Citation

Bauer, M., ed. 2006. Harmful Algal Research and Response: A Human Dimensions Strategy. National Office for 

Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, 58 pp.

Acknowledgements

The National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) provided leadership and coordination for the development of this multi-agency report. The 

NCCOS Center for Sponsored Coastal Ocean Research (CSCOR) provided financial support for a multi-agency 

workshop on the human dimensions of harmful algal bloom (HAB) response. The National Office for Marine 

Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) provided invaluable 

administrative support. Thanks are also due to Kevin McMahon of NCCOS’ Center for Coastal Monitoring and 

Assessment for report design. 

For More Information

For more information about this report or to request a copy, please contact:

Dr. Marybeth Bauer

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

Human Dimensions Research Coordinator

Email: marybeth.bauer@noaa.gov

Phone: (301) 713-3020

To obtain a copy electronically, please visit the following websites:

NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

http://coastalscience.noaa.gov/stressors/extremeevents/hab/HDstrategy.pdf 

National Office for Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms 

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 

http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/nationplan/nationplan.html

Cover photos courtesy of Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 
 *Dan Ayres 

Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife

Email: ayresdla@dfw.wa.gov

 

*Lorraine Backer 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Center for Environmental Health

Email: lfb9@cdc.gov

Marybeth Bauer (Coordinator, Contributing Editor)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

Email: marybeth.bauer@noaa.gov

Ben Blount 

University of Texas at San Antonio

Department of Anthropology

Email: benjamin.blount@utsa.edu

Daniel M. Cartledge

Yuxi Teachers College (Yunnan, China)

Institute of Ethnic Cultures and Social Development

Email: dmcartledge@yahoo.com

*Mary Culver 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Coastal Services Center

Email: mary.culver@noaa.gov

Guillermo Herrera 

Bowdoin College

Department of Economics

Email: gherrera@bowdoin.edu

*Porter Hoagland 

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Marine Policy Center

Email: phoagland@whoi.edu

*Barb Kirkpatrick 

Mote Marine Laboratory

Center for Ecotoxicology

Email: bkirkpat@mote.org

Linda L. Lampl 

Lampl Herbert Consultants

Email: llampl@lampl-herbert.com

Tom Leschine

University of Washington

School of Marine Affairs

Email:tml@u.washington.edu

Susan Lovelace 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

Hollings Marine Laboratory

Email: susan.lovelace@noaa.gov

George Luber 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Center for Environmental Health

Email: gcl4@cdc.gov

Caroline Pomeroy 

California Sea Grant Extension Program

Email: cmpomeroy@ucdavis.edu

Cliff Scherer

Cornell University

Department of Communication

Email: cws4@cornell.edu

*Kevin Sellner

Chesapeake Research Consortium

Email: sellnerk@si.edu

*Marc Suddleson 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

Center for Sponsored Coastal Ocean Research

Email: marc.suddleson@noaa.gov

*Pat Tester 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research

Email: pat.tester@noaa.gov

Bill Wood 

Central Washington University

Department of Anthropology and Museum Studies

Email: woodww@cwu.edu

* Steering Committee member, Advisory Committee member, and/or Workshop Participant for the National 

Plan for Algal Toxins and Harmful Algal Blooms, HARRNESS.

Contributors
Foreword

The Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) community welcomes Harmful Algal Research and Response: A 

Human Dimensions Strategy (HARR-HD) as the 

first report to expand upon the recommendations of 

Harmful Algal Research and Response: A National 

Environmental Science Strategy 2005–2015 (HARRNESS). HARRNESS is a new national plan for 

HABs that builds on the US Commission on Ocean 

Policy’s Final Report to the President and Congress, 

An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century. Specifically, 

it elaborates upon the Blueprint’s themes related to 

HABs and specifies actions needed to implement a 

new framework to coordinate activities, target funding, and achieve a vision for managing HABs in the 

coming decade. HARRNESS updates the National 

Plan for Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms

(1993), which served the HAB community for more 

than a decade, and expands this mandate by including 

freshwater HABs as recommended by the 2004 reauthorization of the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia 

Research and Control Act (HABHRCA). The HARRHD initiative is consistent with the inclusion of Public 

Health and Socioeconomic Impacts as a HARRNESS 

research focus along with Bloom Ecology and Dynamics, Toxins and Their Effects, and Food Webs and 

Fisheries. Also of relevance to HARR-HD are four 

HARRNESS infrastructure initiatives: reference materials, data management, education and outreach, and 

shared facilities. 

HARR-HD develops six areas of human dimensions 

research integral to assessing and mitigating the impacts of algal toxins and harmful algal blooms. The 

first three (Socioeconomic Impacts, Public Health Impacts, and Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts) 

provide a social scientific elaboration of and guidance 

for implementing these research needs as described in 

the Public Health and Socioeconomics Impacts focal area of HARRNESS. Another area of HARR-HD 

research, Education and Outreach, extends the infrastructure initiative of the same name in HARRNESS. 

The other two HD research areas expand HARRNESS 

in important new directions. Risk Communication fills 

a critical gap in national HAB capacity that is wellrecognized, but not well-developed in HARRNESS. 

Coordinating Approaches to HAB Problems provides a 

fresh approach to understand and optimize the interactions among various agencies and stakeholders in the 

HAB community that play an integral role in promoting all aspects of HARRNESS and will pave the way 

to reach the plan’s vision for 2015.

HARR-HD opens Harmful Algal Research and Response to even broader communities of scientists, 

resource managers, affected communities, and concerned citizens. This action is welcomed by the HAB 

community. Indeed, the intent of HARRNESS was to 

expand community involvement. The planning and 

formulation process for HARRNESS resulted in the 

new plan being vetted by the broadest possible cross 

section of the US HAB community, including program 

managers, regulatory officials, scientists, and industry 

representatives. We hope that, as HARR-HD is vetted by the larger social science community through 

their engagement and collaboration with scientists in 

the HAB community, a full integration of the human 

dimension of HABs will be achieved in each of the 

HARRNESS research themes and infrastructures. 

HARR-HD arrives as the HAB community is beginning to implement HARRNESS. The first step in the 

process was the formation of a rotating, interdisciplinary group of individuals representing priority research 

areas referred to as the National HAB Committee 

(NHC). The mission of the NHC is to facilitate coordination and communication of activities for the US 

HAB community at a national level. This committee 

commenced its tenure in June of 2006. Concurrent 

with the formation of the NHC is a requirement by 

HABHRCA for an Interagency Task Force to consult 

with the HAB community to develop scientific assessments of harmful algal blooms and freshwater blooms, 

a report on prediction and response, and a plan to reduce impacts. The advent of HARR-HD brings social 

science research into the HAB community at a most 

opportune time.

John Ramsdell

Executive Editor of HARRNESS

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

Don Anderson

Executive Editor of HARRNESS

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Contents

Executive Summary..........................................................................................................................i 

Sociocultural, Economic, and Public Health Impacts of HABs ...................................................... 1

Human Dimensions Research Strategy ........................................................................................... 3

1. Socioeconomic Impacts............................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Identifying Data Needs.................................................................................................. 4

 Guillermo Herrera, Caroline Pomeroy, and Lorraine Backer

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts............................................................................................... 7

 Linda L. Lampl and Dan Ayres

1.3 Assessing Economic Impacts....................................................................................... 11

 Porter Hoagland and Guillermo Herrera

1.4 Assessing Community Vulnerability............................................................................ 14

 Bill Wood and Caroline Pomeroy

1.5 Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts.................................................................. 18

 Porter Hoagland and Guillermo Herrera

2. Public Health Impacts............................................................................................................... 20

2.1 Developing Diagnostic Tools....................................................................................... 20

 Susan Lovelace and Lorraine Backer

2.2 Improving Surveillance................................................................................................ 23

 George Luber

2.3 Developing Epidemiological Methods ........................................................................ 24

 Lorraine Backer

2.4 Identifying Susceptible Populations ............................................................................ 26

 Caroline Pomeroy and George Luber

3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts.................................................................................28 

 Ben Blount and Pat Tester

3.1 Improving Monitoring and Documentation................................................................. 28

3.2 Developing Short-Term Response Plans .................................................................... 28

3.3 Developing Water Quality Standards........................................................................... 28

4. Risk Communication ................................................................................................................ 33

 Cliff Scherer and Dan Ayres

5. Coordinating Approaches to HAB Problems............................................................................ 39

 Tom Leschine 

6. Education and Outreach............................................................................................................ 42

 Susan Lovelace, Dan Ayres, and Lorraine Backer

Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 48

Appendix 1: References

Appendix 2: Workshop Participants

Harmful Algal Research and Response: A Human Dimensions Strategy (HARR-HD) justifies and guides 

a coordinated national commitment to human dimensions research critical to prevent and respond to 

impacts of harmful algal blooms (HABs). Beyond HABs, it serves as a framework for developing human dimensions research as a cross-cutting priority of ecosystem science supporting coastal and ocean 

management, including hazard research and mitigation planning. Measuring and promoting community resilience to hazards require human dimensions research outcomes such as effective risk communication strategies; assessment of community vulnerability; identification of susceptible populations; 

comprehensive assessment of environmental, sociocultural, and economic impacts; development of 

effective decision support tools; and improved coordination among agencies and stakeholders. HARRHD charts a course for human dimensions research to achieve these and other priorities through coordinated implementation by the Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (JSOST) Interagency Working Group on HABs, Hypoxia and Human Health (IWG-4H); national HAB funding 

programs; national research and response programs; and state research and monitoring programs.

Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). Harmful algal 

blooms (HABs) are “proliferations of microscopic 

algae that harm the environment [and humans] by 

producing toxins that accumulate in shellfish or fish, 

or through the accumulation of biomass that in turn 

affects co-occurring organisms and alters food webs 

in negative ways. Like much of the world’s coastlines, 

nearshore marine waters of the US have experienced 

increases in the number, frequency, and type of HABs 

in recent years. Freshwaters are also experiencing 

HAB events” (HARRNESS 2005) (Fig. 1). 

Human Impacts of HABs. In their Final Report to 

the President and Congress, An Ocean Blueprint for 

the 21st Century, the US Commission on Ocean Policy 

recognizes that HABs are a significant threat to coastal 

environments and communities (USCOP 2004). The 

human impacts of HAB events are profound, including 

illness and mortality resulting from direct consumption of or indirect exposure to contaminated shellfish 

or fish; lost revenue for coastal economies dependent 

on seafood harvest or tourism; disruption of subsistence activities; loss of community identity tied to 

coastal resource use; and disruption of social relationships and cultural practices of families and communities. 

National HAB Plan and Legislation. The recent 

National Plan for Algal Toxins and Harmful Algal 

Blooms, Harmful Algal Research and Response: A National Environmental Science Strategy (HARRNESS), 

calls for a coordinated, interdisciplinary national 

research and response program to reduce impacts from 

harmful algal blooms (HABs) (Fig. 2). By establishing 

recommendations for public health and socioeconomic 

research coupled with a comprehensive biophysical 

research and monitoring strategy, HARRNESS provides information critical to implement the 2004 reauthorization of the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia 

Amendments Act (HABHRCA) (PL 108-456). JSOST 

Figure 1. Major HAB Events in the US. (NCCOS and WHOI, 

www.whoi.edu/redtide/HABdistribution/HABmap.html)
II

Executive Summary

established the IWG-4H to 

implement the Oceans and 

Human Health Act of 2004 

and HABHRCA, which 

requires the President to 

submit a number of reports 

to Congress including scientific assessments of coastal 

and freshwater HABs and 

hypoxia, a report on HAB 

prediction and response, 

and a plan to reduce HAB 

impacts (see Recommendation 1).

Development of a Human Dimensions Research 

Strategy. Recent development of the National HAB 

Plan, coupled with legislation requiring considerable 

interagency focus on HABs, provides an opportunity to expand areas of HAB research that will better 

focus national commitments to protect environmental 

systems, public health, economies, and communities. Recognizing the need for guidance to implement 

the recommendations of the National Plan for public health and socioeconomic research, the National 

Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) of the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) convened a multi-agency workshop on the 

Human Dimensions of HAB 

Response in September of 

2005. The workshop brought 

together federal, state, and 

non-governmental partners 

in the HAB research and 

response community with a 

cross-section of specialists 

in human dimensions areas 

critical to improve mitigation strategies (including 

anthropologists, economists, 

epidemiologists, risk communication specialists, and educators) (see Appendix 2 for a list of workshop participants). A subset of workshop participants developed 

the following report, Harmful Algal Research and 

Response: A Human Dimensions Strategy (HARRHD) (see list of contributors above) (Fig. 3). 

Figure 2. National HAB 

Plan (HARRNESS)

Figure 3. Human Dimensions Research Strategy 

(HARR-HD)

Research Strategy Outline 

 1. Socioeconomic Impacts 

1.1 Identifying Data Needs

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts 

1.3 Assessing Economic Impacts 

1.4 Assessing Community Vulnerability 

1.5 Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts

 2. Public Health Impacts 

2.1 Developing Diagnostic Tools

2.2 Improving Surveillance

2.3 Developing Epidemiological Methods

2.4 Identifying Susceptible Populations

 3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts 

3.1 Improving Monitoring and Documentation

3.2 Developing Short-Term Response Plans

3.3 Developing Water Quality Standards

 4. Risk Communication 

 5. Coordinating Approaches to HAB Problems

 6. Education and Outreach

 Research Topic Sections

 1. HARRNESS Recommendation

 2. Research Objectives

 3. Example Project(s)

• Title

• Description

• Methods

• Outcomes

• Challenges

• Expertise Needed

• Timeline

Figure 4. Organization of the HARR-HD Research Strategy
III

Executive Summary

Human Dimensions Research Strategy. HARRHD provides a research strategy that expands on the 

Public Health and Socioeconomic Impacts section 

of HARRNESS. The research strategy puts forth six 

areas of human dimensions research critically needed 

to reduce environmental and human impacts of HABs: 

socioeconomic impacts, public health impacts, recreational and drinking water impacts, risk communication, coordinated approaches to HAB problems, and 

education and outreach. Within these broad areas, 

individually authored sections are devoted to more 

specific research topics essential to achieve recommendations put forth in HARRNESS. Each section 

states the HARRNESS recommendation it expands, 

provides an overview of the research topic, outlines 

research objectives addressing the topic, and suggests 

an example project to achieve the objectives (Fig. 4). 

Research objectives and example projects are intended 

to provide a framework for programmatic development and requests for research proposals (RFPs). 

Since HARR-HD has not been widely reviewed by 

an external social science community, it should be 

viewed as an important first effort to stimulate and 

guide routine integration of public health, sociocultural, and economic researchers and research programs 

into national efforts to implement HARRNESS and 

HABHRCA – especially the non-economic social sciences such as risk communication, anthropology, and 

sociology, which are under-utilized relative to their 

essential role.1Diverse human dimensions disciplines 

are integral to reducing impacts from HABs and, more 

generally, supporting coastal and ocean resource management (Fig. 5). 

Benefits of Public Health 

and Socioeconomic Research 

for HAB Response

Substantial investment in public health and socioeconomic research is needed to enable resource management and public health agencies, affected sectors and 

communities, and biophysical scientists to develop and 

implement coordinated, effective responses to HAB 

events on regional and local scales. This report deCommunication Sciences

Organizational Communication,

Risk Communication,

Science Communication...

Interdisciplinary Studies

Epidemiology, Urban and Regional 

Planning, Science and Technology 

Studies, Policy Studies...

Humanities

Cultural Studies, Applied Ethics, 

History, Political Philosophy...

Social and Behavioral Sciences

Anthropology, Decision Science, Demography, Economics, 

Geography, Institutional Analysis, Law, Political Science, 

Psychology, Sociology...

Figure 5. Diverse Human Dimensions Disciplines Integral to Coastal and Ocean Resource Management

1

For example, based on data provided by NOAA’s National Center for Sponsored Coastal Ocean Research (CSCOR), from 1999-2004, the Ecology 

and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (ECOHAB) interagency HAB research funding program allocated zero funds to the non-economic 

social sciences, e.g., anthropology, sociology, risk communication, and institutional analysis (not including epidemiology). To provide a point of 

reference, ECOHAB was committed to spending roughly $65M from 1997-2007. 
IV

Executive Summary

scribes human dimensions research critical to achieve 

the following benefits anticipated by implementation 

of HARRNESS and HABHRCA.

Improved Protection of Human Health

• Understanding how audiences perceive and respond 

to HAB information will enable communication 

strategies that prevent exposure and disease. 

• Collecting epidemiological information describing 

the extent of exposure and prevalence of HAB-related illnesses will inform public health decisions in 

anticipation of and response to HAB events. 

• Developing strategies for case reporting, including 

approaches that do not require patient interaction 

with the medical community, will improve accuracy 

of disease incidence assessments and focus exposure 

prevention strategies. 

• Identifying susceptible populations will further focus 

exposure prevention strategies. 

• Identifying effective regulatory, institutional, and 

participatory strategies will facilitate short-term 

response to algae-contaminated water and incorporation of algal toxin standards into water quality 

standards. 

• Assessing public perceptions of algal toxins in affected drinking and recreational waters, and the 

extent of public support for increased monitoring, 

will inform water quality monitoring and short-term 

response strategies. 

Improved Prevention of and Response to 

Sociocultural and Economic Impacts

• Identifying demographic groups most vulnerable to 

sociocultural and economic impacts of HAB events 

will focus prevention and mitigation efforts. 

• Conducting a baseline assessment of agencies and 

partners integral to current prevention and mitigation efforts, and identifying effective strategies for 

coordination, will inform development of effective 

partnerships on local and regional scales. 

• Understanding how communication of HAB forecasts, threats, and other information mediates public 

perceptions and behaviors will suggest communication strategies effective for prevention and mitigation of human impacts. 

Assessments of Sociocultural, Economic, and 

Public Health Impacts 

• Establishing formal, standardized data collection will 

enable accurate assessments of the sociocultural, 

economic, and public health impacts of HAB events 

on local and regional scales. Impact assessments 

will justify investment in HABs and, as recognized 

by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 

are critical to select effective prevention and response strategies. 

Improved Coordination for Research and 

Response

• Analyzing the coordination of agencies and stakeholders on regional and local levels will provide 

lessons learned, models of effective partnership for 

research and response, and strategies for avoiding 

unnecessary duplication of activities and funds.

An Educated and Informed Public

• Engaging communities to foster awareness of HABs 

and trust in resource management agencies will 

stimulate stewardship of coastal ecosystems and responses to HAB events that minimize sociocultural, 

economic, and public health impacts.

Assessments of the Benefits of HAB Forecasts

• Assessing the effectiveness of HAB forecasts for 

reducing sociocultural, economic, and public health 

impacts will enable public agencies to demonstrate 

the value of their research investments. 

• Assessing the economic value of HAB forecasts will 

enable agencies and community groups to evaluate 

and measure the benefits of mitigation and outreach. 

Decision Support for Policy Makers, Coastal 

Managers, and Others

• Economic analysis identifying value trade offs fundamental to policy and management decisions will 

support identification and selection of policy frameworks and management approaches for preventing 

and mitigating environmental and human impacts of 

HABs. 

• Economic and sociocultural assessments documenting human use patterns in and interactions with 

HAB-affected environments will enable coastal 

managers to design strategies to prevent or mitigate 

HAB impacts on individuals and communities.

Improved Development and Transfer of 

Technologies

• Assessing the needs of coastal managers, educators, 

public health personnel, and other decision makers 

will guide the development and delivery of tools to 


Executive Summary

effectively assess, prevent and respond to environmental and human impacts of HABs, e.g. clinical 

tools for diagnosing HAB illnesses.

Cross Cutting Value of HARR-HD 

The value of HARR-HD extends beyond HABs to 

provide a framework for human dimensions research 

critical to measure and promote the resilience of 

coastal communities to multiple hazards, including 

cumulative and episodic human impacts (such as pollution and oil spills) in addition to chronic and episodic natural events (such as droughts and hurricanes). 

Accordingly, HARR-HD provides a model for developing human dimensions research as a cross-cutting 

priority of coastal hazard research and mitigation planning, a goal of the Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (JSOST) established at a recent 

public workshop informing development of a national 

Ocean Research Priorities Plan (ORPP) (http://ocean.

ceq.gov/about/docs/JSOST_nathaz.pdf).



Sociocultural Impacts

HARRNESS merges the sociocultural and economic 

impacts of HAB events into a single category of “socioeconomic” impacts. We treat sociocultural impacts 

as a separate category in order to emphasize that the 

impacts of HABs include not only economic costs, 

but also social and cultural costs for individuals, families, tribes, occupational groups, recreational groups, 

and geographic communities. The term ”sociocultural” encompasses the variety of human interactions 

that enable groups, and their individual members, to 

survive and construct meaning. These interactions are 

social, political, organizational, and interpersonal as 

well as economic. “Sociocultural” also encompasses 

the knowledge, beliefs, norms, values, and customs 

that reflect the culture and heritage of a group. For 

example, as discussed below, techniques for harvesting, cleaning, and canning razor clams are part of the 

cultural heritage of coastal communities in Washington. The study of social experience is broadly interdisciplinary, weaving together disciplines such as 

anthropology, communications, demographics, ethics, 

organizational science, political science, and sociology.

The sociocultural impacts of HABs remain undocumented, although not unobserved. For instance, the 

razor clam fishery in Washington is not only a significant source of revenue for tourism-dependent 

businesses such as restaurants and motels, but also an 

important source of community identity and basis for 

tribal subsistence. Razor clam harvesting, cleaning, 

cooking, eating, and canning have been an important focus of family relationships and local culture in 

Washington coastal communities for many generations. Periodic and sometimes prolonged closures of 

the recreational fishery have diminished the collective 

identity of surrounding communities and decreased 

opportunities for family and community recreation, 

including razor clam digging. Studies are needed to 

determine the extent to which HABs and management 

responses (such as fisheries closures) directly or indirectly result in family disruption, community conflict, 

disruption to or shifts in livelihoods, threats to subsistence, increased reliance on social services, degradation of cultural practices and values, loss of recreational opportunities, and other sociocultural impacts. 

