U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Reclamation 

Denver, Colorado September 2009 

Creating More Meaningful Visitor 

Experiences: Planning for 

Interpretation and Education
Mission Statements 

The mission of the Department of the Interior is to protect and 

provide access to our Nation’s natural and cultural heritage and 

honor our trust responsibilities to Indian Tribes and our 

commitments to island communities. 

The mission of the Bureau of Reclamation is to manage, develop, 

and protect water and related resources in an environmentally and 

economically sound manner in the interest of the American public. 
U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Reclamation 

Denver, Colorado September 2009 

Creating More Meaningful Visitor 

Experiences: Planning for 

Interpretation and Education 

Prepared for the Bureau of Reclamation by 

Dr. Marcella D. Wells 

Wells Resources, Inc. 

under Order No. 07PG810287 

In cooperation with 

Mr. Vernon Lovejoy and Mr. Darrell Welch 

United States Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Reclamation 

Handbook Citation: Wells, M.D., V. Lovejoy, and D. Welch. August 2009. Creating More Meaningful Visitor 

Experiences: Planning for Interpretation and Education. United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of 

Reclamation, Policy and Program Services, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado.

Acronyms and Abbreviations 

ADA Americans with Disabilities Act 

BLM Bureau of Land Management 

I/E interpretation and education 

NPS National Park Service 

Reclamation Bureau of Reclamation 

USFS U.S. Forest Service 

VI Visual Identity 

WROS Water Recreation Opportunity Spectrum 

Contents 

Page 

Chapter 1 – Introduction.......................................................................................1 

1.1 Purpose of This Handbook..............................................................................1

1.2 Why Interpretation and Education Planning is Important ..............................1

1.3 Who Should Use This Handbook?..................................................................2

Chapter 2 – Planning Context and Concepts ......................................................3 

2.1 Planning Context.............................................................................................3

2.2 Terms and Definitions.....................................................................................3

2.2.1 Interpretation...................................................................................... 4 

2.2.2 Interpretation and Education.............................................................. 5 

2.2.3 Interpretation and Education Planning............................................... 5 

2.2.4 Area.................................................................................................... 6 

2.2.5 Visitor ................................................................................................ 6 

2.2.6 Deliverable......................................................................................... 6 

2.3 A Process for Interpretation and Education Planning.....................................6

2.4 Scope and Scale of Planning...........................................................................7

2.5 Alignment of Planning....................................................................................9

2.6 Levels of Planning ........................................................................................10

2.7 How to Think About Your I/E Plan..............................................................11

2.8 Collaboration and the Role of the Vision Keeper.........................................12

Chapter 3 – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan......................15 

3.1 Situation ........................................................................................................16

3.2 Purpose and Goals.........................................................................................17

3.3 Inventory and Analysis .................................................................................20

3.3.1 Supply Inventory.............................................................................. 21 

3.3.1.1 Resource Inventory ........................................................... 21 

3.3.1.2 Resource Analysis (So What?) ......................................... 23 

3.3.1.3 Interpretation and Education Inventory ............................ 24 

3.3.1.4 Interpretation Analysis (So What?) .................................. 25 

3.3.1.5 Resource Issues Inventory ................................................ 25 

3.3.1.6 Resource Issue Analysis (So What?) ................................ 27 

3.3.2 Demand Inventory ........................................................................... 28 

3.3.2.1 Audience/Visitor Inventory .............................................. 28 

3.3.2.2 Visitor Analysis (So What?) ............................................. 30 

3.4 I/E Options....................................................................................................31

3.4.1 Overall Area Themes ....................................................................... 31 

3.4.2 Vision for the Visitor Experience .................................................... 32 

3.4.3 I/E Options Descriptions.................................................................. 35 

3.5 Action............................................................................................................38 

i 
Page 

Chapter 3 – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan (continued)

3.6 Integrating Evaluation into Planning ............................................................40

3.6.1 Purpose and Phases of Evaluation ................................................... 41 

3.6.1.1 Front-End Evaluation........................................................ 41 

3.6.1.2 Formative Evaluation........................................................ 43

3.6.1.3 Remedial Evaluation......................................................... 43 

3.6.1.4 Summative Evaluation...................................................... 44 

3.6.2 Visitor Outcomes ............................................................................. 44 

Chapter 4 – Post-Planning Considerations........................................................47

4.1 I/E Design and Development........................................................................47

4.1.1 Research and Writing....................................................................... 48 

4.1.2 Design and Layout ........................................................................... 48 

4.1.3 Design Development or Exhibit Design .......................................... 49 

4.1.4 Construction Drawings .................................................................... 49 

4.1.5 Fabrication ....................................................................................... 50 

4.1.6 Formative Evaluation....................................................................... 50 

4.1.7 Installation........................................................................................ 50 

4.2 I/E Use ..........................................................................................................50

4.2.1 Monitoring ....................................................................................... 50 

4.2.2 Maintenance, Repair, Replacement ................................................. 51 

Appendices 

Appendix 

 A Types of Interpretive Media and Programs 

 B Inventory Checklist 

 C Select I/E Planning Examples 

 D Cost Examples for Select I/E Media and Services (2007) 

 E Helpful References for I/E Planning 

ii 
1 

CHAPTER I 

Introduction 

This is a planning handbook. It is designed to help you develop a useful plan for 

creating more meaningful experiences for all visitors to a Bureau of Reclamation 

(Reclamation) project. 

Planning is important. It helps set a logical and rational course for action. We all 

plan. We do it every day. Planning an evening with dinner guests or an exciting 

birthday party for our children, for example, means that we take stock of the 

situation beforehand, we think about the desires and preferences of our guests, 

and we consider the time, cost, and materials needed to host a successful event. 

In planning a family vacation or planning what to wear each day, we go through 

these same steps to help us achieve our goals. In these examples, the planning 

process is almost imperceptible. It happens so quickly and so easily that we don’t 

even realize the logical, deliberate effort of planning. 

Planning for meaningful visitor experiences is a similar process—a process of 

informed and deliberate decisionmaking. Because agencies that manage natural 

resources, like Reclamation and its managing partners, are accountable to the taxpaying public, the planning process should be organized, logical, written, and 

relevant to the area for which it pertains. This document is designed to guide such 

planning efforts. 

1.1 Purpose of This Handbook 

The purpose of this handbook is to help staff in Reclamation and managing 

partners complete an appropriate yet expedient planning process for developing 

interpretation and education (I/E) products and services. 

1.2 Why Interpretation and Education Planning is 

Important 

Reclamation is the largest wholesaler of water in this country and the second 

largest producer of hydroelectric power in the Western United States, yet few 

Americans know much at all about Reclamation or its managing partners. More 

importantly, few citizens fully understand the complex and fascinating details 

about the source of their water and power and the many intriguing stories related 

to the history of water and power in the West. 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

 

Over the last century, Reclamation has hosted over 90 million annual visits to 

projects in the West (e.g., dams, canals, rivers, reservoirs) and has helped preserve 

a significant portion of the West’s cultural history. 

Reclamation and its managing partners have a tremendous opportunity to 

contribute to public understanding of power, water, dams, natural resources, 

history, cultural resources, and recreation through interpretation and education. 

As Jan Carlzon suggests,1

 each and every one of the millions of visits each year is 

an opportunity for Reclamation to connect with its visitors. Whether that 

connection is made on the Web site, at a marina, or in a visitor center, each 

connection forms an initial impression and eventually creates a perception of 

service quality. These experiences, in turn, create an appreciation for 

Reclamation, its managing partners, and the resources they manage, resulting in 

increased support among taxpayers. Planning helps focus strategic efforts on 

creating exemplary visitor experiences at Reclamation areas and those of its 

managing partners. 

1.3 Who Should Use This Handbook? 

The primary audience for this handbook is the staff of Reclamation and its 

managing partners. These users include area managers or park managers; staff 

in public affairs, marketing, cultural resources, security, recreation, and 

interpretation or education; and rangers, guides, volunteers, or others who have 

an interest in or job responsibilities for visitor experiences at Reclamation 

areas. 

Other audiences for this handbook include interpreters, educators, managers, or 

administrators responsible for or interested in planning exemplary visitor 

experiences in informal education settings such as parks and recreation areas, 

nature centers, museums, zoos, botanical gardens, and arboreta. This handbook is 

for those who want to plan I/E initiatives but may not have the resources for 

hiring a professional interpretive planner. 

2 

 1 Jan Carlzon, Chief Executive Officer of Scandinavian Airlines in 1986, coined the term 

“moment of truth” to describe the moment a customer (visitor) comes in contact with a company 

(agency) and experiences some level of quality. Positive moments of truth lead to satisfaction, 

return visits, and positive word-of-mouth publicity. Negative moments of truth lead to frustration, 

confusion, and possibly negative word-of-mouth publicity. 
CHAPTER 2 

Planning Context and Concepts 

2.1 Planning Context 

Currently, Reclamation and its managing partners oversee a total of 

289 developed recreation areas at Reclamation projects in the 17 Western 

United States. Reclamation alone manages 33 of the 289 areas. Eighty-four are 

managed by other Federal agency partners such as the National Park Service 

(NPS), U.S. Forest Service (USFS), Bureau of Land Management (BLM), or the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. An additional 159 are managed by State, county, 

or local government partners. One is managed by an American Indian Tribe, and 

the remaining areas are managed cooperatively with other partners. 

The 289 Reclamation project areas draw over 90 million visits annually that are 

served by approximately 225 concessionaires who offer a variety of outdoor 

facilities and services such as marinas, campgrounds, lodging, food service, rental 

equipment, and other amenities. Recreation opportunities are available at 

highly developed areas that contain facilities such as campgrounds, boat launch 

ramps, and swim beaches, and at dispersed areas where fewer or no facilities 

exist. 

In some circumstances, Reclamation is limited by the Federal Water Project 

Recreation Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-72) to providing only basic facilities. A 

limited number of Reclamation-managed projects have site-specific authority to 

fully plan, develop, and manage facilities and improvements. So, whereas there 

exists over 90 million possible “moments of truth” for connecting visitors to 

resources and opportunities in these areas, in some cases, there are limitations to 

planning. It is important that the planning effort recognize and honor an area’s 

authorizing legislation as part of the planning process. 

A number of documents already exist that relate to visitor experiences in areas 

managed by Reclamation and their managing partners (sidebar A). This 

handbook was prepared to complement these materials. 

2.2 Terms and Definitions 

A number of terms and concepts relevant to the ideas and processes discussed in 

this handbook are included in the following sections. 

3 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

SIDEBAR A 

Reclamation Resources Related to Interpretation, Education, and 

Visitor Experiences 

• Water Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WROS) Users’ Guidebook

(July 2004) – A framework and procedure that helps planners and managers 

make better decisions for conserving a spectrum of high quality and diverse 

water recreation opportunities. 

• Interpretive Master Planning: A Reclamation Training Course (June 2006) – 

A training manual that reviews the benefits of interpretation and describes the 

interpretive planning process using interactive exercises and examples. 

• Sign Guidelines for Planning, Designing, Fabricating, and Procuring, Installing, 

and Maintaining Signs for Outdoor Public Use Areas (October, 2006) – A Visual 

Identity program-compliant update of the 2002 guidelines. This document 

provides guidance for developing all classifications as well as procurement, 

funding, and maintenance of signs. 

• Estimating Future Recreation Demand: A Decision Guide for the Practitioner

(January 2007) – A guide to help practitioners assess recreation demand in 

their routine administration and planning. 

• Visitor Center Policy, Directive and Standard, and Guidelines (August 2007) – 

This document offers guidance related to proposing, planning, and designing 

publicly recognized education facilities or dedicated space for interpretive 

displays or programs. 

• Outdoor Recreation Business Plan Guidebook (July 2008) – This guidebook 

provides instructions on how to develop a simple but effective business plan 

with limited resources. 

2.2.1 Interpretation 

Interpretation is the art and science of connecting visitors, such as recreationists, 

tourists, guests, clients, and customers with ideas, resources, and opportunities for 

engagement and learning. At its best, interpretation is: 

• A mission-based communication process that engages visitors and helps 

them make a meaningful connection with the agency and the resources 

they manage. 

• A service that considers the needs, wants, and interests of the visitor to 

enhance visitor experiences before, during, and after their visit 

4 
Chapter II – Planning Context and Concepts 

• A management strategy that can be used to increase visitors’ appreciation 

of and sensitivity to site resources. 

Interpretation is the way organizations facilitate connections between visitors and 

resources. For example, land management agencies across the country use signs, 

exhibits, publications, tours, and other media to connect visitors with natural, 

cultural, and recreation resources. 

2.2.2 Interpretation and Education 

For the purposes of this document, the phrase interpretation and education 

(abbreviated as I/E throughout) will be used to refer to the collective set of 

informational, interpretive, and educational materials, programs, media, and 

facilities that serve to enhance the visitor experience at areas managed by 

Reclamation and its partners (see appendix A for more detailed explanation of 

various I/E media). As such, I/E planning includes planning for: 

• Visitor centers. 

• Kiosks or bulletin boards with information, education, or safety messages. 

• Publications such as educational brochures, booklets, checklists, or flyers. 

• Exhibits. 

• Interpretive signs and waysides. 

• Guided walks, talks, tours, or interpretive demonstrations and programs. 

• Orientation and way-finding information such as directional signs and maps. 

• Safety information. 

• Rules, regulations, and use policies. 

• Educational programs or activities for families, school groups, or other 

visitors. 

Therefore, I/E planning is most effective when it includes collaboration among 

area managers, resource managers, park managers, rangers, law enforcement, 

marketing, and public affairs (see section 2.8 for more on collaboration). 

2.2.3 Interpretation and Education Planning 

In this document, I/E planning refers to the deliberate process of making decisions 

about the most appropriate interpretive or educational opportunities for a 

Reclamation or managing partner area. This type of planning is sometimes 

labeled education planning or visitor experience planning. 

5 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

2.2.4 Area 

For the purpose of this document, an area will be considered any complex or site 

consisting of campgrounds, day use areas, parking areas, boat ramps, restrooms, 

road and trail systems, and/or visitor centers managed by Reclamation and its 

managing partners. This usually encompasses an entire reservoir area defined by 

an established exterior property boundary. An area may have multiple sites. The 

term “area” will be used in this document to denote a specific geographic unit for 

which an interpretive plan may be developed. 

2.2.5 Visitor 

For the purpose of this document, the term “visitor” will be used to refer to a 

person or party who may come in contact with Reclamation and/or its managing 

partners. A visitor may also be considered a customer, recreationist, guest, 

learner, user, or audience. 

