 4/22/2012 21.5 6/16/2012 13.9

2/16/2012 17.8 4/23/2012 17.7 6/17/2012 14.7

2/17/2012 20.0 4/24/2012 21.4 6/18/2012 16.0

2/18/2012 17.7 4/25/2012 19.0 6/19/2012 13.7

2/20/2012 16.7 4/26/2012 26.4 6/20/2012 12.8

2/21/2012 18.5 4/27/2012 21.9 6/21/2012 13.2

2/22/2012 17.0 4/28/2012 32.0 6/23/2012 15.0

2/23/2012 20.3 4/29/2012 32.3 6/24/2012 15.7

2/24/2012 18.6 4/30/2012 22.9 6/25/2012 18.5

2/25/2012 22.1 5/1/2012 21.6 6/26/2012 14.4

2/26/2012 26.0 5/2/2012 20.0 6/27/2012 17.3

2/27/2012 24.1 5/3/2012 24.8 6/28/2012 16.2

2/28/2012 25.5 5/4/2012 17.9 6/29/2012 16.6

2/29/2012 16.7 5/5/2012 16.0 6/30/2012 22.2

3/1/2012 20.8 5/6/2012 17.4

3/2/2012 25.6 5/7/2012 19.6

3/3/2012 19.0 5/8/2012 18.0

3/4/2012 22.7 5/9/2012 16.2

3/5/2012 24.1 5/10/2012 14.0

3/8/2012 19.6 5/11/2012 22.5

3/9/2012 19.4 5/12/2012 23.9

3/10/2012 18.9 5/13/2012 18.3

3/11/2012 19.6 5/14/2012 16.3

3/12/2012 22.9 5/15/2012 14.5

3/13/2012 19.3 5/16/2012 19.3

3/14/2012 21.2 5/17/2012 19.7

3/15/2012 23.5 5/18/2012 17.5

3/16/2012 28.2 5/19/2012 16.8

3/17/2012 29.3 5/20/2012 16.1

3/18/2012 28.2 5/21/2012 26.6

3/19/2012 21.3 5/22/2012 26.4

Kona (AQS ID 150011012): 2011 and 2012 24-hr PM2.5 Flagged Data

2011 2012

Appendix B
Q3 μg/m3 Q4 μg/m3

7/1/2012 21.3 10/1/2012 18.2

7/2/2012 22.2 10/2/2012 17.9

7/3/2012 17.9 10/3/2012 17.2

7/5/2012 25.4 10/5/2012 16.2

7/6/2012 24.3 10/6/2012 16.9

7/7/2012 18.3 10/8/2012 16.1

7/8/2012 19.7 10/9/2012 16.9

7/9/2012 18.1 10/10/2012 19.4

7/10/2012 16.7 10/11/2012 18.1

7/11/2012 16.7 10/16/2012 16.2

7/17/2012 19.1 11/3/2012 16.2

7/18/2012 21.9 11/28/2012 19.0

7/19/2012 21.0 11/29/2012 16.5

7/20/2012 16.7 11/30/2012 19.0

7/21/2012 18.2 12/1/2012 24.0

7/22/2012 18.0 12/2/2012 16.5

7/26/2012 16.5 12/5/2012 17.5

8/4/2012 16.4 12/6/2012 18.5

8/15/2012 21.9 12/7/2012 19.8

8/16/2012 21.2 12/8/2012 16.6

9/16/2012 16.1 12/9/2012 16.3

9/18/2012 16.0 12/12/2012 17.1

9/30/2012 16.9 12/13/2012 17.4

12/15/2012 16.3

12/22/2012 16.0

12/24/2012 17.5

12/27/2012 16.0

12/28/2012 17.2

Kona (AQS ID 150011012): 2011 and 2012 24-hr PM2.5 Flagged Data

2012 Continued

Appendix B