While it may not be possible to place a dollar value on 

all of these impacts, it is important to document them 

so that appropriate mitigation strategies can be funded, 

planned, and implemented.

The human impacts of HABs are profound, including illness and mortality resulting from direct consumption of or indirect exposure to contaminated shellfish or fish; lost revenue for coastal and linked 

economies dependent on seafood harvest or tourism; disruption of subsistence activities; loss of community identity tied to coastal resource use; and disruption of social relationships and cultural practices of families and communities. Impacts are both direct (such as shellfish poisoning) and indirect 

(such as psychological trauma and lost wages resulting from shellfish poisoning). Below, we classify 

impacts into public health, economic, and sociocultural categories. However, it is important to recognize interactions across these dimensions of human social life. For example, economic hardship 

experienced by coastal communities can place burden on social service agencies or introduce stress in 

family relationships.

“The cultural significance of joining with friends or 

family to successfully brave the natural elements to 

take home a sport limit of fresh razor clams cannot 

be understated.” - Dan L. Ayres, Coastal Shellfish 

Lead Biologist, Washington Department of Fish and 

Wildlife


Sociocultural, Economic, and Public Health Imapacts of HABs

Economic Impacts

Using time series data from 1987 to 2002, researchers at the Marine Policy Center of the Woods Hole 

Oceanographic Institution developed an unpublished 

estimate of the average annual national aggregate 

economic effects from HABs. The estimate was developed using methods identical to those used to develop 

earlier estimates of HAB economic effects in the US 

during 1987-1992 (Hoagland et al. 2002). The estimated figure is approximately $75 million per year, which 

is at the same order of magnitude as historical examples of extreme, but infrequent, local HAB events 

that have resulted in major economic impacts. This 

figure is an aggregate of estimates for the categories of 

public health costs (divided between shellfish poisoning and ciguatera fish poisoning), commercial fishing 

losses, recreation and tourism losses, and monitoring 

and management costs.

Public health effects are the largest component of this 

estimate, representing about 42 percent of nationwide 

average effects. Ciguatera fish poisonings average 

nearly 20 times those arising as a consequence of 

shellfish poisonings. The next largest component of 

this estimate is commercial fisheries effects, which 

represent nearly 40 percent of nationwide average 

effects. Roughly one third of nationwide commercial 

fisheries effects may be due to untapped surf clam 

fisheries in the Bering Sea and on Georges Bank. 

Recreation and tourism effects account for about 15 

percent of nationwide average effects. Economic 

effects in this category are highly uncertain because 

recreational users and tourists are likely to switch to 

alternative activities when faced with a HAB event. 

Monitoring and management costs represent 4 percent of nationwide average effects. This management 

estimate does not include federal expenditures for 

scientific research programs on HABs, which have 

significantly grown in recent years.

Public Health Impacts

HARRNESS recognizes that “the demand for seafood 

as part of a healthy diet, combined with globalization 

of trade and tourism, expands the geographic boundaries for human exposure and subsequent illness ... beyond historically affected communities” (HARRNESS 

2005, 55). The best-characterized of these illnesses are 

those associated with exposure to marine microalgae 

toxins and can be classified by vector – e.g., consumption of contaminated shellfish or reef fish. Paralytic 

shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and amnesic shellfish poisoning are caused by eating scallops, mussels, clams, 

oysters, cockles, and certain crabs contaminated with 

various toxins. These illnesses may also be caused by 

eating the contaminated viscera of other marine species such as white croaker and anchovy. Ciguatera fish 

poisoning is caused by eating large predatory reef fish 

that have accumulated ciguatoxins. There is no official 

name for the symptoms caused by exposure to aerosolized red tide toxins, but the symptoms include upper 

and lower respiratory irritation and asthma exacerbations in sensitive people. A summary of these illnesses 

is presented in Backer et al. (2003).

Less well-characterized than illnesses caused by marine algae are illnesses caused by exposure to freshwater microalgal 

toxins. In many 

areas of the world 

(e.g., Australia and 

the US), HABs 

with the potentially greatest public 

health impact are 

cyanobacteria 

blooms (called 

“CyanoHABs”) in 

drinking water and 

in water used for recreation (e.g., rivers and lakes). 

While there are no named syndromes, cyanobacterial toxins have caused outbreaks of gastrointestinal 

illness and liver failure in communities where blooms 

have affected drinking water sources (Backer 2002). 

In addition, people have reported skin irritation and 

rashes following occupational or recreational exposure 

during Lyngbya blooms.

Washington Razor Clam Dig 

Cancelleation (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife).


Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Building on HARRNESS, the research strategy below puts 

forth six areas of human dimensions research critically 

needed to mitigate environmental and human impacts of 

HABs: socioeconomic impacts, public health impacts, recreational and drinking water impacts, risk communication, coordinating approaches to HAB problems, and education and 

outreach. Within these broad areas, individually authored 

sections are devoted to more specific research topics essential to achieve recommendations put forth in HARRNESS 

(Fig. 6). Each section notes the HARRNESS recommendation it expands, provides an overview of the research topic, 

outlines research objectives addressing the topic, and suggests an example project to achieve the objectives (Fig. 4). The research objectives and example projects are 

intended to provide a framework for programmatic development and requests for research proposals (RFPs). 

Building on the “Socioeconomic Impacts of HABs” section of HARRNESS (page 55), this section discusses the 

following research topics and needs (Fig. 7). 

Socioeconomic Impacts – Research Topics and Needs

1.1 Identifying Data Needs 

Research Need: Characterize the data needed to assess the economic, public health, and sociocultural impacts of 

HAB events on local and regional scales. Facilitate comprehensive and coordinated data collection and storage 

across affected sectors and communities. 

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts 

Research Need: Assess the sociocultural impacts of HAB events at local and regional scales. 

1.3 Assessing Economic Impacts 

Research Need: Assess the economic impacts of HAB events at local and regional scales. 

1.4 Assessing Community Vulnerability 

Research Need: Assess the vulnerability of actual and potential HAB-affected communities to sociocultural and 

economic impacts of HAB events.

1.5 Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts 

Research Need: Conduct socioeconomic studies of how user groups will benefit from HAB forecasts at different 

temporal and regional scales.

Figure 7. Socioeconomic Impacts - Research Topics and Needs

Figure 6. Research Strategy Themes

Research Strategy Themes

1. Socioeconomic Impacts 

2. Public Health Impacts

3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts

4. Risk Communication

5. Coordinating Approaches to HAB Problems

6. Education and Outreach


Human Dimensions Research Strategy

1.1. Identifying Data Needs

Research Need: Characterize the data needed to assess the economic, public health, and sociocultural 

impacts of HAB events on local and regional scales. Facilitate comprehensive and coordinated data 

collection and storage across sectors and communities.

Lead Authors: Guillermo Herrera (Email: gherrera@bowdoin.edu)

Caroline Pomeroy (Email: cmpomeroy@ucdavis.edu)

Contributor: Lorraine Backer 

HARRNESS Recommendation: “Compile data and calculate the socioeconomic impacts of HAB events at local and regional scales” (HARRNESS, 55).

HABs are complex phenomena, both in their biophysical attributes (i.e., their causation and development over space and time) and their impacts on 

human communities. HARRNESS suggests that 

approaches to the management of HABs have not 

sufficiently reflected this complexity. The report concludes that improved data collection on an ongoing 

basis is critical to improved understanding of HABs 

and their impacts. Biophysical data, emphasized in 

HARRNESS, are clearly important because they can 

be used to test hypotheses regarding triggers of HAB 

events, circumstances which make them especially 

severe, and ecosystem impacts. These data also inform the development of management approaches.

From a policy and management standpoint, it is 

also important to have robust empirical information 

regarding the potential threats and impacts of HABs 

on economies, sociocultural dimensions, and public 

health. Data on the biophysical attributes of HAB 

events alone are insufficient to predict and assess the 

impacts of blooms, and to determine the most effective allocation of scarce resources to prevent or 

mitigate these events and their impacts. In addition to 

understanding the biophysical context of HABs, it is 

critical to understand their economic, sociocultural, 

and public health context. 

Responses to HAB events typically consist of some 

subset or combination of various management options, e.g., closures and their enforcement, education 

and public outreach, in situ mitigation, processing 

to remove toxins in the field, or advance harvesting 

of a potentially affected resource for placement in 

protected areas. The optimal portfolio of management 

1.1 Identifying Data Needs

measures in anticipation of or response to a bloom will 

surely depend on its biophysical nature, but also on 

the impact of the bloom on communities dependent 

upon affected resources, e.g., fisheries, beaches, and 

coastal waters. In the case of commercial fisheries, for 

example, economic and sociocultural considerations 

important to effective response include lost revenue 

and social disruption resulting when fishery participants seek temporary or permanent employment in 

other sectors, the cultural importance of an affected 

resource or its harvest, and the level of compliance 

with closures, which mediates public health risk.

HARRNESS builds on a call by the US Commission 

on Ocean Policy for shared infrastructure and other 

measures to reduce the impacts of HABs. As stated in 

the Ocean Commission’s report to Congress, Ocean 

Blueprint for the 21st Century, “as more data are collected on HAB occurrences, researchers will be able 

to more accurately predict future outbreaks by using 

advanced computer models and taking into account the 

physical and biological conditions leading to HABs” 

(US Commission on Ocean Policy 2004). Data needed 

is not limited to “physical and biological conditions,” 

but extends to the economic, sociocultural, and public 

health dimensions of HAB impacts and their management. 

For example, research in economics is critical to 

assess the effects of HABs on markets in terms of 

the aggregate level of profits and their distribution, 

employment, responses of stakeholders to different 

regulatory approaches, levels of compliance with closures and other harvest constraints, and public health 

outcomes and the costs of their mitigation. 


Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Sociocultural research is needed to document nutritional, sociocultural (e.g., recreational activities and 

cultural practices), and economic dependence on 

resources and activities affected by HABs; identify 

social networks (i.e., economic, political, cultural, and 

other relationships) within and across affected sectors 

and communities; and determine public perceptions of 

HABs and management 

(from regulatory policy to 

education and outreach) 

to inform mitigation 

efforts. These kinds of 

sociocultural information 

enable managers to more 

effectively allocate resources to different HAB problems and policy and management approaches.

Types of data needed to assess the health effects from 

HABs include environmental characteristics as well as 

medical and epidemiologic data. Specific components 

of a database useful for public health decision making 

include:

• HAB-related environmental data, e.g., water quality, 

HAB taxonomy, HAB toxin levels, GIS mapping, 

relevant water characteristics (e.g., tides and color), 

and other HAB-related events (e.g., fish-kills);

• Human patient data, e.g., demographics, clinical 

descriptions of signs and symptoms, and laboratory 

test results;

• Illness outbreak-related data, e.g., medical/clinical data for affected people, and epidemiologic 

data (e.g., person, time, place characteristics of the 

outbreak, time from exposure to disease onset, and 

morbidity and mortality rates); and

• Animal patient data, e.g., demographics clinical 

data, and laboratory and other test results.

In addition to improved and continuously updated data 

related to the human dimensions of HAB impacts and 

their mitigation, the collection of “metadata” is important. That is, it is necessary to assess the data needs 

themselves and prioritize among different, potentially 

costly, data gathering ventures so as to maximize the 

benefits of information collected to policy, management, and community decisions. To be effective, a 

system of data collection must be a two-stage process: 

The first stage consists of “scoping” to determine 

comprehensive data needs and availability. The second 

stage consists of collecting needed data on a cross-sectoral and ongoing basis.

It is easy to argue that more information about economic, sociocultural and public health dimensions is 

critical to prevent, manage, and effectively respond to 

the effects of HABs. However, since the resources required to gather such information on an ongoing basis 

are scarce, it may be necessary to prioritize among different types of information. Furthermore, it is important to organize the data so 

that it is readily accessible 

to those who need it (e.g., 

affected communities, 

social service providers, 

policy makers, and public 

health providers). 

Data needs for HAB mitigation and management are 

likely to be context-specific in some cases. Therefore, 

it will be important in most cases to study data needs 

prior to engaging in costly and time-consuming data 

collection. Some data needs, and effective methods 

for satisfying them, will apply to a broader range of 

contexts. For this reason, one of the research objectives listed below is to understand the applicability of 

a given set of data needs and techniques to a broader 

temporal or geographical range of HAB events. This 

understanding will allow managers to assess where 

it is especially critical to gather context-specific data 

and where, by contrast, they can achieve economies of 

scale by applying data gathered in one place or time to 

other contexts. 

The goals and recommendations in this section are 

inextricably linked to the other topics in the Socioeconomic Impacts section. For example, economic impact 

assessments (discussed in Section 1.3) require data 

on market activity, recreational visitation, and public 

health costs. Any quantitative analysis of trade offs involved in different policy approaches clearly requires 

data to estimate the relative costs and benefits (for 

economic, sociocultural, and health-related concerns) 

of different options. 

Data characterizing the potential threats and 

impacts of HABs on economies, sociocultural 

values, and public health is critical for 

effective prevention and response. 

1.1 Identifying Data Needs


Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Research Objectives

1. Improve understanding of the economic, sociocultural, and public health dimensions of HAB events 

of different types.

2. Characterize the variety of stakeholders (i.e., individuals and communities) affected by HAB events.

For example, stakeholders include commercial 

shellfish harvesters, managers, and wholesalers; 

recreational harvesters and those involved in other 

affected recreational activities such as swimming; 

communities that are economically dependent 

upon shellfish harvest, tourism, or other affected 

industries; tribal members who rely on shellfish for 

subsistence; community water utilities; and coastal 

residents and others with cultural ties to affected 

resources or their harvest.

3. Characterize the spatial and temporal similarities 

and differences among HAB events to understand 

when data collected at one place or time informs 

understanding and mitigation in other contexts.

4. Utilize the outcomes of the preceding objectives to 

prioritize data collection from different locations 

and to determine the appropriate spatial and temporal resolution of economic, sociocultural, and public 

health data collection.

5. Develop effective methods for gathering and storing 

data. This need is discussed in Sections 2.2 (Improving Surveillance) and 2.3 (Developing Epidemiological Methods). 

6. Improve understanding of ways in which economic, 

sociocultural, and public health data will be used 

by publics, scientists, policymakers, tribal members, 

managers, and other decision makers to assess and 

mitigate HAB impacts. This understanding will enable the design of data distribution mechanisms that 

maximize the benefits of data, e.g., public forums, 

web-based dissemination, community and other 

publications, or publicly available databases.

Example Project

Identifying, Prioritizing, and Implementing Sociocultural, Economic and Public Health Data Collection and Management Relevant to Pseudo-nitzschia

Blooms on the Washington Coast

Description: Pseudo-nitzschia produces domoic acid, 

which is incorporated into the viscera of razor clams 

and Dungeness crabs, both important commercial and 

recreational species in coastal Washington. The objective of this project is to identify, provide, and update 

the sociocultural, economic, and public health data 

needed to assess and mitigate the impacts of Pseudonitzschia blooms. This will require data collection in 

two stages: First, a series of key informant interviews 

will identify (a) stakeholders, affected markets, and 

relevant regulations, and (b) the main categories of 

impacts of blooms and human responses to them. 

Key informant interviews are in-depth interviews of 

individuals with valued knowledge about a topic of 

interest. For example, key informants for this project 

might include coastal managers, public health professionals, and representatives of affected sectors and 

communities, including tribes. Second, this project 

involves the development of a database to store data 

on public health, sociocultural, and economic impacts 

and implementation of a data collection process coordinated across sectors.

Methods:

• Archival research to identify historic HAB 

events; local and regional pathways of exposure 

to HAB toxins (for example, see Section 2.4, 

Identifying Susceptible Populations); and economic, sociocultural, and public health impacts.

• Ethnographic research to collect case studies 

informing the development of a database framework. (The term “ethnographic research” refers 

to a variety of field-based techniques such as 

interviews and surveys to study a culture).

• A rapid assessment process for collecting data 

on the economic, sociocultural, and public health 

impacts of HAB events.

• Evaluation

• Ongoing communication with and survey 

of database users (e.g., researchers, public 

agencies, and policy makers) to determine 

database utility and modify database design.

1.1 Identifying Data Needs


Human Dimensions Research Strategy

• Use of data to test hypotheses such as the 

extent to which various social groups are 

susceptible to exposure to HAB toxins. 

Outcomes:

• A typology and inventory of stakeholders affected by this type of bloom.

• In the public health dimension, a characterization of the different potential pathways for 

exposure to domoic acid and their respective 

health impacts.

• Identification of various data flows, together 

with an estimate of the cost of gathering data 

from these sources on an ongoing basis.

• Prioritization of data needs to improve mitigation of the economic, sociocultural, and health 

impacts of Pseudo-nitzschia blooms.

Challenges: 

• Providing a database framework that is useful 

across local and regional scales.

• Prioritizing data needs.

• Quantifying non-market values that are difficult 

to express in dollar terms such as the emotional 

trauma caused by HAB illness and recreational 

pleasure and impacts.

Expertise Needed:

• Economist with expertise in market and nonmarket valuation techniques, econometrics, and 

survey design 

• Sociologist and Sociocultural Anthropologist

• Database Engineer

• Epidemiologist

Timeline: 6-12 months to establish data needs and 

design a data collection framework.

Estimated Cost: $200,000

Potential Partners: NOAA, including Sea Grant; universities; local community groups; state health departments; state departments of fish and game; Environmental Protection Agency.

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts

Research Need: Assess the sociocultural impacts of HAB events at local and regional scales. 

Lead Author: Linda L. Lampl (Email: llampl@lampl-herbert.com)

Contributor: Dan Ayres 

HARRNESS Recommendation: “Compile data and calculate the socioeconomic impacts of HAB events at local and regional scales” (HARRNESS, 55).

Harmful algal blooms can wreak havoc in human 

coastal communities. For example, during the summer 

of 2005, a HAB event poisoned clams, oysters, and 

mussels from Maine to Cape Cod. Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney reported that this event cost the 

shellfish industry about $3 million per week (Scheicher, PBS News Hour Extra, 2005). By late summer, 

inshore fishermen returned to work as the effects of 

the red tide abated. However, offshore fishermen are 

still waiting in early 2006 for government regulators to 

re-open their fishing grounds. Monte Rome, owner of 

Intershell USA, the largest processor of whole scallops 

in Massachusetts, stated that his operation is one of the 

businesses most affected by the lingering closures and 

observed that the scallop fishermen are “really hurting” (Frazer, Cape Cod Times, 2006). 

Yet the human toll of HAB events is more complex 

than landings data or “multipliers” commonly used to 

assess economic impacts. In addition to economic impacts, coastal communities can suffer profound social 

and cultural disruption. On the Pacific coasts of Washington and Oregon, a HAB event caused by the toxin 

domoic acid forced the closure of the widely popular 

recreational razor clam fishery in the fall of 2002 

(Ayres 2003). State agencies closed these fisheries for 

over twelve months, resulting in the loss of 400,000 

potential clam-digging trips. This government action, 


Human Dimensions Research Strategy

necessary to protect human health, also disrupted the 

long-held recreational traditions of tens of thousands 

of razor clam enthusiasts from throughout the Pacific 

Northwest region. In addition, the loss of tourist-related income associated with clam digger visits to small 

coastal communities resulted in job loss, undetermined 

social disruption, and an estimated $10 million in lost 

income. 

Similarly, in the Gulf of Mexico in 2005, the seafood community in Franklin County, Florida, an area 

known for Apalachicola Bay oysters, endured dislocations, personal hardships, and lapses of trust in 

resource management agencies. The Franklin County 

oyster fishery lost an estimated $6 million and 1,000 

jobs per month in the latter half of the year after regulators closed shellfish harvesting in July and August in 

response to bacterial problems after Hurricane Dennis and from September to November in response to 

HABs after Hurricane Katrina (Vail 2005). Some longterm oystering families turned to kinship connections 

to survive. One woman reported that she shifted “from 

never borrowing money to having to keep a roof over 

our heads” (Ritchie, Tallahassee Democrat, 2005). In 

addition, the traditionally fragile trust between the 

regulated and the regulating communities floundered. 

Minimizing the human impacts of HABs requires a 

solid understanding of the unintended sociocultural 

consequences of alternative regulatory actions, including methods for communicating warnings and timing 

of closures (discussed in Section 4, Risk Communication). Social impact assessments (SIAs) are needed 

to provide regulating agencies, tribal and non-tribal 

coastal communities, and other partners with information necessary to focus response strategies in anticipation of HAB events. 

Social Impact Assessment

Regulatory consideration of the social impacts of 

proposed governmental and private actions emerged 

with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 

(NEPA). NEPA requires that federal agencies apply 

the social sciences to evaluate and consider the direct 

and indirect social impacts of alternative courses of 

action. Specifically, NEPA requires federal agencies 

to:

(A) utilize a systematic, interdisciplinary approach 

which will insure the integrated use of the natural 

and social sciences and the environmental design 

arts in planning and in decision making which 

may have an impact on man’s environment; and

(B) identify and develop methods and procedures 

... which will insure that presently unquantified 

environmental amenities and values may be given 

appropriate consideration in decision making 

along with economic and technical consideration 

(PL 91-190).

The Council of Environmental Quality promulgated 

Regulations for Implementing the Procedural Provisions of NEPA that define the “human environment” 

to include “the natural and physical environment and 

the relationship of people with that environment.” 

These regulations require federal agencies to assess 

“aesthetic, historic, cultural, economic, social, or 

health” effects “whether direct, indirect, or cumulative” (40 CFR 1508.14). 

Following these regulations, the Interorganizational 

Committee on Principles and Guidelines for Social 

Impact Assessment (ICPGSIA) (2003) defines “social 

impacts” as “the consequences to human populations 

of any public or private actions that alter the ways in 

which people live, work, play, relate to one another, 

organize to meet their needs and generally cope as 

members of society. The term also includes cultural 

impacts involving changes to the norms, values, and 

beliefs that guide and rationalize their cognition of 

themselves and their society.” The Committee notes 

that SIAs are to be conducted and alternatives considered during the decision making process and not after 

the fact to allow for changes in a project or policy:

“Properly done, SIAs help the affected community or 

communities and the agency to plan for social change 

resulting from a proposed action or bring forward 

information leading to reasons not to carry out the 

proposal” (ICPGSIA 2003).

