GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

CIRCULAR 601 -D 

Water as an 

Urban Resource and 

Nuisance 

Water as an 

Urban Resource and 

Nuisance 

By Harold E. Thomas and William J. Schneider 

WATER IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 

G E 0 L 0 G I CAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 6 0 1-D 

Washington 19 70 
United States Department of the Interior 

THOMAS S. KLEPPE, Secretary 

Geological Survey 

V. E. McKelvey, Director 

First printing 1970 

Second pri..-ting 1972 

Third printing 1976 

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey 

1200 South fads Street, Arlington, Va. 22202 
FOREWORD 

Urbanization-the concentration of people in urban areas and the 

consequent expansion of these areas-is a characteristic of our time. It has 

brought with it a host of new or aggravated problems that often make new 

demands on our natural resources and our physical environment. Problems 

involving water as a vital resource and a powerful environmental agent are 

among the most critical. These problems include the maintenance of both 

the quantity and quality of our water supply for consumption, for 

recreation, and general welfare and the alleviation of hazards caused by 

floods, drainage, erosion, and sedimentation. 

A prerequisite to anticipating, recognizing, and coping intelligently with 

these problems is an adequate base of information. This series of reports is 

intended to show the relevance of water facts to water problems of urban 

areas and to examine the adequacy of the existing base of water information. 

6 ~ .7dhul~~l 

E. L. Hendricks, 

Chief Hydrologist 

III 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Foreword ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ III 

Introduction ____ ----------------------------------------------------------------- __ ---------------------------------------------------- D 1 

The water resource ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 

Human modifications of the natural flow systems ------------------------------------------------------------ 2 

Urbanization ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 

The demand for water ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3 

Effects of land occupancy ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 

Effects of surface revisions -------------------------------------------------- __ --------------------------------------- 4 

The problem of wastes ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 

Summary -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 

References ---------------------- __ ----------------------- ________ ____________ _ _ --------------.. ____ ---------------------------------------- 8 

v 

Water in the Urban Environment 

Water as an Urban Resource and Nuisan~e 

By Harold E. Thomas and William J. Schneider 

INTRODUCTION 

Generally, when people speak ot water as a 

resource, they are considering its good aspects 

and recognizing that it is essential for life and 

living. Sometimes or at some places or to some 

people, the same water may be annoying or unpleasant and thus a nuisance-for example, rain 

at a picnic, snow at any time except Christmas 

Eve, ground water in a basement, floodwater 

inundating personal property, and any water 

after it has been polluted by somebody else. 

For purposes of this circular, water as a resource will be defined more broadly and as a 

nuisance more narrowly. Water is part of the 

natural resource base including all aspects of 

the land, the air, and the water that must be 

considered in planning if an environment suitable for the well-being of all life is to be maintained. A nuisance, private or public, is a cause 

of annoyance, inconvenience, or injury that is 

an invasion or disturbance of the rights of some 

particular person or of members of a community, and it is punishable under the laws or customs accepted by the community. An activity 

harmful to mankind but widely practiced by the 

general public may be condoned by human laws 

and thus not be defined legally as a nuisance; 

the punishment for this activity is deterioration of the natural environment until it becomes unsuitable for living. 

The water resource, which is widely and irregularly distributed on earth, is available to 

man for such enjoyment and development and 

use as he sees fit, some use being essential to 

his existence. Natural variations in the quantity and quality of water are inevitable and, if 

they cause annoyance or injury to someone, are 

accepted as one of the hardships that this planet imposes upon its inhabitants; such variations 

are recognized as "acts of God." However, if 

any man or society is partly responsible for 

these variations, which may cause such annoyance or injury, and may become a nuisance (an 

invasion or disturbance of the rights of others) 

such a man or society may perhaps be subject 

to injunctions and damage suits. Legal disputes 

over water as a nuisance are generall~" deeply 

involved with problems of the respective rights 

of plaintiff and defendant. These r~spective 

rights vary among the States. 

THE WATER RESOURCE 

Water is a replenishing resource. T'.,o. fresh 

water on or in the land masses of the earth is 

replenished by precipitation. The vapor lost 

from the atmosphere by precipitation is replenished by evaporation of water, partly from 

the land masses but chiefly from the. oceans. 