2.2.6 Deliverable 

A “deliverable” describes any one of several I/E products or services that may be 

the result of an I/E planning process. Deliverables include exhibits, brochures, 

signs, waysides, kiosks, interpretive programs, and other interpretive or education 

media (see appendix A for list of additional media). 

2.3 A Process for Interpretation and Education 

Planning 

I/E planning is the process by which planners, such as educators, interpreters, 

managers, or administrators determine the most appropriate interpretive or 

educational prescriptions for their site and situation. Like other types of planning, 

I/E planning should be logical, rational, deliberate, and transparent. Most 

importantly, it should be an effort that is useful for making decisions about 

interpretive and education initiatives appropriate to an area. 

There are many ways to plan, although similar questions will likely be addressed 

in most I/E planning processes. These include questions about an area’s mission, 

history, and current situation; existing resources, facilities, and visitor demand for 

goods and services; and proposed opportunities for connecting supply and 

demand. The general types of questions addressed in an I/E planning process are 

categorized below and are discussed in more detail in chapter 3. 

6 
Chapter II – Planning Context and Concepts 

Situation – What is our current situation? What is the mission of this area? 

What is the need for I/E at this place? How can I/E support the mission and 

strategic goals of the agency and the specific area? What is the benefit of 

this area to the taxpayer and area partners or stakeholders? 

Purpose – What do we hope to accomplish in planning I/E at this area? 

What planning considerations need to be acknowledged? What specific 

goals do we have for I/E in this area? 

Inventory – What resources, facilities, and expertise do we currently have? 

What, if any, management issues are we facing? Who are our current 

audiences, and what do we know about them? Is there interest in attracting 

more, less, or different audiences? 

Analysis – What does the inventory tell us about possible options for I/E? 

How do we align what we have with the goals we have for this area? 

Options – Based on the inventory and analysis, what specific I/E options are 

best for this area? What specific recommendations are appropriate? 

Action – What specific actions are necessary to develop our I/E 

recommendations? What schedule is appropriate for implementing those 

options? What resources will be required for successful development of our 

recommendations? 

Figure 1 puts I/E planning in a broader context of overall I/E media development 

and use. The left-most box (shaded) shows how I/E planning is the initial stage of 

that broader process. This shaded box summarizes the focus of this handbook and 

will be discussed using a series of boxes and arrows throughout chapter 3. 

However, the diagram is used occasionally throughout this handbook to remind 

the reader about the broader context. The middle and right-most boxes shown are 

discussed briefly in chapter 4. 

2.4 Scope and Scale of Planning 

I/E planning can vary by scope and scale. For example, an agency-wide or 

region-wide interpretive plan might be brief and address only overarching 

principles, broader market segments, and strategic goals. Such a national or 

regional plan will be broader in scope but shallower in scale than other more 

area-specific plans (figure 2). 

On the other hand, an area- or site-specific plan will be narrower in scope and 

deeper in scale based on specific needs, goals, and audiences of that area. In most 

cases, the scope of an I/E planning effort should be commensurate with the 

anticipated public use of that area, but most of the principles and processes 

described in this handbook apply to any of these approaches. 

7 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

Situation

Purpose

Inventory 

Analysis

Options

Action

Plan

Research and Writing

Design and Layout 

Design Development

Construction Drawings 

Prototypes

Fabrication

Installation

Monitoring

Maintenance

Repair 

Replacement

Develop Use

NOTE: The “Develop” and “Use” processes shown above are accurate for nonpersonal

media such as signs, exhibits, and publications. For personal media, such as tours, 

walks, talks, and living history, these processes are abbreviated to only the relevant 

steps.

Figure 1.—I/E planning in context. 

Figure 2.—Scope and scale of planning. 

Breadth (Scope)

Depth (Scale)

National (Broad and shallow)

Regional

(Narrower and deeper 

or more focused)

Area, Project, 

or Site 

(Narrow and 

deep or 

very focused)

8 
Chapter II – Planning Context and Concepts 

2.5 Alignment of Planning 

Regardless the scope or scale, an I/E plan is only one type of planning an 

organization might pursue in an effort to achieve its mission. To ensure that the 

I/E planning effort is complementary to other organizational or area plans, 

planners should align the I/E plan with other planning efforts of that agency. In 

their book Secrets of Institution Planning, Merritt and Garvin (2008) provide 

some very useful guidance for synchronizing or aligning planning within an 

organization. Sidebar B outlines the diversity of choices for institutional 

planning. Not all organizations will pursue all of these plans, but this outline 

demonstrates the importance of defining and coordinating agency planning efforts 

and the importance of collaborating within an agency on planning efforts. 

Consider how plans for your area influence or are influenced by I/E planning. 

SIDEBAR B 

Types of Institutional Plans 

(Adapted from Merritt and Garvin, 2008) 

Plans about the Whole Institution 

• Strategic Plan, Institutional Plan, Long-Range Plan, or Master Plan 

• Operational Plan 

Plans Related to Finances, Fundraising, Public Relations, and Marketing 

• Capital Campaign Plan 

• Marketing or Communications Plan 

• Development or Fundraising Plan 

• Financial or Business Plan 

Plans Related to Collections or Interpretation/Education 

• Collections Plan 

• Conservation Plan 

• Interpretive or Education Plan Å THIS HANDBOOK FOCUSES HERE

• Research Plan 

Plans Related to Management and Operations 

• Diversity Plan 

• Staffing plan 

• Transition Plan 

Plans Related to Facilities 

• Maintenance Plan 

• Emergency Response or Disaster Plan 

• Historic Structure Master Plan or Restoration Plan

• Land Management Plan 

• Landscape Plan or Site Plan 

• Master Plan 

9 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

In the case of I/E planning, alignment with other agency plans may mean: 

• Researching and using information that already exists in a master plan or 

resource management plan. 

• Researching and using information that already exists in a similar plan of 

another agency or organization such as BLM, USFS, NPS, State parks, 

tourism and visitor bureaus, chambers of commerce, or local leisure 

providers. 

• Coordinating with marketing, communication, or public relations plans. 

• Acknowledging the cost or budget limitations of an existing financial or 

business plan. 

• Using situation descriptions, inventories, or planning considerations from 

a strategic plan or area master plans. 

• Acknowledging inventory and analysis in collections or conservation 

plans (in the case of historic or cultural resource areas). 

• Understanding the site and facility implications of a management plan or a 

site plan. 

• Identifying existing I/E within the local area or region and identifying 

cooperators and partners in these efforts. 

• Identifying possible funding sources for I/E. 

In any case, an I/E plan should recognize other planning efforts within the agency 

and within the region. 

2.6 Levels of Planning 

For some, the thought of planning can be daunting. In order to get started, you 

may find it useful to consider these different levels of planning: 

Level 1 Planning: This is a rudimentary outline containing a few ideas. The 

prevalent diagram in this handbook (figure 3, page 15) 

provides basic guidance for such an outline. In a very short 

time, a planner (or planning team) can describe basic but 

relevant content of a plan using this outline. A level 1 plan 

can be completed quickly and may only be a few pages long, 

but it can be used to show administrators the intent for 

planning or to track ideas until a greater level of planning is 

10 
Chapter II – Planning Context and Concepts 

possible. Putting preliminary ideas on paper begins an 

administrative record and provides some direction for 

discussion and decisions related to I/E. 

Level 2 Planning: This level of planning elaborates on level I planning. It 

provides additional detail important to other salient sections. 

A level 2 plan can be developed in only a few weeks and may 

be several pages long. Important information and ideas are 

added to the basic outline (level 1 plan), but transitions may 

still be lacking, linkages are elementary, and detail may be 

incomplete. Each person on a planning team may be 

assigned a section of the plan to research and elaborate in 

anticipation of a more collaborative effort in which gaps can 

be filled and detail added. 

Level 3 Planning: This is a full-scale plan. Such a plan will contain a 

significant inventory and analysis section as well as 

substantial information and rationale for all I/E alternatives. 

It will provide an extensive description for each deliverable 

and detail costs for each. Depending on the size of the area 

and the desired scope, this level of planning may take several 

months, will involve more extensive collaboration, and be a 

more substantial guiding document. 

So, in thinking about planning, remember: 

• If you have never done any, do some. 

• If you have already done some, do more. 

• If you have already done a lot, do it better. 

2.7 How to Think About Your I/E Plan 

As implied above, usefulness should be uppermost in your mind when you plan. 

An I/E plan is not a static document. It should be viewed as a dynamic and useful 

tool for guiding the development and implementation of I/E initiatives for your 

area. As such, a plan can serve the following purposes: 

• A communications tool to engage staff and stakeholders in discussion of 

priorities, how they are set, and about the disciplined decisionmaking 

necessary to realize the efforts of the planning process. 

• A marketing tool to showcase rich visitor experiences and to stimulate 

interest in the Reclamation and managing partner areas. 

11 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

• A monitoring tool to track progress over time with regard to education and 

interpretive initiatives and to provide benchmarks against which future 

initiatives might be compared and evaluated. 

• A funding tool to demonstrate to potential donors or funders that an area is 

being clear and strategic about its I/E efforts and that there are numerous, 

well-conceived, and focused opportunities for enhancing visitor 

experiences in that area. 

• A decision tool to organize and guide decisions about meaningful and 

sustainable visitor experiences in your area. 

I/E plans are flexible and easily adaptable as circumstances change or new 

information becomes available. As such, an I/E plan may be carried from 

meeting to meeting or rolled up in the glove box of a agency vehicle for ready 

access in the field. 

2.8 Collaboration and the Role of the 

Vision Keeper 

The best plans are pursued as a team effort in which a small group of staff and 

stakeholders are responsible for researching and writing the plan. This requires 

both inter and intraorganization collaboration. Collaboration within an 

organization should include input from administration, human resources/ 

personnel, resource management, public affairs, marketing, visitor services, and 

even facilities and maintenance. Collaboration with stakeholders outside an 

organization should include input from other natural resource agencies in the area, 

such as city, county, State, or other Federal agencies, and other area organizations 

and stakeholders such as museums, outdoor recreation entities, and visitor and 

tourism organizations. This is to say that an I/E plan should not be insular. It 

should consider broad and diverse perspectives and should capture information 

and ideas from many people and sources. 

That said, there is typically one person who is the vision keeper of the planning 

effort. It is this person who typically orchestrates the process of planning and 

coordinates the pieces. The vision keeper is often someone who is interested in 

and often passionate about visitors, area resources, and the many possibilities for 

informal learning in that area. This person can easily envision the ultimate 

outcomes of the plan and helps ensure the implementation of the plan. This 

person may also assume responsibilities for: 

12 
Chapter II – Planning Context and Concepts 

• Providing a thorough and accurate administrative record of the planning 

effort. 

• Facilitating a logical and efficient planning process. 

• Involving the public at appropriate times and in reasonable ways, while 

also monitoring those efforts throughout the project. 

• Delivering a high-quality, professional plan. 

• Producing a plan that is useful to the planning team and its stakeholders. 

13 

CHAPTER 3 

Developing an Interpretation and 

Education Plan 

There are many ways to plan. This handbook presents one practical way to think 

about I/E planning – as a series of sequential questions, each one building on the 

evidence produced from answering the previous questions. A multistage diagram 

(figure 3) is provided as an organizer. Each section of this chapter describes 

specific questions and considerations and suggests ways to go about addressing 

them. 

Figure 3. Focus Areas 

of Interpretive Planning

Situation

(Section 3.1)

Purpose

(Section 3.2)

Inventory and 

Analysis 

(Section 3.3)

Options

(Section 3.4)

Action

(Section 3.5)

Figure 3.—Focus areas of interpretive planning. 

15 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

3.1 Situation 

This part of an I/E plan addresses overall questions such as “Who are we and 

what is our current situation? Why is I/E important at this area?” This part of the 

plan should provide the reader with sufficient background and context for the 

planning effort and indicate the scope and scale of the plan (figure 4). More 

specifically, in writing this section of the plan, you will want to: 

 Describe the area, including its name, location, and managing agency. 

 Provide some background and history of the area, including relevant 

authorizing legislation and the mission of the area, if one exists. 

 Describe what is special or unique about this area. Is it a State Natural 

Area, National Landmark, State Historical Site, Archaeological District, 

or Important Bird Area? Beyond simply stating the unique or special 

features, articulate clearly why that is important (e.g., “this is the only 

place in the nation where. . .”). 

 Defend the need for this plan and provide rationale that supports that 

need. For example, why is this planning process being initiated in this 

place, at this time? 

 Provide other introductory information that may be useful for the reader 

such as terms and definitions, organization of the plan, or special 

reference materials. 

Figure 4. Planning 

Situation and Need

Situation

(Section 3.1)

Purpose

(Section 3.2)

Inventory and 

Analysis 

(Section 3.3)

Options

(Section 3.4)

Action

(Section 3.5)

What is the Situation and Need?

• Area description and “mission”

• Area background or history

• Significance or uniqueness of area

• Need/rationale for the plan

Figure 4.—Planning situation and need. 

16 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

 

Some planners find it useful to label specific subsections: 

• Section A: Site Description. 

• Section B: History and Background of the Site. 

• Section C: Significance of the Site. 

Others prefer a more organic narrative that addresses the questions without 

specific categorization. Plan format should be discussed with the planning team 

at the outset of the planning process to honor preferences of staff and stakeholders 

who will be using the plan. 

You may find useful information for this section in existing plans, such as 

resource management plans, area plans, strategic plans, previous I/E plans, or 

existing agency-specific marketing or promotion information. Also consider 

using staff discussions to develop this section of your I/E plan. Talking to people 

in the area will help illuminate how your area is perceived. 

This section of your plan will vary in length depending a number of factors such 

as the size of the area, the desired level of planning (see section 2.6), whether or 

not there has been a previous I/E plan developed for this area, how complex the 

history of the area is, how expansive the need for I/E is for this area, and the 

availability of existing area information. The situation section need not be long; it 

just needs to set a reasonable context for the area and provide a solid foundation 

for the planning effort. 

3.2 Purpose and Goals 

This section addresses the explicit purpose of the plan and articulates relevant 

overall planning goals (figure 5). These goals should answer the question, “What 

do we hope to accomplish by planning for I/E at this place?” For a new plan, the 

overall planning goal may be “to establish a strategic and thoughtful program of 

I/E media and programs.” For an area with existing interpretation, overall goals 

might include updating, upgrading, or otherwise reframing I/E programs and 

media for that area.2

 This section also addresses other relevant planning 

considerations. 

