A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: 

History of U.S. Geological Survey 

Streamgaging Activities for the 

Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida 

By Richard Jay Verdi and Stewart A. Tomlinson

Circular 1330

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 2009

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Suggested citation:

Verdi, R.J., and Tomlinson, S.A., 2009, A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: History of U.S. Geological Survey Streamgaging Activities for the Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1330, 43 p.

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Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright 

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Verdi, Richard Jay.

 A centennial tribute, 1906-2006 : history of U.S. Geological Survey streamgaging activities for the Suwannee River 

at White Springs, Florida / by Richard Jay Verdi and Stewart A. Tomlinson.

 p. cm. -- (Circular ; 1330)

 Includes bibliographical references.

 ISBN 978-1-4113-2328-5 (softback paper cover)

 1. Stream measurements--Suwannee River (Ga. and Fla.)--History. 2. Stream-gaging stations--Florida--White 

Springs--History. I. Tomlinson, Stewart A. II. Title. III. Title: History of U.S. Geological Survey streamgaging activities 

for the Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida. IV. Series: Circular (Geological Survey (U.S.)) ; 1330. 

 GB1225.F6V47 2009

 551.48’3097598--dc22

 2009015603
iii

Preface

Besides outlining the history of the first continuous record streamgage in Florida, this report 

is a tribute to advances in the technology, creativity, and dedication that generations of public 

servants have provided within the Federal Government. Their contributions have enabled 

the general public to obtain a better understanding of stream hydrology. One group of these 

public servants is the hydrographer, a role composed of many job titles such as engineers, 

engineering technicians, hydrologists, hydrologic technicians, and hydrologic aids. At the turn 

of the 20th century, hydrographers made flow measurements at selected streams across the 

United States using a mechanical current meter. These measurements were often made under 

conditions now deemed unsafe, as the hydrographer sat over the stream suspended in a 

cable car with no sides from a cable anchored only by purportedly sturdy trees on each side of 

the riverbank, while using a weight and current meter over the stream. These flow measurements were snapshots in time and were published in annual reports of the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS). Although these data were useful, the public needed information that would 

provide a more indepth story as to the rise and fall of streams. 

In the early 1900s, hydrographers began collecting water-level data in the form of daily 

observations at staff gages set by the river. From the 1910s to the 1950s, different types 

of graphical-recording devices were connected to a float and tape set in stilling wells to 

continuously monitor the level of the river; these became the primary method of collecting 

water-level data into the 1970s. Pressure-level sensors of various types began use in the 

1960s and continue today. Digital punch-tape recorders began use in the 1960s and were a 

primary data-collection device into the 1990s. Hydrographers dealt with the challenges that 

this new technology presented—paper jams of all types, accidental spills of thousands of 

bits of paper from the punch-drive activity, corrections for time in processing the data, and 

entering those data into the computer. In the late 1970s and into the 1980s, first-generation 

Data Collection Platforms (DCPs) began use by the USGS, and this equipment provided some 

of the first real-time data for the country. Hydrographers had to develop computer programming skills to get the DCPs to collect the needed data. Despite these significant changes in 

technology for collecting stage record, hydrographers continued to use mechanical current 

meters as the primary method of making discharge measurements throughout the 

20th century.

In the 1990s, as the use of real-time data transmitters expanded exponentially, the USGS 

took the lead in developing software to store and archive those data, making them more 

widely available to the public. Additionally, devices using acoustic Doppler technology were 

developed by manufacturers and tested by the USGS. The hydrographer’s role changed 

significantly—from a job where mechanical skills were paramount to a position where 

computer programming and analytical skills are essential. Today, hydrographers use a variety 

of acoustic devices to make measurements during low and routine flow, as well as floods, 

in minutes instead of hours, and, in an environment where safety is of greatest importance. 

Right now, thousands of DCPs are sending data to USGS computers around the world which 

is subsequently released to the public on the Internet almost immediately after collection. 

Thus, critical information needed by the public to manage floods, droughts, reservoir levels, 

water quality, and water use, as well as long-term studies and recreational use are available 

in real time. And, at the helm of every one of these DCPs is the hydrographer, needed then 

just as now, to provide valuable water-resources information to the public. 

Stewart A. Tomlinson, Hydrologic Data Chief 

Florida Integrated Science Center—Tallahassee
iv
v

Contents

Preface ...........................................................................................................................................................iii

Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................................ix

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................2

History of White Springs...............................................................................................................................2

Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations .........................................................................4

Historic Data-Collection Operations..................................................................................................4

Operations during 1906-08..........................................................................................................4

Operations during 1927-32..........................................................................................................6

Operations during 1932-41..........................................................................................................8

Operations during 1941-63........................................................................................................10

Operations during 1963-79........................................................................................................13

Operations during 1979-87........................................................................................................14

Operations during 1987-96........................................................................................................15

Operations during 1996-2003....................................................................................................15

Operations during 2003-06........................................................................................................15

Computations of Daily Water-Level Elevation................................................................................17

Computations of Daily Streamflow ..................................................................................................23

Summary of Major Droughts and Flood Events ......................................................................................24

Major Droughts ...................................................................................................................................24

Drought of 1931-35.....................................................................................................................24

Drought of 1937-41.....................................................................................................................24

Drought of 1949-57.....................................................................................................................25

Drought of 1967-69.....................................................................................................................25

Drought of 1989-92.....................................................................................................................25

Drought of 1998-2002.................................................................................................................25

Major Floods........................................................................................................................................27

Flood of 1928 ...............................................................................................................................29

Flood of 1929 ...............................................................................................................................30

Flood of 1947 ...............................................................................................................................30

Flood of 1948 ...............................................................................................................................30

Flood of 1959 ...............................................................................................................................31

Flood of 1964 ...............................................................................................................................33

Flood of 1973 ...............................................................................................................................34

Flood of 1984 ...............................................................................................................................34

Flood of 1998 ...............................................................................................................................36

Flood of 2004 ...............................................................................................................................36

Progress of Streamgaging Activities and Costs.....................................................................................38

New Technology and Instrument Upgrades...................................................................................38

Streamflow Measurements ..............................................................................................................38

Streamgaging Costs Then and Now................................................................................................39

National Streamflow Information Program ....................................................................................40
vi

Conclusions...................................................................................................................................................41

References....................................................................................................................................................42

Timeline: History of the Suwannee River at White Springs Streamgage....................................18-19

Figures

 1. Map showing the site location of the Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida............1

 2. Picture of the original log hotel at White Springs constructed by Mr. and 

Mrs. Sheffield ................................................................................................................................3

 3. Picture of the new Spring House at White Springs constructed by Minnie Mosher 

Jackson ..........................................................................................................................................3

 4. Photograph of the original streamgage location at Highway 136 ........................................5

 5. Photograph of current meters that are used to make streamflow measurements at 

Suwannee River at White Springs.............................................................................................5 

 6. Schematic of what a chain gage would look like in 1906 ......................................................5

 7. Original station description as written by Warren E. Hall......................................................5

 8. Picture of what the staff gage would have looked like at the Suwannee River at 

White Springs streamgage .........................................................................................................6

 9. Updated site sketch showing the streamgage location, the Edgewood Hotel 

landmark, and White Springs drawn by P.E. Hanson on March 24, 1927 ............................7

10. Picture of the Edgewood Hotel circa 1925 ...............................................................................7