The net water loss from the oceans-~~waporation from the water surface less precipitation 

over the oceans-is replenished by run..,ff from 

the land masses. This is the hydrolog·fc cycle, 

simple in principle but complex in proce.~s. 

The average annual precipitation over the 

conterminous United States is equivahnt to a 

layer of water 760 millimeters (30 inches) 

thick. About 28 percent of this water, equivalent to a layer 220 mm thick, eventudly runs 

off to the oceans, but in the meantime it constitutes the fresh water potentially available 

for n1an's continuing uses and enjoym~nt. The 

rest of the gross supply returns to tl'~ atmosphere as water vapor by evaporation from water surfaces and moist land and by transpiration from vegetation, both nati .. ,.e and 

cultivated. 

Geographically there is a wide range in average annual precipitation, in evapotrans:niration, 

and in the difference between the two. A waterbalance map (Piper, 1965), based on average 

annual precipitation and potential evapotranspiration, indicates the areas and am..,unts of 

surplus and deficiency throughout the conterminous United States. The princi:t:f.l.l areas 

of perennial surplus are the eastern 31 States, 

the Pacific Northwest, and several hisrh mounDl 
tain ranges in the West. Perennial water deficiency is characteristic of most of the western half of the country. In areas of perennial 

deficiency the natural water economy and human activities respond to the water-scarce environment and rely wherever possible on inflows from areas of perennial surplus, regulation and use of seasonal or occasional local surpluses, and depletion of stock resources of 

ground water for temporary benefit. In areas 

of perennial surplus human activities are adapted to the environment of water abundance. The 

surpluses are needed for various uses and for 

carrying a way wastes and are managed to overcome occasional deficiencies and to protect 

against damaging floods. 

HUMAN MODIFICATIONS OF THE 

NATURAL FLOW SYSTEMS 

Thanks to the renewability afforded by the 

hydrologic cycle, water as a resource serves the 

continuing needs of mankind and other forms of 

life. Beneficial use of water, essential for urban 

life, is recognized as a social good. Many types 

of uses of water either reduce the quantity or 

impair the quality of the natural resource; such 

uses may be detrimental to other individuals or 

to the public. The right to use water, however, 

is recognized and protected as a property right; 

so that proving a nuisance involves weighing 

the merits of the respective rights of all parties 

involved. 

The use of water may require substantial 

structures or other developments such as dams 

to provide storage and regulation of the natural 

flow, canals and pipelines to divert and distribute water to places of use, collecting systems, 

treatment plants for impure water, wells to 

yield ground water, pumps to lift water, and 

channels and dredging to provide navigability. 

All these are intended to modify the natural 

flow systems for the benefit of mankind. The 

degree of benefit may vary among individual 

water users who are dependent upon the development. In some places or to some people 

the effects of water development may be detrimental and qualify as nuisances. 

The natural flow systems may be modified 

by human activities concerned primarily with 

elements of the natural-resource base other 

than water. The development and use of the 

Iand-or, more broadly, of the solid earth or 

D2 

lithosphere-are not primarily co:'lcerned with 

water, but rather are concerned with fossil 

fuels, the soils for agriculture, metallic and 

other minerals for manufacturing·, rocks and 

sediments for construction, and thE: land surface 

for occupancy. In such development water, not 

sought as a resource, may be incid~ntal or accidental and even a hazard at son1e times and 

places. The use of the land may r~quire drainage of unwanted water or protection from excesses of water during storm and f 0ods. Water 

may constitute a nuisance if it harms the development and use of the solid-earth resources 

or otherwise invades recognized property rights. 

Convers.ely, the development and use of the land 

resources may have effects on wr~ter that interfere with the water rights of others; such 

interference may also be a nuisance. 

URBANIZATION 

"Of all land-use changes affecting the hydrology of an area, urbanization is by far the 

most forceful" (Leopold, 1968). More than twothirds of the Nation's population ir currently in 

urbanized areas occupying about 7 percent of 

the land. This clear majority could, under unifying leadership, control the destiny of the urban area and also the 93 percent of the land that 

is relatively vacant. The total pop•dation is increasing; however, the urban population is increasing at a more rapid rate. Thes~ trends suggest that the urban population ill A. D. 2000 

will be three-fourths of the total pc'lulation and 

more than the total population toiay. The urbanized area will also increase tc perhaps 10 

percent of the land area. 