 2 Although some planners include specific visitor experience goals early in the plan, other 

planners argue that they fit better after you have inventoried existing and potential audiences 

and can draw from that inventory to set specific audience goals. Also, goals for specific media 

options are typically included later in the plan in which specific deliverables are described 

(see section 3.4.). 

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A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

Figure 5. Planning 

Purpose and Goals

Situation

(Section 3.1)

Purpose

(Section 3.2

Inventory and 

Analysis 

(Section 3.3)

Options

(Section 3.4)

Action

(Section 3.5)

What is the Purpose and Goals?

• Purpose of the plan

• Planning goals 

• Planning considerations

• Planning horizon

• Limitations and assumptions

• Guiding philosophy or policy

Figure 5.—Planning purpose and goals. 

Because an I/E plan is a “strategic sieve” through which all decisions about 

interpretive and educational initiatives will be run, in writing this section of the 

plan you will want to: 

 Explicitly state the overall purpose of the plan and articulate specific 

goals for the area’s I/E initiatives. This may include an overarching 

philosophy about visitors, the visitor experience, or I/E held by the 

managing agency of the area. 

 Describe planning considerations that are relevant for the area and its 

management. For example: 

o Are there any limitations to the planning effort? 

o Are there any assumptions that need to be acknowledged? 

o What is the planning horizon? (See sidebar C.) 

 Explain any policy, directives and standards, Executive orders, 

regulations, or guidelines that might be used to guide the planning 

process. 

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Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

SIDEBAR C 

A Note About Your Planning Horizon 

Although I/E plans are typically written with 5- to 7-year planning horizons, there is 

no magic formula for setting a planning horizon. Your plan should be flexible and 

responsive to changing information, conditions, and funding opportunities. In 

addition, new and rapidly changing technologies and more and better research 

about informal learning may also influence your planning horizon. You want to set 

a horizon far enough out so the plan provides strategic guidance over the long run 

but short enough that the plan remains dynamic and useful in the short term. 

Depending on your situation, you may also find it helpful to consider annual work 

plans that tier from your overall 5-year I/E plan. An annual work plan is simply a 

current to-do list based on the strategic guidance provided by the overall I/E plan. 

In this way, you can revisit the plan annually to determine what alternatives and 

actions are still relevant. An annual work plan allows you to be nimble and 

current in preparing more immediate I/E and yet provides a strategic touchstone 

for optimizing future I/E choices. Annual work plans simply become addenda to 

the overall 5-year I/E plan. 

If an I/E plan already exists for your area, the purpose, goals, and planning 

considerations should be discussed and readjusted accordingly. If there has 

never been a plan completed for your area, this section of your plan should be 

developed by the planning team comprised of interested staff and stakeholders. 

It is wise to include diverse perspectives from marketing, public affairs, law 

enforcement, administration, and resource management personnel when 

developing the plan’s purpose and setting overall planning goals. 

The intent then of these early plan sections is to develop a reasonable and logical 

sequence of information that addresses: 

Æ Who are we and what is our situation? 

 Æ Why do we need this plan? 

 Æ What is the purpose of this plan?

 Æ What are our overall planning goals? 

 Æ Are there relevant limitations or considerations? 

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A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

3.3 Inventory and Analysis 

Inventory and analysis are perhaps the most important parts of any I/E plan and 

are essential for success. Because inventory and analysis are so interrelated, they 

are addressed together in this section (figure 6). In this part of your plan you will 

want to address both inventory and analysis. 

Figure 6. Inventory 

Situation and Analysis (Section 3.1)

Purpose

(Section 3.2)

Inventory and 

Analysis 

(Section 3.3)

Options

(Section 3.4)

Action

(Section 3.5)

ANALYSIS: What does 

this all mean?

• What will we base our

recommendations on?

• Should we do more,

less, something

different?

• What does the visitor

information tell us?

SUPPLY: What do 

we have?

• Natural and cultural

resources?

• Recreation and

project facilities?

• I/E media, programs,

staffing, facilities, and

support?

• Management issues

and concerns?

DEMAND: Who wants 

what we have?

• Visitor demographics

• Visitor psychographics

Figure 6.—Inventory and analysis. 

To complete the inventory and analysis for your plan, you will want to consider 

both supply questions such as: 

 What natural, cultural, and recreation resources exist onsite and in the 

surrounding area? What resources are important to visitors? What 

resources draw them to this place? 

 What education or interpretation currently exist at this area (including 

exhibits, programs, publications, safety information, orientation, and 

way-finding information)? What I/E facilities, staffing, supplies, and 

equipment are available here? 

 What management issues or concerns are relevant here? 

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Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

And, demand questions such as: 

 Who are the visitors that come to this area? Why do they come? What 

do they expect here? Has visitation changed over time? What trends or 

issues might influence future visitation? 

As needed, a series of checksheets are provided in appendix B to help with the 

inventory and analysis process. 

The sections below consider both inventory and analysis for each of categories 

suggested above. First, suggestions for completing each inventory section are 

provided, followed by a section that suggests a possible analysis question. The 

major analysis question asks, “So what does this information tell us about desired 

or needed I/E media and services”? This “so what” question should help you 

think about and record the deliberate thought processes that later will support 

decisions about I/E options. 

3.3.1 Supply Inventory 

3.3.1.1 Resource Inventory 

This section describes the predominant unique and significant natural, cultural, 

and built resources of the area. People typically choose to visit an area based on 

any number of natural, scenic, aesthetic, and cultural values inherent in the area. 

A brief description of these features, and their associated values, is important in 

order to develop the compelling stories that might best be told at this location. 

3.3.1.1.1 Natural Resources 

 Describe the major natural resources of the area, including predominant 

flora or fauna and major ecosystems of the area; the geographic setting 

including geology, topography, watersheds, or major bodies of water; 

and any climate or weather factors that affect area resources and 

visitation. 

 Explain any rare, unique, threatened, or endangered natural resources or 

species in the area (e.g., the lowest elevation aspen stand in the State, 

home of the endangered bird foot violet, or the only place to see 

1.7 billion years of geologic history). 

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3.3.1.1.2 Cultural and Historic Resources 

 Describe unique or significant historic (archeological and recent history) 

features that exist in or near the area. This might include historic 

buildings, structures, or features that are still in use but are important to 

the area. The description should include the size, age, and condition of 

these features. 

 Describe unique or significant people (and their stories) who may 

have had a notable influence on this area, such as Reclamation 

commissioners, regional directors, dam workers, homesteaders, trappers, 

ranchers, and Americans Indians. 

3.3.1.1.3 Built Resources and Facilities 

 Project Facilities – Describe Reclamation project facilities such as 

dams, canals, pumping stations, or powerplants in the area. Include brief 

information about when they were built and by whom. This information 

will become important later in supporting research for specific I/E 

deliverables. 

 Recreation Facilities – Use the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum or 

Water Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (WROS) (sidebar A) to 

describe recreation resources onsite, including: 

o Social attributes or activities, such as picnicking, hiking, 

swimming, boating, and fishing. 

o Managerial attributes or recreation facilities, such as marinas, 

campgrounds, trails, and picnic tables. In describing these, it may be 

useful to describe their location, size (as appropriate), and condition, 

as well as how they are currently used by visitors. 

o Physical attributes described above under natural and cultural 

resources. 

The intent of inventorying these resources and features is to be sure to include all 

important and unique natural, historic, or social stories that justify the need for I/E 

media and may eventually be used to develop the content of that media. 

You can find this information in (1) area-specific Reclamation or managing 

partner planning materials, such as resource management plans, facilities plans, 

stewardship plans; (2) research studies or environmental inventories such as 

environmental assessments, environmental impact statements, or other National 

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Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

Environmental Policy Act documents; (3) bird, plant, and animal checklists; and 

(4) other area documents such as maps, volunteer manuals, area brochures, flyers, 

or Internet sites. 

Including a site map in this section can be very useful for readers and users of the 

plan. Appropriate maps can often be found in resource management plans. 

3.3.1.2 Resource Analysis (So What?) 

The natural, cultural, and built features of the area provide the context for the 

visitor experience regardless of how much development is present. Analysis 

based on reflection and discussion of these inventory elements should: 

 Explain how and why the natural, cultural, and built features of the area 

are unique or significant and how they might influence I/E options. 

 Describe how particular values, such as scenic beauty, serenity, night 

skies, sounds, or special history are associated with these resources and 

why certain aspects of these resources should be featured in I/E media. 

 Describe recent, proposed, or periodic changes in the natural, cultural, or 

built resources, such as reservoir levels, beetle kill trees, or prescribed 

burns. These may influence decisions about I/E deliverables or require 

new information to be shared with visitors. 

 Describe stories or ideas related to these resources that you want to be 

sure to include in I/E media. This may include any caveats related to 

visitor engagement with or protection of certain resources. 

The purpose of this analysis is to provide a logical, rationale, and deliberate link 

between what you have currently in the area and what I/E recommendations you 

will make. This step ensures that you are making traceable decisions that are 

reasoned and logical. Furthermore, analysis of cultural, natural, and built 

resources will lead you toward themes and messages you want to convey in I/E 

products (see section 3.4). 

This section will vary depending on the size of the site, the number of resources 

included in the inventory, and the extent of analysis required. Tables, charts, and 

bullets can be used to organize the resource inventory for easy reading and 

reference since the intent is not to repeat what is contained in an existing 

documents or materials but rather to summarize that information as it relates to 

visitor experiences and visitor education. In some cases, data that support this 

inventory, such as bird or plant lists, resource lists from management plans, or 

historic property inventories, can be included in appendices of the plan. 

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3.3.1.3 Interpretation and Education Inventory 

This section describes what interpretive and educational media, programs, 

staffing, facilities, and support currently exist. For example: 

3.3.1.3.1 I/E Facilities 

 Provide a brief description of visitor centers, contact stations, and 

amphitheaters; interpretive bulletin boards, kiosks, or trailheads; and 

interpretive trails or waysides in the area. Describe any major support 

facilities that exist. These might include entrance stations or fee areas; 

restrooms/changing facilities; cafés or food service facilities; gift shops, 

parking areas or garages; and other visitor facilities. In describing these, 

note the number, size, location, and condition. A site map here can be 

useful to show the context and relationship of these features. 

3.3.1.3.2 I/E Media, Programs, and Staffing 

 Describe existing personal and nonpersonal I/E media and programs 

provided by Reclamation staff or its managing partners (refer to 

appendix A as needed). 

 Describe orientation and way-finding information as well as all safety, 

security, or regulation information available to visitors. 

 Describe the I/E resources available at this area from Reclamation or its 

managing partners. These might include a brief description of important 

objects or images, such as artifact or photo collections, as well as library 

or reference materials, teaching supplies, books, and kits. 

 Identify I/E staff that might include interns, interpreters, rangers, 

volunteers, docents,3

 or visitor information specialists. Describe 

the relationship between I/E staff and marketing, public affairs, 

development, and administrative staff. 

If an interpretive plan already exists, some information about existing I/E may be 

included in that plan and can be updated accordingly. In the case where no 

interpretive plan exists, you should speak to staff (front-desk, volunteers, 

marketing staff, and others) and look around in closets, storage areas, and visitor 

24 

 3 A docent is person who serves in a teaching or instructor role and is often a volunteer. 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

use areas to determine the full extent of interpretive facilities, materials, and 

programs that exist. It is always a good idea to keep a list of current I/E 

programs, media, and available resources on hand. 

3.3.1.4 Interpretation Analysis (So What?) 

To analyze the existing I/E information, you should first reflect on whether or not 

there is sufficient and appropriate data for this area at the present time. You may 

find it useful to include an outside I/E professional in the discussions of your 

current situation. Consider the following in your interpretation analysis: 

 Do visitors have enough information to make necessary orientation and 

way-finding decisions? Is there any evidence to suggest that visitors are 

confused or frustrated in finding their way to or around your area? 

What, if any, evidence exists to suggest that they understand area 

regulations? What common or obvious questions do visitors ask about 

your area? Have you collected frequently asked questions that might 

help inform orientation, way-finding, or safety information in the future? 

Will you eventually need to collect this type of information? 

 Are there too many I/E facilities or not enough facilities for reasonable 

and satisfying visitor experiences? Are the existing facilities being used 

or not? Are they being used appropriately? How will you find this out? 

 What is the overall effectiveness of existing programs, media, and 

staffing? Have you conducted any observations, evaluations, or research 

that might shed light on this question? If not, what anecdotal 

information might be available to suggest change? 

 What I/E media or programs might be needed to enhance visitor 

experiences based on the area’s natural/cultural resources? Have there 

been any changes in the resources, or in their management, that should 

be interpreted? 

This section should be thorough, but not necessarily long. Including tables, 

charts, and bullet points can simplify the inventory and make it more useful. 

3.3.1.5 Resource Issues Inventory 

In this part of the inventory and analysis you should discusses resource issues, 

management practices, or area concerns that may be relevant to onsite 

interpretation. 

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A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

3.3.1.5.1 Natural Resource Practices and Issues 

 Describe natural resource practices and issues at or near the site. These 

might include wildlife management (population, migration, hunting, 

disease), timber management (fire, prescribed burning, timber cutting), 

water or watershed management (reservoir drawdowns, river flushes, 

threats to watershed), mining or resource extraction (gas, oil, minerals), 

or endangered species (transporting invasive species such as Zebra or 

Quagga mussels in/on boat equipment). 

3.3.1.5.2 Historic or Cultural Resource Issues 

 Describe historic or cultural resource issues such as aging sites or 

buildings, maintenance, stabilization, or preservation and protection 

concerns. This may already be included in cultural resource inventory 

above. 

3.3.1.5.3 Social or Recreation Issues 

 Describe social or recreation issues at the area, such as safety, security, 

crowding, user conflicts, vandalism, capacities, or need for stewardship. 

As appropriate, it may be useful to note the nature, frequency, and/or 

severity of occurrence, such as accidents, deaths, injuries, or vandalism, 

as well as whether or not there may be seasonal or temporal variations in 

the occurrences. 

3.3.1.5.4 Threats 

 Discuss threats to the health of natural ecosystems and species such as 

water pollution, air pollution, invasive species of flora or fauna, or noise 

levels. This may also include public safety concerns such as national 

security issues. 

3.3.1.5.5 Land Use Issues 

 Report current land use issues such as encroachment, private/exclusive 

uses, in-holdings, misuse, abuse, and over-use. 