11. Picture of the new streamgage and location at Highway 41 in 1932 ...................................8

12–15. Photographs showing—

 12. A graphical recorder similar to one that would have been used to collect 

continuous water-level elevation data from 1932-63.......................................................9

 13. The newly constructed streamgage house at Highway 41 circa 1941.......................10

 14. The cable car that was used to maneuver back and forth across the stream on 

April 25, 1969.........................................................................................................................11

 15. The cableway circa 1941....................................................................................................11

16. New site sketch from October 17, 1940, illustrating the location of the 

streamgage and cableway........................................................................................................11

17–20. Photographs showing—

 17. A digital punch recorder similar to one that would have been used to collect 

continuous water-level elevation data at Suwannee River at White Springs 

from 1963-79 and 1987-96 ...................................................................................................12

 18. A wire-weight gage similar to one that was used at Suwannee River at 

White Springs from 1979-2006...........................................................................................14

 19. An electronic data recorder..............................................................................................14

 20. A Data Collection Platform.................................................................................................15

21. Example of the original observer’s booklet used in 1906 to compute daily 

water-level elevation data.........................................................................................................16

22. Example of the original observer’s booklet used in 1929 to compute daily 

water-level elevation data.........................................................................................................20

23. Comparison graph of Rating Number 1 and Rating Number 39 ..........................................22

24. Photograph of the Suwannee River at White Springs at Highway 41 on 

September 13, 1999, during the drought of 1998-2002 ..........................................................25
vii

25. Photograph of the Spring House at White Springs during the flood of SeptemberOctober 1928................................................................................................................................26

26. Water-level elevation and streamflow hydrographs of the three floods on the 

Suwannee River at White Springs during 1928 .....................................................................28

27–33. Photographs showing—

 27. The Spring House partially submerged during the flood of 1959.................................31

 28. Highway 41 in White Springs.............................................................................................31

 29. The streamgage at Highway 41 during the flood on September 16, 1964 ..................32

 30. Looking west at Highway 41 at White Springs during the flood on 

September 16, 1964 .............................................................................................................32

 31. Looking upstream of the Highway 41 Bridge at White Springs during 

the flood on September 16, 1964 .......................................................................................33

 32. The Highway 41 Bridge at Suwannee River at White Springs on 

April 10, 1973.........................................................................................................................34

 33. The Spring House in White Springs in April 1973 ..........................................................34

34. Hydrograph of water-level elevation and streamflow for the Suwannee River at 

White Springs during the flood of 1973 ...................................................................................35

35. Photograph of the remnants of the Spring House in White Springs during the 

flood of 1998.................................................................................................................................36

36. Photograph of the Suwannee River at White Springs looking upstream from the 

Highway 41 Bridge during the flood of 1998...........................................................................36

37. Water-level elevation and streamflow hydrographs of the floods on the Suwannee 

River at White Springs during 2004..........................................................................................37

38. Photograph of Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP) used to make 

streamflow measurements .......................................................................................................39

Tables

 1. Chronology of droughts in Florida (1906-2006) and impacts at the White Springs 

streamgage location ..................................................................................................................24

 2. Major floods and their impacts on the Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida 

streamgage location ..................................................................................................................27

Archival photograph 

of the Boat Ride 

attraction on the 

Suwannee River 

(photograph courtesy 

of the Florida Archive).
viii

Conversion Factors, Datum, and Acronyms

Multiply By To obtain

 Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

 Area

square miles (m2

) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

 Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NGVD 29).

ADCP Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers

DCP Data Collection Platforms

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

HDR High Data Rate

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NSIP National Streamflow Information Program

NWIS National Water Information System

NWIS Web National Water Information System Webpage

SRWMD Suwannee River Water Management District

USGS U.S. Geological Survey
ix

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Ms. Tracy Woodard (White Springs resident and librarian), Ms. Marlene Shaw 

(White Springs resident and librarian), and Mr. Malcolm Greene (White Springs resident) for their 

permission to print some of their personal photographs. Photographs and images from the State Library 

and Archives of Florida provided a pictoral history of early development in the White Springs area. 

Appreciation is extended to Tom Mirti (St. Johns Water Management District, formerly from the 

Suwannee River Water Management District), and Megan Wetherington (Suwannee River Water 

Management District) whose contributions enhanced the scientific merit of this report.

Leroy Pearman (U.S. Geological Survey, Florida Integrated Science Center-Orlando, Florida) provided 

technical review of the history and methods. Enterprise Publishing Network specialists Teresa Embry, 

Rhonda Howard, Ron Spencer, and Jim Tomberlin are recognized for their assistance with editorial 

review, graphic design, and layout.
x
Abstract 1

Abstract

For centuries, the banks of the Suwannee River at White 

Springs were considered a sacred ground where people 

sought refuge in its “healing waters.” Many believed that 

the mineral-enriched waters cured illnesses. The U.S. 

Geological Survey began continuous streamgaging activities at White Springs, Florida, in 1906 after an increase in 

congressional appropriations and rapid town development 

due to growing tourism and residential population. In 1906, 

streamgage data was a once-per-day gage reading that were 

handwritten in a water-level booklet by a local observer 

with discharge measurements taken every 6 to 8 weeks by a 

hydrographer. In 2006, real-time data were recorded at 1-hour 

increments and transmitted to U.S. Geological Survey 

computer networks using the Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellite, thus enabling the general public to 

access readings within minutes of the actual measurement. 

Additional data and measurements are taken and made 

available for high or low flows that occur during significant 

floods and droughts.

The gage at White Springs has recorded several historic 

hydrologic events that affected the Suwannee River and 

surrounding areas. Major droughts include those during 

1931-35, 1949-57, and 1998-2002. Severe floods occurred in 

1948, 1973, and 2004. On April 10, 1973, the discharge was 

38,100 cubic feet per second, which is the highest recorded 

discharge for the period of record. A flood of this magnitude 

is expected at a recurrence interval of about once every 200 to 

500 years.

Introduction

The “healing waters” from Florida’s White Sulphur 

Springs have drawn people to the banks of the Suwannee 

River at White Springs for many centuries. Visitors and 

residents believed that drinking and bathing with the springwater cured illnesses. In the early to mid-1800s, White 

Springs was the first tourist attraction in Florida, established 

when Mr. and Mrs. Sheffield built a log hotel beside the spring 

that flowed to the Suwannee River. The popularity of this 

natural resource led to the incorporation of White Springs in 

A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: 

History of U.S. Geological Survey Streamgaging Activities 

for the Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

By Richard Jay Verdi and Stewart A. Tomlinson

Figure 1. Site location of the Suwannee River at 

White Springs, Florida.

1885. The town became a flourishing tourist destination that 

included several lavish hotels, boarding houses, and other 

local attractions.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) began 

streamgaging activities on the Suwannee River at White 

Springs in 1906 when the town population and property 

developments increased around the spring area. Appropriations from the U.S. Congress for streamgaging activities 

across the Nation from 1903 to 1906 enabled the USGS to 

pay a local observer to read the non-recording gage once a 

day. The data were handwritten in an observer’s book that 

was examined by a USGS hydrographer on a regular basis. 

Water-level elevation data were subsequently published by 

the USGS using the observer’s daily reading as the mean for 

the day. USGS data collection and computation techniques 

for the Suwannee River at the White Springs streamgage have 

evolved dramatically since 1906, advancing from non-recording gages to graphical recorders to Data Collection Platforms. 