The great majority of urban dwellers are not 

concerned with individual rights 2.nd responsibilities in water as a resource. These rights 

have necessarily been delegated to the community because individual plots of lar1 are generally too small to provide adequate supply, storage, or disposal of water for its o~~cupants. On 

the other hand, each individual is concerned 

about water as a nuisance. Water may disrupt 

his well-ordered urban life by accumulating in 

low spots (such as lands, baseme"lts, and underpflsses), by making mud in unpaved areas, 

by eroding ground laid bare by con~truction, by 

carrying debris and filth, and t~r damaging 

property during floods. Sometimes individual 

responsibility for such nuisances can be clear-
ly identified. However, the natural environment has been modified so thoroughly in many 

urban areas that the responsibility for specific 

nuisances may be widely dispersed. For that 

reason, the community, or the public, has assumed increasing responsibility for the correction of and protection against the detrimental 

effects of water. 

THE DEMAND FOR WATER 

Municipal water supply, including domestic, 

commercial, and industrial supplies, is at an 

average daily rate of 600 liters (157 U.S. gallons) per capita throughout the United States. 

A population of 500,000 thus requires about 100 

million cubic meters annually, equivalent to 

about 70 mgd (million U.S. gallons a day), and 

there are 35 municipal systems of this size or 

larger. The demand of the largest municipal 

systems, in New York City and Chicago, is 15 

to 20 times this rate (Durfor and Becker, 1964). 

Of the 35 largest cities, five have abundant 

supplies from the Great Lakes and 10, from 

major rivers. The others originally depended on 

wells, springs, or small streams in the vicinity, 

but with progressively increasing and concentrated demand they have had to reach out beyond the urban area for their supplies. Today 

only three of these cities-Miami, San Antonio, 

and Memphis-obtain their entire municipal 

supply locally from ground water. Houston relied upon wells until its population exceeded 

half a million and then had to add a supplemental surface supply from Lake Houston. Local 

sources now provide less than 5 percent of New 

York City's supply, which comes chiefly from 

the Croton, Catskill, and Delaware systems of 

reservoirs as much as 200 kilometers (about 

125 miles) from the city. In California the cities 

of San Francisco, Oakland, and Los Angeles 

have long pipelines to the Sierra Nevada for 

municipal water supply. Los Angeles and San 

Diego also import water from the distant Colorado River. Other large cities rely on streams 

and impoundments that are less distant but 

nevertheless beyond their incorporated areas. 

Municipal systems meet the water requirements of most commercial and industrial establishments and of the great majority of the 

people in urban regions. The aggregate withdrawal by these systems, however, is less than 

one-fifth of the amount withdrawn n2'tionally 

by "self-supplied" industries. Most of these 

large industrial users are also in urban areas 

and may be in competition with municipal systems for the available water resources. 

Municipal and industrial uses of water are 

chiefly nonconsumptive. Thus large qrantities 

of water can be withdrawn from a river and 

·quickly returned, with little loss in volume and 

therefore negligible depletion of the flow. However, the used water brings to the ri"Ter dissolved chemicals, organisms, floating debris, 

sediment, gases, or heat, which are all pollutants that may be detrimental to other water 

users downstream. 

EFFECTS OF LAND OCCUPANCY 

Buildings, streets, sidewalks, parking lots, 

and other structures provide an impervious cover on the land surface and thus preve.nt infiltration into the soil and recharge of gro·tnd water. The water from storms is diverted instead 

into storm sewers. Years ago, when Frooklyn 

was troubled by sea water encroachment into 

some of its wells, part of the cause was the reduction of recharge caused by the buildings and 

pavements that covered about half of the total 

land surface of the borough (Lusczynsk~. 1952). 

This urban sprawl, with its quota of impervious cover, commonly extends across natural 

valleys which, although not occupied b:T a perennial stream, would carry storm ruroff into 

stream channels. The natural drainage may be 

replaced by storm sewers. For example, the suburbanized drainage basin of Rock Cree'4-. tributary to the Potomac River in the Washington 

metropolitan area, had 102 km of natural flowing stream channels in 1913, but only 4F km can 

be found above ground today (U.S. DeiJartment 

of Interior, 1968). 