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Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

3.3.1.5.6 Other Issues 

 Describe other issues at this area or in the immediate area about which 

visitors should be informed (i.e., hazardous land or water areas). 

You can typically find material for the section in existing planning and 

management documents; from direct observations and photographs of vandalism, 

graffiti, and litter; from staff interviews and discussions, visitor feedback, citizen 

input, and congressional or government agency mandates; in research reports, 

inspection reports, and preservation documents or plans for historic or cultural 

resources. 

3.3.1.6 Resource Issue Analysis (So What?) 

Increasingly, resource managers are developing I/E programs and materials to 

address management issues as opposed to simply providing resource information 

about flora, fauna, water resources, and recreation opportunities. Because users 

of our Federal lands and waters are citizens and voters, and because visitor 

experiences in these areas hold tremendous potential for informal learning, 

analyzing the type and extent of resource management is important. Along with 

the inventory and analysis of natural and cultural resources, this resource 

management section will eventually contribute to the content of I/E media and 

programs. Consequently, your analysis should: 

 Consider instances where I/E might help raise awareness, inform, or 

otherwise influence visitor attitudes or behaviors. 

 Discuss critical instances in which security or regulation information is 

particularly important and needs priority attention. 

 Discuss recurring issues or concerns that have not responded well to 

enforcement or simple information but where I/E programming might 

help. 

 Describe different or new management practices in which increasing 

levels of visitor awareness may be necessary. 

 Suggest stewardship or safety behaviors that might be enhanced through 

I/E. 

 Review situations or circumstances in which there may be over-use or 

under-use and where I/E might serve to disperse use or explain the need 

for capacities. 

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A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

 

The intent of this section is primarily to identify and discuss management issues 

or concerns that may be important to communicate to visitors. This should not be 

a lengthy treatment of issues that might be found in other documents. Rather, this 

analysis summarizes issues that may be important later during content research 

stages of interpretive development (see chapter 4). 

3.3.2 Demand Inventory 

3.3.2.1 Audience/Visitor Inventory 

This part of the plan’s inventory and analysis challenges you to think about how 

well you know your visitors. Do you know who they are and what they expect 

when they come to your area? Understanding your visitors, or the demand for 

area resources and experiences, is key to planning meaningful interpretive 

opportunities. Audience inventory summarizes past, present, and expected future 

visitation and the demand for goods/services at this area.4

As pointed out above, Reclamation reservoirs, many of which are managed by 

managing partners, offer a wide variety of recreation opportunities. Because 

these areas attract a variety of recreationists, such as boaters, campers, anglers, 

swimmers, and hikers, it is important to inventory who, how many, and what 

kinds of recreationists come to the area and why they come to these areas. 

3.3.2.1.1 Descriptive Visitor Information 

Descriptive data and information describe visitors by number, age, gender, ethnic 

origin, residence, length of stay, and so forth. A variety of descriptive data is 

useful in inventorying visitor use and demand. 

 Describe the current level and proportion of resident use (i.e., locals) to 

the area from a 50-mile radius of the area. Is this use seasonally or 

temporally distributed? What group types comprise these visitors 

(e.g., families, adult-only groups, seniors, school groups, organized and 

civic groups, disabled and/or disadvantaged audiences)? What are the 

proportions of ethnicity, age, gender, and residence for resident visitors? 

Are there other demographics that help describe these users? 

28 

 4 See also Estimating Future Recreation Demand: A Decision Guide for the Practitioner (cited 

in sidebar A) for additional information about how to conduct an indepth audience and demand 

analysis. 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

 Describe the current level or proportion of tourist use (local, regional, 

national, international) to the area from over 50 miles away. Is the use 

here daily, seasonally, or temporally distributed? What group types 

comprise these visitors (e.g., families, adult-only groups, seniors, 

organized groups)? What are the proportions of ethnicity, age, gender, 

and residence for tourist visitors? 

 Describe any other users who come to this area, such as researchers, 

media, or government officials. How often and for what reasons do 

these people visit? 

 Identify obvious stakeholders of this area, such as impassioned local 

citizens, friends groups, or local businesses. With what issues are they 

primarily concerned? These individuals may not actually visit the area, 

but nonetheless have something to gain or lose depending on how the 

area is managed. Describe what stake these individuals or groups have 

in the area. You may find it useful to talk with these groups early in the 

planning process to determine ideas or issues particularly relevant to 

them. 

 Speculate about nonvisitors. Are there visitors you would like to invite 

to your area (e.g., school groups, educators, researchers, disadvantaged 

or underserved populations, or volunteers)? 

3.3.2.1.2 Psychographic Visitor Information 

Psychographic data and information describes what you can’t see about visitors 

(e.g., reasons for visiting, expectations and motivations, values, beliefs, attitudes, 

interests, and opinions). This level of information is more difficult to capture and, 

thus, is not always readily available for describing visitors. However, considering 

the following can be very useful: 

 What information is available about why people come to your site and 

what do they bring with them in terms of attitudes, opinions, interests, 

expectations, and knowledge? Are you seeing mostly generalists, or 

are your visitors seeking something specific? Has there been any 

information gathered in the area that might help describe visitors in this 

way? 

 What concerns, questions, or fears do they have? As available, discuss 

the top 10 most frequently asked questions and the top 10 most 

frequently offered complaints. 

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A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

 

Sources for psychographic information include recreation planning documents, 

survey data or research reports, frequently asked questions, tallies of phone calls 

or mail inquiries, census data and information, local community Chamber of 

Commerce records, Web sites or annual reports of comparable sites, focus group 

or community meeting notes, admissions information, sales data, rental or fee 

data, vandalism reports, user data from other resource management agencies, or 

research reports.5

 You may find it useful to collect some front-end information or 

data during this stage of planning (see more in section 3.6).6

3.3.2.2 Visitor Analysis (So What?) 

Analyzing audience information is a very important part of the planning process. 

The ultimate purpose of I/E is to facilitate an engaging and rewarding experience 

for visitors. It is essential that you explore visitor use and carefully deliberate 

about desired visitor experiences at your area. It may be useful to collaborate 

with social scientists or visitor specialists in discussing visitor information. In 

any case, it is helpful to consider the following: 

 Has visitation increased, decreased, or stayed the same over time? What 

implications does that have for I/E products and services? 

 Is visitation to this area changing in other ways (e.g., by season, type of 

experience, age or race, activity, or by behavior)? How might that 

influence your I/E planning? 

 What common visitor questions or complaints do visitors have? 

 Are there particular visitor groups or dynamics that should be segmented 

or perhaps targeted with specific programs or services? 

 Are visitors expectations being met (or not)? What type and level of 

visitor knowledge do visitors have about topics related to your area? 

What does that imply for I/E at your area? 

 5 See also Estimating Future Recreation Demand: A Decision Guide for the Practitioner (cited 

in sidebar A) for additional information about how to conduct an indepth audience and demand 

analysis. 

 6

 Conducting surveys or collecting data first-hand (primary) can render some of the best 

information from area visitors; however, collecting primary data from visitors can be costly and 

time consuming. When time, money, or expertise limit your ability to collect data first-hand, 

consider secondary data sources such as census data, recreation and tourism data, and business 

reports for completing your visitor use inventory. 

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Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

 What new visitors (or audience segments) would you like to see at your 

area? Where do they live? What might they expect? How might you 

reach them? 

 Other reasons people might have for not coming to your area. How 

might you best invite them to take advantage of the opportunities 

here? 

 Are there are daily, weekly, or seasonal expectations (serenity, scenery, 

fall colors, winter wildlife, ice fishing, solstice/equinox, etc.) that 

provide unusual or exciting opportunities for visitor experiences? 

This will be a substantial section of your plan (several pages). Charts, graphs, 

tables, and bullets can help consolidate this information into useful formats. The 

overall intent of this analysis is to provide logical links to recommendations for 

I/E products and services. 

3.4 I/E Options 

Now that you have established the foundation for your planning effort and have 

completed a thorough inventory and analysis of both supply and demand, this 

section of the plan transitions to themes, desired visitor experiences, and specific 

I/E options (figure 7). These elements, described more fully below, derive 

directly from the inventory and analysis. That is to say that they should be 

supported by sound rationale and be the result of careful deliberation and 

decisionmaking based on the analysis of the current condition. It is useful at this 

stage of planning to pause and make sure that there has been sufficient discussion 

and deliberation about the current situation before considering reasonable I/E 

options. 

3.4.1 Overall Area Themes 

Theme statements capture the unique characteristics and intrinsic qualities of an 

area. They answer questions such as: What is unique or special about this place? 

What makes this area distinctive on a local, State, or national scale? Why is it 

inspiring? Why should people care about it? Themes are compelling stories 

that focus an area’s I/E effort. Following on the heels of reasonable inventory 

and analysis, area themes should be fairly self evident. 

Most I/E plans include an overarching theme or statement of significance for 

the area. This overarching theme is like a mission statement for your I/E 

program. It is broad enough to embrace other compelling stories (subthemes) 

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A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

Figure 7. Options Situation

(Section 3.1)

Purpose

(Section 3.2)

Inventory and 

Analysis 

(Section 3.3)

Options

(Section 3.4)

Action

(Section 3.5)

What are our Options?

• Overall area theme(s)

• Vision for visitor experiences

• Alternatives for I/E media/programs

• Themes, goals, desired outcomes

• Concept sketches

Figure 7.—Options. 

but specific enough to help focus the area’s I/E efforts. It is a broad but succinct 

statement about the area from which other subthemes or site-specific themes tier. 

Developing themes and compelling stories is best done in a team process in which 

ideas can be discussed before dropping anchor too quickly. Sidebar D provides 

an example of an overarching theme and several related subthemes or compelling 

stories that tier off of a broader theme. 

3.4.2 Vision for the Visitor Experience 

Increasingly, informal learning settings including natural resource areas are 

adopting a visitor-centered philosophy. This means that there is a shared sense 

among the staff that the visitor experience is important and includes the range of 

experiences from an initial Web site inquiry to an actual onsite visit to post-visit 

reflections. Crafting and adopting a vision for the visitor experience is an 

important piece of I/E planning. Like themes, an overall vision for the visitor 

experience might be accompanied by a set of overall desired visitor outcomes that 

further elaborate that vision. Sidebar E provides an example. 

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Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

SIDEBAR D 

Example of an Overarching Theme and Related Subthemes 

Overarching Theme: 

Red Mountain Open Space (RMOS Interpretive Plan, 2008) is part of a much 

larger northern Colorado bioregion where the Rocky Mountain foothills meet the 

vast eastern plains. The spacious landscapes of this bioregion include the grassy 

hills and valleys of the adjoining Soapstone Prairie Natural Area as well as the 

craggy red rock outcroppings of Red Mountain Open Space. In turn, the unique 

set of geologic and biological landforms contained in RMOS provide an inspiring 

backdrop for learning about nature at all scales, history at all ages, and 

stewardship of all types. 

Subthemes (Compelling Stories): 

• Geology – The diverse geology of RMOS – from the tiniest grains of red 

sandstone to the thickest geologic layer of the spectacular anticline – 

exposes the history of this place in simple and spectacular ways. 

• Ecology – The arid high plains climate of RMOS supports a variety of 

beautiful and intriguing plants and animals – most of which have evolved 

in this area over millennia with only minimal negative human impact. 

• Cultural History – The sense of place at RMOS is the alchemy of a rich 

and unique ecology stewarded by humans for centuries and is evidenced 

by the vestiges of human-made structures left here as well as the many 

colorful stories told of this place. 

• Scenic Beauty – The color and texture of the rock, the rush of the wind 

through the cottonwoods and shrubs, the glimpse of flitting insects or 

soaring birds, the rolling of the landforms, the vivid colors of vegetation, 

and the immensity of views all comprise the rich aesthetic of this place. 

• Stewardship – First-hand engagements with nature teach us about 

interconnectedness, about ecology, and about ourselves. Ecologically 

responsible experiences here are an anticipated part of local (and 

planetary) stewardship. 

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A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

SIDEBAR E 

Example of a Visitor Experience Vision and Related Visitor Outcomes 

Vision for the Visitor Experience 

Visitors to Red Mountain Open Space have a special opportunity to discover and 

explore the natural resources, scenic beauty, and rich history of the north-central 

Colorado bioregion. First-hand engagement with the specific landforms as well as 

exploration of the broader landscapes should be relevant and stimulating. Visitors 

will leave with a sense of appreciation for the open space and feel inspired to 

continue its stewardship. 

Desired Visitor Outcomes 

Awareness and Decisionmaking (Pre-Visit) 

• Visitors will easily locate information about RMOS on the Web and/or in 

printed materials. 

• Visitors will understand their options for traveling to the site and feel 

excited and confident about the options available to them for experiencing 

the site. 

• As appropriate, visitors will feel confident about accessibility to and around 

the site. 

Welcoming, Orientation, Way-Finding and Comfort (Pre-visit and Onsite) 

• Visitors will feel welcomed and have a clear and unambiguous sense of 

having arrived at the site. 

• Visitors will feel confident that they can orient themselves to the site and 

comfortably find their way around the site. 

• Visitors will feel comfortable throughout their visit but recognize the 

personal and physical challenges and responsibilities inherent in visiting a 

remote open space environment. 

The Story and its Cohesiveness (Onsite) 

• The site design and facilities (e.g., trails, parking areas, restrooms, 

educational materials) are all chances (“moments of truth”) for telling the 

Red Mountain Open Space story. As such, visitors will experience 

consistency and credibility across the site in terms of the story and how it 

is told here. 

• Visitors will see and experience stories of both nature and culture here. 

Relevance, Discovery, Learning, and Stewardship (Onsite and Post-Visit) 

• Visitors will easily find a part of the story to which they can relate and will 

want to share the exciting and personally meaningful experiences with 

others. 

• Visitors will experience a sense of immersion and discovery while onsite. 

Physically and intellectually engaging experiences are typical. 

• Visitors will form a clearer, more meaningful relationship with site, the 

area, and the region and, as a consequence, will act as stewards of the 

place. 

34 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

 

3.4.3 I/E Options Descriptions 

Based on the previous inventory and analysis, this section describes the varying 

but specific I/E options most relevant for this area related to the area themes and 

consistent with the desired visitor experiences. Depending on the scope and scale 

of your plan, the number of I/E options will vary, although each one should be 

carefully described in the plan and should show how it is derived from the 

inventory and analysis. Each option should include at least the following 

information: 

 A brief description of the desired program or media (i.e., sign, exhibit, 

publication, map, walk, talk, program, visitor center)7

 with specific 

stated goals for that deliverable. 

