Photo courtesty of PARC

United States

Environmental

Protection Agency

Wetlands are important elements of a watershed because they serve as the

vital link between land and water resources. Wetlands play an integral role in the

ecology of a watershed. Their shallow waters, nutrients, and primary

productivity are ideal for organisms that form the base of the food web upon

which many species of wildlife depend. Wetland habitat provides the necessary

food, water and shelter for mammals and migrating birds. Other animals, such

as amphibians and reptiles, collectively known as herpetofauna, or “herps,”

depend on wetlands for all or part of their life cycle, meaning that their survival

is directly linked to the presence and condition of wetlands.

Amphibians and Reptiles

Depend on Wetlands

W

etlands serve as critical habitat for

 many species of amphibians and

reptiles. Most amphibians lay gelatinous eggs

under water, while others, like certain

salamanders, lay their eggs on moist land. After

the eggs hatch, the baby amphibians enter an

aquatic larval stage, which can last from several

days to many months. Once the aquatic stage is

completed, the amphibians leave the water and

enter the terrestrial adult stage of life. Wetlands

serve as breeding sites, as a habitat for larval

development and as a primary food source for

adults. Insects, spiders, snails, worms and

small fish are all prey for certain amphibians.

Why are

ephemeral

wetlands

important?

Vernal pools, one

type of ephemeral

wetland, are of

critical importance

to amphibian

populations. As

small, often

isolated wetlands,

vernal pools are

only wet for a

portion of the

year. Periodic

drying creates a

fish-free

environment for

amphibians, many

of which have

adapted rapid egg

and larval stages

as a race against

the dry season.

The absence of fish

predators in

vernal pools

benefits

amphibian

populations. Garter Snake (Thamnophis elegans) - When disturbed, garter snakes will release

an unpleasant smelling musk from glands located at the base of their tail.

Amphibians and reptiles depend upon a variety

of wetland types. These may include marshes,

swamps, bogs and fens (and their associated

subclasses). Some wetlands are only wet a

portion of the year and are considered

“ephemeral” wetlands. These wetlands provide

important habitat and breeding grounds (see

side bar).

There are often strong ecological connections

among wetlands in a landscape. Although some

may be permanent and others ephemeral,

amphibian populations can depend on multiple

wetlands within a given area. To protect these

species over the long term, the variety and

density of suitable habitat sites within the

landscape must be preserved, along with

terrestrial corridors that connect the wetlands.

For many reptiles,

wetlands also serve

as primary habitat,

supplying them with

an ample source of

food and habitat for

breeding and

nursing. Specially

adapted reptiles that

are able swimmers

are likely to be

found in wetlands.

Some of these

include the common

snapping turtle,

spotted turtle,

northern water

snake, cottonmouth

snake, diamondback

water snake and

garter snakes.
Wetland Habitat Loss

Over 220 million acres of wetlands are thought to have existed in the lower 48 states prior to 1700.

Since then, extensive losses have occurred, and over half of our original wetlands have been drained

and converted to other uses. Though the rate of loss has decreased in recent decades, wetlands and

other aquatic resources are still threatened by activities such as ditching, draining, dredging and

stream channelization; deposition of fill material for commercial and residential development,

dikes, levees and dams; crop production, logging and mining. Since many amphibian species need

both aquatic and terrestrial habitat, it is very important to preserve wetlands and a buffer strip of

adequate upland habitat.

Chemical Pollution

Due to their amphibious lifestyles, herpetofauna are very sensitive to changes in the water and

surrounding land. Many synthetic organic compounds and metals adversely affect amphibians and

reptiles. Sublethal effects of chemical pollutants can impair a herp’s ability to swim, catch food and

reproduce successfully. Amphibians are particularly sensitive to chemical contaminants owing to

their permeable eggs and skin. A recent study by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) showed that

“organophosphorus pesticides from agricultural areas, which are transported to the Sierra Nevada on

prevailing summer winds, may be affecting populations of amphibians that breed in mountain ponds

and streams.” The scientists estimate that

In order to maintain healthy amphibian and

reptile populations, wetland habitat must be

protected. A watershed contains multiple

habitats, all of which are affected by changes

in hydrology, land use and water quality.

Since no habitat is isolated from its

surroundings, protection of herps must take

place at both the large-scale watershed level

and at the smaller scale of individual

wetlands.

Population declines and disappearances of

amphibians and reptiles leading to widespread

scientific and public concern have been well

documented. The causes for their decline,

while not fully understood, appear to be

complex and numerous.

Threats to Herps and Wetlands

The American toad (Bufo americanus) is one of the most commonly heard

frog or toad species in the United States. The male toad’s call is a long,

uninterrupted 15-20 second trill that can be heard over a long distance.

Photo by Jay Osenkowski

47 of the 60

reptile

species found

in Illinois

rely upon

wetlands

Marbled Salamander (Abystoma opacum) -

Courtship begins when the male nudges the

female with his snout.

Why are

amphibians so

vulnerable?

Some amphibians

breathe through their

porous skin, which

makes them extremely

vulnerable to pollution

in the soil, air, and

water. You can think of

amphibians as sponges

that soak up their

surrounding

environment. This is

why you shouldn’t try to

catch frogs if you have

insect repellent on- the

toxic repellent will seep

into their skin and harm

them.

damage could be even worse for those species

more closely associated with water.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) have

been of great concern in the amphibian and

reptile community. Studies have shown that

chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

build up in turtle eggs, reduce eggshell

thickness and cause reproductive failure. Other

studies have shown reduced male organ size

among reptiles, which results in difficult sex

recognition and the subsequent lack of

reproduction. Both amphibians and reptiles are

very susceptible to the dangers of EDCs.