Storm runoff is substantially modified by 

the impervious cover and the storm sewers that 

are introduced by urbanization. Lag time, the 

time from the peak of rainfall to the peak of 

runoff, is decreased by the impermeable surfaces and by storm sewers. Leopold (1968) used 

data from studies of the effects of urbanization 

in various parts of the United States arfi stated 

that for unsewered areas the differe:"lces between 0 and 100 percent impervious cover will 

increase peak discharge on the average 2.5 

D3 
times. For areas that are 100 percent sewered, 

peak discharge will be about 70 percent greater 

than the mean annual flood for unsewered areas 

under conditions of no impervious cover and 

about eight times greater under conditions of 

100-percent impervious cover. 

By modifying infiltration rates and storm 

runoff, urbanization reduces the ground-water 

recharge and also causes adjustment in the 

stream channels to accommodate the flows. As 

channels are enlarged by the increased number 

aud volume of floods, they frequently develop 

unstable and unvegetated banks and scoured or 

muddy beds. The low flows may be less than 

under natural conditions because of reductions 

in ground-wat~r recharge. 

A significant percentage of the Nation's population and tangible property is concentrated on 

flood-prone areas. A recent survey shows that 

in New York State 260, or 79 percent of the 330 

communities having populations greater than 

2,500 have problems of local flooding or drainage. Much urban growth in the United States is 

by encroachment upon the flood plains, which 

are the river's natural freeways for discharge 

of exceptional floodwaters. Flood damages are 

a direct consequence of flood-plain infringement, both private and public. 

In the United States flood damage in 1967 

totaled $1.7 billion; practically all this damage 

was in urban and suburban areas. Perhaps more 

significant than the dollar value is the fact 

that, according to the [U.S.] Water Resources 

Council (1968) flood damage will continue to 

increase even while we continue our floodcontrol programs and protective measures. Despite past history and future projects, there is 

continuing pressure to develop flood plains and 

other lands subject to water and flood hazards. 

Evidence that natural catastrophes can be 

aggravated by land development has recently 

been provided by southern California. Damage 

from the catastrophic floods of January and 

February 1969 was intensified by the urban 

sprawl (Rantz, 1970). Although record-breaking rainfall was the prime cause of flooding, 

peak discharges were increased and mud flows 

were accelerated by the excess water in areas 

where natural plant cover was destroyed and 

where slopes were undercut by erosion or grading; such areas include many of the more desirable and expensive real estate developments. 

D4 

EFFECTS OF SURFACE REVI~IONS 

Preparation of land for use commonly involves clearing, grading or levelin.~, digging for 

foundations, and perhaps landscz.ping. During 

these activities, as Wolman (196-1) points out, 

Because construction denudes the nat,,rnl cover and 

exposes the soil beneath, the tonnage of sediment derived by erosion from an acre of ground under construction in developments and highways mav exceed 20,000 

to 40,000 times the amount eroded from farms and 

woodlands in an equivalent period of t:me. 

In-Fairfax County, Va., 197 acres undergoing 

high way construction over a 3-yer.r period contributed 37,000 tons of sediment to the local 

stream (Vice and others, 1969). The highway 

construction was limited to 11 p~rcent of the 

Scott Run basin, but the sediment contributed 

by this area was 94 percent of t~e total sediment yield during the 3-year period. 'In Montgomery County, Md., more than 4,500 tons of 

soil was eroded during construction of 89 

houses on a 20-acre site during a 5-year period. 

Construction activities commonly cover very 

small proportions of most urban areas at any 

one time, and as a rule the rate of sediment 

yield decreases with increasing drainage area. 

Nevertheless, Anderson and McCdl ( 1968) report a positive correlation betwe~~n urban development and sediment throughout New J ersey. In the urbanized northeastern part of the 

State, sediment yield is three to five times 

greater than in the rural and fo:':'ested northwestern part. Sediment yield in tl~~ vicinity of 

Trenton and in the urban area adjacent to New 

York City is many times greater than in rural 

areas. Also, the increasing average turbidity of 

the Passaic River, in 1965 more than twice as 

great as in 1954, reflects increasing urbanization. 

During excavations some materials can maintain stable walls until the constru~tion is completed. Others remain stable as loll g as they remain dry, but water from rain, o~~erland flow, 

or shallow ground water may lubricate clayey 

elements enough to cause sliding or caving. 