Today, SIAs are routinely conducted during the proposal phase of private projects and the development 

of governmental policies, plans, and programs. SIAs 

prepared since the original NEPA legislation have addressed diverse issues ranging from highways to housSocial impact assessments are needed 

to provide regulating agencies, tribal and nontribal coastal communities, and other partners 

with information to focus response strategies 

in anticipation of HAB events.

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts


Human Dimensions Research Strategy

ing, including fisheries and oil and gas development. 

The basic variables integral to SIAs include, but are 

not limited to, changes in population, community, and 

family; community and institutional infrastructures; 

and political, social, and community resources (ICPGSIA 2003).

Social Impact Assessment and HABs

Following NEPA, the overarching goal of social impact research related to HABs is to inform coordinated 

mitigation planning and event response (including 

education, monitoring, early warning systems, closures, aquaculture techniques for minimizing loss to 

crops, and other mechanisms) to prevent and respond 

to human impacts by providing decision makers with 

information about the ways in which alternative strategies will affect geographic and user communities. 

To achieve this goal, as discussed below, research is 

needed to (1) develop baseline and event-specific information on communities that may be directly or indirectly affected by toxins, marine animal mortalities, 

and/or governmental intervention; (2) develop Rapid 

Assessment techniques for immediate deployment in 

HAB events; and (3) collect baseline information on 

institutional arrangements and regulating communities 

within which governmental decisions are made. 

Research Objectives 1

Rapid Impact Assessment

1. Develop data-based knowledge of the complex 

communities commonly located in coastal or nearcoastal areas.

a. Develop Rapid Assessment methods suitable for 

profiling communities prior to, during, and after a 

HAB event or series of HAB events. 

b. Develop individual community profiles that can 

be used as a baseline by federal, regional, state, 

and local (tribal and non-tribal) decision makers to 

craft NEPA-type management alternatives, including a “no action” option.

Identification of the community as a unit of analysis presents a methodological challenge, particularly 

in the increasingly developed or urbanized coastal 

areas of the US. For example, Miami-Dade County in 

Southeast Florida is comprised of 31 municipalities 

and a myriad of smaller collections of human groups 

that may be divided by ethnicity, more than 50 languages, socioeconomic factors, and/or occupation. In 

addition, consideration of impacts to temporary residents, tourists, and seasonal occupants requires nontraditional definitions of community.

The complexity and richness of these human connections can be best understood through the perspectives 

and methods of anthropology, sociology, psychology, 

economics, and other social sciences. Rapid Assessment methods may be crafted for use specifically for 

HAB events (or other coastal hazards). Baseline profiles that consider and map the interactions and expectations of permanent and short-term residents, among 

other social dimensions, can be developed and maintained as a database by which changes resulting from 

HAB events and their management can be predicted 

and assessed. 

Example Project 1

Predicting HAB-Related Social Impacts in Coastal 

Communities: Developing and Testing Rapid Assessment Methods

Description: The objective of this project is to develop and ground truth HAB-specific Rapid Assessment 

methods in three communities, making resulting data 

available for use by federal, regional, state, and local 

(tribal and non-tribal) leaders responsible for decision 

making in anticipation of or response to HAB-related 

events. This pilot project is intended to develop and 

test Rapid Assessment methods for collecting baseline 

Definition of Social Impacts

“Consequences for the ways in which people 

live, work, play, relate to one another, 

organize to meet their needs and generally 

cope as members of society. The term also 

includes cultural impacts involving changes to 

the norms, values, and beliefs that guide and 

rationalize their cognition of themselves and 

thier society” (ICPGSIA 2003).

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts
10

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

and event-specific data on social changes that occur in 

response to a HAB event or series of events in coastal 

and/or near-coastal communities. The project could 

focus on three coastal communities, enabling comparison of impacts. 

Phase 1 would develop a set of Rapid Assessment 

methods, establish HAB-focused research questions, 

and develop preliminary baseline information on social characteristics. Methods would draw from existing Rapid Assessment approaches to create a research 

design appropriate for HAB events and utilize coastal 

resource management community studies to develop 

baseline information. Phase 2 would pilot test the 

Rapid Assessment methods to create profiles of three 

communities. Phase 3 research would conduct SIA in 

response to an actual HAB event. Researchers would 

enter the field at the onset of the HAB event and return 

six months after the HAB event. The project would 

provide: (1) a field-tested Rapid Assessment methodology and (2) baseline and HAB-specific data for 

three communities. The data will inform allocation 

of resources and development of strategies to protect 

public health, economic interests, and communities. 

Methods: Qualitative and quantitative methods including but not limited to:

• Literature Review

• Document Analysis

• Ethnographic Fieldwork

• Observation (participant and non-participant)

• Focus Group Interviews

• Key Informant Interviews

• Surveys

Outcomes:

• Field-tested set of Rapid Assessment methods 

for application in HAB events.

• Emergent library of cases that can be used to 

create data-based options for governmental 

and community decisions in anticipation of or 

response to HAB events.

• Assessment of the sociocultural impacts of HAB 

events in three communities.

Challenges:

• Establishing trust between researchers and communities.

Expertise Needed:

• Anthropologists 

• Ethnographers

• Sociologists

• Psychologists

• Economists

• Translators/Interpreters

Timeline: 12-18 months.

Estimated Cost: Project costs are necessary to cover 

the following expenses:

• Staff 

Principal Investigator 1 part-time

Community Researchers 3 part-time

Graduate Student Support 2 part-time

• Equipment

3 Tablet /Laptop Computers

• Expenses

Travel and Per Diem

Research Objectives 2

Integrating Human Dimensions Data into HAB 

Research and Response

1. Conduct an analysis of the federal, regional, state, 

local, and tribal governmental and non-governmental organizations responsible for closures, warnings, and other actions undertaken to minimize 

risks and respond to impacts associated with HABs.

a. Develop a context map or other tool for understanding and representing points of articulation 

in decision making processes. 

b. Identify challenges and strategies for integrating human dimensions data (such as the 

economic, sociocultural, and public health 

data needs identified in Section 1.1) into HAB 

research programs and decision processes. 

Lack of public trust in resource management 

agencies and inexperience of HAB researchers 

with social data are two possible challenges. 

1.2 Assessing Social Impacts
11

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Example Project 2

Integrating Human Dimensions Data into HAB 

Research and Response

Description: This project will inventory decision 

making organizations and points of articulation in 

federal, state, local, and tribal decision making communities with resulting data available for use prior to 

and during HAB events. Based on this inventory, the 

goal is to identify opportunities to facilitate integration of human dimensions data into HAB decision 

making processes. A multi-agency program for human 

dimensions research modeled after the Ecology and 

Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (ECOHAB) 

program could facilitate data collection, sharing, and 

use (see Recommendation 1.2)

The project would be conducted in two phases. Phase 

1 would inventory policy, management, research, public, tribal and other partners integral to decision processes for HAB response. Phase 2 would develop and 

maintain knowledge of the network of organizations 

and individuals integral to detection, analysis, prediction, and management of HAB outbreaks and their 

impacts. These data could be used as a baseline to 

monitor the regulatory process and to identify points 

of entry for inclusion of critical human dimensions 

data such as the economic, sociocultural and public 

health parameters identified in Section 1.1. Additionally, the data may suggest opportunities for, and benefits or challenges of, specialized training for natural 

scientists in social science approaches or opportunities 

for interdisciplinary connection for natural and social 

scientists.

1.3 Assessing Economic Impacts

1.3 Assessing Economic Impacts

Research Need: Assess the economic impacts of HAB events at local and regional scales. 

Lead Authors: Porter Hoagland (Email: phoagland@whoi.edu)

Contributor: Guillermo Herrera 

HARRNESS Recommendation: “Compile data and calculate the socioeconomic impacts of HAB events at local and regional scales” (HARRNESS, 55).

A first step toward improved understanding and 

managing HABs is an assessment of their economic, 

sociocultural, and public health effects. There are 

well-established methods for estimating the economic 

damages associated with natural hazards such as 

HABs. Such methods quantify changes in economic 

welfare that are reflected in both established markets, 

where goods and services are traded at a price, and 

activities and resource uses, such as swimming, that 

are not directly traded in markets. 

Market-based welfare measures quantify the net benefits to parties on both sides of market transactions, i.e., 

the benefits that consumers enjoy in excess of what 

they pay for goods and services (called “consumer surplus”) in addition to the revenues that producers earn 

in excess of their production costs (called “producer 

surplus”). For example, closure of a commercial shellfishery due to a HAB event could reduce the surplus 

earned by commercial fishermen. However, affected 

fishermen may compensate for lost revenue by transferring their fishing effort to areas that remain open 

or switching to non-fishing activities to earn income. 

An accurate estimation of the economic impacts of 

the HAB event would account for the income earned 

through such compensation measures, capturing the 

net loss (or possibly gain) of revenue to commercial 

fishermen.

Economists rely upon consumer expenditures as data 

to help estimate the value of non-market goods and 

services, such as the cultural value of recreational 

shellfishing or experience of beach visitation. For example, the “travel cost” method of non-market valuation expresses the economic value of an environmental 

area (such as a beach popular for swimming) in terms 

of the amount of money that individuals are willing to 

spend to visit it (see Lipton et al. 1995). 

While economists prefer to focus on net benefits, 

changes in total sales (i.e., revenues) are simpler to 
12

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

calculate and provide an upper bound on the changes 

in net benefits to producers. A variety of formulas are 

used to determine changes in total sales from HABrelated shellfish closures. Unfortunately, many of 

these calculations are not useful for making normative 

management decisions about how best to respond to 

HABs.

Beyond measuring effects in the market as a whole, 

policy makers are also concerned with measures of 

changes in employment, and in characterizing who 

benefits (if anyone) and who loses as a result of a 

HAB event. These effects are known generally as 

distributional economic impacts. In order to decide 

between different approaches to responding to HAB 

events, it is important to fully characterize the implications of each potential management approach. These 

implications include the economic effects on different sectors of the economy (e.g., commercial shellfish 

harvesters and processors, the tourist industry, and 

agricultural producers) and consumers in these sectors, public health impacts, and sociocultural impacts 

on communities (for example, family stress resulting 

from changes in income distribution or disruption to 

social networks). The choice between different management approaches to HAB events will likely involve 

trade offs among these impacts. 

For example, the management of a HAB event involving commercially harvested shellfish involves 

implicit trade offs between public health risks and 

forgone profit in the fishery. While policy makers may 

be loathe to put a dollar value on human morbidity 

or mortality, the choice of a threshold level of a toxin 

used in closure decisions involves an implicit willingness to accept some impacts to public health for 

profits, or vice-versa. This trade off can be expressed 

as the “value of a statistical life” or morbidity changes 

can be accounted for by the use of a measure such as 

“quality-adjusted life years” (QALYs).

The role of anthropogenic factors in the incidence, 

severity, and duration of HAB events is uncertain. To 

the extent that anthropogenic factors do contribute to 

HAB events, however, there are trade offs relevant 

to this interaction as well. For example, if nutrient 

runoff from agriculture contributes to the formation 

of a bloom that leads to beach closures, management 

should consider not only the trade off between risk of 

illness and forgone recreational values, but also the 

impacts of constraining the scale of the agricultural 

industry or their choice of fertilizers, among other effects of management strategies.

The choice of spatial scale is also important for the 

analysis of trade offs. Closure of a beach, for example, 

has local costs (e.g., loss of recreational benefits) and 

benefits (e.g., reduced health risk), but may also affect 

neighboring communities (e.g., through changes in 

visitation). 

Research Objectives

1. Identify the location, type, and spatial and temporal scales of HAB events. The first need is to 

characterize the physical natural hazard.

2 . Identify affected markets and nonmarket activities. The second need is to characterize the 

relevant affected market(s) and valued activities 

that occur outside of market institutions.

3. Characterize the economic impacts of HAB 

events. Analytical efforts ought to be devoted to 

the most serious hazard events. Rough economic 

impact estimates based upon changes in total 

sales revenues may be useful as a preliminary 

criterion in deciding whether or not to proceed 

with an economic study. For example, a onetime HAB event leading to damages on the 

order of $2-5 million might not warrant the time 

and effort of an economic analysis. 

4. Estimate economic welfare changes resulting 

from HAB events. The most relevant measure of 

economic impacts looks at changes in consumer 

and producer surpluses (described above) as 

a consequence of the natural hazard. It is appropriate to use surplus changes to help scale 

appropriate policy responses. 

5. Describe potential policy measures, both qualitatively and quantitatively. An important need is to 

Implementing management measures 

to mitigate the economic impacts of HAB 

events always involves economic trade offs. 

The purpose of economic analysis 

is to make these trade-offs explicit 

and to express them in a common metric.

1.3 Assessing Economic Impacts
13

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

identify the universe of feasible policy responses 

or management measures. In this group, the option of doing nothing (“living with it”) must be 

included. The cost of implementing policy measures at a range of scales should be calculated.

6. Identify potentially affected economic sectors 

and consumer groups. If decision makers are 

concerned with the distributional economic 

impacts on industry sectors or consumer groups, 

information about these sectors and groups 

should be compiled. Information on distributional impacts can inform the efforts of other social 

scientists engaged in HAB-related studies such 

as social impact assessment (Section 1.2), community vulnerability assessment (Section 1.4), 

identification of human populations susceptible 

to exposure (Section 2.4), and risk communication (Section 4).

7. Qualitatively describe the nature of the economic 

effects. If a project aims to describe distributional economic impacts, it is important to characterize the scale of economic effects on each of 

the affected sectors or groups of interest.

8. Where both sides of a trade off can be measured 

in financial terms, make dollar-based comparisons of the implied trade offs. Implementing 

management measures to mitigate the economic 

impacts of HAB events always involves economic trade offs because management measures 

are costly. The purpose of economic analysis is 

to make these trade offs explicit and to express 

them in a common metric.

9. Where both sides of a trade off cannot be measured in financial terms, estimate the implicit 

prices of objectives that are not conventionally 

expressed in dollar terms. The implicit price of 

an amenity reflects its effect on the overall price 

of some good or service. For example, a quality ocean view may carry a high implicit price 

relative to the overall cost of coastal housing. 

A view of waters recurrently affected by HABs 

may reduce this economic value. In many cases, 

where market data is unavailable or highly 

uncertain, it may be feasible to estimate an 

“implicit” price for environmental goods or services. These prices should be used to assess the 

relevant trade offs. 

10. Where relevant, consider trade offs across 

space (e.g., between communities or states), 

over time, among industry sectors or consumer 

groups, and among social groups such as recreational and tribal communities. If decision makers are concerned with distributional economic 

impacts, the trade offs should be characterized 

across spatial and temporal scales and across industries and consumers. In many cases, this part 

of the analysis will be of the greatest interest to 

policy makers.

Example Project

Management of PSP Outbreaks in the Gulf of 

Maine

Description: Shellfish closures in the coastal waters 

of the Gulf of Maine during the 2005 outbreak of Alexandrium fundyense.

Methods: 

• Models of supply and demand in local or regional 

shellfish markets. 

• Accounting for the cost of alternative management 

measures. 

• Nonmarket valuation methods for environmental 

goods and services.

Outcomes: 

• Model to optimize the application of policy responses to HAB events. Model could be used to 

simulate alternative courses of action in anticipation of or response to HAB events.

Challenges: 

• Lack of historical data on shellfish prices and quantities 

• Estimating non-market values

Expertise Needed: 

• Microeconomic theory

• Econometric analysis

• Policy analysis

Timeline: One to two years.

Estimated Cost: $75,000-$200,000, depending on the 

scale and scope of the study. Labor costs are predominant.

1.3 Assessing Economic Impacts
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

1.4 Assessing Community Vulnerability

Research Need: Assess the vulnerability of actual and potential HAB-affected communities to sociocultural and economic impacts of HAB events.

Lead Author: Bill Wood (Email: woodww@cwu.edu)

Contributor: Caroline Pomeroy 

HARRNESS Recommendation: HARRNESS (page 57) establishes the need to identify populations susceptible to public health impacts “based upon physiological traits, behavioral factors, socioeconomic status, and 

cultural practices.” Section 2.4, Identifying Susceptible Populations, provides research objectives and an example project to meet this need. 

Similarly, identifying groups at increased risk of 

sociocultural and economic impacts is important to 

focus prevention and response strategies. This section 

emphasizes the importance of assessing the vulnerability of groups to sociocultural and economic impacts 

as part of a comprehensive assessment of community 

vulnerability. Assessing the vulnerability of communities recurrently or potentially affected by HABs to 

all impacts – public health, sociocultural, economic, 

and environmental – is important to focus coordinated 

prevention and response efforts by federal, state, local, 

and other (tribal and non-tribal) partners. 

Vulnerability refers to the “characteristics of a person 

or group and their situation that influence their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the 

impact of a natural hazard” such as a HAB event. 

Key variables explaining 

variations of impact (to 

hazards generally) include 

class, occupation, caste, 

ethnicity, gender, disability and health status, age 

and immigration status 

(whether ‘legal’ or ‘illegal’), and the nature and extent of social networks.” 

Assessing the vulnerability of communities to public 

health, sociocultural, and economic impacts of extreme natural events, including HABs, is important 

because these impacts “occur when natural hazards 

affect vulnerable people” (Wisner et al. 2005). Community vulnerability assessment is a systematic way 

of focusing prevention and response efforts on critical 

needs and high-risk segments of populations, and proDefinition of Vulnerability

“Characteristics of a person or group 

and their situation that influence their capacity 

to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover 

from the impact of a natural hazard” such as a 

HAB event (Wisner et al. 2005).

1.4 Assessing Community Vulnerability

viding a baseline for evaluation of local and regional 

mitigation strategies.

Assessments of sociocultural and economic vulnerability provide a demographic-based snapshot of the 

beliefs, attitudes, practices, and other characteristics 

of individuals and groups that put them at differential 

risk of sociocultural and economic harms as a result 

of HAB events and responses. Such characteristics 

include beliefs about the predictability of coastal hazards such as HABs, attitudes toward resource management and public health agencies, cultural practices 

tied to potentially affected marine resources, access 

to HAB-related outreach information and educational 

programming, and reliance on potentially affected 

marine resources for subsistence. For example, groups 

that utilize affected 

resources such as razor 

clams for subsistence may 

not only be at relatively 

great risk of HAB-related 

illness (as described in 

Section 2.4, Identifying 

Susceptible Populations), 

but may also be especially vulnerable to social 

disruption (such as stress in family relationships or 

increased dependence on kin groups or social services 

for nutrition) when that subsistence base is threatened. 

Similarly, groups that rely on the existence or use of 

potentially affected marine resources to retain economic self-sufficiency and cultural autonomy (such as 

the Makah and the Quinault tribes in Washington) may 

be especially vulnerable to cultural loss and social 

conflict during and after HAB events (Olympic Re-
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

gion Harmful Algal Bloom Partnership, www.orhab.

org/impacts/index.html).

Research Objectives

Before providing research objectives, it will help to 

explain a few premises underlying assessments of 

community vulnerability to sociocultural and economic impacts. First, the term community can be 

used to encompass not only geographically and politically delineated areas (such as regions, municipalities 

and townships), but also stakeholder groups defined 

by interests or resource uses (such as marina operators and commercial fishermen) and subpopulations 

(such as social groups defined by culture or immigration status). Second, an assessment of a community’s 

vulnerability does not imply a negative judgment of its 

demographic profile, cultural beliefs, or other characteristics, but offers a scientific assessment of its capacity to prevent and recover from sociocultural, economic, or other impacts. Third, a broad spectrum of social 

science research methods are useful for vulnerability 

assessment. These may include, but are not limited to, 

surveys, analysis of secondary survey data such as the 

US census, analysis of narrative and image content 

(e.g., public health programming materials or mass 

media communications), rapid ethnographic assessment (such as the example project described in Section 

1.2, Assessing Social Impacts) and participant observation, photo and video documentation, GIS tracking 

and mapping, and structured interviews.

The following community profile approach illustrates 

the basic information critical to assess the vulnerability of a generic community to sociocultural and 

economic impacts associated with HAB events. For 

more information on community vulnerability assessment to support hazard mitigation planning, the H. 

John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the 

Environment (2000) provides a general framework 

for assessing physical, sociocultural, economic, and 

environmental vulnerability at the community level. 

NOAA’s Coastal Services Center developed a methodology for community vulnerability assessment and 

case study based on this framework (http://www.csc.

noaa.gov/products/nchaz/htm/prodes.htm).

1. Develop a community profile describing:

a. Demographic attributes such as age, gender, 

racial structure, occupations, income level, family 

size, education levels, and primary languages. 

Profiles of communities recurrently or potentially 

affected by HABs will inform future monitoring 

efforts by establishing a demographic baseline 

against which to track changes resulting from 

HAB events or responses. Tracking such changes 

is an important part of longitudinal studies seeking to understand how long-term historical changes in impacts of HAB events correlate with demographic changes over time. For example, historical 

changes in family structure and the employment 

of women in the workforce may have a significant 

impact on the extent to which HAB-triggered underemployment in commercial fishing, an industry predominantly employing males, contributes 

to economic hardship and social disruption for 

families.

b. In-group and wider community social networks 

and relationships that may influence the vulnerability of segments of the community to sociocultural and economic impacts of HABs. Understanding how social networks and relationships 

(such as church-based support groups and multigenerational extended family structures) reduce 

or amplify the socioeconomic risks of HABs 

throughout a community (e.g., through pooling 

resources) is critical to inform mitigation efforts. 

Such networks and relationships include political, economic, religious, family, and ethnic or 

racial affiliations and associations. For example, a 

church community that is recognized by the larger 

community as a source of food donations during emergencies could be an important resource 

to help local officials reach families affected by 

HAB events to provide them with public assistance and other forms of relief. 

c. Activities of community members and others that 

may influence vulnerability during or after a HAB 

event. Understanding the behavior of community 

members (and the behavior of non-community 

members with connections to community members) is an important part of assessing the vulnerability of different groups to HAB events. For 

example, recreational activities in marine environ1.4 Assessing Community Vulnerability
16

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

ments during a HAB event increase vulnerability 

to illnesses that may, in turn, increase absenteeism 

at work, decrease worker productivity, and thereby result in economic losses and social conflict. 