Currently (2009), the Suwannee River at White 

Springs streamgage (fig. 1) is part of a network of more than 

SUWANNEE

LAFAYETTE

DIXIE

LEVY

GILCHRIST

ALACHUA

COLUMBIA

HAMILTON

Suwannee River

Suwannee River

White

Springs

Fe River

Santa

MADISON

0 20 MILES

0 20 KILOMETERS

Gulf of

Mexico

GA

FL Location

of the

Suwannee

River Basin
2 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

500 streamgages in Florida where streamflow data 

are published by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

as daily mean, periodic, or annual peak. The USGS 

uses a Data Collection Platform (DCP) to collect 

and transmit real-time data using the Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), thus 

providing immediate availability of these data to the 

public on the Internet. Water-level elevation data are 

published by the USGS as the arithmetic mean of all 

data recorded in a 24-hour period. Periodic streamflow measurements every 6 to 8 weeks help to sustain 

a correlation between water-level elevation and 

streamflow on a regular basis. These measurements 

allow the computation of mean daily discharges.

Purpose and Scope

This report commemorates the 100th 

anniversary of continuous USGS streamgaging 

activities in Florida beginning with daily measurements in 1906 from the gage on Suwannee River 

at White Springs. The scientific history of this 

streamgage is recorded using narrative descriptions 

and images of data collection instruments, methods of 

data analyses, and explanations of data distribution. 

The chronological history of this streamgage is presented using a timeline and descriptions of significant 

hydrologic events that necessitated documentation of 

site locations and equipment status, water-level elevations and streamflow computations, and operational 

cost comparisons. Brief discussions and archival 

photographs portray most of the major floods and 

droughts that occurred in the vicinity of Suwannee 

River at White Springs from 1906 to 2006.

White 

 Springs

History of White Springs

The banks of the Suwannee River at White Springs have 

been considered “sacred ground” for many centuries, a place 

where people sought refuge and partook of the “healing waters.” 

Many believed that the mineral-enriched waters cured illnesses. 

During the 1700s, people of the Timucuan Nation inhabited 

the area around White Springs and the Suwannee River, which 

formed the western border with the Apalachee Nation. The 

Timucuans and Apalachees were known to drink and bathe 

together in the “healing waters” of the spring, while postponing any disagreements they had with each other (Tracy 

Woodard, White Springs Librarian, 2007, oral commun.; 

http://www.whitesprings.org, accessed March 19, 2008).

Spanish expeditions began in northern Florida in the early 

1500s with explorer Ponce De Leon, and later, by explorers 

Panfilo Narvaez and Hernando De Soto. The Spanish established 

missions across northern Florida with the intent of “civilizing” 

and converting the native populations to Christianity. British, 

French, and Spanish explorers fought over the area for the next 

200 years. The native inhabitants had little immunity against the 

European diseases introduced by these explorers. Tragically, 

90 percent of the native population died within a century of these 

explorers coming to the area. In the 1700s, Europeans migrated 

into present-day North and South Carolina, Georgia, and 

Alabama. Native Americans from many of these areas moved 

west, but some separated from the main groups and moved south 

into Florida. They displaced or merged with the remaining 

indigenous Tribes in Florida, and became collectively known as 

the “Seminoles” (possibly from the Creek word “ishi semoli” 

which was used to refer to people who had separated, seceded, 

or run away) at the same time as the European immigrants were 

being collectively referred to as “Americans” (http://www.

keyhistory.org/seminolespage1.html, accessed April 7, 2008). 

Above: Bridge Street in White Springs circa 1905 

(photograph courtesy of the Florida State Archive).
History of White Springs 3

The Spanish assumed control of Florida in 1783 as part of the treaty that ended the American Revolution. Clashes between the 

native Tribes and Spanish and American settlers occurred during the early 1800s. Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821 when 

Andrew Jackson served as Governor, and Tallahassee was established as the territorial capital in 1823 (Florida Memory Project, 

2007).

In 1835, Bryant and Elizabeth Sheffield purchased most of the town of White Springs, including the spring itself, for use 

as a large plantation. White Springs became the first tourist destination in Florida when Mr. and Mrs. Sheffield constructed a 

log hotel adjacent to the spring for visitors (fig. 2). The town continued to grow through the mid-1800s with the attraction of 

the spring, the wealth of forest lands that provided lumber and naval stores, and the fertile soil which was excellent for growing 

cotton. The continued growth of White Springs, as well as Florida, led to statehood in 1845. During the Civil War, Southerners 

used White Springs as a retreat to escape the ravages of battle and to restore their health by swimming in the water. Boosted 

by riverboat travel on the Florida coast and rail travel from the north, many visitors came in the late 1800s to enjoy what White 

Springs had to offer—the Suwannee River, the spring, and the warm climate. Residents and visitors could enjoy 14 luxury 

hotels, several boarding houses, a store, cotton gin, gristmill, bowling alley, skating rink, moving picture shows, and boutiques. 

White Springs was incorporated in 1885 and was soon able to provide its residents with public drinking water, sidewalks, and a 

night watchman. Minnie Mosher Jackson upgraded the original log hotel at the spring to a spa in 1903 that included treatment 

rooms, a concession area, and an elevator (fig. 3) (Florida State Archive, 2008). 

The USGS installed the first streamgage in Florida on the Suwannee River at White Springs in May 1906. There is no 

archival documentation that explains why the first streamgage was activated at White Springs; however, a plausible theory can 

be developed based upon available facts. Firstly, single miscellaneous discharge measurements were made at White Springs, 

Blue Spring, Green Cove Spring, Orange Spring, and Salt Springs in 1892-93. The measured discharge at White Springs was 

44.56 ft3/s (Powell, 1894). Secondly, daily water-level data began to be collected almost simultaneously at Silver Springs near 

Ocala, Florida, another popular tourist destination. Miscellaneous discharge measurements had been made at Silver Springs and 

at Dunnellon Springs in 1898 (Mycyk and Heath, 1988, p. 2). The USGS made flow measurements at several locations in northern Florida in December 1904, including three on the Suwannee River near White Springs (Hall and Hoyt, 1905, p. 181). More 

frequent requests from the general public for flow data from this reach of the Suwannee River were received during these early 

years. Thirdly, the U.S. Congress increased appropriations for streamgaging from $100,000 annually in 1902 to $200,000 

annually from 1903-06 (Hall and Bolster, 1909, p. 7). Fourthly, F.H. Newell, who was in charge of the newly formed Hydrographic Branch of the USGS, wanted to use the increased appropriation to foster publicity and seek nationwide expansion for 

the program (Follansbee, 1994, p. 87). Therefore, it is probable that the White Springs location was selected because of available funds and popularity as a tourist destination on a major river in a State that had no gages. The White Springs and Silver 

Springs gages could have increased public support for the gaging program at a time when increased program expansion was a 

goal. Unfortunately, subsequent Congressional appropriations for the streamgaging program were reduced. The appropriation 

was reduced to $150,000 in 1907, then down to $100,000 in 1908-10. This would explain discontinuance of the gage in 

December 1908. 

Top: Archival image of White Springs with a view of the Suwannee River from the Spring House 

(image courtesy of the Florida State Archive).