The instability of walls or steep slopes composed in part of materials that can be lubricated 

by water has its natural counterpart in areas of 

landslides or potential landslides. In several 

places natural landslide areas have been subjected to urban development. Inda.ed, some of 

the earliest records concerning landslides are of 
those which occurred within the city of Bath, 

England, in 1790 and again in the extremely 

wet year 1799. William "Strata" Smith, called 

the father of geology in England, achieved considerable fame for his remedial work, which included tunneling into the hillside to intercept 

ground water. Thorough drainage of the landslide area and development of public gardens 

has prevented further sliding. Although the 

land slopes are generally in the range of 12 to 

15 degrees, they remain stable as long as they 

are adequately drained and not overloaded (Kellaway and Taylor, 1968). 

Some materials, though unstable when wet, 

may nevertheless be included in urban development and do not reveal their hazardous character until some triggering geologic event, such 

as the earthquake at Anchorage on March 27, 

1964, where the principnl damage was from 

landslides, ground fracturing, lurching, and 

shaking. In its recovery from the effects of 

that earthquake and in future land development 

for human needs, the Borough of Anchorage is 

insuring that the planning is b2sed on understanding of the geologic and hydrologic environment (Dobrovolny and Schmoll, 1968). 

Many excavations penetrate below the water 

table, and water is pumped out to permit continuation of activities. As has been seen in 

many areas of intensive pumping and groundwater depletion, the dewatering of some sediments is accompanied by compaction, resulting 

in subsidence of the land surface. In the Santa 

Clara Valley in California, the land since 1934 

has subsided more than 3 feet in an area of 

more than 100 square miles and up to 8 feet 

in places because of ground-water withdrawal. Damage to wells has exceeded $2 million; the cost of levees to prevent flooding from 

San Francisco Bay has been about $6 million. 

A common type of excavation near urban 

areas is for the purpose of obtaining construction materials, whether rock, gravel, sand, or 

clay. If these excavations penetrate below the 

water table, water will accumulate to form a 

pool or pond after the extraction has ceased, 

and the landowner may be accused by neighbors 

of maintaining a nuisance--an "attractive 

nuisance" that lures children to play, wade, and 

swim dangerously. 

Abandoned quarries, pits, strip mines, and 

spoil banks are among the less desirable land 

areas for urban development, along with such 

natural features as steep hills, narrow ravines, 

and undrained depressions. Adjacency to an urban area may induce the owners to make wholesale rearrangement of these surfaces because 

of the higher land value that may be anticipated. This rearrangement involves cutting into 

natural materials at various places and filling 

at others, with problems of stabilization comparable to and perhaps more difficult than those 

in highway construction. Some of the problems 

will be caused by water because of inter1·uptions 

or modifications of the natural flow systemchanges in rates of infiltration and overland 

runoff and changes from the natural erainage 

and ground-water movement. 

Some revisions of the land surface involve 

development of artificial lakes to enhcnce the 

quality of the urban environment and the values of land in the vicinity. These lal~es may 

range from a waterhole on a golf course: to a lagoon in a city park to a lake for boating, fishing, and other recreation in a suburban area. 

As many people have learned after tl''W construct swimming pools on their property, these 

water bodies are a resource if they are properly 

managed; otherwise, they become neisances. 

Artificial lakes become part of the hydrologic 

flow system and as such are vulnerable to flooding, sedimentation, accumulation of flo2 ting debris, fertilizers and other chemicals washed 

from adjacent lands, septic wastes or other dissolved solids contributed by ground water, and 

growth of algae or other undesirable orrranisms. 

THE PROBLEM OF WASTES 

Each individual must dispose of some: wastes, 

whether by individual or communitr effort. 

The average per capita daily waste lo2d of organic materials from food resources is about 

100 grams (a quarter of a pound) in sev•age and 

400 grams in garbage. To this basic lo~d must 

be added the waste products of minerals, wood, 

fiber, and other natural resources after use. 

This load varies widely from one indiYidual to 

another because it increases with in~reasing 

affluence and capability to depreciate the "old" 

and purchase the "new." A further lor.d is the 

byproducts of the materials and energy used in 

developing, processing, and maintaining the desired products of our natural resources. Inexorably, the total volume of waste products inD5 
creases with increasing population and economic growth. These wastes are portions of our 

natural resources that are considered to have 

no current value. Nevertheless they are among 

the products, perhaps the grossest products, of 

our gross national product. 