Assessments of sociocultural vulnerability should 

describe such risk-amplifying activities and map 

their occurrence to inform resource management 

agencies, government assistance programs, tribal 

leaders, and other decision makers of the multiple 

activities that place communities at greater socioeconomic risk.

d. Attitudes and beliefs (knowledge) of community 

members that may influence vulnerability to 

sociocultural and economic impacts of HABs. For 

example, risk-relevant beliefs include judgments 

about areas where exposure to toxins during HAB 

events is likely, mechanisms of exposure, symptoms and treatment of HAB illnesses, and the 

predictability of coastal hazards such as HABs. 

Relevant attitudes include the level of trust in 

coastal resource management agencies. For example, an individual who believes that HABs are 

unpredictable may be less likely to comply with 

beach closures and thus more likely to be exposed 

to HAB toxins while swimming or engaging 

in other recreational activities. Understanding 

attitudes and beliefs of potentially affected community members related to HAB events is necessary to identify the root causes and motivations 

for behaviors that increase the risk of sociocultural, economic, or health-related impacts. Only 

by accommodating or modifying such behaviors 

through prevention strategies (e.g., monitoring, 

education, warning information, and closures) 

can risks be avoided. Scientific documentation 

of attitudes and beliefs that influence community 

vulnerability is critical to enable decision makers 

to focus prevention and mitigation strategies on 

underlying causes of impacts.

Example Project

Assessing Latin American Immigrant Community 

Vulnerability to Sociocultural and Economic Impacts of HABs in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed

Description: Latin American immigrants are an increasing segment of the population in and around the 

Chesapeake Bay. Drawn to the area for work primarily 

in the agriculture (e.g., chicken processing) and service (e.g., construction) industries, many are members 

of families with small children, live dispersed across 

the rural Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia countryside, face language barriers (many are monolingual 

Spanish speakers), and are relatively unfamiliar with 

the public health infrastructure of the US. The shortterm nature of their employment, lack of access to 

public services, and other factors may make Latin 

American immigrants especially vulnerable to sociocultural and economic impacts during and as a result 

of HAB events.

This project will provide a baseline assessment of a 

narrow and poorly understood range of behaviors and 

knowledge of the Chesapeake Bay Latin American 

immigrant community in relation to HAB events. It 

focuses on the sociocultural and economic implications of recreational fishing on the Eastern Shore of 

Maryland on the Delmarva Peninsula from Kent Island 

South to Taylor’s Island (from approximately the Bay 

Bridge south to the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge) and associated consumption of fish and seafood. 

Very little is known about the recreational behaviors of 

Latin American immigrant populations in general and 

still less is known about how those recreational behaviors focused on marine environments may put them 

at risk to suffer sociocultural and economic hardships 

as a consequence of a HAB event. Additionally, very 

little is known about the degree to which recreational 

fishing articulates with informal economic activities 

and the degree to which seafood caught by recreational fishermen is distributed and consumed by other segments of the community, and in other areas, through 

family relationships, ties to informal businesses, and 

other social networks.

The project is divided into four phases:

• Phase 1 includes (a) a review of existing survey 

data provided by the US census to describe demographic characteristics of the Latin American 

immigrant community combined with (b) rapid 

ethnographic assessments of known recreational 

fishing areas along Maryland’s Eastern Shore 

as described above. (The term “ethnographic 

research” refers to a variety of field-based techniques such as interviews and surveys to study a 

culture).

1.4 Assessing Community Vulnerability
17

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

• Phase 2 emphasizes the collection of survey and 

key informant interview data describing Latin 

American immigrant recreational fishing activities 

and knowledge at select locations (ideally, at least 

one seafood collection and fishing area each in the 

Eastern Bay, Choptank and Little Choptank).

• Phase 3 traces connections between recreation 

activities at those select locations and the consumption of seafood within the Latin American 

immigrant community as well as connections to 

the wider community, including the circumstances 

under and ways in which seafood caught by immigrants is purchased and consumed.

• Phase 4 focuses on the interpretation of data, including statistical analysis, mapping by geographic 

area and activity, and content analysis of interview 

transcripts.

Methods: Surveys, interviews, participant observation, rapid ethnographic assessment, photo and video 

documentation, GIS mapping and imaging.

Outcomes:

• An assessment of recreational fishing and consumption patterns in the Latin American immigrant community of the Delmarva Peninsula that 

influence their vulnerability to sociocultural and 

economic impacts of HAB events.

• A profile of the demographic characteristics of the 

Latin American immigrant community that engages in recreational fishing (as well as of groups 

of people who consume the fish they catch).

• Description/map of where, and how, seafood 

caught/collected along a significant segment of 

Maryland’s Eastern Shore enters the informal 

and/or formal economy and is purchased and consumed throughout the wider community.

• Snapshot of where and how Latin American immigrants currently practice recreational fishing 

(i.e., their behavior).

• Description of the beliefs and knowledge of Latin 

American immigrant recreational fishermen.

Challenges: Because many recent Latin American immigrants are undocumented and live relatively mobile 

lives, there are special challenges associated with this 

project. For instance, there is a growing anti-immigrant sentiment throughout the US (especially of undocumented, Spanish-speaking immigrants from Latin 

America). As a result, immigrants may be less likely 

or less willing to talk with investigators, making it 

challenging to access the community and establish the 

trust and rapport necessary to collect data. This challenge is likely to be aggravated by the population’s 

mobility because individuals on the move will be unlikely to provide information about their whereabouts 

with community members and/or research teams.

Expertise Needed: 

• Some combination of demographers, ethnographers, and sociologists with Spanish language 

abilities, knowledge of the history and culture of 

Latin America and the history of Latin American 

immigration to the US, and familiarity with statistical packages (e.g., SPSS) and GIS software (e.g., 

ARCVIEW).

• Marine biologists capable of identifying seafood 

caught/gathered.

Timeline: Since recreational fishing activities in and 

around the Chesapeake Bay are seasonal, research 

will take place over a multi-year period (minimally 2 

years) in order to account for variation in the behavior 

and use of resources.

Estimated Cost: 

Phase 1: $40,000

Phases 2 and 3: $65,000- $175,000 (depending on the 

number of localities)

Phase 4: $15,000

Additional Projects: Ideally, similar follow-up projects would be conducted throughout the Chesapeake. 

Bay watershed and include urban areas (such as Baltimore, Annapolis, and Virginia Beach).

1.5 Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts
18

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

1.5 Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts

Research Need: Conduct socioeconomic studies of how user groups will benefit from HAB forecasts at 

different temporal and regional scales.

Lead Author: Porter Hoagland (Email: phoagland@whoi.edu)

Contributor: Guillermo Herrera 

HARRNESS Recommendation: Same (HARRNESS, 55).

Policy makers, natural resource managers, research 

scientists, industry officials, the media, and the public 

now widely recognize that HABs can result in serious 

economic impacts on a variety of coastal businesses 

and users of the ocean. Although economic impacts 

from this kind of natural hazard clearly exist, only a 

few studies have attempted to document these impacts 

or to report them on a comparable and consistent 

basis. In the future, in order to scale levels of investment in the science and management of HABs, it 

will be important to refine estimates of the nature and 

size of economic impacts (see Section 1.3, Assessing 

Economic Impacts). Documentation of sociocultural 

impacts (discussed in Section 1.2, Assessing Social 

Impacts) is also critical. 

For many industries and users of the coastal ocean, 

there may be value in the development of a capability 

for predicting or forecasting the occurrence of HABs. 

This value arises from the possibility that some or 

all of the damages caused by HABs might be averted 

through advance knowledge about the likelihood of 

the occurrence of an event and actions that can be 

taken to mitigate the potential damages. Industries 

potentially affected by HABs include wild harvesters 

of shellfish, shellfish growers, and businesses such as 

hotels, restaurants, and others who are dependent upon 

coastal tourism. Coastal tourists, who are consumers 

of environmental goods and services such as clean air, 

clean beaches, and recreational fishing also may be 

harmed by HAB events.

Public officials have begun to develop an interest 

in building regional capacities for predicting HAB 

events. This interest is reflected in agency budgets and 

sponsored research on the science relating to the factors that contribute to bloom formation, transport, and 

fate. Coupled biophysical models useful for predicting 

1.5 Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts

blooms are now under development for the Gulf of 

Maine, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific Northwest. 

These models are necessary but not sufficient for predicting the economic effects of HAB events. 

A well-established “value of information” framework 

is commonly used to assess the economic value of 

predictions of future conditions. Using this approach, 

the value of HAB predictions to firms or individuals is 

given by the expected difference between the economic surplus that results when the prediction is used 

in decision making (i.e., the dollar value of the public 

health and sociocultural benefits of the prediction 

minus the costs of producing and delivering it) and the 

surplus that results when the prediction is not considered (i.e., the dollar value of public health and socioeconomic costs). Assessments of the economic value 

of HAB forecasts are important for federal and state 

governmental agencies to leverage and justify investments of public dollars in their development and use. 

Research Objectives

1. Analyze the economic impacts of the status quo 

(i.e., in the absence of forecasting models). The 

first objective is to measure the economic impacts of HAB events in the absence of prediction, using a model of firm or individual behavior. 

2. Assign probabilities to the occurrence of a HAB 

event. The second objective is to characterize 

the prediction itself in terms of the occurrence 

or non-occurrence of an event within a specified 

time period. The value of HAB prediction will 

depend on the accuracy or “skill” of the prediction. 
19

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

3. Identify the range of feasible responses of public 

and private decision makers, given that a HAB 

event has been predicted. The third objective is 

to begin to develop a model of economic behavior to examine how decisions would be made in 

light of a HAB prediction with given characteristics. This step typically involves identifying a 

range of potential responses by public and private decision makers (e.g., beach goers and tourism operators) to mitigate economic damages.

4. Characterize the economic effects of alternative 

responses. Using the behavioral model, this objective involves the evaluation of the economic 

consequences – both costs and benefits – of the 

choice of a particular response for a decision 

maker. Decision makers are assumed to choose 

the response that leads to the greatest net present 

value or utility. 

5. Aggregate the value of individual decisions. It 

is important to point out that the value of prediction to society, as opposed to the individual 

decision maker, will be the product of decisions 

made by many individual decision makers. A 

fifth objective would involve the development of 

a model that can be used to aggregate the decisions of firms and individuals into an overall 

measure of prediction value.

Example Project

Economic and Public Health Benefits of Predicting 

Red Tides along the Florida Gulf Coast

Description: Develop a framework for estimating the 

economic value of predicting (forecasting) blooms of 

Karenia breve along the west coast of Florida in the 

Gulf of Mexico. The model would rely upon estimates 

of the economic damages associated with respiratory 

illnesses that are caused by a bloom that occurs near 

the coast. (Other categories of economic damages, 

including losses to the tourist industry, shellfish bed 

closures, or non-market losses arising from takes of 

manatees, might also be incorporated into such an 

analysis.) 

1.5 Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts

Methods: 

• Estimates of cost-of-illness or non-market morbidity costs (e.g., pain and suffering) for respiratory ailments in Florida

• Estimates of the increased incidence of respiratory ailments as a consequence of a HAB event

• Identification of mitigation measures and their 

costs (e.g., public health alerts, avoiding beaches, 

and rescheduling vacations)

Outcomes: A model to estimate the value of forecasts to individuals to mitigate the medical costs of a 

Karenia bloom. The model could be used to evaluate 

alternative courses of action. Results of the model can 

be aggregated to obtain an overall value of a predictive capability.

Challenges: 

• Development of predictive model of bloom formation, transport, and fate

• Estimates of cost-of-illness

• Estimates of non-market morbidity costs

Expertise Needed: 

• Microeconomic theory

• Econometric analysis

• Policy analysis

• Risk assessment

Timeline: One to two years.

Estimated Cost: $100,000-$350,000, depending upon 

the scale and scope of the study. Labor costs are predominant. 
20

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

2.1 Developing Diagnostic Tools

Research Need: Conduct assessments of public health professionals, public service groups, and other 

sectors that respond to HAB poisonings, and utilize their feedback, to develop tools for clinical diagnostic 

support and transition them to operation.

Lead Author: Susan Lovelace (Email: Susan.Lovelace@noaa.gov)

Contributor: Lorraine Backer

HARRNESS Recommendation: “Develop tools for clinical diagnostic support” (HARRNESS, 57).

In their report to Congress providing recommendations for a new and comprehensive national ocean policy, An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century (2004), 

the US Commission on Ocean Policy recognizes the 

need to “support the development of improved methods for monitoring and identifying pathogens and 

chemical toxins in ocean and coastal waters and organisms.” Such methods are to include “new tools for 

measuring human and environmental health indicators 

in the marine environment” and “models and strategies 

for predicting and mitigating harmful algal blooms.” 

In the same year, this critical need was echoed by the 

passing of the Oceans and Human Health Act (OHH 

Act), which establishes a national research program 

This section builds on the “Impacts of HABs on Public Health” section of HARRNESS (page 57), discussing the 

following research topics and needs (Fig. 8).

2.1 Developing Diagnostic Tools

to improve understanding of the role of the oceans in 

human health. 

Building on Ocean Blueprint and the OHH Act, HARRNESS recognizes that “there are no readily available 

tools or methods for diagnosing HAB-related illness in 

humans or animals. Thus, accurate diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis are impossible” (HARRNESS 

2005, 57). Consequently, documented cases of HABrelated poisonings likely represent only a small portion 

of those that actually occur. To improve diagnosis and 

reporting, and thereby understand and reduce impacts 

of HABs on human health, HARRNESS recommends 

the development of tools for clinical diagnostic supPublic Health Impacts – Research Topics and Needs

2.1 Developing Diagnostic Tools 

Research Need: Conduct assessments of public health professionals, public service groups, and other sectors that 

respond to HAB poisonings, and utilize their feedback, to develop tools for clinical diagnostic support and transition 

them to operation. 

2.2 Improving Surveillance

Research Need: Improve surveillance of human exposure and disease.

2.3 Developing Epidemiological Methods 

Research Need: Develop new, cost effective epidemiological methods appropriate to HAB issues that will enhance 

capacity to develop primary public health and prevention activities.

2.4 Identifying Susceptible Populations

Research Need: Identify susceptible populations based on characteristics such as physiological traits, behavioral 

factors, socioeconomic status, and cultural practices.

Figure 8. Public Health Impacts - Research Topics and Needs
21

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

port. For example, a diagnostic decision-support software program could be made available to public health 

professionals and regularly updated to incorporate new 

information on HAB-related illnesses. Alternatively, 

a diagnostic keycard would enhance ease of use and 

maximize access by a diversity of responders. Similarly, a simple informational card summarizing HABrelated illnesses and symptoms might facilitate recognition and appropriate response by high-risk groups 

such as recreational fishermen, beach goers, and public 

service groups such as lifeguards, hotel operators, and 

coastal resource managers. Another critical need is for 

development of assays for biological effects of these 

toxins. These assays could be in the form of biological markers of exposure (i.e., toxin concentrations 

in urine, blood, or other biological specimens) or of 

effect (e.g., changes in a clinical blood parameter that 

is specific to a particular toxin). Laboratory assays that 

confirm exposure would enhance correct diagnosis 

and the ability to prevent further illnesses. Finally, we 

cannot improve HAB-related illness diagnosis until 

there is some consensus on case definitions. Using 

what we know about the symptoms associated with 

exposures to HAB-related toxins to identify what 

would likely be the clinical presentations of people 

with HAB-related illnesses would provide physicians 

with a basis for accurate diagnoses.

Like any product, developing, prototyping, and 

evaluating tools to connect HAB science to diagnostic decisions requires a good understanding of and 

collaboration with their potential users. Important 

considerations include user preferences (e.g., media 

type), knowledge (e.g., familiarity with vectors and 

symptoms of HAB illness), and perceptions (e.g., of 

the seriousness of HAB illnesses) as well as the environment in which the tool will be used (e.g., hospital 

laboratory, private medical office, or in the field). For 

example, if it turns out that public health professionals have relatively little understanding of exposure 

pathways – e.g., consumption of contaminated food or 

water, or inhalation of aerosolized toxins – then a diagnostic tool developed for their use must convey this 

information in order to facilitate diagnosis, reporting, 

and treatment of HAB-related poisonings. Similarly, if 

medical professionals in a HAB-affected locality view 

HAB-related illnesses as minimally serious, effective 

diagnosis and treatment could be aided by integrating or pairing a diagnostic tool with communications 

emphasizing potentially severe symptoms such as liver 

failure where high concentrations of cyanobacterial 

toxins contaminate drinking water.

Building on the HARRNESS recommendation to 

develop diagnostic tools, the research objectives 

below emphasize the need to build bridges between 

users and producers of such tools to ensure their effective design and delivery. Research on the preferences, knowledge, perceptions, use-environments, and 

other characteristics of potential users such as public 

health professionals and public service groups (called 

“user assessment”) is critical to develop tools that are 

specific for the exposures of concern and promote accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. Focus groups 

involving potential users are also critical to test prototypes, and education is needed to transition tools to 

operation in clinical and community settings. 

Research Objectives

1. Identify categories of public health professionals, public service groups, resource managers, 

and other sectors that are integral to responding to, reporting cases of, diagnosing, and treating HAB-related poisonings.

2. Assess preferences, knowledge, perceptions, and 

other characteristics of these user communities 

that may influence product design.

3. Define the scope and sequence of information to 

be produced by diagnostic tools and determine 

effective methods for risk communication given 

cultural, educational and socioeconomic diversity of coastal areas and user groups.

4. Incorporate feedback from user communities on 

product prototypes to maximize support in efficiently and effectively responding to, reporting 

cases of, diagnosing, and treating HAB-related 

poisonings.

5. Utilize educational and outreach programming 

to facilitate effective transfer of diagnostic tools 

for use in clinical, beach-side, household and 

other settings.

6. Evaluate effectiveness of clinical diagnostic 

tools through surveys to obtain user feedback.

Effective design and delivery of diagnostic 

tools requires research on user characteristics, 

focus groups to test prototypes, and 

education to transition tools to operation. 

2.1 Developing Diagnostic Tools
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

These objectives outline a step-by-step process for tool 

development and delivery that includes learning about 

local medical institutions, tourism operators, and other 

groups that provide care for individuals experiencing 

symptoms, assessing characteristics of such responders to inform the development of prototypes utilizing 

up-to-date information on toxins and their effects, 

testing prototypes by incorporating user feedback, 

and facilitating the use of products in various settings 

through educational programming. 

Example Project

Assessing the Needs of Medical Health Professionals for Tools to Support Diagnosis of HAB Illnesses

Description: Following Objectives (1) and (2) above, 

the overarching goal of this project is to identify informational, technological, and other needs of public 

health professionals to ensure that tools developed are 

maximally effective in promoting accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. Subsequent funding and 

continued work would be necessary to develop prototypes, test them by incorporating feedback from the 

public health community, facilitate their use through 

educational programming, and evaluate their effectiveness for facilitating diagnosis, reporting and treatment 

of HAB-related illnesses.

Methods:

• Surveys, semi-structured interviews with key 

informants, and focus groups to assess the preferences, knowledge, and perceptions – as well as 

HAB diagnostic needs and ease-of-use information about various diagnostic schemes – of groups 

of public health professionals that may differ with 

respect to these characteristics, e.g., emergency 

responders, community health clinicians, private 

physicians, hospital administrators, beach managers, life guards, and emergency medical technicians. 

• Interpretation of survey, interview, and focus 

group results to identify needs of public health 

professionals for diagnostic tools to facilitate accurate diagnosis and effective treatment of HABrelated illnesses – including HAB information 

(e.g., methods of exposure and types of toxins), 

medical information (symptoms characteristic of 

various illnesses), and technological requirements 

(e.g., preferred media or format such as a diagnostic tree). 

Outcomes:

• Identification of informational and technological 

needs for tools to assist public health professionals 

in diagnosing HAB-related illnesses.

Challenges: Engaging public health professionals in 

survey response and focus groups.

Timeline: Approximately one year. Phase One – project planning, survey development, focus group planning. Phase Two – survey, interview, and focus group 

implementation, data analysis.

Expertise Needed: 

• HAB Toxicologist

• Epidemiologist

• Sociologist

Estimated Cost: $50,000 - $75,000, including parttime salary of $25,000 for principal investigator; 

graduate student stipend of $12,000; travel and other 

expenses associated with focus groups, surveys, and 

interviews; and supplies.

Potential Partners: Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, state and local health departments, local 

chapters of American Red Cross, lung health organizations, marine laboratories, and medical schools.

While the technical challenges of a Harmful 

Algal Bloom Information System (HABIS) are 

significant, equally challenging is the need 

to understand stakeholder needs and 

requirements in order to ensure that data 

are captured in the most efficient 

and accurate manner possible.

2.2 Improving Surveillance
23

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

2.2 Improving Surveillance

Research Need: Improve surveillance of human exposure and disease.

Lead Author: George Luber (Email: gcl4@cdc.gov)

HARRNESS Recommendation: Same (HARRNESS, 57).

The prevalence of human illness due to exposure to 

HABs is not well understood, primarily due to the 

lack of human cases identified and reported to state 

and local health departments. This is in part a result 

of failure to link health effects with exposure pathways (e.g., swimming, boating, or fishing), but is also 

likely the result of the lack of a uniform and accessible 

manner for reporting potential human and animal illnesses associated with HABs. There is a critical need 

to develop a reporting system for state and local health 

officials that can facilitate the collection and dissemination of reports of possible human and animal cases 

of HAB-related illness. 

Responding to this need, federal and state public 

health officials have developed an online reporting 

system for HAB-related illnesses that is designed to 

combine human and veterinary case information and 

environmental data relevant to HABs in one location. The Harmful Algal Bloom Information System 

(HABIS) is a secure, web-based system that allows 

state health and environmental departments to enter 

and update information related to cases status, HAB 

environmental factors, and associated animal illnesses 

or deaths.