 The intended theme that will be the focus of that specific deliverable and 

any relevant main messages that elaborate the depth and breadth of that 

theme for the deliverable. The theme in this case8

 relates back to the 

area’s overarching theme, but it should be limited to a complete sentence 

that elaborates and further focuses a topic or idea. Sidebar F provides 

some examples. 

 Target audience(s) with specific visitor engagements and outcomes for 

each deliverable (see sidebar H in section 3.6). 

 7 A visitor center may very well be one of the desired recommendations in an I/E plan. When 

this is the case, a more extensive planning process should be followed. See Reclamation’s Visitor 

Center Policy, Directive and Standard, and Guidelines (2007). 

 8

 Beverly Serrell’s “Big Idea” is a concept developed for museum exhibitions that is relevant 

here. A Big Idea is a statement that “provides an unambiguous focus for the exhibit team 

throughout the exhibit development process by clearly stating in one non-compound sentence the 

scope and purpose of that exhibition” (Serrell, 2006: p. 2). For example, NPS developed a Big 

Idea for a series of trail waysides and collateral interpretive media at the Grand Canyon. It reads: 

The Trail of Time is an interpretive walking timeline trail that focuses on Grand 

Canyon vistas and rocks to guide visitors to ponder, explore, and understand the 

magnitude of geologic time and the stories encoded by Grand Canyon rock 

layers and landscapes. 

This Big Idea focuses the content and the exhibit team efforts for one “exhibition” (related set of 

deliverables) at the Grand Canyon. This idea differs somewhat from the themes discussed in 

sidebar F in that those themes are deliverable-specific and not meant to focus a larger exhibition 

effort. Yet, many planners find the Big Idea useful in I/E planning. 

35 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

SIDEBAR F 

Example of the Distinction Between Topics and Themes 

Topics are not themes. Themes provide focus and direction. From one topic, any 

number of themes might be developed; each one might tell a different story and 

thus provide a different focus for the interpretation. 

Topic = Dams 

Example Theme 1: Dams come in all sizes. The interpretation here might 

compare and contrast sizes of dams and reservoirs behind 

them. 

Example Theme 2: Dams can fail, as in the Teton Dam break of 1976. The 

interpretation here would focus on dam construction issues 

that might lead to failure. 

Example Theme 3: Dams of the West are a valuable source of hydroelectric 

energy. The interpretation here would talk about electric 

power transmission from dams throughout the West. 

 As appropriate, a schematic or concept sketch shows generally what the 

deliverable might look like, along with a brief description of proposed 

materials or construction considerations that are desired or required, 

such as approximate dimensions, materials, colors, and finishes. 

 A general cost estimate of the deliverable with associated assumptions. 

 Related Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifications and 

Reclamation’s Visual Identity (VI) program requirements for the 

specific deliverable. 

Appendix C provides an example of a complete deliverable description. 

Depending on the scope and scale of your plan, deliverable descriptions may 

provide more detail or be structured differently. The intent of this section in your 

plan is to record current thinking and decisionmaking regarding proposed 

deliverables. The section should be written so the reader can easily grasp why 

you have selected these ideas, their status, and the anticipated direction for 

development. 

In some cases, it may be important to develop several alternatives for discussion 

and consideration. Sidebar G provides one such example in which several 

interpretive products were possible for educating the public about geology. 

This decision worksheet was used to facilitate discussion and decisionmaking 

about the most appropriate option. 

36 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

SIDEBAR G 

Example Decision Worksheet for Interpretive Trail Decision 

Alternative Description Pros Cons 

Self-guided trail 

brochure with onsite 

markers 

A recyclable brochure 

distributed and redeposited at the trailhead 

that interprets the 

geological features of the 

site marked by numbered 

markers positions along 

the trail. 

• Minimal development 

along the trail; markers 

only. 

• Visitors can self-pace their 

engagement and learning 

along the trail. 

• Provides for education at 

very specific geologic 

locations. 

• Less costly than onsite 

signs. 

• Requires development of 

two pieces – brochure and 

markers. 

• Expects visitor to carry 

something. 

• Though minimal, does 

require some site 

development; markers 

installed in the ground. 

Multiple interpretive 

signs along the trail 

(with some in the 

canyon) 

A modest set of three to 

four interpretive signs 

positioned along the trail 

at strategic locations to 

maximize the education 

focus on geologic 

features. 

• Visitor doesn’t have to 

carry anything and can 

still self-pace their 

experience. 

• Provides relevant 

education at specific 

geologic locations. 

• Requires more onsite 

development (mounted 

signs in ground or on/near 

geologic feature). 

• More costly option 

(multiple sign design and 

fabrication). 

Multiple interpretive 

signs along the trail 

(not inside the 

canyon) 

One large or two to three 

smaller signs at the 

mouth of the canyon and 

around the south side of 

the trail loop interpret the 

various geologic features 

of the canyon. 

• Does not require site 

development in the 

canyon itself. 

• Consolidates the geologic 

message in one area 

(efficient message 

delivery). 

• Assumes that visitors will 

read information and 

then recall it as they 

experience the geologic 

features in the canyon. 

• Semicostly option 

(multiple sign design and 

fabrication). 

Interpretive necklace Set of 8 to 10 laminated 

cards on a string or chain 

that visitors “borrow” from 

the trailhead area and 

carry with them as they 

hike the trail. One side of 

the card interprets a 

specific geology feature 

and the other side 

provides information about 

finding the next feature. 

• Stimulates higher level of 

visitor discovery and 

exploration. 

• Provides for education at 

specific geologic 

locations. 

• Easily revised and 

updated. 

• Expects visitor to carry 

something. 

• Assumes visitors will return 

necklaces to trailhead 

location (honesty policy). 

• Modest initial cost, 

although replacement cost 

may be incurred annually 

due to wear and tear. 

Decision criteria matrix (used by staff during planning process in making deliverable decisions) 

Option 

Site 

disruption Cost 

Complexity of 

development 

Complexity 

of use 

Visitor 

engagement 

potential 

Visitor burden/

responsibility Other? 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Rate each option where 1 = low and 5 = high. 

37 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

 Money – Create a budget summary of proposed costs for each of the 

recommended deliverables. This budget should include both production 

costs and operation and/or maintenance costs as appropriate. 

Although there is nothing that legally mandates public involvement in I/E 

planning, many planners find it useful (and politically wise) to engage the public 

during this phase of planning. Public open houses or community discussion 

groups (focus groups) are common methods for engaging the public in 

discussions and decisions. Section 3.6 contains additional information about 

integrating public input into planning. 

3.5 Action 

The action section of the plan describes what resources and effort are needed to 

develop, fabricate, and install or implement the recommended I/E options 

(figure 8). 

Figure 8. Action Situation

(Section 3.1)

Purpose

(Section 3.2)

Inventory and 

Analysis 

(Section 3.3)

Options

(Section 3.4)

Action

(Section 3.5)

Implementation Detail

• Resources

• Money

• Staffing

• Effort

• Timing/Scheduling

Figure 8.—Action. 

In this section you will want to address: 

 Resources – Outline specific resources (supplies, materials) that will be 

required to develop the various interpretive options. When there are 

several deliverables recommended, it is often useful to provide a 

summary list of recommendations. 

38 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

ious I/E 

k of the plan. Articulating realistic estimates of the 

effort necessary for tasks such as research, writing, graphic design, 

mportant 

oad charts, sequencing 

tables, or calendar software is available for this purpose. It is essential 

Graphic design and layout – Including developing appropriate 

les. 

o Fabrication. 

Installation or implementation. 

hapter 4 provides more detail on each of these post-planning steps. 

uch of the information for this section of your plan is easily researched over the 

s, and 

brication companies. Appendix D provides some basic cost suggestions related 

ve 

 

 Staffing – Detail all staffing implications.9 Staff requirements should

include the number of full-time, part-time, volunteer/docent, consultant, 

or other staffing needed to complete the production of the var

recommendations. 

 Effort – Describe the steps or sequences of effort necessary for 

completing the wor

program development, fabrication, and implementation is very i

for successful design and development later. 

 Schedule – Propose a timeline or schedule for sequencing the design and 

development of deliverables. Standard workl

that adequate time be allocated for post-planning stages of nonpersonal 

media (exhibits, signs, publications),10 including: 

o Content development – Research and writing. 

o

graphic standard for the project or the deliverab

o Exhibit or media design and development. 

o

C

M

phone or on the Web, and with interpretive professionals, design firm

fa

to signs and staffing. Other, more specific items may be individually investigated 

with commercial firms, consultants, or other agencies. Commercial firms ha

information about fabrication costs and are often willing to provide an estimate 

for interpretive products or services. 

 9 For new plans, it may be necessary to identify and describe new staff requirements. 

Appendix C provides an example of a staffing description. 

 10 Post-planning effort is also important for personal programs (walks, talks, demonstrations) 

and will include research, writing, marketing or promotion, peer coaching, etc. 

39 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

 

This part of your plan will vary in length depending on the number of deliverables 

recommended and the level of detail desired. The more detail provided in the 

plan, the easier the research will be during subsequent stages of design and 

development. 

3.6 Integrating Evaluation into Planning 

Evaluation is typically defined as determining the worth, merit, or significance 

of a product or service. For the purposes of this handbook, evaluation refers to 

(1) the systematic collection and analysis of information or data to make informed 

decisions about I/E exhibits, programs, or media and (2) measuring or assessing 

the effects of I/E exhibits, programs, or media on learners.11 As such, this type 

of evaluation is very specific to learning environments. Over the past several 

decades, an entire discipline and organization has developed around this notion of 

evaluation in learning environments, particularly informal learning environments, 

such as museums, parks, nature centers, zoos, parks, open lands, natural areas, 

recreation areas, and botanical gardens. 

The term “visitor studies” is frequently used to describe this type of evaluation. 

In some cases, actual research studies are conducted to learn about visitors and the 

impacts of I/E media on learners. In other cases, less rigorous research or inquiry 

is designed to explore various dimensions of the visitor experience. The term 

“visitor studies” then is an omnibus term used to describe an entire constellation 

of effort that planners, exhibit developers, museum or informal learning 

specialists, educators, and evaluators employ to better understand visitors and 

their learning situations. 

The most successful I/E plans integrate visitor studies to help make informed 

decisions throughout the planning process and throughout the design development 

process (figure 9). The visitor studies discipline further categorizes evaluation 

into three and sometimes four categories which include front-end, formative, 

remedial, and summative. As shown in figure 9, these four categories integrate 

into the overall planning, development, and use context described earlier in 

figure 1. These categories, their unique purposes, and their relevance to I/E 

planning are described more fully in this section. 

40 

 11 See <www.visitorstudies.org>. 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

Situation

Purpose

Inventory 

Analysis

Options

Action

Plan

Research and Writing

Design and Layout 

Design Development

Construction Drawings 

Prototypes

Fabrication

Installation

Monitoring

Maintenance

Repair 

Replacement

Develop Use

Front-End 

Evaluation Formative 

Evaluation

Remedial and 

Summative 

Evaluation

Figure 9.—Integrating evaluation or “visitor studies.” 

3.6.1 Purpose and Phases of Evaluation 

The overall purpose of evaluation (or visitor studies as defined above) is to collect 

information and data from or about visitors to make informed planning and design 

development decisions. As indicated above, visitor studies are typically 

categorized by stage. The four major phases include: 

• Front-end 

• Formative 

• Remedial 

• Summative 

Each is described below. 

3.6.1.1 Front-End Evaluation 

Front-end evaluation is an inventory and analysis of audiences and their 

perceptions to make informed major conceptual decisions in the project planning 

phase and during initial design development (see figure 9). Front-end evaluation 

helps answer the overall question, “What information about visitors do we need in 

order to inform our planning decisions”? This is the same question you may ask 

yourself when you are writing an I/E plan and completing your inventory and 

41 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

analysis sections (discussed fully in section 3.3). The questions below may help 

you think about your inventory and analysis in different ways and provide ideas 

for collecting or gathering information to use in your plan. 

Example front-end evaluation questions Possible methods/tools 

General – Demand analysis 

• Who are we currently serving? 

• Are there potential new audiences? 

• Are there disenfranchised and/or displaced 

audiences? 

• What local, State, regional, and national 

publics do we serve? 

• What activities, settings, experiences, and 

benefits are sought by our publics and 

audiences? 

General – Opportunity analysis 

• What new opportunities could we develop 

for various audiences, and what current 

opportunities should we continue? 

• What partnerships and/or collaborations 

could we develop to help with or support 

our efforts? 

Specific – Visitor analysis 

• What do visitors know, think, or feel about 

idea A or topic B? (e.g., knowledge, 

attitudes, opinions)? 

• Why do visitor segments x, y, and z come 

to this area (e.g., motivations)? 

• What do visitor segments x, y, or z expect 

when they come here (e.g., expectations)? 

• Document research: inhouse, local community, 

State, regional, and/or 

national data and trends. 

• Surveys. 

• Interviews. 

• Staff discussions. 

• Results of previous 

evaluations, research, or 

planning. 

• Staff discussions. 

• Community focus groups. 

• Visitor discussion groups or 

focus groups. 

• Community open houses. 

• Interviews. 

• Surveys. 

• Card sorts. 

• Concept mapping. 

Front-end evaluation is perhaps the only form of evaluation you will use during 

your I/E planning process. The other stages of evaluation (described below) are 

typically integrated into post-planning efforts when recommended I/E exhibits, 

programs, or media are designed and developed. These post-planning stages of 

I/E design and development are discussed in chapter 4, but the remaining stages 

of evaluation are described here so that you might keep them in the context of 

other evaluation to pursue eventually. 

42 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

3.6.1.2 Formative Evaluation 

Formative evaluation is testing or exploring visitor reactions to I/E media or 

programs in an iterative process during design and development (figure 9). 

Formative evaluation poses the general question, “How are we doing, and what 

can we improve”? The table below provides example questions and methods for 

conducting formative evaluation. Formative evaluation questions may vary 

significantly depending on when in the process and why you are conducting an 

evaluation. You may find it helpful to hire or consult with a visitor studies or 

evaluation specialist before you begin a formative evaluation process. 

Example formative evaluation questions Possible methods/tools 

Prototype testing 

• How is idea A, exhibit B, or program C going? 

• Do the parts of the exhibit work? 

• Do the goals of the program seem realistic? 