For disposal of his wastes primitive man had 

the alternatives of burning them, resulting in 

smoke to be dissipated by the atmosphere and 

ashes to remain on the ground; placing them 

underground or on land and perhaps covering 

them, where they might decompose, remain unchanged, or be added to soil or ground water; 

or discharging them into stream, lake, or ocean, 

where liquid and dissolved materials would be 

mixed with other water and solids would float 

or sink to the bottom. Modern man has developed only one other alternative; currently he 

has more than 1,100 individual items circling 

the globe as satellites. With increasing population, land for disposal of wastes of air and water for dilution are becoming progressively less; 

moreover, we have more wastes per capita to 

dispose of. Because of the concentrations of 

people, economic production, and wastes for disposal, the problem is most critical in urban 

areas. 

Here we are concerned with water as a resource in which wastes, whether dissolved, 

floating, or suspended, have nuisance value and 

often are of sufficient concentration that the 

water itself is deemed a nuisance. However, water pollution is only one aspect of the overall 

problem of disposal of urban wastes. As the 

campaigns for clean water, clean air, and better 

environmental quality coalesce, the common objective must be to develop technologies for conversion of unwanted materials to wanted materials wherever possible and to dispose of the 

rest in a form and place in which they will be 

least detrimental to mankind. 

In the early stages of change from rural to 

urban conditions, septic tanks are usually the 

principal means of disposal of domestic wastes 

and continue to operate and increase in number 

until the suburbanites are numerous enough to 

finance sewerage systems or until the density 

of septic tanks is so great that serious pollution 

problems develop. Sparse data indicate that effluent from septic tanks is cleansed of pathogenic bacteria in unsaturated soil at a rate and 

effectiveness that depend upon the type of soil. 

D6 

However, even proper spacing to n1inimize bacterial pollution does not prevent pollution by 

dissolved inorganic materials, which may become nutrients to algae and other organisms. A 

prime example of widespread pollution of shallow ground water is provided by Long Island, 

N.Y. Septic tank effluents from more than half 

a million homes have contaminate(' the shallow 

aquifer over much of the island. Cc~centrations 

as high as 32 mg/1 (milligrams per liter) of 

synthetic detergents ( alkylbenzene~ulfonate, or 

ABS) have been detected (Perlmutter and others, 1964) along with increased c<Jncentrations 

of chloride, nitrates, sulfates, and phosphates. 

The disposal of solid wastes, whe+her by sanitary landfill or unsanitary dump, may also 

cause pollution of ground water b~r infiltration 

of rain, snowmelt, or overland flow and leaching 

of soluble organic or inorganic materials. This 

is true particularly if the dump is in an abandoned pit or other depression wh~re some of 

the waste may be saturated by ground water. 

Landfills in valley floors may cor'tribute pollutants to streams in time of floods. Few studies 

have been made of this problem. Obviously, the 

kind of pollution will depend upon the composition of the refuse and the conditionr of disposal. 

Organic matter such as garbage, decomposing 

under anaerobic conditions, produc~s methane, 

carbon dioxide, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide. The carbon dioxide combines readily with 

the water to form carbonic acid, which in turn 

increases the power of the water to dissolve 

mineral matter from the refuse arq from soil 

or rock minerals. Objectionable amo•1nts of iron, 

excessive hardness, and other undE:~irable constituents may be present in the leaching water. 

In leachant water high biochemical oxygen demand has also been measured, indicating high 

bacterial concentrations in the landfi lis. 

Industrial wastes have contamin2 ted groundwater reservoirs seriously enough in some 

places to reduce their suitability for use. An 

example is the Baltimore Harbor area in Maryland, which a century ago had many flowing 

artesian wel1s. A shallow aquifer has become 

contaminated by sulfuric acid and copper sulfate from acid and metal-refining plants. The 

acid water has corroded the casings of many 

wells, leaked through them into a C'o.eper aquifer, and also contaminated it locally. Heavy 

pumping encouraged contaminatior also from 
brackish water 1n the harbor. Because of the 

high cost of maintaining wells in the corrosive 

shallow zone and 'the deteriorated quality of 

some of the water, the pumpage from wells was 

reduced by half between 1940 and 1955 (Otton 

and others, 1964). Fortunately, the Baltimore 

municipal supply was adequate and available 

as a replacement. 