Figure 2. The original log hotel at White Springs constructed by Mr. and Mrs. Sheffield 

(lower left; 1906, photograph courtesy of Tracy Woodard).

Figure 3. The new Spring House at White Springs constructed by Minnie Mosher Jackson 

(lower right; 1907, photograph courtesy of the Florida State Archive). 
4 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Historic Data-Collection Operations 

and Computations

This section describes the data-collection operations at 

White Springs from 1906-2006. Additionally, computations of 

daily water-level elevation and daily streamflow are described 

herein.

Historic Data-Collection Operations

Historically, the streamgage at White Springs has been 

operated at one of two locations: (1) at the county highway 

bridge (Highway 136), or (2) the bridge at U.S. Highway 41. 

During the early years of data collection (1906-08 and 

1927-32), the streamgage was located at Highway 136 and 

then relocated to the newly constructed bridge on U.S. 

Highway 41 in 1932. With the exception of a short period 

from 1979 to 1983 (when the streamgage was relocated to 

Highway 136), data collection took place at the U.S. Highway 

41 location during the remainder of the period of record. This 

section describes the data-collection operations since 1906. 

Operations during 1906-08

Daily operation of the White Springs gage began 

May 28, 1906, when the non-recording chain gage was 

installed on the county highway bridge (fig. 4) in White 

Springs by Warren E. Hall. However, a streamflow measurement was made 12 days earlier on May 16 (Hall and Bolster, 

1909) using a Price current meter (fig. 5). Price current meters 

feature a rotating-cup wheel that sends electronic signals in the 

form of audible clicks. The person making the measurement 

counted and timed the audible clicks, then converted these to 

velocity and streamflow. Measurements were made by 

wading across the stream during low flow. During medium 

and higher flows, measurements were made from the bridge 

at the streamgage location.

A local observer read the chain gage (fig. 6) once a day 

to determine the elevation of the water surface. A chain gage 

is a sash chain and weight gage mounted to a cantilevered arm 

with ruler-like gage sections and index marker that extends 

over the stream. The water level is measured by lowering 

the weight until it barely touches the water surface. The 

water level is read from the ruler-like gage sections and index 

marker (Rantz and others, 1982). The observer for the early 

years of streamgage operation was local storekeeper J.H. Hunt 

(Hall and Bolster, 1909). Mr. Hunt read the chain gage once 

each day at 7:00 a.m. local time and was paid $3 per month 

for his services.
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 5

river above and below the streamgage, the condition of the 

river banks, the river bed, and information about conditions 

that may affect streamflow measurements. The streamgage 

was discontinued December 31, 1908, probably due to 

reductions in the USGS appropriations for the streamgaging program (Hall and Bolster, 1909; Follansbee, 1994). 

A major fire on February 24, 1911 (Jasper News, 1911; 

Hamilton County Bicentennial Committee, 1976), destroyed 

or damaged 35 buildings, including mercantile establishments 

and hotels. Nearly $200,000 in losses 

was estimated (Jasper News, 1911; 

Hamilton County Bicentennial Committee, 1976). The fire, and the decline of 

the riverboat era, had significant impact 

on the economy of the town and 

northern Florida.

Warren E. Hall made five discharge measurements 

from May 16, 1906, to November 16, 1907, of streamflow 

ranging from 93 to 5,350 ft3/s, which were used to develop a 

water-level elevation and streamflow correlation for the gage. 

Mr. Hall wrote a station description for the White Springs 

streamgage (fig. 7), which included information about the 

streamgage location with respect to nearby towns, highways, 

bridges, and railroads. The station description also included 

details about the equipment located at the streamgage, of the 

Figure 5. Current meters that are used 

to make streamflow measurements 

at Suwannee River at White Springs. 

These meters have been used to 

measure streamflow since before the 

installation of the streamgage at White 

Springs (top left; Rantz and others, 1982).

Figure 6. Schematic of what a chain 

gage would look like in 1906. The chain 

gage was used by the observer from 

1906-1908 (bottom left; Rantz and others, 

1982).

Figure 4. The original streamgage 

location at Highway 136 (above; 2007, 

photograph by Richard Jay Verdi, 

USGS).

Figure 7. Original station description as written by Warren E. Hall. Mr. Hall wrote a station description for the White Springs streamgage 

which included information about the streamgage’s location with respect to nearby towns, highways, bridges, and railroads. The station 

description also included descriptions of equipment located at the streamgage, of the river above and below the streamgage, of the condition 

of the river banks, the river bed, and information about conditions that may affect streamflow measurements. 
6 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Operations during 1927-32

The streamgage was reactivated on 

February 8, 1927, at the same location on the 

county highway bridge by P.E. Hanson. It is not 

known why, after nearly 20 years, the streamgage 

was reactivated, but several fiscal and environmental events occurred that may have been 

contributing factors. Firstly, there was a large 

increase in State contributions to the streamgaging 

program from 1919 to 1928 (R. Follansbee, 

unpub. data, undated, p. 1). This occurred partly 

as a result of decreased Federal appropriations for 

the streamgaging program, and partly because 

of an increased interest in power production 

for a growing population after World War I 

(R. Follansbee, unpub. data, undated, p. 1). Hydropower was a primary source of electric energy 

during this era, and streamflow records were 

necessary to assess the feasibility of water-power 

development. Perhaps not coincidentally, three 

other gages were installed in 1927 in the Suwannee 

River basin—on the Suwannee River at Ellaville 

and at Luraville, and on the Santa Fe River near 

Ft. White. A steam-electric powerplant began operation in 1953 using water from the Suwannee River 

below the Ellaville gage. Secondly, two gages were 

established on the Ochlocknee River in 1926—one 

at Havana and one at Bloxham—probably to gather 

data for management of the Lake Talquin dam 

and hydroelectric powerplant (now the C.H. Corn 

hydroelectric plant) built in 1929. An environmental factor for reactivation of the White Springs 

gage in 1927 was that the 1926 hurricane season 

produced eight hurricanes, one of which caused 

severe flooding and damage to summer crops in 

north-central Florida in July (Barnes, 1998). The 

July hurricane made landfall on the 

east coast of Florida and continued northwest, 

moving through the Suwannee River basin and 

into Georgia and Alabama (Barnes, 1998). Thus, it 

seems probable that the White Springs gage was 

reactivated because of the need for water data to 

assess the feasibility of using the Suwannee River 

to produce hydroelectric power, and the need for 

peak stage and flow information to assess the 

potential for flooding. 

The streamgage was reactivated as a nonrecording staff gage. Essentially, this was a ruler 

attached to a permanent structure in the stream pool 

where the water level was being measured (fig. 8). 

A new, more detailed, station description which 

included a better site sketch was hand drawn in 

1927 by P.E. Hanson and is shown in figure 9. The 

site sketch shows the location of the Edgewood 

Hotel (fig. 10), as a landmark and one of the luxury 

Figure 8. Picture of what the staff gage would have looked like at the 

Suwannee River at White Springs streamgage (above; Rantz 

and others, 1982).
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 7

hotels in White Springs at the time. The Edgewood Hotel was 

destroyed by a fire and the former location remains a vacant 

lot. Two local observers read the non-recording staff gage 

twice each day, usually around 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. local 

time. The first observer was D.H. Williams, who operated 

a pressing shop in White Springs. He was paid $5 per 

month to read the staff gage from February 8, 1927, to 

February 16, 1929. The second observer was M.L. 