While the technical challenges of such a system are 

significant, equally challenging is the need to understand stakeholder needs and requirements in order 

to ensure that data are captured in the most efficient 

and accurate manner possible. We propose undertaking a rapid ethnographic assessment of stakeholder, 

or end-user, perceptions of barriers and facilitators to 

the successful implementation of the HABIS surveillance system. This formative research will help ensure 

that the proposed surveillance system will provide an 

accurate picture of the true burden of disease posed by 

HABs.

2.2 Improving Surveillance

Research Objectives

1. Identify stakeholder perceptions of barriers and 

facilitators to the successful implementation of the 

HABIS surveillance system.

2. Identify additional sources of information that can 

assist in reporting HAB cases. These might include sportfishing and recreational groups such as 

birdwatchers, boaters, and wildlife enthusiasts. 

Example Project

Rapid Ethnographic Assessment of Stakeholder Acceptance of the HABIS Surveillance System 

Description: This project will explore stakeholder and 

“end-user” perceptions of barriers and facilitators to 

using an electronic web-based system like HABIS for 

the collection and dissemination of information pertinent to human and animal illnesses related to HAB 

exposures. 

Methods: This project employs a Rapid Ethnographic 

Assessment (REA) methodology which relies primarily on a qualitative approach. The REA approach is 

designed to be adaptive and iterative, relying on the 

refinement or revision of questionnaires and focal domains as the research progresses. The REA approach 

relies on the flexible use of a variety of approaches, 

including focus groups, key informant interviews, 

semi-structured and unstructured interviews, and 

participant observation. At the core of the approach is 

that the investigator begins with a limited set of predefined domains that are explored and elucidated in a 

time-limited manner. 
24

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

pile-sorts, triads testing, and cognitive domain 

elicitation). 

• Close collaboration and buy-in from state and local health departments, environmental protection 

officials and private veterinarians would be key to 

gaining access to stakeholder perceptions. 

Timeline: The REA approach is intended to be formative in nature and guide the development of the 

final HABIS product. Therefore, the REA should be 

conducted over a time period of no greater than one 

month. 

Estimated Cost: Fieldwork expenses, travel, and transcription costs should not exceed $20,000.

Outcomes: This assessment is designed to assist in the 

development of the HABIS system and will ultimately 

be evaluated by the number of users, the frequency of 

use, and the quality of the data that is entered into the 

system. 

Challenges: Close collaboration and buy-in from state 

and local health departments, environmental protection officials, and private veterinarians is key to gaining access to stakeholder perceptions. 

Expertise Needed: 

• An investigator familiar with the collection and 

analysis of qualitative data is essential. In addition, as this is an iterative methodology, expertise 

in a variety of ethnographic methods would be 

ideal (i.e., participant observation, focus groups, 

2..3 Developing Epidemiological Methods

2.3 Developing Epidemiological Methods

Research Need: Develop new, cost effective epidemiological methods appropriate to HAB issues that will 

enhance capacity to develop primary public health and prevention activities.

Lead Author: Lorraine Backer (Email: lbacker@cdc.gov)

HARRNESS Recommendation: “Develop new, cost-effective epidemiological methods that are appropriate to 

HAB issues” (HARRNESS, 57).

Traditional epidemiologic methods available to investigate environmental health issues are labor intensive, 

expensive, and time-consuming. Case definitions for 

HAB-related illnesses vary from agency to agency or 

are simply nonexistent. There is typically no way to 

clinically verify HAB-related exposures or illnesses. 

Also, there are no resources to conduct the prospective 

studies needed to fully assess the chronic effects from 

acute or chronic exposures to HABs and HAB-related 

toxins. Identifying and applying alternative methods 

for data collection and analysis will enhance our ability to develop timely and effective public health activities and exposure- and disease-prevention strategies.

Research Objectives

1. Investigate or develop alternative strategies for 

case-reporting, including those that do not require 

the patient to interact with the medical community. 

Additional case-finding would help the public 

health community identify the individual variations in response to toxins and help assess true 

disease incidence. It would also help public health 

agencies target response and prevention activities.

2. Develop alternative methods to analyze and present environmental data that provide the public 

with information they can understand, accept, and 

use to make personal decisions about potential exposures. There should be some consistent response 

to HAB-associated events that those responsible 

for communicating with the public develop and 

agree to disseminate.

Identifying and applying alternative methods 

for data collection and analysis 

will facilitate timely and effective 

public health activities and exposure- and 

disease-prevention strategies.
25

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Example Project 1

Use of Alternative Data Sources for HABs-Related 

Illness Reporting

Description: The objective of this project would be 

to examine whether HAB-related illness data from 

alternative (non-medical) sources (e.g., beach volunteer organizations and the hospitality industry) would 

be valuable in assessing the extent of the effects of 

HABs on public health. This is currently a source of 

“anecdotal” data that could provide information about 

people who get sick from HABs, and complain about 

it, but do not interact with the local community – making their illness impossible to capture via the medical 

community.

Methods: Investigators would provide hotels and 

restaurants or volunteer organizations that monitor 

beaches with very simple data-collection instruments 

that they can use and return to local public health 

authorities.

Outcome: Determine the number of people who have 

symptoms they believe are associated with HAB-related exposures (e.g., aerosolized Florida red tide toxins) 

and find out whether they ever engage with any part of 

the health care system for their illness. This is another 

component of the effects of HABs on people.

Challenges:

• Members of the hospitality industry are not always willing to bring up issues that may adversely 

affect their businesses.

• People may feel uncomfortable reporting illnesses 

to someone at a hotel or restaurant. To overcome 

this challenge, the survey could be a post-paid 

card that they could drop in the mail.

• The data could be biased because of the association with the hospitality industry (who want the 

problem to go away) or beach volunteers (who 

may have advocacy roles).

Expertise Needed: Investigators would need to collaborate with representatives from the hospitality 

industry, public outreach, and public education. For 

the epidemiologic work, investigators would need to 

collaborate with the medical community (someone 

who is familiar with the types of illnesses that might 

be reported), local health agencies, and statisticians.

Timeline: This activity should be done over several seasons to collect data under varying potential exposures.

Estimated Cost: This project should not be too costly. 

It would be an appropriate and valuable project for a 

Masters in Public Health (done over 2 years).

Potential Partners:

•Schools of public health (support for study projects)

•Fellowship programs (e.g., an Oak Ridge Institute 

for Science and Education (ORISE) fellowship at the 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Example Project 2

Alternative Methods to Develop Public Health 

Messages

Description: This project could use focus groups or 

other methods to assess what type of environmental 

data (e.g., Karenia brevis cell counts, level of microcystins in recreational lake) people feel comfortable 

using to make personal decisions about exposures 

(e.g., to swim or not to swim).

Methods: Small groups of people of different ages 

and backgrounds, etc., can be asked to examine different types of messages and explain how they develop 

their responses to the messages. (For discussion of 

message development, see Section 4, Risk Communication).

Outcome: Gain insight into how people process scientific data and use it to make personal decisions.

Challenges: It may be difficult to identify focus group 

participants because, in many geographic areas, these 

issues (e.g., red tides in Florida and blooms off the 

coast of the Northwest US) are contentious.

Expertise: The expertise needed for this project would 

include a Sociologist or Anthropologist, expert on 

what types of HAB data are available, specialist in 

public outreach and education, public health professional or other individual familiar with the HAB-related illnesses, local health agency, and Statistician.

Timeline: One year.

Estimated Cost: Full-time fellowship and part of a 

statistician’s time for a year.

Funding Sources: This could be a graduate student 

project in a school of public health or communications 

department, or be accomplished through a fellowship 

program (such as ORISE at CDC).

2..4 Identifying Susceptible Populations
26

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Toxins in the marine environment pose significant 

threats to human as well as ecosystem health. HABs 

are a source of toxins in the world’s oceans, and are 

increasingly reported in coastal waters throughout the 

US. One significant route of human exposure to HABs 

is the consumption of contaminated seafood. There is 

a critical need to determine the potential human health 

threat posed by consumption of HAB-contaminated 

seafood and to develop socio-culturally appropriate 

means for reducing that exposure. 

Several recent seafood consumption studies document 

relatively high consumption levels and exposure to 

pollutants among certain socio-culturally and economically defined groups of anglers (e.g., West et al. 1992, 

Allen et al. 1996, Connelley et al. 1996, Asian Pacific 

Environmental Network 1998, San Francisco Estuary 

Institute 2000). The Office of Environmental Health 

Hazard and Assessment (2001) provides a review of 

many of these studies. However, little has been done 

to determine consumption patterns of seafood contaminated with naturally occurring toxins produced by 

some phytoplankton species that cause HABs. Identifying susceptible populations by investigating specific 

risk factors such as physiological traits, behavioral 

factors, socioeconomic status and cultural practices 

(such as species harvested and methods of food preparation) are critical to enable public health and fisheries 

officials to focus exposure prevention strategies and 

outreach efforts. 

Research Objectives

The primary objective is to develop and field test a 

methodology that utilizes ethnographic and survey 

field research to identify: 

• subpopulations at increased risk of exposure to 

HAB toxins;

• the social, cultural, and economic networks 

through which potentially contaminated seafood is 

distributed for consumption;

• the social, cultural, economic, and nutritional values attached to the consumption of these species 

(especially when prepared in ways that retain the 

toxin); and

• the mechanisms and institutions through which 

members of at-risk subpopulations exchange information.

Ultimately, it is hoped that this methodology can be 

adapted to different exposure scenarios, e.g., those that 

do not involve consumption of seafood, but nevertheless expose certain groups to HAB toxins. 

Example Project

Identifying Populations Susceptible to HABs and 

their Impacts through their Consumption of Contaminated Seafood

Description: This project uses a combination of ethnographic and field survey research methods to identify and characterize socio-culturally and economically 

distinct subpopulations whose consumption patterns 

(i.e., species targeted and preparation techniques) of 

angler-caught fish puts them at greater risk for exposure to HAB toxins. 

Hypotheses to be tested include: 

• Fishing and consumption patterns will differ 

among socially-, culturally-, and economically-defined subpopulations of anglers.

2.4 Identifying Susceptible Populations

Research Need: Identify susceptible populations based on characteristics such as physiological traits, behavioral factors, socioeconomic status and cultural practices.

Lead Author: Caroline Pomeroy (Email: cmpomeroy@ucdavis.edu)

Contributor: George Luber

HARRNESS Recommendation: Same (HARRNESS, 57).

Identifying susceptible populations by 

investigating specific risk factors such as 

physiological traits, behavioral factors, 

socioeconomic status and cultural practices 

(e.g., species harvested and methods of food 

preparation) are critical to enable public 

health and fisheries officials to focus exposure 

prevention strategies. 

2..4 Identifying Susceptible Populations
27

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

• The fish consumption patterns of some of these 

subpopulations will put them at greater risk of 

exposure to HAB toxins than anglers overall.

• The high risk of exposure to HAB-related toxins 

will occur also among family and friends of anglers from these subpopulations.

Methods: Preliminary archival and ethnographic 

research will define the social, cultural, and ecological 

context of fishery and community structures of potentially at-risk subpopulations in the selected region. Intercept surveys will collect data from anglers on their 

social, cultural, and economic characteristics; their 

fish catch, disposition, and consumption patterns; and 

their motivations for catching and consuming species 

known or likely to be HAB toxin vectors. An evaluation component will compare the seafood consumption survey sample to population estimates from other 

sources (e.g., Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistical 

Survey and US Census) to determine the representativeness of the sample and enable inferences about risk 

of exposure to the larger angling population.

Outcomes: 

• Identification of the relevant social, cultural, and 

economic risk factors of subpopulations that have 

a potential for high of exposure to HABs and their 

toxins; 

• An inventory of salient social and economic relationships between community groups that can be 

used as a resource for monitoring, communicating, 

and exchanging HAB-related information; and

• Field testing of a method for identifying susceptible subpopulations, which can be adapted based 

on exposure pathway.

Challenges: A key challenge will be achieving effective cross-cultural communication with individuals and groups that may be wary of, or sensitive to, 

questioning of their activity patterns. Gaining their 

trust and cooperation might require time. In addition, 

it is essential to avoiding causing alarm among anglers 

and the larger public, especially if it leads to unnecessary avoidance of fish as a source of nutrition. Given 

the likely low level of exposure to the population as a 

whole, but the possible high level exposure by some 

groups, considerable data collection effort and careful 

statistical work will be required to insure the robustness of the data and analyses. 

Expertise Needed:

• Sociocultural anthropologist or sociologist

• Team of interviewers fluent in the target 

language(s) and culture(s)

• Biological oceanographer or fisheries biologist 

knowledgeable of potentially contaminated 

species

• Statistician to assist with sampling design and 

analysis of complex multivariate survey data 

• Community education and outreach specialist

Timeline: Two years

Estimated Cost: $120,000 for a single port area (i.e., 

up to 6 discrete fishing locations).

Potential Partners: 

• Sea Grant

• Public and private universities

• Local community groups

• State health department

• State departments of fish and game

• NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service

• Philanthropic organizations that support research 

on women’s, children’s and/or under-served populations’ nutritional and general health, environmental justice, etc. 

• EPA

Additional Projects: Follow-on projects could 

include: 

a) identifying and characterizing subpopulations of 

non-anglers who consume potentially contaminated fish sold, bartered or shared by anglers,

 b) determining social, cultural and economic 

motivations for and dependence on consuming 

HAB-affected species, 

c) identifying social networks, and opportunities 

and constraints to collecting exposure and impact information from, and disseminating information to, those subpopulations.

2..4 Identifying Susceptible Populations
28

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts

HARRNESS notes that “the abundant growth of 

cyanobacteria in reservoirs contributes to significant 

practical problems for water supplies. Moreover, many 

of the known cyanotoxins (e.g., microcystins and saxitoxins) have been associated with deleterious health 

effects. The full impact of the presence of these toxins 

on contaminated water 

bodies remains unknown.” 

Although “surveys conducted in the US have 

identified algal toxins in 

drinking water and recreational waters ... there 

is no ongoing systematic 

monitoring program in 

place to identify high-risk 

areas.” Moreover, “water 

utility managers and those responsible for recreational 

water quality do not have water quality standards on 

which to base decisions for safe levels and practices. 

Therefore, water users are not necessarily protected 

from exposures and subsequent related health effects” 

(HARRNESS 2005, 58). 

The need for clean drinking and recreational waters is 

especially critical for health issues, but quality of life 

issues are also important. 

In addition to causing 

health problems ranging 

from mild discomfort to 

life-threatening, HABs 

create significant problems of a socioeconomic 

nature. The costs of water 

quality monitoring will 

ultimately be born by the 

general public, adding 

another economic consideration. Availability of clean 

water is typically considered to be a right of the general public, but municipal water systems are increasingly 

Lead Author: Ben Blount (Email: Benjamin.Blount@utsa.edu)

Contributor: Pat Tester

HARRNESS Recommendations: Same (HARRNESS, 58).

This section combines discussion of the following research topics and needs established in the “Recreational 

and Drinking Water” section of HARRNESS (Fig. 11).

Figure 9. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts - Research Topics and Needs

3.1 Improve Monitoring and Documentation

Research Need: Expand and improve systematic monitoring and documentation of the 

occurrence of algal toxins in drinking and recreational waters. 

3.2 Develop Short-Term Response Plans

Research Need: Develop short-term response plans for algal-contaminated water to protect 

public health. 

3.3 Develop Water Quality Standards

Research Need: Incorporate algal toxins into water quality standards for drinking and recreational waters.

Social science is critical to improve 

monitoring, documentation, and response 

strategies to reduce the impacts of algal toxins 

in drinking and recreational waters. For 

example, surveys of water management 

agencies are needed to determine perceived 

needs for response plans and develop models 

for effective interagency coordination.
29

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts

managed through contracts to private firms. In effect, 

responsibilities for water management and impacts of 

contamination cut across private and public domains. 

Recreation in coastal waters may also be seen as a 

public right, but infrastructure is largely provided by 

privately-owned businesses. The private and public 

domains are cross-cut there also, creating complexity 

in monitoring and response. 

Social and biological science are both necessary to 

improve monitoring, documentation, and response to 

algal toxins in drinking and recreational waters. As 

described below, social science research objectives are 

especially needed. 

Research Objectives

An introductory note about social science research 

methods may be useful. Since social science research 

focuses on characteristics of social groups, including knowledge, perceptions, and values shared by 

their members, careful attention has to be given to 

identification and measurement of variables that are 

culturally relevant (Weller and Romney 1988, Sobo 

and de Munck 1998, Ryan and Bernard 2000, Bernard 

2006). The concern is that representation of shared 

information (i.e., culture) must have internal validity. That is, social research methods such as surveys 

and interviews must reflect the categories and content 

specific to a social group’s culture (Romney, Weller, 

and Batchelder 1986; Strauss and Quinn 1997; Blount 

2002; Quinn 2005). Assumptions by researchers that 

culture is known prior to designing and implementing 

a study will likely lead to imposition and utilization of 

incorrect or erroneous categories, thereby producing 

biased results. Preliminary research to elicit and identify cultural content is an absolute necessity if internal 

validity is to be attained. Research instruments, especially formal surveys, must be derived from social science inquiry that grounds them relative to the relevant 

social group’s knowledge and experience (Blount and 

Gezon 2003). 

The procedures used in preliminary research will 

essentially be the same for each research objective 

below, although the details may vary from objective to 

objective. In each case, information about knowledge, 

perceptions, and other characteristics is sought from 

individuals within the social group in order to identify 

information shared across members. The procedures 

involve ethnography (informal and formal interviews) 

and focus group discussions, followed by draft descriptions of analyzed patterns of shared information 

presented to other interviewees or discussion groups 

for their feedback (e.g., corrections and amplifications) 

(Johnson 1999, Bernard 2006, Garcia-Quijano 2006). 

The results can then serve as background information 

to the construction of more formal research methods 

– typically, surveys to elicit information from larger 

samples within the population (Blount 2004). These 

may be more or less standard socioeconomic surveys, 

but modified by the results of the preliminary research. 

Sampling should be done according to characteristics 

of each social group, but in most cases, sampling will 

be systematic.

Since these preliminary/exploratory steps in social 

science research are fundamental to each objective 

below, they can be assumed to be present and thus do 

not need to be repeated.

1. Survey water resource managers and others responsible for the quality of drinking and 

recreational waters in order to identify current 

and projected monitoring, documentation, and 

response practices. The research to meet this 

objective would include questions about current monitoring, documentation, and response 

systems, but the thrust would be to ascertain 

perceived needs for improved methods. The 

research would document the extent to which 

HABs are viewed by water resource managers 

and other key organizations as current health 

problems and the problems perceived to result 

from increased occurrence. The survey could be 

regional and inclusive of all management agencies and organizations, providing a comprehensive account of the perception and understanding 

of HABs and the needs for monitoring, documentation and response. Systematic sampling of 

agencies and organizations could be applied to 

larger coastal areas, e.g., deriving samples from 

cities in the Gulf Coast states and then generalizing to the entire US Gulf Coast.

2. Identify and describe public perceptions of algal 

toxins and their harmful effects in drinking and 

recreational waters. This should be a large scale 

project comparing sample populations (e.g., 

townships and communities) in areas previously 
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts

affected by HABs to populations in unaffected 

areas. The comparative samples will (a) document public perceptions of HABs and their 

impacts, and other related variables, prior to 

any experience with HABs (called “perception 

baselines”) and (b) describe changes in perception baselines as a result of experience with 

HABs. In both instances, results would describe 

public understanding, gaps in public knowledge, 

level of trust in water utility and coastal resource 

management agencies, and other important 

variables. In the case of (b), the molding of perceptions by experience with HAB events might 

reveal dimensions of public perception that 

inform systematic monitoring, documentation, 

and response strategies. Case studies in affected 

communities could begin to yield profiles of the 

types and extent of socioeconomic impacts preliminary to developing guides of likely consequences when HABs occur in new areas.

For example, four townships or communities could be selected for comparison: one as 

a control in which there has been no history of 

impacts from HABs on drinking water or recreational water, one in which HAB events have 

impacted drinking water, one in which HAB 

events have impacted recreational water, and 

one in which HAB events have impacted both 

drinking and recreational water. The comparisons would reveal changes in public understanding and perception as a result of experience with 

HAB events, thereby informing strategies for 

stakeholder involvement and outreach integral 

to monitoring, documentation, and response. To 

illustrate, if results show that communities recurrently affected by HABs tend to have relatively 

little trust in warnings issued by coastal resource 

management agencies, then research on building 

trust (see Section 4, Risk Communication) may 

be a critical component of response planning.

3. Identify and describe the nature and extent 

of public support for increased monitoring of 

public water supplies and water management 

strategies to protect against HABs. The same 

sample areas and town/community samples 

could be used to describe and elicit public support for increased monitoring. Recent surveys on 

water quality reflect a diminishing confidence in 

the quality of public water supplies, reinforced 

by massive advertising to convince the public 

that commercial, bottled water is safer and by 

the increasing number of reports of problems 

with the safety of public water systems. This 

diminution of support and the willingness of 

populations to support increased monitoring and 

documentation, both in terms of regulations and 

financial costs, would be measured. Opposition to water additives has always been present 

among some members of the general public, and 

surveys would need to measure support for any 

new additives to control quality, should those be 

necessary. A particularly useful approach would 

be a study of a community recently affected by 

HABs to ascertain whether, and the extent to 

which, experience of impacts increased public 

awareness of and sensitivity to the need for increased protection. The responses could be used 

to inform the construction of surveys for communities with no history of exposure.

4. Identify and describe the public’s perception 

and understanding of the need to monitor and 

regulate activities that are known to produce or 

exacerbate HABs. National and global expansion 

of HABs is considered to be partly a result of 

human activities such as changes in agricultural 

and aquaculture practices that increase nutrient 

loading, overfishing, and ballast water discharge 

(HARRNESS 2005, 9). If regulatory strategies for preventing and controlling HABs are to 

successfully restrict such activities and thereby 

control HABs, then it is important to document 

the public’s understanding of the need for such 

restrictions and willingness to comply with 

alternative regulatory and enforcement mechanisms. Research is necessary to document related beliefs and perceptions in communities (a) 

recurrently affected, (b) briefly and infrequently 

exposed, and (c) never exposed to HABs. One 

outcome would be improved understanding of 

the role and value of public experience in developing and enforcing regulatory strategies to 

prevent and manage impacts of HABs.