• Does the idea seem to be working? 

Visitor engagements 

• Are visitors engaged in the way we expected? 

Are they coming away with attitudes or 

knowledge that we expected them to gain? 

• What do they do, think, or feel as they 

experience the program, exhibit, or publication? 

• Shop, lab, and/or field 

testing of mock-ups or 

prototype material. 

• Observations. 

• Interviews. 

• Surveys. 

• Focus groups. 

3.6.1.3 Remedial Evaluation 

Remedial evaluation is conducted during the final stages of production in order to 

“remediate” issues with content or delivery (see figure 9). Remedial evaluation 

poses the general question, “What needs to be changed or fixed now that visitors 

have tried the deliverable and we see what is working or not working”? Example 

questions and methods are suggested below. 

Example remedial evaluation questions Possible methods/tools 

• What are the obvious flaws or problems we can 

repair or modify quickly and inexpensively? 

• What simple improvements can we make? 

• Observations. 

• Interviews. 

43 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

3.6.1.4 Summative Evaluation 

Summative evaluation takes place following implementation (see figure 9) and is 

done with finished programs or exhibits under real conditions. It is an attempt to 

determine the value of the project or to summarize the way it is working in terms 

of effectiveness. Summative evaluation poses the general question, “Have we 

met our goals and achieved our desired result”? Example questions and methods 

are suggested below. Again, it may helpful to discuss your evaluation questions 

with a visitor studies specialist as you begin to think about remedial or summative 

evaluation. 

Example summative evaluation questions Possible methods/tools 

Outputs: 

• How many people did we reach? 

• How many products did we produce? 

• How many programs did we offer? 

Outcomes:

• How effective was idea A, exhibit B, or 

program C in terms of our expected visitor 

outcomes? 

• What did visitors, do, think, or feel as a 

result of their experience? 

• Counts. 

• Program records. 

• Tallies. 

• Observations. 

• Interviews. 

• Testing (surveys). 

In general, visitor studies are systematic in that the information is gathered using 

methods and sampling techniques appropriate to good science. Engaging a 

professional evaluator or visitor studies specialist may help you integrate the most 

appropriate evaluation into your planning and the design development process. 

3.6.2 Visitor Outcomes 

When integrating evaluation into the planning or development of I/E exhibits, 

programs, and media, it is important to consider how the impacts of those efforts 

will be described and determined. Increasingly, Federal funding agencies, such as 

the National Science Foundation <www.nsf.org> and the Institute of Museum and 

Library Services <www.imls.org> are requiring that specific and measurable 

outcomes be developed during the planning process. This is a rather significant 

change from simply describing program outputs, such as the number of 

participants in a program, the number of total programs developed, or the 

percentage increase in attendance. 

44 
Chapter III – Developing an Interpretation and Education Plan 

Outcomes (not outputs) describe the desired impacts of a program (i.e., what 

visitors will do, think, or feel as the result their encounter with I/E programs, 

exhibits, or media). In order to measure outcomes, it is necessary to develop 

specific and measurable outcome statements (sometimes called objectives) that 

eventually guide a formative or summative evaluation strategy. Sidebar H 

provides some examples of visitor engagement and outcome statements. In this 

case, “engagements” are defined as those things that visitors do, think, or feel 

while they are engaged with the I/E media, and “outcomes” are defined as what 

visitors might do, think, or feel as a result of their experience with the I/E media. 

Engagement statements are highly appropriate for use in formative evaluation 

(see discussion above), and outcome statements are appropriate for formative, 

remedial, and/or summative evaluation. You may find these examples useful in 

your planning process to describe desired visitor outcomes for your recommended 

I/E options. 

45 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

46 

SIDEBAR H 

Engagements and Outcomes for use with Evaluation 

In an article entitled, “Beyond cognition and affect: The anatomy of a museum visit,” 

In: Visitor Studies: Theory, Research, and Practice. Collected papers from the 1993 

Visitor Studies Conference, 6, 43-47 (Perry, D.L. 1993), Perry describes various 

visitor ENGAGEMENTS for on-site experiences. These are typically organized into 

categories that represent what visitors might do, think, or feel alone or with each 

other, during an experience. For example: 

Physical engagements describe how visitors engage physically with the exhibit 

content – actively and passively. Examples might include: 

• Visitors will try the interactive device and read the related explanation for 

about 9-10 seconds. 

• Visitors will stand and read exhibit content for approximately 20-40 seconds. 

Social engagements describe how visitors engage with each other and when and 

how they interact with others in their social group. Examples might include: 

• Visitors will discuss how exhibit material relates to their own lives. 

• Visitors will call others in their group over to try the suggested activity that is 

described in the self-guided brochure. 

Intellectual engagements describe how visitors engage intellectually with the exhibit 

content, how they reflect on topics, and how they make connections between ideas. 

Examples include: 

• Visitors will compare and contrast the different types of dam construction. 

• Visitors will consider similarities and differences of the security issues here 

today with those of World War II era. 

Emotional engagements describe how visitors engage with or connect emotionally 

to the exhibit content (i.e., excitement, passion, awe, inspiration). Examples include: 

• Visitors will feel overwhelmed by the size of the generators inside the dam. 

• Visitors will be awed at the extraordinary craftsmanship of the dam. 

Engagements should be differentiated from outcomes, which are described below: 

Outcomes describe what visitors might do, think, or feel as a result of their onsite 

experience. These might be short-term outcomes (within a few weeks of the 

experience) or long-term (months or even years after the experience). Because 

educators typically don’t have as much control over post-site experiences, they often 

don’t distinguish them by category. However, they still include each of the dimensions 

described above (e.g., social, intellectual, emotional, and physical). Examples 

include: 

• Visitors will extend their understanding of dam construction on the Web. 

• Visitors will describe how reservoirs are created. 

• Visitors will share their experiences with friends and family. 
CHAPTER 4 

Post-Planning Considerations

This chapter describes several post-planning considerations for I/E development. 

Overall, the more guidance that is provided in your I/E plan, the more efficient 

the media and program development process will be. For example, the more 

completely the I/E options are described (section 3.4), and the more schematics or 

concept sketches are included, the easier the transition will be to design and 

development. Design development is a partly a creative process, one in which 

graphic artists, exhibit designers, landscape architects, and creative/interpretive 

writers are involved in helping realize the recommendations of the I/E plan. 

4.1 I/E Design and Development 

Figure 10 highlights the I/E design development phases that move interpretive 

and education recommendations from concept to reality.12 These phases are 

described briefly below. 

Figure 10.—I/E development. 

Situation

Purpose

Inventory 

Analysis

Options

Action

Plan

Research and Writing

Design and Layout 

Design Development

Construction Drawings 

Prototypes

Fabrication

Installation

Monitoring

Maintenance

Repair 

Replacement

Develop Use

 

47 

 12 Keep in mind that the phases shown in figure 10 are most appropriate to nonpersonal media 

such as exhibits, interpretive panels, and publications. A slightly abbreviated process is 

appropriate for personal programs such as walks, talks, living history, educational programs, 

storytelling, or tours. For example, a tour or program will still require research and writing but not 

design/layout, design development or construction drawings, or fabrication. Instead, personal 

media might necessitate coordinating site logistics and props, teaching aids, or costumes prior to 

implementation. In any case, formative testing or “dress rehearsing” a program or tour is always a 

good idea in this implementation phase. 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

4.1.1 Research and Writing 

The content of each sign, exhibit, publication, or program presentation needs to be 

researched carefully for content, accuracy, relevance to the audience, and even 

political correctness (as appropriate). You should consider a variety of resources, 

including subject matter experts, content publications, technical documents, 

Reclamation records and archives, Web sites, local community records and 

archives, State Historic Preservation Office resources, Western Area Power 

Authority resources, videos, and Web resources in conducting content research. 

Creating stimulating narrative that is provocative and relevant for visitors is a 

creative process that takes time. Sufficient time should be allocated for 

researching concepts and also for constructing accurate, appropriate, and 

compelling interpretive text for each deliverable. 

It is highly appropriate to include front-end evaluation as part of the research 

and writing phase to probe visitor understanding of and perceptions (or 

misperceptions) about specific topics, themes, or ideas. Focus groups, visitor 

surveys, or interviews can help determine the level of visitor understanding of or 

interest in interpretive content (see section 3.6.1.1). 

4.1.2 Design and Layout 

Graphic artist skills are invaluable in the interpretive development process. 

The role of the graphic artist is to take interpretive narratives, photographs, 

illustrations, and/or graphics that have been gathered during the research and 

writing phase and put them into an artistic and professional layout appropriate for 

visitors and consistent with planning and management expectations. The design 

and layout process involves (1) creating a design “look” or “brand” that is 

professional and appropriate for the project, (2) developing a design standard for 

the project to ensure consistency among and between multiple pieces of the same 

project, and (3) preparing the design and layout of the deliverables that may 

include obtaining, scanning, and/or manipulating images or photographs and 

ensuring that final production files are in order for final fabrication. 

Two of the overall goals for design and layout should be (1) consistency of design 

elements, such as font [style and size], color, specific design elements, and overall 

“look” and (2) appropriateness of the design to the existing character of the site or 

area. Reclamation’s VI program is a useful reference for this stage of the process 

to ensure that color, font, and layout comply with accessibility specifications for 

ADA. VI program approval may be needed for some Reclamation projects prior 

to fabrication. 

Design and layout typically involves several iterative discussions between the 

graphic designer and interpretive writers, content experts, artists, and the project 

manager. The planning budget and timeline should take this into account. In 

48 
Chapter IV – Post-Planning Considerations 

addition, the graphic artist typically acts as a liaison with the fabricator to ensure 

the desired output. You will also want to keep an electronic copy of all final 

production files at your location so that revisions can be made as information 

change and so media can easily be refabricated in the case of vandalism or 

damage. 

4.1.3 Design Development or Exhibit Design 

Smaller projects that involve only the development of an interpretive publication 

or a few interpretive panels may not require much design development. For larger 

projects (those that include multiple exhibits or products), design development is 

critical. The design development process begins where concept sketches in the 

I/E plan leave off. The purpose is to develop accurate design drawings for each of 

the interpretive elements and to show the relationships of those elements to each 

other, particularly with exhibit elements. It is essential that the exhibit design and 

development process be coordinated with research and writing team in terms of 

content research and project timing. 

Exhibit designers also make recommendations about final finishes and materials 

for fabrication (e.g., paint, carpet, fixtures, wall coverings, lighting, artifact 

cases, etc.). Design drawings are provided to an engineer who then develops 

engineering drawings and construction specifications to be used in final 

fabrication. 

To ensure accessibility of exhibits and other nonpersonal interpretive media, the 

USDA Forest Service Accessibility Checklist based on the Smithsonian 

Institution Exhibition Accessibility Checklist can be found on the Web at 

<www.access-board.gov> or www.fs.fed.us/recreation/programs/accessibility/ 

smithsonian.htm>. 

4.1.4 Construction Drawings 

Construction drawings are developed by an engineer who understands exhibit 

fabrication and can produce shop drawings for production of exhibit elements. In 

some cases, a designer’s exhibit intent may not be feasible from a construction 

standpoint and should be negotiated. Communication between the engineer, the 

exhibit designer, and even the planner is important to maintain the overall intent 

of interpretive elements. 

49 
A Planning Handbook for Interpretation and Education

4.1.5 Fabrication 

Fabricating exhibits and interpretive panels takes place after all phases above are 

complete. Fabrication will typically be organized and coordinated by a project 

manager and can involve fabrication by any number of vendors who specialize in 

various materials and/or exhibit types. 

4.1.6 Formative Evaluation 

As described in section 3.6, a period of formative evaluation (i.e., prototype 

testing) is highly recommended. This phase is essential for ensuring that the 

interpretive media work as intended and that they attract and hold visitor 

attention. Testing prototype panels and exhibits is done at approximately 

90-percent completion – just prior to final fabrication. Evaluation is typically 

completed onsite with a selection of visitor groups who will view or interact with 

prototype exhibits and panels and provide feedback (e.g., perceptions about 

presentation, interest in material, attracting and holding power) prior to final 

fabrication. 

4.1.7 Installation 

This phase is typically short and involves installing signs and exhibits into their 

final place. However, this phase can involve demolition of previous exhibit 

elements and/or preparation of exhibit area (patching, painting, electrical work, 

lighting work, construction, etc.). This phase also involves careful coordination 

between fabricators, project managers, and site staff. 

4.2 I/E Use 

Once I/E media is completely developed and installed, a period of use begins. 

Figure 11 puts this phase in context with planning and development. 

4.2.1 Monitoring 

When visitors use I/E exhibits, programs, or media, monitoring that use is 

important for improving (or remediating) the products and then evaluating the 

impact of those products. (Figure 9 and section 3.6 discuss this as remedial and 

summative evaluation.) 

50 
Chapter IV – Post-Planning Considerations 

Situation

Purpose

Inventory 

Analysis

Options

Action

Plan

Research and Writing

Design and Layout 

Design Development

Construction Drawings 

Proto-types

Fabrication

Installation

Monitoring

Maintenance

Repair 

Replacement

Develop Use

Figure 11.—I/E use. 

4.2.2 Maintenance, Repair, Replacement 

Over the life of a project, and based on monitoring efforts, I/E media will need 

to be maintained. This maintenance can range from repairing an interactive 

exhibit part, replacing a vandalized sign, replacing light bulbs behind a lighted 

interpretive panel, or republishing an interpretive brochure. In most cases, repair 

and maintenance are aimed at improving visitor experiences with the area’s I/E 

products and services. 

Eventually, as the sun sets on the previous I/E planning horizon, a new planning 

process will be necessary to revisit old goals, inventory a new environment, and 

recommend new or additional I/E options (figure 11). 

51 

APPENDICES

Appendix A Types of Interpretive Media and Programs 

Appendix B Inventory Checklist 

Appendix C Select I/E Planning Examples 

Appendix D Cost Examples for Select I/E Media and Services (2007) 

Appendix E Helpful References for I/E Planning 

APPENDIX A 

APPENDIX A 

Types of Interpretive Media and Programs 

Interpretative media is often categorized into (a) personal interpretation (requiring a 

person) and (b) nonpersonal (not requiring a person). This appendix contains more detail 

about each of these forms of interpretation. Definitions with advantages and 

disadvantages of each are provided along with some helpful tips. 