Scarborough, who operated a store and blacksmith shop at 

Figure 9. Updated site sketch showing the streamgage location, the Edgewood Hotel landmark, 

and White Springs drawn by P.E. Hanson on March 24, 1927 (above).

Figure 10. The 

Edgewood Hotel 

circa 1925 (above; 

picture courtesy of 

Tracy Woodard).

the left end of the highway bridge. He read the staff gage 

from February 16, 1929, to August 8, 1932, and was paid $7 

per month for his services. During this period, the Great 

Florida Land Boom brought prosperity to the State and a 

highway system was initiated with the increased use of the 

automobile. By 1930, Suwannee River at White Springs was 

one of nine streamgages in Florida and a USGS office opened 

in Ocala with D.S. Wallace as the Florida District Engineer 

(Follansbee, unpub. data, p. 29).
8 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Operations during 1932-41

The White Springs gage remained funded and active 

during the 1932-41 period despite declining tourism due to the 

economic impacts of the Great Depression and the southern 

expansion of the railroads, thus, taking the tourist business 

away from the northern areas of Florida. Increased demand 

for hydrologic data and studies throughout Florida in response 

to drought, irrigation use, and population growth allowed 

for two hydrologic investigations offices to be established in 

1939—one in Tallahassee and one in Miami (R. Follansbee, 

unpub. data, p. 261-267). For the first time, a continuous 

record of gage heights was obtained at the White Springs 

site using the newest technology, a graphical recorder. R.P. 

Mangold installed a continuous water-level graphical recorder 

on June 20, 1932, with attached float tape mechanism in a 

wooden shelter over a corrugated iron pipe stilling well at the 

new bridge location on U.S. Highway 41 (figs. 11 and 12). 

The non-recording staff gage was discontinued as the 

primary gage on July 31, 1932. Beginning on August 1, 1932, 

continuous water-level data from the recorder were used to 

compute daily mean water-level elevations. The hydrographer 

verified the water level recorded by the graphical recorder 

with the non-recording staff gage during each site visit. 

This procedure became one of the first efforts to ensure 

quality assurance of water data by the USGS. However, 

the technology of a continuous-record gage with associated 

quality-assurance practices presented some challenges. R.P. 

Mangold wrote a memo to the Washington Office (USGS 

headquarters) on January 3, 1934, which states: 

“The recorder at this station has caused more trouble 

than any other in the district. The clock has stopped 

repeatedly in spite of frequent replacements, 

cleaning, and adjusting, additional driving weight, 

etc. The float cable hung on several occasions, 

especially on a rapid rise or fall, when one of the 

solder balls failed to discharge from the float wheel, 

and quite a bit of record was lost from this cause.” 

Thus, observers were still a critical part of the streamgaging 

program and enabled the USGS to fill gaps in the record.

Figure 11. The new streamgage and location at Highway 41 in 1932 

(above; photograph by USGS).

The recorder at this station has caused more trouble than any other 

in the district. The clock has stopped repeatedly in spite of frequent 

replacements, cleaning, and adjusting, additional driving weight, etc. 

The float cable hung on several occasions, especially on a rapid rise 

or fall, when one of the solder balls failed to discharge from the float 

wheel, and quite a bit of record was lost from this cause.

 —R.P. Mangold, January 3, 1934
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 9

Figure 12. A graphical recorder similar to one that would have been used to collect continuous water-level elevation data from 1932-63 

(above; Rantz and others, 1982).
10 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Operations during 1941-63

During the 1941-63 period, the White Springs gage 

structure was modified to withstand floods. The sturdier 

construction made it easier and safer for hydrographers to 

complete measurements from the bridge. On June 10, 1941, 

the continuous water-level graphical recorder was relocated 

to a new concrete gage house and stilling well at the same 

location as the wooden shelter and well (fig. 13). A cableway 

was erected at the gage in 1941 to assure employee safety. 

In a letter dated May 5, 1941, from USGS Acting District 

Engineer G.E. Ferguson to C.W. Marsh in Lake City (a private 

citizen who owned the property on the south side of the river 

where the cableway anchors needed to be set), Mr. Ferguson 

requested permission to build the cableway on Mr. Marsh’s 

land, stating that his engineers “are in constant danger of being 

struck by fast-moving trucks and automobiles” on the highway 

bridge. Permission was granted, and the cableway was 

constructed in June 1941, about 250 ft downstream from the 

gage. This location facilitated making streamflow measurements when the water level was too high to wade across the 

stream. Mr. J.A. McCabe made the first flow measurement 

from the cableway on July 9, 1941. The person making the 

streamflow measurement was able to move across the stream 

by sitting inside a metal “cable car” (fig. 14) that could be 

maneuvered back and forth on a cable across the stream 

(fig. 15). The cable was anchored to concrete blocks built into 

the banks on both sides of the river using an A-frame for 

support (fig. 15). Measurements were made from this car using 

a sounding reel and Price current meter. A site sketch (fig. 16) 

developed in the planning stages of the new gage on October 

17, 1940, showed the location of the new gage house and 

cableway. During World War II, personnel servicing the White 

Springs gage, along with other streamgages in Florida, were 

called for military duty (R. Follansbee, unpub. data, undated, 

p. 5 and p. 125). At least four of the hydrographers for the 

White Springs gage—T.G. Johnson, G.B. Harrell Jr., J.A. 

McCabe, and M.S. Gardner—served in the military during 

the war for various periods between 1942 and 1946 

(R. Follansbee, unpub. data, p. 125).

The USGS intermittently used observers from 1941 

to 1963. These observers, as in the past, filled in data gaps 

caused by malfunctions of the continuous data recorder. Clock 

stoppage was the most persistent cause of missing record 

during this period. When the continuous data recorder failed 

or was being repaired, the observers inspected the streamgage 

once a day. When the continuous data recorder was installed 

and operational, observers inspected the recorder weekly to 

ensure it was in good working order. If the recorder malfunctioned, the observer would read the staff gage each day 

to obtain a water-level elevation. These observers were either 

private citizens who were paid for their efforts, or personnel 

from State agencies, such as the Florida Game and Freshwater 

Fish Commission. 
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 11

Figure 13. The newly constructed streamgage house at Highway 41 circa 1941 

(upper left; photograph by USGS).

Figure 15. The cableway 

circa 1941 (lower left; 

photograph by USGS).

Figure 16. New site sketch from October 17, 1940, illustrating the location of the streamgage and 

cableway (above).