5. Survey water resource managers and organizations in areas recurrently or potentially affected 

by HABs to (a) describe existing monitoring and 

response plans and perceived needs for improve-
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts

ment and (b) identify areas where no plans have 

been developed and assess perceived needs for 

development. The research would seek information as to whether monitoring and response 

plans were developed and implemented after 

HAB events, both to assess perceptions of their 

success and to elicit needs for more effective 

planning. The research would attempt to identify 

conditions under which agencies would see the 

need to develop short-term response plans. It 

would also assess the feasibility of and identify 

models for interagency coordination on local and 

regional scales. A major goal of research on this 

objective would be documentation and assessment of actual experiences, providing historical 

models.

6. Survey water resource managers and organizations to identify whether they would be willing to 

incorporate algal toxin information into drinking and recreational water quality documentation. This research would assess whether water 

resource agencies see a need to incorporate algal 

toxin information into descriptions and reports 

about water quality, how the information should 

be expressed if a perceived need exists, and what 

the consequences would be in terms of public 

perceptions and responses. A trade off might exist between the public perception of health protection and an increase in governmental warnings and regulations, affecting the ways in which 

agencies might wish to proceed. An especially 

important research project would be the identification of health, economic, and sociocultural 

consequences of HABs and prediction of what 

information would have been the most educational to help plan for and alleviate them. Selection of information could be based on instances 

in which harmful effects were actually present 

and required amelioration. 

7. Identify models that address regulatory, institutional, and citizenry involvement and assess 

the advantages and disadvantages of each type, 

for (a) public water supply and (b) recreational 

water availability and use. The survey in this 

instance would be of examples of managerial systems in areas prone to HABs. The units 

would be public or private organizations responsible for water management, and the research 

would focus initially on the ways in which the 

units address regulations, institutional activities, 

and citizenry involvement and input. Once types 

of management-sponsored involvement are identified, surveys would need to be developed that 

address perceptions of the relative strengths and 

value of each type, including problem areas or 

topics. Input would be solicited to assess major 

considerations to each type of involvement and 

desirable outcomes expected. The example project below provides an instance of how research 

on this objective might be designed.

Example Project

Perceptions of HABs in Corpus Christi Bay Recreational Waters: Informing Management and Education

The Texas Gulf Coast is lined with a number of large 

inland bays. From the upper coast southwestward to 

Mexico, these are Galveston Bay, Lavaca/Matagorda 

Bays, San Antonio Bay, Copano/Aransas/Redfish 

Bays, Corpus Christi Bay, Nueces Bay, and Baffin 

Bay. Although these bays share common characteristics, each bay has different environmental and social 

features, depending on a number of factors such as 

amount of surrounding wetlands, rainfall and vegetation patterns, and surrounding human population. 

Galveston Bay is surrounded by large population centers that number collectively in the millions, whereas 

the other bays have much smaller but rapidly growing 

populations. Galveston Bay is also surrounded by the 

giant southeastern Texas petrochemical industries, 

and it includes Buffalo Bayou and the Houston ship 

channel and port. Research on water issues in the industrial, urban areas of Galveston Bay would be more 

complex and on different scales than the lower part 

of the Bay and the other bays to the southwest. The 

particular bay chosen for the example project, Corpus 

Christi Bay, is the most urban of the bays other than 

Galveston, but on a much smaller scale. Research issues would be similar to those of the other bays, even 

the lower Galveston Bay.

Description: The project aim is to describe perceptions held by three categories of recreational users of 

Corpus Christi Bay of threats from HABs to the water 

quality of the Bay and its associated impact on recreation. The three categories are: (1) tourists who use the 
32

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

3. Recreational and Drinking Water Impacts

bay for recreation, specifically fishing and boating; (2) 

residents of the two urban areas, Corpus Christi and 

Ingleside, who use the Bay or are engaged in activities 

that relate directly to the Bay (fish houses, commercial 

fishers, seafood restaurants); and (3) officials of recreational organizations. The latter include the Packery 

Channel Park, the Redhead Pond Wildlife Management Area, the Corpus Christi Botanical Gardens, the 

Hans A. Suter Wildlife Park, the Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi Nature Trail, and the Indian Point 

Park/Sunset Lake Hike and Bike Trail. 

Methods: Officials representing each of the organizations will be interviewed about pollution problems in 

the Bay, sources of point and non-point source pollution (especially estuarine problems from agricultural 

runoff into the Nueces River), the increasing impact 

on the Bay from urban population growth, and the 

possible negative impacts from pollution and other 

extreme natural events, including HABs. They will 

also be asked what they believe (1) tourists and residents know about pollution and about HABs and (2) 

tourists and residents should know, i.e., what should 

be more widely known. The perspectives shared by 

officials will serve to construct questions for preliminary research with tourists and residents. The pilot 

study will be ethnographic (i.e., informal interviews 

and focus groups), leading to construction of preliminary questionnaires. The questionnaires will also be 

tested prior to development of a formal questionnaire 

as the research instrument, which will be administered 

directly by interviewers. 

Outcomes: The questionnaires will serve as databases 

for statistical analyses to produce profiles of perception type, their frequencies, and levels of significance. 

The results will be expected to show where gaps in 

knowledge and misunderstandings are the more striking and in need of education.

Challenges: The major challenge is expected to derive 

from the paucity of knowledge about pollution effects and HABs on the part of the recreational sector. 

Administration of questionnaires directly by individuals is intended to counter what would be very low 

response to mail or telephone interviews.

Expertise Needed:

• Anthropologist

• Sociologist,

• Environmental/Marine Scientist

• Statistician

Timeline: The project would require two years, 18 

months for data collection and six months for data 

analysis and final report. 

Estimated Cost: $250,000. The major expense would 

be salary for personnel, including the project coordinator/principal investigator and graduate student 

assistants to help with the data collection and analysis. 

The second major expense would be for research costs 

at field sites, i.e., for per diem and travel.
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4. Risk Communication

Protecting public health, coastal communities, and coastal and linked economies requires promoting behaviors 

that reduce vulnerabilities and promote recovery from impacts of HABs. Such “risk-wise” behaviors include 

participating in volunteer phytoplankton monitoring efforts, complying with beach closures and fish consumption advisories, and reporting and treating HAB-related illnesses. HARRNESS affirms the importance of education and outreach, especially communications focused on susceptible populations such as those subsistent 

on local seafood, “to ensure accurate knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions” fundamental to such “risk-wise” 

behaviors (HARRNESS 2005, 65). Risk communication is a field of social science that promotes effective communication by scientists, resource managers, educators, community leaders, and others toward this end. 

Research Need: Risk communication research assisting scientists, resource managers, educators, community leaders, and others in focusing communications to promote public behaviors that reduce vulnerability and respond to impacts of HABs.

Lead Author: Cliff Scherer (Email: cws4@cornell.edu)

Contributor: Dan Ayres

HARRNESS Recommendation: While HARRNESS does not explicitly recommend risk communication 

research, the insights of this field are critical to achieve one of its goals – focusing outreach and educational 

communications to promote “risk-wise” public behaviors, thereby protecting public health, coastal communities, and coastal and linked economies.

Areas of Risk Communication Research

Risk communication is a field of social science that 

focuses on six needs critical to improve the effectiveness of organizations at communicating complex 

science to policy makers, stakeholders and interested 

citizens: building organizational trust, understanding 

risk perceptions, understanding social amplification of 

risk, improving mass media communications, developing communication 

messages, and developing 

communication strategies. 

These needs cut across organizations charged with 

protecting societal objectives such as public health 

and ecosystem function. 

They also cut across natural resource and hazard 

management issues facing 

such organizations. To 

prevent and respond to impacts of any hazard, both 

internal and external audiences need appropriate, 

timely and clear information about actual and probable impacts, and appropriate responses. Organizations 

Areas of Risk Communication Research

• Organizational Trust

• Risk Perceptions

• Social Amplification of Risk

• Mass Media

• Message Development and Design

• Communication Strategies

A growing and major challenge faced by resource 

management, public health, and other agencies is the 

communication of increasingly complex science to 

publics who may be disinterested until they are negatively impacted. In a technologically advanced democracy, citizens risk becoming disenfranchised on an 

increasing number of issues characterized by complex 

scientific and technical information. The fact is, there 

is a general lack of understanding in the public sector regarding the mathematical probabilities that are 

inherent in scientific and 

technical information 

such as HAB forecasting 

models. Consequently, as 

the information revolution 

continues to accelerate, 

it becomes increasingly 

clear that more information does not result in 

better informed citizens 

empowered to prevent and 

respond to the impacts of extreme natural events such 

as HABs. Conversely, providing the public with too 

much information can lead to “information overload,” 

which can be as ineffective as not providing enough. 
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

4. Risk Communication

need detailed information about how their interested 

audiences understand, perceive, react to, behave and 

use information related to science, warnings, forecasts, 

and hazards. Ineffective communication about risk situations can increase harm to citizens, increase concern 

or fear needlessly, lead to inappropriate behaviors, and 

decrease trust in agencies, which can further decrease 

agency effectiveness. 

1. Building Organizational Trust. Building trust is 

the fundamental focus of risk communication. Trust 

is characterized by a number of features, including 

perceived competence, objectivity, fairness, consistency, and goodwill. Risk information sources, such 

as government agencies, need to understand that trust 

is a very important factor in the acceptance and effectiveness of risk-based messages to the public. Most 

research confirms that 

government agencies are 

in fact considered by the 

public to be a less-thantrusted source of risk 

information. The public 

tends to view government 

risk-based information 

as distorted, biased and 

probably incorrect. The effectiveness of government 

agencies as sources of 

information and risk communicators suffers from the 

lack of trust in its messages and is further aggravated 

by the public’s increased worry about risk (Foster 

2000). 

For example, along the US West Coast, state agencies do a good job of protecting the health of those 

who wish to harvest shellfish species prone to marine 

toxin exposure, especially domoic acid. Extensive 

toxin testing is conducted prior to and during any 

shellfishery opening. Testing has limited the incidence of human illness to only a few minor cases and 

prevented any deaths associated with this dangerous 

toxin. This testing and the states’ strict adherence to 

federally established action levels have also resulted 

in numerous fishery closures that have in some cases 

lasted more than a year. Frustration over these closures 

and the fact that there have been very minor, if any 

health impacts has led to a general level of disbelief 

and distrust of the agencies. From the perspective of 

coastal resource managers, this lack of confidence is a 

puzzling result of the successful protection of the very 

people who don’t believe they need protection. Such 

lack of confidence illustrates that maintenance of trust 

must be a priority in the design of any risk communication strategy. Agencies face several challenges in the 

area of trust and credibility, not only because they are 

already perceived to be a less trusted source, but also 

because they sometimes discourage public participation in decision making processes (Renn 1998).

The other side of the trust issue pertains to resource 

management and other experts, who are also prone to 

the same biases as the general public. For example, 

experts sometimes view the public as: 1) incapable of 

grasping complex issues, 2) incapable of forming relevant views, 3) believing anything they read in newspapers, 4) holding opinions shaped by narrow, selfish 

concerns, 5) apathetic, 

and, 6) unwilling to take 

the time or trouble to consider anything that does 

not affect them directly. In 

short, the public is often 

perceived by agencies as 

gullible, selfish, and irresponsible.

It is vital, therefore, for 

agencies to incorporate 

information on audience perceptions of science and 

risk in their programs and activities as they relate to 

the development, management and communication of 

scientific and technical information. Recognizing trust 

as an important aspect of risk communication is only 

one step toward establishing the practical operational 

aspects of what an institution must do to increase the 

public’s trust and confidence in it. More often than not, 

governments are called upon to inform and reassure 

individuals about risks that are unknowable, unpredictable and about which the experts disagree. Some 

suggest that scientific uncertainty has a tendency to 

politicize risk, changing the nature of the engagement 

between experts, politicians and the public to one in 

which trust becomes a pivotal element (Coote and 

Franklin 1999). A correlation between trust and credibility and risk perceptions has suggested that when 

trust or credibility is lacking, people perceive greater 

risks. Public meetings, used in many risk situations, 

can be critical in setting the stage for understanding 

and believing hazards. Research can address how 

Risk communication research is critical 

to help scientists, coastal resource managers, 

water utility managers, public health 

authorities, and others communicate 

forecasting and other information so that the 

public understands the probability of a HAB 

event, trusts the message, and responds in 

ways that reduce vulnerabilities 

and promote recovery from impacts.
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

4. Risk Communication

dialogue and consideration of alternatives can promote 

more informed decisions about risk behaviors. 

2. Understanding Risk Perceptions. Research in this 

area is primarily designed to help agencies better 

understand how stakeholders and other audiences 

understand, perceive, and behave toward specific sociocultural, public health, economic, or environmental 

hazards. Information from these studies is particularly 

useful in organizational decision making about how to 

better address concerns of affected audiences. In some 

cases, audiences may misunderstand complex scientific and technical information. In others, stakeholders 

may need additional or different information in helping them make rational choices. Information on risk 

perceptions can help agencies determine agency needs 

for research, audience needs for information, and appropriate methods of delivering complex information 

to meet target audience needs.

For example, public meetings called to discuss a 

marine toxin related fishery closure are often characterized by polar perceptions of risk. Some insist that 

HABs are “not a real problem” and express a strong 

preference for fishery and health managers to let them 

“take their chances” by engaging in risk-prone harvesting and recreational activities. Others express extreme fear of exposure to toxins and seek government 

reassurance that there is no risk before they are willing 

to participate in any harvest or recreational activities.

Agencies also face pressures emergent with the evolution of the “information society.” For example, people 

are better educated and have greater access to information through vehicles such as the internet and 24-hour 

news. A better informed and educated public is far 

less likely to accept direction from authority without 

question when it affects their day-to-day lives. For 

example, the public is becoming increasingly aware of 

risks to the food supply and is demanding more information.

3. Social Amplification of Risk. Risk events pertaining to hazards interact with psychological, social, 

institutional, and cultural processes in ways that can 

heighten or attenuate perceptions of risk and shape 

risk behaviors. Behavioral responses, in turn, generate 

secondary sociocultural and economic consequences. 

Consequences of HABs and other coastal hazards extend beyond human health to include impacts such as 

liability, insurance costs, loss of confidence in institutions, stigmatization, cultural loss, and alienation from 

community affairs. Individuals, groups, the media, and 

institutions become amplification stations. Agencies 

need to understand how their activities and communications amplify hazards (Kasperson 1992).

4. Mass Media. How messages are formulated and 

delivered to the mass media by coastal resource 

managers, public health authorities, and others can 

influence how the media cover a HAB event or other 

hazard. The media, in turn, play an important role in 

risk communication and the formation of public concerns, beliefs and behaviors. Despite its importance 

in shaping public risk perceptions and behaviors, the 

extent of the media’s impact on public perception and 

management of risk remains somewhat of a mystery 

and is the subject of much ongoing research. Research 

in this area may involve analysis of how the media are 

covering hazard events, and how agencies and organizations are providing messages to the media. Risk 

communication researchers also provide training for 

agency personnel on effective communication of risks 

to the mass media.

It is widely accepted that the media are not only an 

important source of risk information to the public, but 

also play a role in bringing issues to their attention, 

fueling a sense of public urgency. Journalists are not 

educators or, at least, this is not their primary role. 

From this perspective, it is not surprising that media 

coverage seldom results in more than cursory coverage 

of an issue, contributing little if anything to the more 

Bob McCausland, The Daily World, Aberdeen, WA
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

4. Risk Communication

complicated process of working through the problems. 

News coverage that presents positions as adversarial 

often actually retards progress towards dealing meaningfully with issues. The adversarial position rarely 

corresponds to the real views of most people. This is 

a style of communication which rarely comes close to 

true risk communication. The media tend to highlight 

existing concerns, uncertainties and conflicts, rarely 

questioning the legitimacy of any source, and presenting all sources on a rather equal footing. In this sense, 

the media’s role might be considered to be “non-judgmental.” Information is provided to the public with 

little or no analysis of its technical accuracy (Friedman 

1986).

5. Message Development and Design. The presentation of a risk message can significantly influence the 

public’s understanding of risks associated with HABs 

or other extreme natural events. For example, different 

ways of framing messages can lead to vastly different 

public perceptions and behaviors. People will use their 

own frames of reference to define issues, often resulting in completely different understanding. Providing 

scientific and technical information, for example, 

has been found to not always change target audience 

knowledge, attitudes or behavior.

One important purpose of message construction, for 

example, is enhancing efficacy beliefs to promote 

risk reduction behaviors. Fear appeals can result in 

target audiences denying risk rather than taking protective behaviors. One of the more important factors 

in improving the effectiveness of messages is that of 

source trust and credibility. Agencies are particularly 

vulnerable when warnings and forecasts are issued. 

If warnings are not issued and a risk event occurs, 

agencies can lose credibility because the public views 

them as not “on top” of the hazard. However, issuing a warning in cases when nothing happens tends to 

decrease credibility because the agency was obviously 

wrong. The next forecast is then less credible. Risk 

communication research studies how such messages 

can be constructed to better communicate the nature 

of a warning or a forecast so audiences more clearly 

understand probabilities and likelihoods of a negative 

event and respond in ways that reduce vulnerability 

and respond to impacts.

Another important areas of message development and 

design relates to the formatting and presentation of 

the message. These factors have been found to significantly influence an audience’s understanding of 

information, their perceptions of the sending agency, 

their disposition to think about the relevance of the 

information, and their decision to seek additional, 

supporting or contradictory opinions or facts (Scherer 

et al. 1999). For agencies which routinely send riskbased messages, it may be critical to understand how 

such messages are received by the audience, audience 

trust, message believability, and behavioral intentions. 

Studies that analyze the characteristics of a risk on 

a range of known important dimensions can help in 

developing accurate and understandable messages. 

Dimensions include whether the risk exposure is voluntary or involuntary, whether the hazard is natural or 

man-made, whether it is familiar or unfamiliar, dreaded on not dreaded, chronic of catastrophic, knowable 

or unknowable, whether the information comes from 

a trustworthy or an untrustworthy source, and whether 

the process is responsive to individual or community 

needs or unresponsive.

6. Development of Communication Strategies. How 

messages are communicated (e.g., media channels), 

the objectives of the communication, and the assumptions of change all contribute to the likely effectiveness of the communication effort. Development and 

implementation of communication strategies, in order 

to be effective, must be more than a creative activity. 

Communication strategies need to be based on sound 

social science research, audience analysis, theories 

of change, how audiences receive information, how 

social linkages influence beliefs and perceptions, the 

level of organizational trust, and the relevance of the 

information to the intended audience. Theories of 

change, or even assumptions of how groups, communities or individuals change as a result of information, determine the type of communication strategy 

developed. For example, if the assumption is that more 

information will result in risk-protective behaviors 

of a population at risk, one type of communication 

strategy will be developed. If the assumption is that 

change is most likely to result when messages building 

organization trust are used, a different type of strategy 

may be developed. Reducing the likelihood of ineffective communication and improving the quality of 

communication require both formative and evaluative 

research. Formative research can prevent major communication errors, and summative research can help 
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

4. Risk Communication

provide guidelines for more effective and efficient 

future communication. 

Research Methods

A broad range of research methods are appropriate for studying risk communication. These include 

traditional focus groups, interviews, and surveys, as 

well as fast-cycle surveys which compress the time 

needed for conducting the survey from months to 

weeks. Other techniques include the use of a mental 

models approach which constructs “mental maps” of 

how an agency and interested publics conceptualize 

a risk situation, and use that information to design 

communication strategies to meet the needs of both 

parties. Another method, co-orientation studies, compare perceptions between impacted parties to better 

understand how communication can be improved. All 

these methods can be applied to studies enhancing the 

effectiveness of communications about risks associated with HABs. 

Example Project 1

Improving Fishery Closure Communication

Description: Risk perception studies prior to fishery 

closures can help determine the range of concerns, 

trust levels, and information needs of stakeholders 

– information that is critical for fishery managers and 

public health authorities to develop communication 

messages and strategies effective at promoting riskwise public behaviors. For example, for those who 

insist that HAB events are not a real problem, research 

can reveal why they believe this and what information will increase their confidence in and compliance 

with closures. For those at the other extreme who are 

uncertain whether unaffected fisheries are safe, awareness of their perceptions and concerns can help agencies design messages that increase trust and promote 

understanding of the relevant science. 

Methods: Focus groups and fast-cycle surveys can 

assess the range of concerns, perceptions, and needs of 

the various stakeholder audiences. 

Outcomes: More effective messages and communication strategies that improve agency credibility, develop 

social network linkages supporting agency decisions, 

facilitate efficiency of communication with stakeholders, and ultimately promote public behaviors that 

prevent and respond to impacts of HABs.

Challenges: Because social situations may change 

rapidly (e.g., economic conditions in the community, 

risk events such as fishery-induced illness or death, or 

media coverage of an event), any social survey must 

be regarded as a “snapshot” of a community. 

Expertise Needed:

• Risk Communication

• Statistician

• Field interviewers, including focus group 

facilitators

Timeline: Three months to one year. 

Estimated Cost: Depending on geographic target 

area and study population, projects may range from 

$65,000 to $200,000. 

Example Project 2

Effectiveness of Agency Messages Delivered to the 

Media and/or Public

Description: The purpose of this project is to assess 

the effectiveness of agency information releases to 

the media (or directly to the public in the form of web 

information, leaflets, etc.) at meeting agency objectives such as building trust and credibility, communicating important and relevant science, and addressing 

public concerns related to health, sociocultural, and 

economic interests. The study would examine agency 

communications and analyze their themes, follow how 

the media used the materials (e.g., modified or edited), 

and test the perceptions of a sample of intended stakeholders to determine efficacy of communications for 

agency objectives. 

Methods: Content analysis of communication materials, analysis of media published stories, and an experimental design testing with a sample of appropriate 

stakeholders. 

Outcomes: Improved understanding of how agency 

information is being understood and used by media 

and stakeholders to inform development of more effective communication messages and strategies. 
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

4. Risk Communication

Challenges: Because not all agency communication 

materials can be included in such a study, a major 

challenge will be to select an appropriate sample of 

materials which will represent the range of messages 

being sent to the media and the public. 