Photo by Alan Savitsky
Nutrient Loading

The indirect effects of excess nutrients can be

very detrimental to amphibians. Nutrients

such as nitrogen and phosphorous can cause

dominance of algae, which is not conducive to

laying eggs. Excess nutrients can also reduce

the amount of oxygen available in the water for

amphibian tadpoles and alter the composition

and numbers of the invertebrate communities

that are food for the juveniles. In Texas, playa

wetlands receiving nutrient-laden feedlot

effluent were devoid of amphibians found in

natural wetlands. In this case, experiments

indicated that the nutrient concentrated effluent

had to be reduced to less than 3% of its

original strength in order to minimize adverse

effects.

Global climate change may threaten aquatic and

semiaquatic life by reducing wetland acreage due to

frequency and severity of storms and sea level rise.

Latitudinal shifts in temperature and precipitation

patterns also threaten herps.

Ozone depletion causes an increase in the amount of

Ultraviolet radiation that reaches the earth’s surface and

waters. Research has shown that UV-B radiation has

adverse effects on some amphibians. The Montreal

Protocol has reduced emissions of ozone-depleting

chemicals.

Invasive species pose a constant threat to native herps.

Invasive plants and animals can alter the ecological

community that is relied upon by native reptiles and

amphibians. Invasive herpetofauna can also directly

damage native populations. In many parts of the U.S.,

invading bullfrogs are preying on and often eliminating

other amphibians, as well as impacting some reptiles and

fish.

Disease and Parasites significantly contribute to

declining amphibian and reptile populations. To help

prevent the spread of disease and parasites, follow

careful washing procedures when traveling between

wetlands.

American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) - Once hunted intensively for their

hides, today poaching and the loss of habitat to human development are the

greatest threats faced by American crocodiles.

Photo by Mark Bright

Additional Threats

On the whole, it is difficult to document

reptile population trends. Many species

have secretive natures, which, when

combined with large home ranges, low

population densities and a rarity of

congregational behavior, may result in a

severe population decline without being

noticed by people.

Eastern Gray Treefrog (Hyla versicolor) - Its call is a

resonant, flutelike trill similiar to the call of the

red-bellied woodpecker. Depending upon its

environment, this treefrog can range in color from

bright green to gray. They breed in permanent to

semi-permanent wetlands.

Photo by Melinda Knutson

Some turtles, such as the

diamondback terrapin, are

endangered owing to commercial

harvesting, stemming primarily from

the food industry.

The pet trade also endangers many

reptiles, such as the box turtle.
Conservation efforts for amphibians and reptiles come in many different

forms. Like other wildlife conservation efforts, the first step is to identify

and monitor existing populations. The USGS has a volunteer monitoring

program where participants learn to identify local frog calls and submit

observational data at different times of the year.

Fortunately, laws are being passed in some States to protect herpetofauna.

New Jersey adopted special protections for vernal pools to ensure

sufficient regulatory review. California enforces laws to prevent people

from taking native reptiles and amphibians without a license, except

common herp species. The laws also forbid the sale of herpetofauna for

human consumption. Various bird and wetland initiatives have positive

impacts on herps as well.

The North American Wetlands Conservation Act (NAWCA), a habitatoriented program led by the U.S. Fish and Wildlfe Service, has been

particularly helpful to amphibians and reptiles, as waterfowl and herpetofauna often share the same habitat. The conservation programs within

the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Farm Bill program also help to

preserve or restore habitat for herpetofauna.

Conservation Efforts for Amphibians and Reptiles

On the Internet

Partners for Amphibian and Reptile Conservation ..........................................................www.parcplace.org

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ...........................................................www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands

U.S. Geological Society ........................................................................................ www.usgs.gov/amphibians

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ................................................................................... www.wetlands.fws.gov

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service ......................................www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/wrp

You can help to save amphibian and reptile diversity in many different

ways. On a larger scale, working to protect your watershed is the first

step to ensuring clean water and healthy habitat for herps. You should:

• Prevent soil erosion by seeding for grass or planting shrubs;

• Avoid dumping chemicals down drains;

• Maintain vegetative buffer strips between your land and any surface

waterbody; and

• Avoid releasing or transporting exotic plant or animal species into

the environment.

Protecting surface water and wetlands is important to promoting herp

diversity. Identfying, monitoring and restoring local wetlands are great

ways to educate yourself and your community about the important

functions and values of wetlands. Supporting public and private

organizations involved in habitat protection is another way to help.

Further information can be found at http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/

vital/protection.

How Can You Help?

EPA 843-F-03-015

Office of Water

The chicken turtle (Deirochelys reticularia) is found

in the southeastern United States from southeast

Virginia to east Texas. Their preferred habitat

includes quiet bodies of water such as ponds,

swamps, and marshes. Although an aquatic

species, it readily wanders and is often found out

of water. They are mainly carnivorous, and their

diet includes tadpoles and crayfish.

Partners in Amphibian and Reptile

Conservation (PARC) is the largest

herpetological conservation partnership in the

nation. They are a habitat-focused partnership

involving State agencies, Federal agencies, the

private sector, conservation organizations, and

the academic community. The partnership is

dedicated to

protecting endangered

reptile and amphibian

species and keeping

common native

species common.

Their website

(www.parcplace.org)

contains educational

materials on the

conservation of amphibians and reptiles along

with an extensive list of weblinks.

PARC - Partners in Amphibian and

Reptile Conservation

Photo courtesty of PARC