Figure 14. The cable car 

that was used to maneuver 

back and forth across the 

stream on April 25, 1969 

(below; photograph by 

USGS).
12 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Figure 17. A digital punch recorder similar to one that would have been used to collect continuous water-level elevation data at 

Suwannee River at White Springs from 1963-79 and 1987-96 (above; Rantz and others, 1982).
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 13

Operations during 1963-79

The technologically advanced digital recorders were installed at the White Springs gage 

in 1963. On August 1, 1963, the USGS replaced the graphical recorder with a digital punch 

recorder (fig. 17) with attached float tape mechanism and a backup graphical recorder at the 

same location. Digital recorders are battery operated paper-tape punch machines that record 

a four-digit number on a paper tape at a pre-selected time increment, such as 1-hour intervals 

(Rantz and others, 1982). At the White Springs gage, the digital recorder initially collected 

data every 15 minutes. The backup graphical recorder was removed May 17, 1966. The 

programming was modified in 1968 for the digital recorder to record every hour, rather than 

every 15 minutes. Intermittent observer readings continued to be made at the site, with 

regular observations made by the Suwannee River Water Management District (SRWMD) 

beginning in 1973 when the main office was established in White Springs (Tom Mirti, 

Suwannee River Water Management District, oral commun., August 30, 2007). In addition 

to the observer readings, hydrographs from adjacent streamgages at Suwannee Springs and 

Benton were used to quality assure water data collected at the White Springs gage. Data 

collection at U.S. Highway 41 continued until September 26, 1979, when the Florida 

Department of Transportation began construction of a new bridge. 

Above: Highway 41 Bridge crossing the Suwannee River in April 1973 (photograph by USGS).
14 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Operations during 1979-87

A wire-weight gage became the primary instrument for 

obtaining water levels at White Springs during this period. 

While bridge construction on U.S. Highway 41 progressed 

from October 11, 1979, to December 1, 1983, the USGS 

relocated the streamgage downstream to the original location 

at Highway 136 and operated a non-recording wire-weight 

gage. The non-recording wire-weight gage was read each day 

by an observer to obtain water-level elevation. A wire-weight 

gage (fig. 18) consists of a drum wound with a layer of cable 

with a bronze weight attached to the end. To read the waterlevel elevation, a hydrographer lowers the weight to the top 

of the water surface and reads the elevation on the attached 

graduated disc and Veeder counter (Rantz and others, 1982). 

Observer gage-height readings were plotted and compared 

to hydrographs at the Suwannee Springs and Benton gages 

for quality assurance. The SRWMD made numerous flow 

measurements at the White Springs gage from 1980 to 1983, 

reflective of an enhanced cooperative effort with the USGS 

and the need for additional flow measurements during a period 

of drought. The SRWMD office moved to Live Oak in 1983, 

and the USGS assumed responsibility for most of the flow 

measurements at the site.

Because of safety concerns, the cableway, car, and 

A-frame support structure were dismantled. The last 

measurement made from the cableway was on January 6, 

1982, by C.W. Calhoun. Completion of the new highway 

bridge provided a wider easement and high-water streamflow 

measurements could be made safely on its downstream side 

using a bridge crane and Price current meter. The wire-weight 

gage was moved to the U.S. Highway 41 location on 

December 2, 1983, and continued to be the primary gage 

until May 1, 1987.

Figure 18. A wire-weight gage similar to one that was used 

at Suwannee River at White Springs from 1979-2006 (left; 

photograph by Stewart Tomlinson, USGS).

Figure 19. An electronic data recorder. One similar to this was 

used to collect continuous data at Suwannee River at White 

Springs from 1996-2003 (below; photograph by USGS).
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 15

Operations during 1987-96

The USGS installed another digital punch recorder at 

the U.S. Highway 41 location on May 1, 1987, and set the 

instrument to collect data at hourly intervals. Water-level 

elevations were measured using a fluidgage orifice. A 

fluidgage uses compressed nitrogen gas to measure the 

water pressure above the sensor and then converts the 

water pressure to water-level elevation using an internal 

mathematical equation. The observer continued reading 

the non-recording wire-weight gage throughout this period 

because of frequent equipment malfunction and damage from 

vandalism. Data from the fluidgage fluctuated by about 

0.04 ft in stage due to the hysteresis lag in the recorder. This 

required numerous tape corrections to make it conform to 

the observer readings. Over a period of years (1987-96), 

USGS personnel attempted to modify the equipment at the 

streamgage to improve the quality of the continuous data. 

However, because of continued instrument problems and 

vandalism at the site, good quality continuous data were 

unattainable except for intermittent periods. Thus, the 

observer readings from the wire-weight gage were typically 

used to compute the final record. In the 1990 station analysis, hydrographer G.T. Losey wrote: “When you consider the 

effort that goes into entering the observer data, you feel you 

might as well use it solely.”

Operations during 1996-2003

The USGS replaced the digital recorder and fluidgage 

with an electronic basic data recorder (fig. 19) with a vented 

submersible pressure transducer on July 1, 1996, to resume 

continuous data collection at 1-hour intervals. A pressure 

transducer is an instrument that measures the pressure above 

the sensor and converts it to water-level elevation. The wireweight gage continued to be read and those data were used to 

fill gaps in the electronic data, or make gage-height corrections 

to those data. A SRWMD-owned electronic data logger and 

phone line were installed on September 18, 1997, so that data 

could be retrieved using telephone modems. This new communication method provided collection, analysis, and quality 

assurance of continuous data at a more frequent interval, such 

as daily or weekly. Previously, a hydrographer had to visit 

the site every 6 to 8 weeks to download data to a personal 

laptop computer. These data were retrieved by computer 

programs using the telephone line and transferring data into 

the USGS National Water Information System (NWIS). The 

SRWMD also retrieved the same data for input to their hydrologic database. Later, the data were displayed on the public 

Internet, thus allowing users from across the world to view 

near real-time data at the White Springs gage and hundreds of 

other USGS gages across the country. Canoers, kayakers, and 

fishermen began to use the streamgage data for indications of 

optimal recreational conditions in the upper Suwannee River 

basin.

Figure 20. A Data Collection Platform. One similar to this was used at 

the Suwannee River at White Springs to collect and transmit by satellite 

continuous water-level elevation from 2003-06 (below; photograph by USGS).

Operations during 2003-06

The USGS personnel made regularly 

scheduled site visits to the White Springs 

gage to inspect the instruments and make 

streamflow measurements. Hydrographers 

removed the SRWMD-owned electronic 

data logger from service on August 7, 

2003, and replaced it with a DCP 

(fig. 20) set to record data once every 

hour. The DCP consisted of an electronic 

data logger coupled with a satellite 

transmitter. The phone line and modem 

were maintained by the SRWMD to 

retrieve data for their database and 

public web site. A submersible pressure 

transducer continued to measure waterlevel elevation. The DCP transmitted 

data every 4 hours using GOES satellite 

telemetry and updated the National 

Water Information System Webpage 

(NWISWeb) within a few minutes for 

public viewing. The non-recording 

wire-weight gage continued to be 

periodically used to set the gage height 

on the DCP and to quality assure the 

electronic data set.
16 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Figure 21. Example of the original observer’s booklet used in 1906 to compute daily water-level elevation data.
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 17

Computations of Daily Water-Level Elevation

During the periods when observer readings were the 

primary source of reliable record at the gage (1906-08, 

1927-32, 1979-83, and 1983-96), the USGS published daily 

water-level elevations computed from the single observation 

of the day, or, if two observations were made, as the arithmetic average. Readings by the observer were logged in a 

River Height Observations booklet or a field measurement 

sheet supplied by the USGS. At the end of each quarterly 

observation period, a USGS hydrographer would collect the 

booklet or note sheets from the observer and provide new ones 

for the next quarter. Figure 21 shows a sample of the original 

observation book used by Mr. Hunt from May 28, to June 30, 

1906. Remarks were made in the observation book on June 16, 

stating that heavy rain fell that day. The water-level elevation 

was 13.50 ft, which equates to 62.04 ft above the National 

Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29) after the gage 

datum of 48.54 ft is applied. The letter X next to a date 

signifies that the day was a Saturday. The observations were 

used as daily water-level elevations and are shown in the 

figure in the column labeled MEAN HEIGHT. Figure 22 

shows a sample from the original observation book used by 

Mr. Scarborough from October 1 to December 31, 1929. 