Expertise Needed: Researchers experienced in content analysis and field researchers experienced in 

quasi-experimental field research. 

Timeline: One to two years. 

Estimated Cost: $90,000 to $240,000, depending on 

quantity and type of materials analyzed, geographic 

target area, and study population.

Example Project 3

Improving Agency Understanding of Target Audiences 

Description: One of the difficulties of risk communication is that stakeholder and scientists/regulators generally have very different and often conflicting views 

of the nature of an environmental or health hazard. 

Research highlighting these differences can often dramatically improve communication for both stakeholders and the agency. Questions to be addressed include: 

What information does the target population currently 

have? How believable is it? Do they see the information as relevant? Do they trust agency communication? 

How well do they understand the goals of the agency? 

Do they perceive any risk (related to agency activities 

such as fisheries or beaches)? Specific problems may 

relate to topics such as: (a) Closure of fishing areas 

where there have been no health problems (because of 

successful closures), but local communities, visitors 

and other stakeholders believe that closures are unnecessary. (b) Effective delivery of forecasting information and warnings, recognizing that agency credibility 

can easily decline with the likelihood of false warnings or forecasts. (c) Situations in which stakeholders 

are unaware of hazards that have been identified, but 

community cooperation and participation is needed for 

monitoring and/or response. 

Methods: Focus groups and fast-cycle surveys can 

assess the range of concerns, perceptions, and needs 

of the various stakeholder audiences. This research 

would also include scientists, regulators, and educators 

charged with communicating with and working with 

the community. The research could utilize a co-orientational approach or a mental models focus (described 

above). 

Outcomes: Greatly improved understanding of the 

needs, perceptions and roles of stakeholders, regulators, scientists and educators. Sharing this information 

among all parties can result in greatly increased communication opportunities. 

Challenges: Such studies involve intense periods of 

data collection, followed by a need for opportunities to 

involve the various involved parties in discussion. 

Expertise: 

• Risk communication 

• Statistician

• Field interviewers

Timeline: One to two years 

Estimated Cost: Depending on geographic target 

area and study population, projects may range from 

$100,000 to $200,000. 
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

5. Coordinating Approaches to HAB Problems

Institutional analysis (IA) refers broadly to research 

addressing the roles of governance, institutions, and 

processes (organizational, management, and political) in relation to HABs. Institutions and processes 

may either facilitate or hinder responses to HABs. For 

example, state human health and shellfish management programs may work well together or differences 

in regulatory standards or approaches across jurisdictional boundaries (e.g., federal and state) may hinder 

effective management. 

The benefits of IA are well stated in a 2001 report of 

GESAMP (the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection, an 

international scientific consultative body organized 

to assist the UN, UNEP, FAO, and a number of other 

international environmental organizations), in a major 

assessment of needs for controlling land-based source 

pollution worldwide (GESAMP 2001):

“IA provides a systematic way of obtaining an 

understanding of the nature, strengths and weaknesses of institutions within the context in which 

they are operating or which it is proposed they 

may operate in the future. It is therefore a key 

element in moving away from sectoral-based 

management of natural resources to a holistic 

approach that is likely to require modifications 

in the role of different institutions.”

Following Elinor Ostrom (1990), institutions are 

viewed from a broad perspective understood to consist 

simply of groups of actors governed by agreed rules 

and norms. Institutions can be informal or informal, 

with formal organizations such as government agencies a special case. Similarly, governance is understood to be the larger system of actors and organizations engaged in a policy arena in which formal 

governmental arrangements are operating to address 

a particular problem or opportunity. Government is at 

the core of governance. The organizational, managerial, political and other processes affected by HABs 

outbreaks or engaged in proactive response to the 

threat of HABs are similarly broadly construed. 

From the perspective of institutional analysis, HABs 

natural science research can be viewed as the product 

of a specialized set of scientific institutions and actors, 

and its role in the HABs arena can be examined just as 

the roles of other institutional or organizational entities 

can be (Leschine et al. 2003). An important role for institutions that incorporate scientific research is support 

for communications between researchers and users of 

research findings (managers and other interested and 

affected parties). Effective institutions facilitate potential users of research results helping frame the questions that researchers examine as well as researchers 

informing users of relevant results (Judd et al. 2005). 

This process of framing and informing was referred 

to as “analytic-deliberative” in an influential report of 

the National Research Council on the management of 

environmental risks (1996). 

HARRNESS highlights the importance of effective coordination among scientists, resource managers, public 

health and social service agencies, legislatures, affected communities, concerned citizens and other partners that 

play an integral role in reducing and responding to impacts from HABs in the US (e.g., HARRNESS, page 1). 

This section discusses the need for research in an area of social science called “Institutional Analysis” to optimize the effectiveness and economic efficiency of coordinated approaches. 

Research Need: Analyze, and develop strategies to promote, the effectiveness and efficiency of coordinated governance, institutional, and socio-political processes in reducing and responding to the impacts of 

HABs. 

Lead Author: Tom Leschine (Email: tml@u.washington.edu)
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

5. Coordinating Approaches to HAB Problems

The connections that any actors or institutions have 

to the HABs problem can be either direct or indirect. 

For example, public health agencies may be directly 

engaged in determinations of whether beaches should 

be open or closed to shellfishing, while restaurants and 

motels far from shorelines, perhaps organized through 

local chambers of commerce whose primary purpose 

is to maximize local economic opportunity, may be 

indirectly affected by the decisions these institutions 

make. Even where the primary social problem in the 

face of a HABs outbreak may be seen to be one of 

individual behavioral choice – for example, the willingness of individuals to volunteer cooperation with 

closures or other mitigating measures – institutions 

may lie at the core of the problem, particularly if institutional barriers or lack of institutional trust hinder 

behavioral change.

Institutional studies can take a great variety of forms. 

One thread long-prominent in organizational and management studies is that of the “collective choice” problem. Simply put, a fundamental question is whether 

the conditions that prevail in a problem arena conducive to the emergence or sustenance of institutional 

arrangements can effectively manage “commons” 

problems over long periods of time (Ostrom 1990, 

Dietz et al. 2003). Ostrom’s institutional analysis and 

development (IAD) framework directs researchers to 

focus on the key arenas in which actors engage over 

a particular problem, the strategies they undertake to 

keep transaction and other costs low in comparison 

to perceived benefits of interaction, the quality of the 

policy outcomes they achieve, and their institutional 

performance in crafting and putting into place policies 

and the institutional mechanisms that support them 

(Imperial 1999). At a more immediate level, researchers such as Eugene Bardach (1998) have developed 

understanding of conditions under which governmental interagency collaboration in a particular problemsolving arena can be expected to be effective.

The effectiveness of institutions at developing the capacity necessary to reach out to public and other stakeholders, engage in bargaining with other institutions, 

develop conflict resolution measures, and “create, 

collect and disseminate scientific knowledge” (Haas, 

Keohane, and Levy 1993) are additional potentially 

productive avenues for institutional analysis in relation 

to HABs. The role of scientific and technical information in environmental problem solving is another 

thread that has received attention in institutional studies, going back to pioneering work of Dorothy Nelkin 

on nuclear power, the supersonic transport airplane 

(SST), and other controversies of the 1960s and 1970s. 

The emphasis in such studies is often on whether the 

scientific information brought into a policy arena has 

sufficient impact to induce the organizational learning necessary for policy change to occur (Sabatier 

and Jenkins-Smith 1993), or whether shared beliefs 

about scientific and technical aspects of a problem 

are sufficiently strong and wide-spread to induce the 

emergence of a “culture of science” that contributes 

to problem identification and problem solving within 

a decision making organization (i.e., understood by 

Haas and colleagues (1993) as an “epistemic community”).

Research Objectives

An overarching objective for IA in the context of 

HABs could be stated as determining how governance, 

institutions and socio-political processes help or 

hinder effective and efficient resource management in 

relation to HABs. 

1. Examine institutional arrangements to determine the degree to which approaches to HABs 

management are integrated or fragmented. 

Fragmented management raises transaction costs 

on participants and may lead to ineffective or 

inefficient overall management.

2. Examine collection and dissemination of HABsrelevant information by institutions for evidence 

of improved effectiveness and efficiency of management. A “value of information” question that 

focuses on the role of institutions in fostering 

and utilizing information collection and dissemination. Effective use of information should result in more flexible and adaptive management.

3. Examine the role of institutions in enhancing 

or eroding resilience in coupled human- natural-world systems affected by HABs. Coupled 

human- nature- systems are resilient if both systems are able to adjust to “shocks” to either one. 

Does management succeed in limiting damage 

to recreation and tourism-dependent economies 
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5. Coordinating Approaches to HAB Problems

while still maintaining protectiveness for human 

health?

4. Examine the robustness of institutional arrangements from the perspective of IAD, asking 

whether incentives structures and other important institutional aspects to effective HABs management are robust, functioning and sustainable 

through time.

Example Project

Leschine and his associate Meg Chadsey are using 

the IAD framework to examine interactions between 

researchers and managers in what has proved to be a 

successful effort to enhance the efficiency of Washington State’s management of recreational shellfish 

harvests in relation to domoic acid contamination that 

has severely disrupted an economically, recreationally, 

and culturally important razor clam fishery (Leschine 

and Chadsey, in prep).
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Human Dimensions Research Strategy

6. Education and Outreach

HARRNESS aims to enhance national education and 

outreach to promote societal awareness of HABs that 

will “aid the medical community in diagnosis, will aid 

the seafood safety community in conveying the importance of closures,” will promote adherence to warnings, and will contribute to collection of economic, 

public health, and sociocultural data on HAB impacts 

(such as the data needs identified in Section 1.1). 

These outcomes, in turn, will reduce vulnerability and 

promote effective mitigation of public health, sociocultural, and economic impacts of HABs. The bottom 

line is that “an informed populace is a prepared one” 

(HARRNESS 2005, 75). 

The success of education and outreach efforts for these 

outcomes relies on tailoring programs to deliver accessible information to, and harness the participation 

of, diverse sectors – including recurrently and potentially affected communities; the public health arena; 

and industries such as seafood, aquaculture, tourism, 

and recreational and commercial fishing. As HARRNESS affirms, “information should be developed in 

forms that are easily accessible and understandable 

and provided in formats that the community can use 

in meaningful ways.” Toward this end, it is important 

to utilize social science methods such as focus groups 

to “listen closely to the needs of small coastal communities to provide quality information and resources 

to their schools, local organizations, and businesses” 

(HARRNESS 2005, 65).

Social science research is critical to characterize these 

diverse sectors in order to focus programs to actively 

involve them, effectively inform them, and ultimately 

facilitate beliefs and behaviors that reduce vulnerabilities and promote recovery from impacts. Sound scientific understanding of audiences, including characteristics such as the following, is critical to assess needs 

for educational and outreach programming.

• Demographics (e.g., age, ethnicity, and primary 

language of coastal residents and visitors);

• Knowledge (e.g., causes of HABs and symptoms of HAB illnesses); 

• Attitudes (e.g., trust in resource management 

agencies);

• Beliefs (e.g., about the scientific predictability of 

HABs); 

• Institutional characteristics (e.g., coordination 

across resource management, public health, 

tourism, and other sectors);

• Political setting (e.g., controversy over previous closures or reluctance of local businesses to 

communicate warnings); 

• Information sources (e.g., primary use of television, radio, newspaper or other sources for information on closures or public health warnings); 

and

• Technological requirements (e.g., technologies 

accessible to and used by target audiences).

In addition to audience profiles describing characteristics such as these, evaluation of products and services 

is an essential contribution of social science research. 

Formative evaluation (i.e., assessment of effectiveness 

throughout an educational or outreach process) enables outreach program staff to adaptively improve or 

discontinue efforts based on lessons learned, changes 

in social or natural environment such as a shellfish bed 

closure, or changes in audience profile such as emerging distrust of resource management agencies. In 

contrast, summative evaluation provides information 

Achieving the goals of HARRNESS for the 

National HAB Educational Outreach Program 

requires sound scientific understanding and

 active participation of community audiences.

Research Need: Education and outreach products and programs that cultivate greater community awareness of HABs and a resurgence of stewardship of coastal ecosystems.

Lead Author: Susan Lovelace (Email: Susan.Lovelace@noaa.gov)

Contributors: Dan Ayres and Lorraine Backer
43

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

6. Education and Outreach

on the efficacy of a product or service for achieving 

established goals such as promoting active participation of coastal communities in volunteer phytoplankton monitoring networks, reassuring consumers of 

the quality of seafood products marketed in a local 

or regional area, or facilitating access to information 

about environmental impacts and health risks associated with HABs.

Achieving the goals of HARRNESS for the National 

HAB Educational Outreach Program requires sound 

scientific understanding and active participation of 

community audiences, as well as evaluation of program effectiveness (Fig. 12). The following discussion elaborates on these goals, focusing on the need 

to develop projects appropriate to specific audiences 

(Fig. 13).

Research Objectives

1. Identify audiences integral to the goals established by HARRNESS for the National HAB Educational Outreach Program. Assess audience 

characteristics to inform programmatic development and implementation. Facilitate the active 

participation of, and integrate the experience of, 

regulatory agencies, affected publics, and other 

groups. Outreach and education are critical to 

“maintain and disseminate information about 

HABs to ensure accurate knowledge, attitudes, 

and perceptions” – an outcome that is fundamental to facilitating public trust in regulatory 

agencies and risk-wise behavior (HARRNESS 

2005, 65). Information must be provided to a 

wide variety of audiences that may be affected 

by HAB events or play an integral role in preventing and responding to impacts (Fig. 13). For 

example, walk-in medical clinics treat coastal 

visitors suffering from impaired breathing. 

HARRNESS Goals for the National Educational and Outreach Program

• Develop and distribute easily accessible information about HABs environmental impacts and 

health risks.

• Develop communications focused on unusually susceptible populations such as different age 

groups, health status, and geographic distribution.

• Implement special language or culturally sensitive educational procedures for delivering health 

messages to underserved, culturally, or socio-economically isolated communities.

• Listen closely to the needs of small coastal communities to provide quality information and 

resources to their schools, local organizations, and businesses. 

• Promote active participation of community and school groups in volunteer phytoplankton 

monitoring projects and ocean education stewardship programs. 

• Provide multiple layers of communication on these subjects spanning local to global 

communities.

• Provide resources and monitoring programs to communities subsistent on local resources where 

other options may not be readily available. 

• Work with industry representatives and regulatory agencies to enhance public awareness of health 

benefits that foster accurate perceptions of seafood/shellfish safety to reassure consumers of the 

quality of the seafood products being marketed.

• Work with medical schools and associations to improve physician education in the diagnosis, 

management, and reporting of HAB related illness.

• Work with teachers to better understand public school curricula at different grade levels to 

develop teaching sourcebooks and activities that promote understanding of algae, toxins, food 

webs, and health.

Figure 10. HARRNESS Goals for the National Educational Outreach Program (HARRNESS 2005, 65)
44

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

6. Education and Outreach

Education and outreach targeted at administrative and professional staff of these clinics should 

not only inform staff about HAB variability and 

predictions, but also explain the need for data 

collection and help to ensure their cooperation 

in the process. Although the primary goal is to 

educate audiences working on the “front lines” 

of the HAB-people gradient, education can also 

be beneficial for building new partnerships and 

facilitating the cooperation of public health 

workers and others in gathering research data.

2. Identify, develop, and deliver decision support 

tools that are accessible to and used by decision 

makers and affected communities to prevent and 

respond to HAB impacts. It is important to move 

research technology into general use as efficiently and effectively as possible. Tools need to be 

developed to assist scientists, health officials and 

local decision makers in conducting their work 

quickly and precisely. Matching their needs with 

the current technology development and commercial companies requires communication and 

investigation. Agencies such as the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have 

developed partnerships such as ACT, the Alliance for Coastal Technologies, to assist in the 

identification and testing of sensors. Academic 

departments devoted to technology transfer assist University staff. Transferring tools for use 

by constituents requires understanding their 

knowledge, perceptions and skills as well as the 

institutional and political barriers they face. 

3. Identify and develop outreach and education 

programs and projects that facilitate stakeholder understanding and risk-wise response to 

HAB predictions, forecasts, and potential policy 

changes. Although many sectors and segments 

of communities have a stake in the prediction 

and forecasts of HABs, they can be classified 

into audiences such as groups dependent upon 

seafood for subsistence; tourists; public health 

workers; industries such as seafood, aquaculture, tourism, and recreational and commercial 

fishing; local businesses; and civic leaders. It is 

important that each group receive appropriatelytargeted and accurate information in order to 

facilitate behaviors (e.g., adherence to warnings) 

that reduce risks and promote recovery from 

impacts.

Bloom Ecology and Dynamics

Fishery Managers

Agricultural Sector

Educators and Students (K-Higher Education)

Taxonomy Graduate Students

Toxins and their Effects

Physicians

Medical Students

Public Health Officials

Emergency Medical Personnel

Wildlife Managers

Food Webs and Fisheries

Marine Mammal Stranding Networks

Fish Merchants

Aquaculturists

State Monitoring Programs

Public Health and Socioeconomic Impacts

Lifeguards

Subsistence Resource Users

Recreational Resource Users

Coastal Property Owners

Hotel Operators

Seafood Industry

Restaurant Industry

Charter Boat Operators

Tourists

Social Service Providers

Public Officials

Chambers of Commerce

Social Scientists

Land Use Planners and Managers

Media

Seafood Consumers

Water Utility Managers

Example Audiences for HAB Education and Outreach

Figure 11. Example Audiences for HAB Education and Outreach Initiatives
45

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

6. Education and Outreach

4. Develop educational and outreach projects appropriate for interested public audiences. Public 

audiences are diverse, including highly susceptible populations characterized by socioeconomic 

status, physiological traits such as pre-existing 

respiratory conditions, and cultural practices 

such as species harvested and food preparation 

techniques (see Section 2.4, Identifying Susceptible Populations). This diverse public, especially highly susceptible groups, must be aware 

of anthropogenic affects on HABs, and impacts 

to public health and communities, resulting from 

potential HAB blooms. To prevent and recover 

from impacts, it is important that the public be 

prepared for blooms and that additional projects 

be developed and made ready to implement 

during a bloom. The planning must include competent, flexible information to cover different 

bloom types and effects. 

5. Within the context of existing programs, identify and develop projects for K-12 education 

and teacher professional development. K-12 

audiences have specific academic requirements rooted in their state standard of study. 

These are often based on national standards 

or benchmarks, but are influenced on the local 

level. When designing programs for this group, 

it is important that curriculum writers become 

thoroughly familiar with a particular state’s curriculum in biological or health sciences in order 

to design material that fits in and targets particular grades of interest. Ongoing K-12 volunteer 

monitoring programs such as NOAA’s Southeast 

Phytoplankton Monitoring Network conduct 

work in some states and adapt programs as necessary to match the curriculum to the students, 

while retaining monitoring quality (http://www.

chbr.noaa.gov/pmn/). Other programs such as 

the American Lung Association’s Open Airways for Schools program target students at risk 

for asthma and therefore with risk of suffering 

effects of HABs (www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp

?c=dvLUK9O0E&b=44142). Fully developing 

these programs is as important as developing additional programs. Social science needs include 

information related to the local education process, the socioeconomic status of the area, and 

the specific needs of the students, e.g., whether 

their recreational and other activities put them at 

high risk of exposure. 

Example Project 1

HAB Information and Needs Assessment Workshop for a Regional Public Health Community

Facilitating Objective 2 above, this project serves 

two purposes. The first is a goal of HARRNESS for 

education and outreach – distributing easily accessible information about HAB environmental impacts 

and health risks to relevant sectors such as the public 

health community (HARRNESS 2005, 65). To accomplish this goal, the project would convene a workshop 

for a regional public health community that includes 

an intensive educational component led by appropriate 

environmental, epidemiological, and social scientists. 

The second purpose is to assess information and tools 

needed by the regional public health community to 

diagnose HAB illnesses (see Section 2.1, Developing Diagnostic Tools), report HAB-related illnesses 

to improve surveillance (see Section 2.2, Improving 

Surveillance), and promote public education of HABrelated health risks. A variation on this approach could 

integrate information objectives and needs assessment 

across multiple sectors in a region, e.g., by involving 

key informants from tourism, seafood, recreational 

and commercial fishing, community and other groups. 

Workshops could be repeated and compared across 

regions.

Methods:

• Workshop facilitation

• Needs assessment

• Effective training techniques and technologies

• Group decision making and collaborative processes

• Workshop evaluation: Pre- and post-test to assess 

changes in knowledge and attitudes. Evaluation 

of workshop relevance to public health decisions. 

Track changes in effectiveness of diagnosis and 

monitoring of HAB-related illnesses, and communication strategies.

Outcomes:

• Assessment of information and tools needed by 

the regional public health community to diagnose 

HAB illnesses, report HAB-related illnesses to 

improve surveillance, and promote public education of HAB-related health risks. Multiple 

regional workshops could yield a comparison 

across regions with recurring, occasional, and 

rare HABs.

• Informed public health community
46

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

6. Education and Outreach

Challenges:

• Attendance and participation of regional health 

community.

Expertise Needed:

• Education component: HAB biophysical, social 

science, and epidemiological researchers. Education specialists.

• Workshop Facilitators 

Timeline: A timeline for development and implementation of one regional workshop focusing on the public 

health community might be as follows:

1. Planning 4 months

2. Implementation 2 months

3. Evaluation 1 month

4. Assess information and tools 

needed, facilitate development 

by partners 4 months

Evaluation of workshop effectiveness would also be 

ongoing, informed by development and use of tools 

identified as needed by the public health community, 

dissemination of tools and lessons learned to other 

regions, and continued feedback of participants.

Estimated Cost: Approximately $150,00 to develop 

and implement two to three regional workshops. Cost 

depends on number of participants and number of 

regional workshops held, and the technologies used to 

complete them. The predominant expense is travel and 

associated needs of workshop participants. 