Personal Interpretation 

Guided Walks or Tours 

This includes walks or tours that are guided by a trained staff or volunteer. The sequence 

of stops and topics is controlled by the guide and the walk or tour typically travels along 

a per-determined route which features stops relevant to a central theme. Tours can be by 

foot or by vehicle. 

Advantages 

• Very effective in areas where visitor safety is an issue (e.g., Hoover Dam). 

• Visitors enjoy a person with whom they can discuss issues and ideas. 

Disadvantages 

• Requires trained staff. 

• Can be difficult to keep focus on central theme. 

Interpretive Talks and Demonstrations 

These are stationary talks or demonstrations developed around a central theme. An 

interpretive talk or demonstration is prepared and presented by a trained staff or 

volunteer. Successful talks include (a) an introduction that creates interest for the visitor 

and which reveals the theme, (b) the body of the talk which develops or elaborates the 

theme and links information to the central theme, and (c) a conclusion that summarizes 

important information and reinforces the theme. Short talks or demonstrations are often 

done in visitor centers as part of the visitor orientation process. 

Advantages 

• Effective for orienting visitors to an area where they may have never visited. 

• Effective for describing/showing complex process with a captive audience. 

A-1 
Disadvantages 

• Often difficult with large groups. 

Roving Interpretation 

This is informal, site-based interpretation. But, unlike guided walks or tours, an 

interpreter wanders or “roves” around a site or facility to help visitors understand what 

they are seeing. There is no organized tour or story; rather, the interpreter facilitates an 

experience with a visitors driven by their concerns, questions, and observations. 

Advantages 

• Very effective in undeveloped areas where there is no other interpretation. 

• Visitors really appreciate having staff available to respond to questions. 

Disadvantages 

• Can be boring for interpreters if there are only a few visitors. 

• Interpreters may not be able to answer all visitor questions. 

Storytelling 

Stories are an umbilical to our past, present, and future. Stories create images and 

metaphors that are used to exemplify issues, concerns, morals. Stories are often 

borrowed from myths, legends, or folklore, or they can be constructed. They are told 

using colorful images; a full range of vocal inflections; expressions, and gestures; and 

often a variety of props and/or costumes. Interpretive theater and puppet shows are 

other examples of theatrical forms of interpretation. 

Advantages 

• Images and metaphors are easier for visitors to remember. 

• Very powerful for conveying complex or contentious material. 

• Particularly suited to family groups or groups with children. 

Disadvantages 

• Requires more specialized training for interpreters. 

• Connections to concrete facts can easily be obscured by images of story for 

younger audiences. 

A-2 
Living History 

This form of interpretation re-creates specific periods of the past (or future) using 

interpreters usually clothed and equipped with the correct costumes and props of the era. 

Reenactments are a popular form of living history. Living history can be performed in 

first person (acting as the character of the time) or third person (talking about a character 

from another time). 

Advantages 

• Helps visitors be “in the time” or “ in the era.” 

• Created reality is very popular with many visitors. 

• Very effective with historical themes. 

Disadvantages 

• Requires specialized training. 

• Costumes and props can be hard to obtain, store, keep maintained. 

• “Faked” authenticity is often detected by astute visitors. 

Facilitated Educational Activities 

These are activities where the visitors drive the scope, direction, and some times the 

sequence of the content, but the interpreter facilitates the goals of the activity. These are 

different than demonstrations or talks where the interpreter controls the scope and 

sequence of the material. 

Advantages 

• Allows visitors to guide their own experience to some degree. 

• Hands-on activities keep visitors engaged and are often more effective. 

Disadvantages 

• Requires visitor time and attention to activities. 

• Sometimes difficult for visitors to connect to larger context once activity is 

completed. 

A-3 
Nonpersonal Interpretive Media 

Interpretive Publications 

Brochures 

Typically a folded, single-page interpretive publication that convey fundamental 

information about a topic or issue of interest to visitors. 

Advantages 

• Handy and common. 

• Fairly easy to design and produce. 

• Reasonable cost to produce. 

Disadvantages 

• Tend to be used once and thrown away. 

• Lots of competition with other brochures. 

• Requires time to read. 

Pamphlets, Booklets 

Multipage publications that cover an issue or phenomenon in more detail. Narrative, 

graphics, pictures, and detailed descriptions are often used. 

Advantages 

• Typically kept longer by visitors. 

• Good for topics or situations where more information needs to be imparted. 

• Easier to ask for donations or charge fees for pamphlets than brochures. 

Disadvantages 

• More difficult and expensive to produce. 

• More waste if thrown away. 

• Require extensive visitor reading for maximum effectiveness. 

A-4 
Newsletters 

Typically multipage publication that serve as a form of communication for members of 

an organization; can contain both informative and interpretive material. 

Advantages 

• Handy, convenient size and shape. 

• Well accepted; public is used to format. 

• Good for multiple or complex messages. 

Disadvantages 

• Competition with other newsletters. 

• Require work to produce professionally and consistently. 

• Commonly read once and thrown out. 

• Require developing and maintaining mailing list. 

Posters 

Typically large single sheets, visually/graphically focused; they provide information or 

interpretation about a single topic or issue. 

Advantages 

• High souvenir appeal. 

• Great visual appeal; attracts visual learners. 

• Effective for single message. 

Disadvantages 

• Format often limits text. 

• Limited to one or two simple messages. 

Maps 

Simplified representations of the environment (built or natural); often used to convey 

directions, elevations, distances, and instructions that help visitors navigate and find their 

way around a site or facility. 

A-5 
Advantages 

• Useful. 

• Low language barrier. 

• Easy to charge fee. 

Disadvantages 

• Difficult to produce (accuracy and information). 

• Difficult to include everything without looking cluttered. 

• Many visitors have difficulty reading maps. 

Postcards, Flyers, Bookmarks 

Single cards, typically graphic- or photo-based that interpret places or phenomena. Often 

contain a simple educational message. 

Advantages 

• Popular, visual. 

• High souvenir appeal. 

• Long shelf life after consumption. 

Disadvantages 

• Little space for interpretation. 

• Lots of competition with other publications. 

• Demand color or perfect graphics or photos for maximum effectiveness. 

Interpretive Exhibits 

Strategic arrangements of artifacts and information. Exhibits vary from the simplest twodimensional bulletin boards to the most complex multi-media designs; they can be static 

or dynamic, large or small, and interactive or not. 

Advantages 

• Original objects (natural science, cultural history, engineering and construction 

history, etc.) can be displayed. 

• Visitors can self-pace themselves through the interpretive experience. 

• Can tell a story in the absence of a live interpreter. 

• Can provide perspective not otherwise available. 

• Can stimulate visitor involvement with objects and artifacts. 

A-6 
Disadvantages 

• Do not always answer visitor’s questions. 

• Not the best medium for overly complex or detailed information on abstract ideas. 

• Lack personal touch. 

Types of Exhibits 

• Flat or Wall – Bulletin boards, spray mount exhibits, etc. 

• Three-Dimensional – Artifacts in cases, free-standing exhibits, relief models, maps. 

• Dioramas – Scale representations of real situations or artifacts. 

• Interactive – Touchable components, lift panels, wheels, quiz-boards, 

technological interactives (e.g., touch screen). 

Common Characteristics of Exhibits 

• Viewing and interactive times vary greatly by exhibit. 

• For video and slides in exhibits where visitor must stand, the average holding time 

is 3 minutes. 

• For video and slides in exhibits where visitors can sit, the average holding time is 

7 minutes. 

• For interactive exhibits, the average holding time is 1–5 minutes. 

• The average visitor grasps the main concept of an exhibit in15 seconds. 

• The average time spent listening to a taped message is 4 minutes. 

• Only 1 percent of all visitors are likely to read everything presented in an exhibit. 

• Comprehension of maps and map information is typically minimal. 

• Children with adults increase viewing time. 

• Heat and cold (seasonal or room temperature) decrease viewing time. 

• Detailed dioramas increase involvement. 

• Touchables or interactive elements increase participation. 

• Wildlife and other animals have high attracting and holding power. 

• Some technology attracts visitors, but the higher the technology, the higher the 

maintenance. 

• The presence of staff increases interaction with exhibits. 

Common Mistakes 

• Too much text. 

• Static and unimaginative. 

• Disjointed flow pattern through exhibit. 

• Ideas, design, or text is too complicated. 

A-7 

APPENDIX B 

APPENDIX B 

Inventory Checklist 

This appendix contains a fill-in format that you might find useful in completing the 

inventory and analysis portions of your I/E Plan. Completion of these questions does not 

replace or substitute for a written or narrative inventory and analysis, but provides a 

systematic way to capture, organize and store information to use in your planning 

process. 

The pages that follow are designed to be consistent with the guidance provided in 

chapter 3. The various chapter sections are indicated throughout. 

Area Location and Description (see section 3.1) 

Region/area office: Project:

State(s): Area: 

Primary manager (check both if cooperative management): 

□ Reclamation 

□ Managing partner(s): (Specify) 

Closest town/community: Estimated population 

Is there an interpretive plan for this site/unit? □ No □ Yes Date: 

B-1 
SUPPLY Inventory: Natural Resources 

(See section 3.3.1.1.1) 

List the unique and/or significant natural resources for this site/unit by category below. 

Major flora Major fauna Geology/soils Waterbodies 

What is (are) the major watershed(s) of this area? 

What are the major ecosystems of the area? 

Any important climate or geographic considerations in this area?

B-2 
SUPPPLY Inventory - Cultural/Historic Resources 

(See section 3.3.1.1.2) 

Indicate and describe any predominant (unique and significant) historic or cultural 

resources for this area. 

Structure X Material(s) Size General condition 

Historic building still 

in use 

Historic building no 

longer in use 

Historic or prehistoric structure or 

feature (nonbuilding) 

Other (describe) 

Legend • Wood 

• Metal 

• Stone 

• Square feet 

• Height, width, 

depth 

• New – new or in 

good shape 

• Fair - not new but 

fully functional; may 

need minor repairs 

• Poor - needs major 

repair 

B-3 
SUPPLY Inventory – Built Resources and Facilities 

(See section 3.3.1.1.3) 

Describe Reclamation project facilities (dams, canals, pumping stations, powerplants). 

Facility 

When built 

or age General description 

Describe available recreation opportunities (social attributes). 

Type X Description 

Flat water or lake recreation 

(boating, fishing, water skiing, 

swimming, diving, etc.) 

River recreation (fishing, hunting, 

rafting, tubing, canoeing, etc.) 

Land-based recreation (camping, 

hiking, picnicking, group outings, 

mountain biking, hunting, watchable 

wildlife, photography, etc.) 

Other 

B-4 
Describe current recreation and support facilities (managerial attributes). 

Recreation facilities 

Type No. Size/capacity Condition/age 

Marinas 

Boat ramps 

Beaches or swimming areas 

Fishing docks 

Campgrounds 

Trails 

Picnic areas/tables 

Other 

Support facilities 

Type No. Size/capacity Condition/age 

Entrance stations or fee areas 

Restrooms or changing areas 

Cafés or food services 

Gift Shops 

Parking lots or garages 

Other 

B-5 
SUPPLY Inventory – I/E Facilities, Media, Programs, 

and Staffing 

(See section 3.3.1.3) 

Interpretive facilities: Describe current interpretive facilities. 

Interpretive facilities 

Type No. Size/capacity Condition/age 

Visitor center 

Interpretive kiosks 

Interpretive trails 

Interpretive signs 

Other 

Interpretive media and programs: Indicate the number of and topic or theme for each 

of the following media and programs currently available at this area. 

Interpretive media No. Major topic or theme 

Exhibit (indoor) 

Exhibits (outdoor; 

e.g., waysides) 

Publications – directions or 

information 

Publications – safety 

Publications – interpretive 

or educational 

Traveling kits or boxes 

Website – interpretive or 

educational content 

Other (describe) 

B-6 
Interpretive programs No. Major topic or theme 

Guided tour(s) – facility 

Guided walks/talks – outside 

Campfire programs 

Living history programs 

Roving interpretation 

A/V or multi-media 

program(s) 

Other (describe) 

School or curriculum-based 

programs No. Major topic or theme 

Pre-K and Elementary school 

programs (PreK-4) 

Secondary school programs 

(5-8) 

High school programs (9-12) 

Higher education or university 

programs 

Technical or specialized 

programs 

Other (describe) 

Other programs offered onsite or off-site (outreach) No. Major topic or theme 

Youth affinity groups 

(e.g., scouts, recreation, 

church, civic group) 

Adult affinity programs 

(e.g., Elderhostel, recreation, 

church, civic group) 

Other (describe) 

B-7 
Describe if and how the impacts or outcomes of these efforts have been assessed: 

Interpretive staff: Indicate all personnel who have any level of responsibility for 

interpretive/educational services. 

Job title No. OPM job series Type 

Reclamation personnel 

Managing partner personnel 

Legend: FTE = Full time 

PT = Part-time 

S = Seasonal 

V = Volunteer 

O = Other 

B-8 
SUPPLY Inventory: Resource Issues 

(See section 3.3.1.5) 

Describe current and/or persistent management issues at this area. 

Issue Description 

Natural resource issues – Fire, 

resource extraction, endangered 

species, resource damage from use, 

pest control (invasive weeds or 

species), etc. 

Historic/cultural resource issues – 

Vandalism, aging, maintenance, etc.

Social/recreation issues – Crowding, 

conflict, safety, stewardship, etc. 

Threats to the natural ecosystem

(pollution, invasive species, noise) 

Land use issues – Encroachment, 

in-holdings, trespass, unauthorized 

use, misuse, overuse, existing 

authorized uses or licenses, etc. 

Other issues – Proposed recreation 

uses/activities, public conduct, law 

enforcement, etc. 

B-9 
DEMAND Inventory - Audiences/Visitors 

(See section 3.3.2.1) 

Descriptive visitor information – Describe current use (numbers, percentages, rough 

estimates) using descriptive data categories such as those suggested below. Also 

consider gender, income levels, and level of education. 

Home or residence 

Locals or residents within 50 mile radius 

Tourists or visitors from over 50 miles away 

Ethnicity • Caucasian 

• Hispanic 

• Asian 

• Afro-American 

• Middle Eastern 

• Western European 

• Other 

Group type • Families (adults with children) 

• Adults only (ages 30-60) 

• Young adult groups (ages 18-29) 

• Seniors (ages 60+) 

• Affinity groups (scouts, church, youth, club, sport, etc) 

Seasonal / Temporal 

Distribution 

• Spring, summer, fall, winter 

• Weekend versus weekdays 

• Morning, afternoon, evening 

• Holidays 

Who is currently not being served?