Two observations were recorded each day, and the daily 

water-level elevation was computed as the arithmetic mean 

of the two observations. Similar to the climate notes in 

Mr. Hunt’s booklets, the weather conditions were noted in 

Mr. Scarborough’s booklets. A hydrographer would compute 

the daily water-level elevations, and a second hydrographer 

would check and verify the data for publication. 

A graphical recorder furnished a continuous ink trace of 

water-level elevation with respect to time on a paper strip chart 

from 1932 to 1963 (Rantz and others, 1982). USGS hydrographers conducted periodic streamgage inspections. During 

these inspections, hydrographers performed the following 

activities:

• Made streamflow measurements;

• Read the recorder and outside reference gages (the nonrecording wire-weight gage or staff gage), and noted 

any differences; 

• Collected the paper strip chart and replaced the chart 

(if needed); and 

• Adjusted the recorder to the outside reference gages 

(if needed). 
18 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1

1885

1894

USGS lists White

Springs as a major

spring in 1892-93

Annual Report

to the Director

Town of

White Springs

Incorporated

1898

USGS

makes

miscellaneous

flow

measurements

at Silver and

Dunnelon

Springs

USGS

Streamgaging

Budget

1902 $100,000

1903-06 $200,000

1907 $150,000

1908 $100,000

1903

Minnie

Mosher

Jackson

upgrades

hotel to

a spa

1906

1908

White

Springs

gage

discontinued

1911

Fire destroys

35 structures in

White Springs

}

USGS

Streamgaging

Budget

1919-28 Increase in

State contributions

to streamgaging

program

}

1928-29

Floods

White Springs gage

re-established as a

non-recording

staff gage

Local observers used

to record staff gage

1932-83

1927

1931-35

Drought

}

1937-41

Drought

}

1932

1941

May 28, 1906

Suwannee River at White Springs

gage established

Streamflow measurements made

with Price current meter.

Gage relocated

to Highway 41

in a concrete

gagehouse

Cableway

for flow

measurements

completed

Continuous geographical

recorder installed

Readings compared to

outside staff gage

}

1941-46

U.S. involvement in

WWII pulls four

hydrographers

from duty

1939

Tallahassee

and Miami

USGS offices

established

194

Flood s

peak o

83.99 ft

23,300 

1

F

s

o

8

2

Pre-1875

Timucuan Nation

inhabits White

Springs area

Spanish and English

exploration and

settlement

White Springs

area settled in

1835 by the

Sheffield family

Florida becomes

as State in 1845

Primary sources of record

Observer readings;

mean daily flow

computed from single

or multiple daily

observer readings

Graphical recorder

Digital punch recorder

Electronic data logger

Data collection platform

(satellite real-time data)

1904

USGS makes

flow measurements at

several

locations in

north Florida

near White

Springs

1926-27

Five streamgages

established in

north Florida

History of the Suwannee River

at White Springs Streamgage

in Florida
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 19

MIAMI-DADE

BROWARD

PALM BEACH

COLLIER

HENDRY

LEE

MONROE

CHARLOTTE GLADES

DE SOTO

MANATEE HARDEE

SARASOTA

HIGHLANDS

OKEECHOBEE

ST LUCIE

MARTIN

INDIAN

RIVER

POLK

OSCEOLA HILLSBOROUGH

PASCO

HERNANDO

CITRUS SUMTER

LAKE

ORANGE

SEMINOLE

VOLUSIA

BREVARD

MARION

LEVY

FLAGLER

PUTNAM

ST JOHNS

CLAY

DUVAL

NASSAU

BAKER

UNIONBRADFORD

ALACHUA

GILCHRIST

COLUMBIA

SUWANNEE HAMILTON

LAFAYETTE

DIXIE

TAYLOR

MADISON

LEON

WAKULLA

JEFFERSON

LIBERTY

GADSDEN

FRANKLIN GULF

CALHOUN

JACKSON WASHINGTON

BAY

HOLMES

WALTON OKALOOSA

ESCAMBIA

SANTA

ROSA

PINELLAS

G U L F O F M E X I C O

A T L A N T I C O C E A N

A L A B A M A

G E O R G I A

0 25 50 75 100 MILES

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

31°

30°

29°

28°

27°

26°

25°

87° 86° 85° 84° 83° 82° 81° 80°

Pensacola

Field Office

Tallahassee

Office

Gainesville

Office

Orlando Office

Tampa Office

St. Petersburg

Office

Fort Myers

Field Office

Fort Lauderdale

Office

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

ted

41

e

nts

}

46

ement in

s four

hers

1947

Flood site fifth

peak of record

83.99 ft

23,300 ft3/s

1948

Flood site

second peak

of record

85.17 ft

28,500 ft3/s

1949-57

Drought

}

1967-69

Drought

}

1959

Flood

1963

Digital punch

recorder

installed

1964

Flood site

fourth peak

of record

84.34 ft

23,300 ft3/s

1966

Backup

graphical

recorder

removed

1973

SRWMD established

office in White Springs

1973

Flood peak

of record

88.56 ft

38,100 ft3/s

1979-87

Gage relocated to Highway 136

during construction of new

Highway 41 Bridge

Gage operated as wire-weight

gage read daily by observers

}

1984

Flood site

third peak

of record

85.40 ft

26,200 ft3/s

1982

Cableway

discontinued

for safety

reasons

1983

Measurements

made from

new Highway 41

Bridge

1989-92

Drought

}

1988

Flood

Lowest

instantaneous

streamflow

2.8 ft3/s

1996

Electronic

Basic

Data Recorder

with pressure

transducer

installed

1987

Fluid gage

and digital punch

recorder installed

at Highway 41

1998

Flood

1997

Electronic data

logger and

phone modem

installed

Lowest

annual

streamflow

144 ft3/s

1998-2002

Drought

}

2005-?

Drought

}

2003

Electronic Basic Data

Recorder with pressure

transducer installed

2006

Flood

2004

100th anniversary

of establishment

of Suwannee River

at White Springs gage

May 28, 2006

Flow Measurements

1906-2000 Mechanical Price

current meter

2000-present Mechanical current

meter and acoustic

doppler current

meter

Data Products

1906-2004 Paper annual

data report

2005-2006 Data on compact

disk

2007-present Internet-based

accessible files

Composite 

photograph of the 

Suwannee River 

at White Springs 

looking upstream 

from cable car 

(photograph by 

USGS).
20 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Figure 22. Example of the original observer’s booklet used in 1929 to compute daily water-level elevation data.
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 21

The hydrographer computed daily water-level elevations 

by determining the point on the strip chart that most represented the mean of the continuous water level traced by the 

pen for a specific day. If an inspection showed that the outside 

reference gage and strip chart values did not match, the hydrographer would make corrections to the strip-chart data to 

reflect what the outside reference gage read. If the recorder 

malfunctioned and resulted in missing data, the hydrographer 

estimated water-level elevations from the observer’s gage 

readings, or by comparing the station record with upstream or 

downstream gages.