Potential Partners: 

• State and local health departments

• Hospitals and community health clinics

• Medical schools

• American Red Cross

• Lung health organizations

• NOAA Coastal Services Center (workshop planning, development and delivery of information, 

services and products identified by the public 

health community as needed).

Example Project 2

HABs Information for At-Risk K-12 Students and 

Teachers

Description: Facilitating Objective 5 above, the purpose of this project is to develop a lesson module on 

HABs targeted to at-risk students, particularly those 

with breathing impairments such as asthma, and promote its incorporation into an ongoing and effective 

K-12 education program such as the American Lung 

Association’s Open Airways for Schools program. To 

inform development of the module and facilitate its 

use, the project would involve partnership with local 

community groups and schools in areas affected by 

HABs (http://www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLU

K9O0E&b=44142). The curriculum should include 

sourcebooks and activities that promote understanding 

of algae, toxins, and food webs as well as impacts of 

HABs on coastal environments, public health, sociocultural dimensions of communities, and local and 

regional economies.

Methods: 

• Curriculum development – write and test a module on HABs

• Partnership development – e.g., American Lung 

Association’s Open Airways for Schools program, community groups, and schools

• Train educators for delivery and evaluation.

• Collect and analyze evaluation data

Outcomes: 

• K-12 citizenry and educators well-informed 

about the ecology and impacts of HABs

• American Lung Association (National and State 

organizations) informed of health risks associated with HABs, especially for individuals with 

asthma, and committed to related educational 

programming

Challenges: 

• Developing partnership with American Lung Association

Expertise Needed:

• Demographic research capacity. For example, it 

will be necessary to identify locations with high 

numbers of K-12 students, particularly those 

with high rates of asthma (such as poverty areas) 
47

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

6. Education and Outreach

or other attributes that make them particularly 

susceptible to health impacts, where there is a 

high or moderate risk of HABs.

• Education program and lesson plan development

• Training

• Evaluation, e.g., pre- and -post tests, follow-up 

evaluation at 1 year, oral questions of students.

Timeline: 2 years. Partnership development and curriculum development are predominant.

Estimated Costs: 

• Demographic work, contracted at $12,000

• Educator, contracted at $50,000

• Travel for partnership development and training, 

$15,000

• Total $77,000

• Could be completed by Education graduate student, $45,000 stipend and travel per year

Potential Partners:

• American Lung Association and state organizations such as the American Lung Association of 

Florida

• Community foundations 

• Local civic organizations such as rotary

• Environmental Protection Agency

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Alternatively, a K-12 health curriculum for coastal 

communities could be developed that includes many 

coastal hazards such as microbiological contamination, hurricanes, and climate change. Such a curriculum should be compatible with state health standards, 

state and National Science Education Standards and 

Benchmarks for biology, single cell organisms and 

environmental science, habitat and pollution. Activities could be developed for each appropriate grade 

level and disseminated through professional teachers’ 

meetings for health and science.
48

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Recommendations

JSOST and SIMOR Commitment to 

Human Dimensions

The Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (JSOST) and Subcommittee on Integrated 

Management of Ocean Resources (SIMOR), subsidiary bodies of the Cabinet-level Committee on 

Ocean Policy, identify human dimensions research as 

a cross-cutting priority to support coastal and ocean 

resource management. For example, a public workshop sponsored by JSOST in April 2006 to provide 

the ocean science communities an opportunity to 

guide development of an Ocean Research Priorities 

Plan (ORPP) identified human dimensions research 

as a cross-cutting priority in its natural hazards theme 

(http://ocean.ceq.gov/about/docs/JSOST_nathaz.pdf). 

Also, a Federal/State Task Team (FSTT) of SIMOR 

established in September of 2005 to inform the ORRP 

stated that “the new focus of ocean research must be 

on the comprehensive study of marine and coastal 

ecosystems ... This focus should include a significant 

investment in enhancing understanding of the ‘human 

dimension’ as a key component of and influence on 

these systems” (SIMOR FSST 2006).

HABHRCA Requirements

JSOST established the Interagency Working Group 

on HABs, Hypoxia and Human Health (IWG-4H) to 

provide assistance in implementing the Oceans and 

Human Health Act of 2004 (PL 108-447) and Harmful 

Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Amendments Act of 2004 

(HABHRCA)(PL 108-456). HABHRCA requires a 

number of reports, assessments, and plans, including: 

(1) Prediction and Response Report for Harmful Algal 

Blooms; (2) National Scientific Research, Development, Demonstration, and Technology Transfer Plan 

on Reducing Impacts from Harmful Algal Blooms 

(RDDTT); (3) Scientific Assessment of Freshwater 

Algal Blooms; (4) Scientific Assessment of Harmful 

Algal Blooms; and (5) Scientific Assessment of Hypoxia. In addition, the Secretary of Commerce is to coordinate with the Interagency HABHRCA Task Force 

to provide Local and Regional Scientific Assessments 

of HABs and Hypoxia as requested by states, tribes, 

and local governments (PL 108-456, sec 104). 

• The Prediction and Response Report is to: (1) 

“review techniques for prediction of the onset, 

Recommendation 1. The Interagency Working Group on Harmful Algal Blooms, Hypoxia, and Human Health (IWG-4H) should consult with a sufficiently diverse cross-section of human dimensions 

researchers and utilize this research strategy as a basis for conducting local and regional scientific 

assessments, identifying innovative research and development needs, and developing programs as 

required by the Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Amendments Act of 2004 (HABHRCA). 

1.1 The Prediction and Response Report developed by the IWG-4H should identify innovative human 

dimensions research and development needs for effective HAB prediction and response. 

1.2 As part of the National Scientific Research, Development, Demonstration, and Technology Transfer Plan, in order to provide for human dimensions research and development needs identified in 

the Prediction and Response report, the IWG-4H should establish a multi-agency partnership to 

coordinate a competitive, peer-reviewed human dimensions research program modeled after ECOHAB. 

1.3 Following NEPA, (a) Scientific Assessments of Freshwater and Coastal HABs and (b) Local and 

Regional Scientific Assessments of HABs and Hypoxia should integrate the natural and social sciences to evaluate potential methods for preventing and responding to impacts.
49

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Recommendations

course, and impacts of HABs ... and provisions 

for their development;” and (2) “identify innovative research and development methods for the 

prevention, control, and mitigation of HABs and 

provisions for their development” (PL 108-456, 

sec 103).

• The RDDTT Plan is to “establish priorities and 

guidelines for a competitive, peer-reviewed, 

merit-based interagency research, development, 

demonstration, and technology transfer program 

on methods for the prevention, control, and mitigation of harmful algal blooms” (PL 108-456, 

sec 104).

• The Scientific Assessment of Freshwater Algal 

Blooms is to assess current knowledge about 

HABs in freshwater environments and include a 

research plan for coordinating Federal efforts to 

advance scientific understanding of freshwater 

HABs as part of the Ecology and Oceanography 

of HABs (ECOHAB) program (PL 108-456, sec 

104). 

• The Scientific Assessment of Harmful Algal 

Blooms is to examine the causes, ecological 

consequences, and economic costs of HABs and 

describe potential ecological and economic costs 

and benefits of prevention, control, and mitigation methods (PL 108-456, sec 104). 

• The Scientific Assessment of Hypoxia is to examine the causes, ecological consequences, and 

economic costs of hypoxia in US coastal waters 

and the Great Lakes and describe the potential 

costs and benefits of prevention, control, and 

mitigation actions (PL 108-456, sec 104). 

Recommendation 1.1. The Prediction and Response 

Report developed by the IWG-4H should identify innovative human dimensions research and development 

needs for effective HAB prediction and response. 

The IWG-4H is developing the Prediction and Response report by reviewing the capabilities of federal, 

state, and local programs (tribal and non-tribal) in 

HAB prediction and response. Based on this review, 

the report will identify gaps in capacity, i.e. innovative research and development methods critical to 

protecting environmental systems, economies, and 

communities in anticipation of and response to HABs 

(Quay Dortch, ECOHAB program coordinator, personal communication). The research and development 

needs described in this human dimensions research 

strategy represent significant gaps in national HAB 

capacity. The IWG-4H should utilize this research 

strategy to identify innovative human dimensions 

research and development needs for effective HAB 

prediction and response. Needs include social scientific approaches for:

• Assessing Social Impacts (Section 1.2)

• Assessing Community Vulnerability (Section 

1.4)

• Assessing Economic Benefits of Forecasts (Section 1.5)

• Developing Diagnostic Tools (Section 2.1)

• Improving Surveillance (Section 2.2)

• Developing Epidemiological Methods (Section 

2.3)

• Identifying Susceptible Populations (Section 2.4)

• Improving Water Quality Monitoring and Response (Section 3)

• Communicating Risks to Prevent and Respond to 

Impacts (Section 4)

• Coordinating Approaches to Prevention and 

Mitigation (Section 5)

In addition to utilizing this strategy, the IWG-4H 

should consult with a sufficiently diverse cross-section 

of human dimensions researchers to implement the 

requirements of HABHRCA. Involvement of human 

dimensions researchers is critical both to provide 

information and to develop interdisciplinary collaborative partnerships for HAB research and response. 

Toward this end, it is not sufficient to consult with 

Epidemiologists and Economists at the exclusion of 

researchers with expertise in other critical areas, e.g., 

Risk Communication, Sociology and Anthropology, 

and Institutional Analysis. 

Recommendation 1.2. As part of the National Scientific Research, Development, Demonstration, and Technology Transfer Plan, in order to provide for human 

dimensions research and development needs identified 

in the Prediction and Response report, the IWG-4H 

should establish a multi-agency partnership to coordinate a competitive, peer-reviewed human dimensions 

research program modeled after ECOHAB.

Development and implementation of workshops and 

other efforts informing the RDDTT plan should be 

substantially informed by this human dimensions 

research strategy and a sufficiently diverse cross-section of human dimensions researchers as early as 
50

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Recommendations

Regional Scientific Assessments of HABs and Hypoxia should integrate the natural and social sciences to 

examine potential methods to prevent and respond to 

impacts. Toward this end, such assessments should be 

coordinated across HAB programs focused on natural 

science (such as ECOHAB) and human dimensions 

(such as the multi-agency human dimensions program 

proposed above). 

Critical human dimensions information and methods 

for envisioning and evaluating strategies as part of 

such assessments include:

• Assessments of Social Impacts (Section 1.2)

• Assessments of Economic Impacts (Section 1.3)

• Assessments of Community Vulnerability (Section 1.4)

• Assessments of the Economic Benefits of Forecasts (Section 1.5)

Potential prevention and mitigation strategies examined by such assessments include:

• Diagnostic, Surveillance and other Decision 

Support Tools (Sections 2.1 and 2.2)

• Innovative Epidemiological Methods (Section 

2.3)

• Identification of Susceptible Populations (Section 2.4)

• Water Quality Monitoring and Response Plans 

(Section 3)

• Messages and Strategies for Communicating 

Risks (Section 4)

• Models for Coordinating Prevention and Mitigation Strategies (Section 5)

The Oceans and Human Health (OHH) Act requires 

the interagency OHH Research Program to develop 

an Interagency Implementation Plan for Congress. 

Among other requirements, the plan is to establish 

ten-year goals and priorities to advance scientific 

understanding of the connections between oceans and 

Recommendation 2. The Interagency Oceans and 

Human Health (OHH) Research Program should 

establish goals and priorities for human dimensions 

research integral to its Interagency Implementation 

Plan. OHH research programs should draw on the 

research objectives and example projects in this 

report to develop requests for competitive research 

proposals.

possible. To provide for human dimensions research 

needs identified in the Prediction and Response report 

and facilitate interagency approaches to data collection and management, the IWG-4H should establish 

priorities and programmatic guidelines for substantial 

interagency investment in human dimensions research 

integral to the RDDTT plan. 

Specifically, following the model of the Ecology and 

Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (ECOHAB) 

program, the RDDTT plan should establish programmatic guidelines for a multi-agency partnership to 

coordinate a competitive, peer-reviewed research 

program providing for human dimensions needs established in this report and the Prediction and Response 

report. NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean 

Science (NCCOS) is an appropriate lead for such 

a multi-agency HAB-Human Dimensions program 

(HAB-HD) in view of its experience as an integral 

partner in ECOHAB, leadership role in developing 

this report, and interest in multiple human dimensions areas essential to promote coastal environments 

and communities that are resilient to HABs and other 

extreme events (http://www.nccos.noaa.gov/). NCCOS 

should coordinate with other interested NOAA offices 

such as Sea Grant, Office of Education, and Coastal 

Services Center. Other agency partners may include, 

but should not be limited to, the Environmental Protection Agency (Drinking Water Impacts), Federal 

Drug Administration, Centers for Disease Control 

and Prevention (Public Health Impacts), US Fish and 

Wildlife Service, and the National Science Foundation 

Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences area.

Recommendation 1.3. Following NEPA, (a) Scientific 

Assessments of Freshwater and Coastal HABs and 

(b) Local and Regional Scientific Assessments of 

HABs and Hypoxia should integrate the natural and 

social sciences to examine potential methods for preventing and responding to impacts.

The National Environmental Policy Act requires Federal agencies to utilize a systematic, interdisciplinary 

approach to decision making that integrates the natural 

and social sciences to study and evaluate alternative 

courses of action such as strategies for preventing and 

mitigating the sociocultural, health, economic, and 

environmental impacts of HABs and hypoxia. Following a NEPA-inspired model, (a) Scientific Assessments 

of Freshwater and Coastal HABs and (b) Local and 
51

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Recommendations

human health; describe activities such as funding and 

training required to achieve them; and use reports 

and studies conducted by Federal agencies and other 

expert scientific bodies (PL 108-447). 

This human dimensions research strategy is an important resource for the Interagency Implementation 

Plan. While the strategy focuses on HABs, it provides 

a framework for human dimensions research related 

to the connections between human health and a wide 

array of coastal hazards (including cumulative and episodic human impacts such as pollution and oil spills in 

addition to chronic and episodic natural events such as 

HABs and hurricanes). Accordingly, the Interagency 

Implementation Plan should utilize the research objectives and example projects in this report to establish 

ten-year goals and priorities, and estimate funding for 

competitive research. Areas of emphasis may include: 

• Assessing community vulnerability(Section 1.4)

• Developing decision support tools (Section 2.1)

• Improving surveillance of human disease (Section 2.2)

• Developing epidemiological methods for identifying and characterizing human diseases (Section 2.3)

• Identifying susceptible populations based on 

environmental and sociocultural factors (Section 

2.4)

• Improving water quality (Sections 3.1-3.3)

• Communicating risks of coastal hazards (Section 

4)

• Coordinating mitigative approaches (Section 5)

• Improving education and outreach (Section 6)

In addition, OHH research programs should draw on 

the research objectives and example projects in these 

sections to develop requests for competitive research 

proposals.

HARRNESS established a rotating, interdisciplinary National HAB Committee to “represent priority 

research areas” and “facilitate coordination and communication of activities for the US HAB community 

at a national level.” This committee should integrate 

members in critical human dimensions disciplines 

such as Risk Communication, Anthropology and 

Sociology, and Institutional Analysis (in addition to 

Economics and Epidemiology). Representation of 

priority human dimensions research areas is critical to 

facilitate comprehensive and effective implementation 

of HARRNESS; facilitate support by broad stakeholder groups; and “raise the visibility and understanding 

of HAB issues nationally” (HARRNESS 2005, 59).

Initiated in 1999, NOAA’s Monitoring and Event 

Response for Harmful Algal Blooms (MERHAB) 

program aims to incorporate tools, approaches and 

technologies from HAB research programs into existing HAB monitoring programs and provide managers 

with timely information needed to enhance and sustain 

routine HAB monitoring capabilities and mitigate 

HAB impacts (http://www.cop.noaa.gov/stressors/

extremeevents/hab/current/fact-merhab.html). Toward this end, MERHAB is expanding the number of 

coastal regions benefiting from advancements in algal 

identification, detection, modeling, and prediction. For 

example, MERHAB “regional” projects are mitigating HAB impacts and enhancing HAB capabilities for 

Karenia brevis in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico, cyanobacteria in the lower Great Lakes, Pseudo-nitzschia

along the central and southern California coast, and 

Karlodinium micrum in the Chesapeake Bay. In addition, MERHAB “targeted” projects are producing 

new technologies for faster, easier, and more economiRecommendation 3. The National HAB 

Committee should integrate members in critical 

human dimensions research areas such as Risk 

Communication, Anthropology and Sociology, and 

Institutional Analysis in addition to Economics and 

Epidemiology.

Recommendation 4. NOAA’s Monitoring and 

Event Response for Harmful Algal Blooms (MERHAB) program should utilize this report to identify 

and implement mission-critical human dimensions 

research.
52

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Recommendations

cal methods of detecting a variety of HABs and their 

toxins. MERHAB is providing critical research and 

development investments needed by the HAB community to bring these promising methods into routine 

use to monitor coastal waters, test seafood quality, 

understand toxic effects on endangered marine species, and prevent human illnesses and deaths due to 

HAB toxins.

A critical factor in the successful transition to operations of MERHAB projects is the inclusion of state 

risk management agencies and state scientists in the 

design and implementation of research projects. Partnering academic and Federal scientists with scientists 

working in state agencies provides an opportunity 

to closely align research with the needs of agencies 

that are on the front lines of mitigating HAB impacts, 

generating research products that have immediate or 

near-term application. This approach echoes the emphasis in Section 2.1, Developing Diagnostic Tools, on 

understanding and collaborating with potential users 

of tools throughout the research, development, prototype testing, and deployment process. The injection 

of management needs into MERHAB science projects 

also allows for a better understanding of the regionally-specific political realities that must be addressed 

in order to obtain long-term funding for routine HAB 

monitoring and response efforts.

MERHAB researchers have identified a number of 

critical needs that could be addressed by the social science research community. These include:

• Region-specific data on the sociocultural and 

economic impacts of HABs (Sections 1.1-1.3). 

Local fishery managers can generally discuss 

why the public participates in the fisheries they 

manage and why their fishing activity is important to their quality of life. However, without the 

help of social scientific approaches, it is difficult 

for fishery managers to comprehensively document and quantify the sociocultural and economic losses when HAB events preclude normal 

harvest opportunities and other resource uses. 

Surveying local communities about the social 

importance of resources and how they adapt to 

resource impacts will help managers develop 

effective response strategies and tailor outreach 

products. It is important to document impacts so 

that appropriate prevention and mitigation strategies can be funded, planned, and implemented. 

This kind of information will also assist members 

of the HAB community in telling the “whole” 

story of HAB impacts as they approach federal, 

state and local lawmakers to request funding for 

HAB related work. There are many people who 

are not affected economically by a HAB event, 

yet who find their social quality of life deeply 

affected.

• Improved messages and strategies for communicating to public audiences about risks associated 

with HABs to reduce vulnerabilities, respond 

to impacts, and raise public awareness of the 

importance of routine monitoring and response

(Section 4). Often, the public learns of HABs 

at the time of a fishery closure. This can lead to 

frustration, anger, distrust of government actions 

and, ultimately, health impacts due to failure to 

comply with governmental warnings. State managers who struggle with HAB-related impacts 

should consider consulting with risk communication researchers to help them effectively reach 

populations that are affected by HAB events 

and/or integral to HAB monitoring and management.

Longer-term needs may include:

• Utilization of social information to plan and 

implement short-term rapid response efforts.

Such information could include an understanding 

of community vulnerabilities to impacts (Section 1.4), identification of susceptible populations 

(Section 2.4), or models for agency and stakeholder coordination (Section 5).

• Risk communication research to effectively utilize 

HAB prediction and forecasting information in 

communicating risks to various publics (Section 

4).
53

Human Dimensions Research Strategy

Recommendations

An example of such a partnership is the widely discussed success story of Washington State’s ORHAB 

(Olympic Region Harmful Algal Bloom) Project 

(http://www.orhab.org/). This collaboration of HAB 

researchers, fisheries managers and human health 

managers has successfully met the challenge of bringing scientists and managers to a common set of goals 

and coordinated approaches to achieving them. The 

partnership has improved understanding of the state’s 

coastal HAB issues and contributed to the development of solutions. Natural barriers (e.g., collaborating 

across cultural, disciplinary, and agency boundaries) 

between these diverse groups were lowered during the 

process. Managers increasingly understand and use 

the “language of science” and researchers increasingly 

appreciate the challenges faced by managers, framing their research questions to inform on-the-ground 

decisions. State and local leaders should form such 

regional collaborations in other parts of the nation as a 

means of producing effective and locally appropriate 

solutions to local HAB issues. 

Recommendation 5. State and local resource managers and other leaders should coordinate regional 

partnerships integrating the public health community, biophysical and social scientists, affected tribal 

and non-tribal communities, and other partners to 

address regional HAB issues. 
54

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57

Dan Ayres Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife

Lorraine Backer Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

 National Center for Environmental Health

Marybeth Bauer National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

Ben Blount University of Texas at San Antonio

 Department of Anthropology

Daniel M. Cartledge Yuxi Teachers College (Yunnan, China)

 Institute of Ethnic Cultures and Social Development

Mary Culver National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 Coastal Services Center

Porter Hoagland Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

 Marine Policy Center

David Griffith East Carolina University

 Department of Anthropology

Guillermo Herrera Bowdoin College

 Department of Economics

Barb Kirkpatrick Mote Marine Laboratory 

 Center for Ecotoxicology

George Luber Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

 National Center for Environmental Health

Linda L. Lampl Lampl Herbert Consultants

Susan Lovelace National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

 Hollings Marine Laboratory

Rob Magnien National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

 Center for Sponsored Coastal Ocean Research

Casey Poe University of New Hampshire (Graduate Student)

 Department of Resource Economics and Development

Appendix 2. Workshop Participants
58

Rob Robertson University of New Hampshire

 Department of Resource Economics and Development

Cliff Scherer Cornell University

 Department of Communication

 Social and Behavioral Research Unit

Kevin Sellner Chesapeake Research Consortium

Marc Suddleson National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

 Center for Sponsored Coastal Ocean Research

Pat Tester National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

 National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

 Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research

Sarah Waterworth University of Maryland (Undergraduate Student)

 Environmental Science and Policy Program

Bill Wood Central Washington University

 Department of Anthropology and Museum Studies