What are the major barriers for these audiences not being served?

What reports, data, or information is currently available to describe visitors to this unit? 

B-10 
Stakeholders and Other Users 

Describe any individuals or groups who are major stakeholders in the management of 

this site/unit. 

Indicate any local or regional stakeholders who are not currently engaged with this 

site/unit who should be? 

Psychographic Visitor Information 

Describe any reports or information that indicate attitudes, expectations, concerns, 

frequently asked questions of visitors (for example comment cards, visitor logs)? 

Have there ever been any visitor studies, evaluation research, or audience analysis 

completed for this area? Explain. 

B-11 

APPENDIX C 

APPENDIX C 

Select I/E Planning Examples 

This section contains select example sections from various I/E plans. Each example 

begins with a highlighted bar describing that example and what section in this document 

provides more information. 

Example Site Description (See section 3.1) 

[From Draft Ridgeway State Park I/E Plan] 

Site Description: 

The beautiful setting of the San Juan Mountains in Southwestern Colorado provides the 

backdrop to Ridgeway State Park. Originally called the Dallas Creek Project, Ridgeway 

State Park was designed and built by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) for the 

purposes of irrigation, flood control and recreation and in the future for possible power 

generation and water supply. Since its opening in 1989, its recreational management has 

been provided by Colorado State Parks in partnership with the BOR. Consistent with 

Colorado State Parks mission statement which is: 

“To be leaders in providing outdoor recreation through 

The stewardship of Colorado natural resources for the 

enjoyment, education, and inspiration of present and 

future generations.” 

Ridgeway State Park has become a popular recreation destination, and its abundant 

natural and cultural resources make it ideal outdoor learning location. 

C-1 
Interpretation and Environmental Education has always been an important program at 

Ridgeway State Park. A previous Interpretive Master Plan was completed in 2001 by 

Colorado State Park staff and has been an important guiding document for the park 

management. In 2007, the Bureau of Reclamation embarked on Interpretive Master 

Planning for its projects as well. This will provide Ridgeway State Park staff with the 

opportunity to dove-tail with the previous plan to help guide the park into 2009 (its 20th 

year) and beyond with strong interpretive programs. 

Example Option/Deliverable Description 

(See section 3.4) 

[From a Botanical Garden I/E Plan – non-Reclamation property] 

Garden History and Fact Sheet 

Product Description and Goal: Develop a 1-page informative flyer to provide visitors 

with background, history, and information about the Gardens and how they were 

developed. This fact sheet would respond to some of the most frequently asked questions 

about the Garden’s history and administration such as who started the Gardens and when, 

who funds the Gardens, and so forth (reference Table 6). This sheet would be more 

informative than interpretive but would be attractive, professional, and easily re-produced 

for dissemination to visitors at kiosks and the admissions desk. 

Target Audience: Local businesses, funders, local residents, tourists. 

Theme: Realizing a world class botanical garden for coastal Maine has been a long and 

winding road. 

Key Messages: 

• The Garden has an interesting 15+ year history (founders, history, vision, mission, 

size, etc.). 

• Funding for the Gardens comes from numerous sources. 

• The Gardens is administered as a 501(c)3 nonprofit organization with a staff of 

over a dozen full-time staff, several seasonals, and many volunteers. 

Cost Estimate: ~$200-$300 (production cost only) 

• Staff time for research, writing and design (assumes 8-10 hours). 

• Production (copies – assumes 100 available copies for distribution as requested; 

professionally printed copies may increase cost slightly). 

C-2 
Example Staffing Description for I/E Plan 

(See section 3.5) 

Education Assistant or I/E Program Specialist (PT 2008; then to 1 FTE in 2009) – 

This person has the primary responsibility for the personal program initiatives of the 

gardens, but also may have secondary responsibilities for some basic nonpersonal media 

(including simple publications or temporary exhibits). Job responsibilities of this 

position include: 

• Designing, developing, and delivering public programs. 

• Designing, developing, and delivering school programs. 

• Collaborating with Marketing Department on special events. 

• Aiding Director of Education with planning for personal programs as needed 

(i.e., providing research help, organizing materials, participating in discussion 

groups, administering evaluations, etc.). 

• Aiding with development of nonpersonal media as needed. 

• Assisting Director of Education as needed (e.g., in planning, fabricating, 

implementation, visitor studies initiatives, etc.). 

• May involve some intern and/or volunteer supervision as needed. 

Qualifications 

• 4-year degree (highly desirable) in education, interpretation, communications, 

recreation or related discipline. 

• 2 years experience (minimum) in designing and conducting public programs 

and/or school programs. 

• Coursework or specialized training in botany, ecology, horticulture, natural 

history, or related topics. 

• Excellent communication skills both oral (mandatory) and written (expected). 

• Demonstrated professionalism in working with staff, visitors, and volunteers. 

C-3 

APPENDIX D 

APPENDIX D 

Cost Examples for Select I/E Media and Services 

(2007) 

This appendix contains 2007 cost estimates for various types of signs and interpretive services. 

The reader is advised to recognize that these are estimates. Costs fluctuate from year to year, 

from product to product, and from fabricator to fabricator. Soliciting bids from various vendors, 

fabricators, or consultants is advised. 

Signs – Signs can be fabricated out of any number of materials. Below is a comparison of a few 

of the more popular materials and comparable cost estimates. 

Type of signs Pros and cons 

Costs1

(for 24”x36” 

panel) Comments 

Routed wood – Basic 

wooden sign created 

using router and sandblasting techniques; 

typically painted or 

stained 

• Easy with routing 

equipment 

• Inexpensive 

• Can be made colorful with 

paints 

• Easy and quick 

• No computer graphics 

required 

• Easily vandalized 

• Weathers quickly in 

heat/sun 

• Detailed graphics difficult 

• Cannot incorporate photos 

$100 - $800 

depending on 

design and detail 

• Can be framed or 

unframed 

• Still popular in 

Forest Service 

• Exterior use mostly 

High-pressure laminate – 

Digital image 

impregnated with 

melamine resins and then 

pressed under intense 

pressure with UV 

resistant overlaminate on 

layers of phenolic resinimpregnated kraft stock 

• Good color resolution 

• Vandal resistant, cleaned 

easily if vandalized with 

most markers or paint 

• Reasonable replacement 

costs 

• Can be cut to creative 

shapes as needed 

• Can fade with hot sun or 

extended use outside 

• Surface can crack if not 

fabricated properly 

$700-$1,200 

depending on 

design and source 

file condition 

• Exterior and interior 

uses 

• Often framed, but 

can also be 

fabricated thick 

enough to not 

require a frame 

• Quickly becoming 

the most common 

sign material 

because of cost and 

flexibility 

D-1
Type of signs 

Costs1

(for 24”x36” 

Pros and cons panel) Comments 

Embedded fiberglass – 

Graphic image embedded 

into fiberglass using heat 

and pressure 

• Satisfactory for outdoor use 

• Can use color images, 

photographic images, 

drawings, etc. 

• Can crystallize and fade 

over time; not particularly 

appropriate for hot or high 

elevations. 

• Difficult to clean if 

vandalized with some 

markers or paint 

• 6-8 year life 

• backing and framing 

required 

$700-$2,000 

depending on 

design, source file 

condition, color 

mix 

• Quickly becoming 

extinct due to 

advances in high 

pressure laminate 

fabrication 

Stone – Engraved images 

and or narrative into 

surface of natural stone 

• Natural look 

• Some stone can break or 

chip easily 

• Heavy 

• Difficult to incorporate 

detailed or complex images 

• Can erode prematurely in 

moist or rainy climates 

About $250 per 

square foot 

depending on 

stone and 

complexity of 

design 

• Perfect solution in the 

right places 

• Can look very 

professional 

Porcelain enamel – 

Colored glass, kiln fired to 

heavy gauge steel plate 

• Excellent color and graphic 

resolution 

• Excellent for exterior use in 

hot sun, high elevation, 

extreme weather conditions 

• Can be more expensive 

than some alternatives 

• Can chip and rust if corners 

are not finished or if 

vandalized 

• Replacement costs are 

same as original fabrication 

costs 

Approximately 

$2,000 depending 

on graphic image 

• Top choice for well 

funded projects 

• Very attractive framing 

options available 

Novelloy – Metal microimaging on aluminum 

sub-strait 

• Classic, professional look – 

sometimes too industrial 

looking for natural resource 

areas 

• Very durable (10+ year life) 

• Does not need a frame 

• Fairly limiting in terms of 

graphics or complex 

designs – simple graphics 

possible 

• Can be scratched with 

other hard metal objects 

$1,000-$1,500 • Viable, but not a 

common choice by 

interpreters 

 1 Cost is fabrication cost only! Shipping costs may be additional and these prices do not include research and 

writing or graphic design and layout costs. See below for estimations for these costs. 

D-2
Interpretive services – Completing any interpretive project can involve a number of different 

skills and abilities. Below are some rough figures for some of the more necessary skills sets. 

Service Costs Comments 

Interpretive 

planners 

$50-$120/hour 

Many planners price by job not hour; 

interpretive plans can range from 

$10K - $50K depending on scope and 

complexity 

Interpretive plans are often done by 

teams (2 or more), especially if they 

are for large or complex areas. 

Landscape 

architects (LA) 

$80-$150/hour 

May also price by job rather than by 

hour 

LAs are useful for planning sign sites, 

kiosk sites, visitor center sites, etc. 

They should be part of an interpretive 

planning team if side development is 

being considered. 

Interpretive writer – 

Typically completes 

necessary research 

for writing; can also 

include photo 

research 

$40-$100/hour Depends on experience; you want to 

look for someone who has interpretive 

writing or creative writing experience 

and can provide examples of their 

work. It is not the same as technical 

writing. 

Evaluator $70-$150/hour although most 

evaluation is priced out at 7-10% of 

overall project budget for design, 

fabrication, and installation 

Can include front-end, formative, 

and/or summative evaluation. Can 

also include any number of types of 

surveys, interviews, focus groups, 

observations, prototyping, etc. Make 

sure the evaluator works with the 

interpretive planner to incorporate the 

right amount and type of evaluation. 

Exhibit designer $100-$200/hour 

May price out by job rather than by 

hour 

Depends on experience. Request 

samples of work and references. 

Graphic artist – will 

complete design 

and layout of 

panels as well as 

color proofing for 

fabrication 

$45 - $120/ hour 

Some price by job not by hour 

Varies by region, by project, and by 

skill level/experience; costs may vary 

for meeting time, design time, 

illustration time, and production time. 

Proofreader $20-$50/hour Highly recommended for all sign, 

exhibit, and publication projects. 

D-3
Service Costs Comments 

Artists – Original 

illustration 

$100-$500+/hour 

Some price by illustration not by hour 

Varies by skill level, experience, 

technique, final product expectations, 

etc. 

Sculptor or model 

maker 

$60-$150/hour 

Many will price by job or piece rather 

than by the hour 

Highly varied by skill level, 

experience, and desired medium 

(clay, bronze, wood, metal, etc.). 

Living historian $100-$1,000/performance + expenses Depends on period, experience, 

costuming. 

Storyteller $75-$1,000/performance + expenses Depends on experience and type or 

genre of stories. 

D-4
APPENDIX E 

APPENDIX E 

Helpful References for I/E Planning 

Beck, L. and Cable, T. 1998. Interpretation for the 21st Century: Fifteen Guiding Principles 

for Interpreting Nature and Culture. Sagamore Publishing. 

• A 21st century version of Tilden’s book. Very useful for modern principles of 

interpretation. 

Carter, J. (Ed.). 1997. A Sense of Place: An Interpretive Planning Handbook. Inverness, 

Scotland: Tourism and Environment Initiative. 

• A very useful guide for Interpretive Planners. 

Evans, B. and Evans, Carolyn Chipman. 2004. The Nature Center Book: How to Create and 

Nurture a Nature Center in Your Community. National Association for Interpretation. 

• Includes some helpful case studies. 

Hunter, C. 1994. Everyone’s Nature: Designing Interpretation to Include All. Falcon Press. 

• Very helpful guidance for Universal Design and accessibility (ADA requirements) 

Gross, M. and Zimmerman, R. 2002. Interpretive Centers: The history, design, and 

development of nature and visitor centers. University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point. 

• Very useful resource for developing or maintaining a visitor center. 

Levy, B.A., Lloyd, S.M., and Schreiber, S.P. 2001. Great Tours: Thematic Tours and Guide 

Training for Historic Sites. National Trust for Historic Preservation. 

• Helpful for tour research and writing as well as guide training, 

Louv, R. 2005. Last Child in the Woods: Saving our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder. 

Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. 

• Timely and articulate argument for outdoor recreation and education. 

McLean, K. 1993. Planning for People in Museum Exhibitions. Association for ScienceTechnology Centers. 

• Very helpful resource for definitions, processes, and guidance for planning exhibits and 

interpretive media. 

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Merritt, E.E. and Garvin, V. 2008. Secrets of Institutional Planning. Washington, DC: 

American Association of Museums. 

• Useful for understanding the scope and scale of institutional planning; contains a very 

helpful chapter on the alignment of planning discussed in chapter 2 (section 2.5) of this 

handbook. 

Serrell, B. 1996. Exhibit Labels: An Interpretive Approach. AltaMira Press. 

• Particularly useful for interpretive writing. 

Tilden, F. 1957. Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 

• Long standing, landmark work describing the definition and principles of interpretation. 

Trapp, S., Gross, M, and Zimmerman, R. No date. Signs, Trails, and Wayside Exhibits: 

Connecting People and Places. University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point. 

• Very useful tips for developing interpretive signs. 

Weil, S.E. 2002. Making Museum Matter. Washington, DC: Smithsonian. 

• Especially Chapter 7: Transformed from a Century of Bric-a-Brac (p.81): Clearly 

defines and supports outcomes-based interpretation. 

Wells, M. and Smith, L. 2002. The Effectiveness of Non-personal Media used in Interpretation 

and Informal Education: An Annotated Bibliography. National Association for 

Interpretation. 

• Useful bibliography for understanding the effectiveness of various interpretive media. 

Summarizes over 300 studies. Includes executive summary and helpful chart for study 

variables. 

Zehr, J., Gross, M, and Zimmerman, R. No date. Creating Environmental Publications: A 

Guide to Writing and Designing for Interpreters and Environmental Educators. University 

of Wisconsin – Stevens Point. 

• Very useful tips for developing nonpersonal interpretive media.