Many urban areas are served by sanitary 

sewer systems and sewage treatment plants 

which were adequate at the time they were 

built for the needs of the service areas and a 

reasonable expansion of population. Commonly 

this system was combined with the storm-sewer system. The combined system theoretically 

works out well to the extent that flushing 

the streets carries the wastes through the 

treatment plant, although there must be facilities for bypassing the treatment plant during 

periods of excessive storm runoff. Unfortunately, some of the sanitary sewage then also 

bypasses treatment. It became evident to many 

people that adequate pollution control would require separation of the sanitary-sewer system 

from the storm-sewer system. Further study 

has brought second thoughts: first, recognition that such separation in many cities at this 

time would be exceedingly disruptive and costly; second, realization that the storm sewers 

would not carry pristine waters, but rather all 

the crud that had been washed from the atmosphere, roofs, pavements, and streets of the 

area served. Many analyses of runoff from 

storm sewers in Seattle, Wash. (Sylvester, 

1960), showed that the water sometimes contained excessive numbers of coliform bacteria 

and had other characteristics of pollution. 

A proposed solution to the problem of storm 

runoff is impoundment of excess water during 

flood runoff, with subsequent release according 

to the capacity of treatment facilities. Because 

urban land is at premium prices, cities are beginning to look for space underground. Currently there are two proposals for the Chicago area: 

one, by the sanitary district, would provide a 

network of tunnels in the Galena and Platteville Formations, about 200 meters below the 

surface; another, by the city, would place tunnels in the Niagara Dolomite, less than 100 

meters below the surface, and line the tunnels 

adequately to seal them from usable groundwater reservoirs. The water and wastes ternporarily stored in these tunnels would be 

pumped out and treated and then discharged 

into streams. 

Subsurface disposal of industrial wastes by 

means of deep wells is undertaken in several 

places, especially in Texas, Louisiana, and Michigan, but also in some other States. If these 

wastes are toxic, radioactive, or otheryrise noxious, safe disposal requires permanent isolation 

from all usable water resources. Witblut adequate studies of all the geologic, engineering, 

and chemical parameters at each project, and 

constant monitoring of the effects of the disposal, underground disposal can caus~ serious 

problems. What is considered to be a safe disposal site today may be a scene of expl0itive activity in the future. 

SUMMARY 

Water, a resource available for the. use and 

enjoyment of mankind, is subject to natural 

variations both in quantity and quality from 

time to time and from place to place. Consumptive uses reduce the quantity and nonconsumptive uses may impair the quality of water 

available for use by others; therefore, various 

laws and customs define and protect tl' ~ respective rights of individuals in water use. Althoagh 

water rights are protected as proper~y rights, 

there is increasing recognition of the rights of 

the public in the water resource and tr~ responsibilities of water users for maintenall ce of satisfactory quality. 

Many urban activities are concerned with development and use of the land and its resources 

other than water; these activities affect the 

natural water flow system and are affected by 

it. The development and use of water n1ay create nuisances if they adversely affect the use 

of the land and solid-earth resource~ and invade recognized property rights. CKlnversely, 

the development and use of the land resources 

may have effects on water that interfere with 

the rights of others and thus cause nuisances. 

Here too there is increasing recognition of human rights to an environment suitable for living, and adverse activities are not to be condoned merely because of widespread practice 

and acceptance in the past. 

In urbanized areas, water as a re2euree beC()mes increasingly inadequate to me.~t the reD7 
quirements of the concentrated population and 

industry; it must be imported from other areas, 

along with food, fuel, and other materials essential for urban existence. Waters used nonconsumptively contribute pollutants to the natural water resources, but this is only one aspect 

of the grand problem of waste disposal in urban 

areas, whether on the land, in the ground, in 

the air, in lakes or streams, or in the sea. Generally in urban areas the responsibilities for 

water supply and for disposal of "used" water 

have become public responsibilities. 

Urbanization causes some drastic changes in 

the natural hydrologic system. Buildings and 

pavements inhibit ground-water recharge and 

promote rapid runoff from storms. Increased 

flood peaks cause erosion and sediment transport, as do various construction activities. Vulnerability to floods is increased by urban encroachment upon floodplains. In these and many 

other ways water causes inconvenience or annoyance to urban life and damage to property 

and thus constitutes a nuisance. However, the 

natural environment has been modified so 

thoroughly that placing responsibility for specific nuisances is difficult. 

Urbanization also changes the hydrology of 

an area profoundly-notably in total runoff, 

in peak flow characteristics, in the quality of 

water, and in the appearance .of lakes, stream 

valleys, and other features. To predict, ameliorate, or otherwise cope with these changes, 

there is urgent need for additional research in 

urban hydrology and for adequate data to document these changes. 

Water can no longer be taken for granted as 

a readily available urban commodity that can 

be had at the turn of a faucet. One must give 

thought to the questions being asked by planners and others who will be responsible for the 

future of our cities. Today, planners are asking 

questions that require a new look at water problems in cities and suburbs. They are rapidly be .. 

coming aware that decisions for today based 

upon expediency may result in problems for to .. 

morrow that may be costly or even impossible 

to solve. 

The situation, however, is not entirely bleak. 

Even today there is a wealth of information 

on our water resources that can be applied to 

immediate planning problems. But this is not 

enough for the future. We need a new look at 

DS 

urban water problems and this r~w look must 

be an overall look. Our urban water problem, 

serious as it is today, is not a separate problem. 

It is indeed part of our ever-growing national 

water problem. In this day of competing uses 

for water, our agriculture, our industry, and 

we of the general public all strive to meet our 

individual needs. The urban water problem can 

be solved, but only if a complete understanding 

of the role of water in the urban e'lvironmentand indeed in the overall water pic.ture-is realized. Such understanding can be achieved 

through the proper interpretation of adequate 

data; when we have the understanding, we can 

make sound decisions. 

REFERENCES 

Anderson, P. W., and McCall, J. E., 1968, Urbanization's 

effect on sediment yield in New Jersey: Jour. Soil 

and Water Conserv., v. 23, p. 142-144. 

Dobrovolny, Ernest, and Schmoll, H. R., 1968, Geology 

as applied to urban planning: Interrat. Geol. Cong., 

23d, Prague, 1968, Proc., v. 12, p. 39-56. 

Durfor, C. N., and Becker, Edith, 1964, Public water 

supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United 

States: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 

1812, 364 p. 

Kellaway, G. A., and Taylor, J. H., 196r .. The infiuP.nce 

of landslipping on the development of the city of 

Bath, England: Internat. Geo. Conf'., 23d, Prague, 

1968, Proc., v. 12, p. 65-76. 

Leopold, L. B., 1968, Hydrology for urban land planning 

-a guide book on the hydrologic e~ects of urban 

land use: U.S. Geol. Survey Circular 554, 18 p. 

Lusczynski, N. J., 1952. The recovery of ground water 

levels in Brooklyn, N.Y., from 1947 to 1950: U.S. 

Geol. Survey Circular 167, 29 p. 

Otton, E. G., Martin, R. 0. R., and Durut"', W. H., 1964, 

Water resources of the Baltimore area, Maryland: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1499-F, 

105 p. 

Perlmutter, N. M., Lieber, Maxim, ard Frauenthal, 

H. L., 1964, Contamination of grcnnd water by 

detergent in a suburban enviroment--South Farmingdale area, Long Island, New Yor~~ in Geological 

Survey research 1964. U.S. Geol. Survey. Prof. 

Paper 501-C, p. C170-C175. 

Piper, A. M., 1965, Has the United States enough water?: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1797, 

27 p. (1966]. 

Rantz, S. E., 1970, Urban sprawl and flooding in south-

~rn California: U.S. Geol. Survey Circular 601-B, 

12 p. (In press.) 

Sylvester, R. 0., 1960, An engineering and ecological 

study for the rehabilitation of Greer Lake: Washington University, Seattle. 
U.S. Department of Interior, 1968, The Nation's river: 

A report on the Potomac: Washington, D.C., 128 p. 

[U.S.] Water Resources Council, 1968, The Nation's 

water resources; the first national assessment: 

Washington, U.S. Govt. Printing Office. 

Vice, R. B., Guy, H. P., and Ferguson, G. E., 1969, Sediment movement in an area of suburban highway 

construction, Scott Run basin, Fairfax County, 

Virginia, 1961-64: U.S. Geol. Survey Wate.r-Supply 

Paper 1591-E, 41 p. 

Wolman, M. G., 1964, Problems posed by cono;otruction 

activities in Maryland: Report to the I"aryland 

Pollution Control Commission, Annapolis, Md. 

'fir U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1972 0-468-018 

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