Digital recorders provided a time series of mechanical 

punches representing the gage height on paper-tape 

during 1963-79 and 1987-96. Hydrographers computed the 

mean daily water-level elevation as the arithmetic mean of 

individual punched readings of water-level elevation during 

a given day. For example, if the continuous data recorder 

recorded data every hour (60 minutes), then the arithmetic 

mean would be the sum of the recorded values divided by 

24 (number of data points punched in a single day). When the 

recorder failed, observer readings were used as daily means, or 

estimates were made from hydrographic comparison at gages 

upstream such as Suwannee River near Benton, or downstream 

such as Suwannee River at Suwannee Springs.

Hydrographers have used electronic data loggers and 

DCPs at the White Springs gage since 1996. These pieces of 

equipment store large amounts of data in a buffer within the 

data logger. Hydrographers program the recorders directly or 

with laptop computers to record data at specified intervals, such 

as 15 or 60 minutes, depending upon the rate at which gage 

height changes could occur. The recorder was programmed 

to take a water-level elevation every 60 minutes for the 

streamgage at White Springs. During site visits, hydrographers 

transfer these data to a laptop computer or other electronic 

storage device, and then upload to the USGS computers 

for entry into the NWIS database. Additionally, data are 

transmitted to USGS computers through telephone or satellite 

telemetry. Similar to digital recorders, the computer calculates 

the daily water-level elevations as the arithmetic mean of 

individual measurements of water-level elevation for a 

specific day. 
22 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

149

59

50

49.1

49.01

ELEVATION, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000

Rating

No. 39

Rating

No. 1

Rating

No. 1

Rating No. 39

Figure 23. Comparison graph of Rating Number 1 and Rating Number 39.
Historic Data-Collection Operations and Computations 23

Computations of Daily Streamflow

Continuous records of streamflow at Suwannee River at 

White Springs are computed by applying a streamflow rating 

for the stream to records of water-level elevation. Streamflow ratings are determined empirically by means of periodic 

water-level elevation and streamflow measurements (Rantz 

and others, 1982). Streamflow measurements are plotted on a 

graph with concurrent water-level elevation measurements to 

define the streamflow rating curve. This curve is typically the 

best-fit line through these plotted points, although there could 

be breaks where the slope of the curve changes due to the 

geometry of the stream channel. After a rating has been 

developed, hydrographers make periodic measurements every 

6 to 8 weeks to assess any changes in the relation between 

water-level elevation and streamflow (Rantz and others, 1982). 

Additional measurements are also made at high and low flows 

to ensure that the measurements encompass most of the range 

of stage observed during the year.

Streamflow ratings are not permanent because physical 

changes, either permanent or temporary, in the reach of the 

river or channel downstream from the streamgage location can 

occur gradually or abruptly. Physical changes in the river 

system, such as vegetative growth during spring and summer, 

can cause a temporary change in the streamflow rating to the 

left of the defined rating curve as the vegetation causes the 

same discharge, but at a gradually higher water level. 

Therefore, a “shift” or adjustment to the rating may be 

developed to use during these seasons. If there is an abrupt 

change in the river system which affects the control for the 

gage and alters the connection between water-level elevation 

and streamflow, a new rating may be required. An example 

would be a major flood or storm, where flood waters deposit 

trees on the control, or, strong winds knock trees down into the 

stream causing them to act as a control. 

During 1906-2006, the gage at Suwannee River at White 

Springs had 39 streamflow ratings. Rating Number 1 was 

used during the infancy of the streamgage from 1906 to 

1908. Rating Number 39 has been used since October 10, 

2006. Figure 23 shows Rating Number 1 compared to Rating 

Number 39 and streamflow measurements used for those 

ratings. The comparison of the two ratings demonstrates the 

stability of the stage-discharge connection and the consistency 

of the discharge measurement techniques used by USGS 

personnel throughout the 100-year history of the gage.
24 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Summary of Major Drought and 

Flood Events

Florida has experienced several major droughts and 

floods since 1906. These significant hydrologic events are 

summarized in this section. The major droughts discussed in 

this section are those that (1) have 7-day low flow recurrence 

intervals of 10 years or greater, or (2) those having annual 

mean streamflow percent of average less than 20 percent. 

Some less severe droughts also occurred during the periods of 

record in 1960-64, 1970-77, and 1980-82, but are not 

discussed herein as they did not substantially impact the 

White Springs area. The floods discussed in this section are 

those ranking in the top 10 highest with regards to high flow 

recurrence intervals.

Major Droughts

Several major droughts that have occurred in Florida 

during the last century have had a dramatic impact on the 

White Springs area. Table 1 summarizes these droughts and 

states their effects on the Suwannee River at White Springs 

for the period of record for the streamgage (1906-08 and 

1927-2006). The photograph shown in figure 24 is a view 

of the Suwannee River at White Springs looking upstream 

from Highway 41 taken September 13, 1999, during the 

statewide drought of 1998-2002. The most severe 

documented drought occurred from 1989-92. The lowest 

recorded instantaneous flow at the White Springs gage 

was 2.8 ft3/s on September 26, 1990, which was also the 

lowest daily mean. The lowest annual 7-day low flow was 

3.4 ft3/s, which occurred on September 14, 1990. The 

subsequent discussions summarize the major droughts with 

comparisons of annual streamflow at White Springs to annual 

streamflow at nearby streamgages at Withlacoochee River near 

Pinetta and Suwannee River at Ellaville. 

Drought of 1931-35

The drought of 1931-35 affected the panhandle and 

south-central peninsula of Florida with less than normal runoff 

for most streams in the area for 1 to 2.5 years (Bridges and 

Franklin, 1991). The lowest annual streamflow at the White 

Springs streamgage during this 5-year drought was 238 ft3/s 

in 1934. This was 13 percent of the period of record average 

of 1,790 ft3/s (table 1). This percentage is much lower when 

compared to nearby streamgages for the same period. In 

1934, the Withlacoochee River near Pinetta reported 419 ft3/s, 

24 percent of its period of record average of 1,730 ft3/s. The 

Suwannee River at Ellaville recorded streamflow at 2,340 ft3/s 

during 1934, or about 37 percent of its period of record 

average of 6,380 ft3/s. Statistics from the data show the 7-day 

low flow was 5.20 ft3/s during the drought in 1932, which has 

a recurrence interval of once every 20 to 50 years (table 1).

Drought of 1937-41

The 5-year drought during 1937-41 was about as severe 

as the 5-year drought during 1931-35. This drought affected 

primarily northern and northwestern Florida with up to 

4.5 consecutive years of lower than normal runoff for most 

streams (Bridges and Franklin, 1991). In 1941, the gage at 

Suwannee River at White Springs recorded its lowest annual 

streamflow during this drought of 299 ft3/s, about 17 percent 

of its period of record average (table 1). Withlacoochee River 

near Pinetta and Suwannee River at Ellaville also recorded 

their lowest annual streamflow of this drought in 1941 with 

Table 1. Chronology of droughts in Florida (1906-2006) and impacts at the White Springs streamgage 

location.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second. Major droughts featured in this report are shaded]

Date range

Lowest annual 

streamflow at 

White Springs 

(ft3

/s)

Year 

occurred

Percent of 

average

7-day 

low flow 

(ft3

/s)

Year 

occurred

Recurrence 

interval 

(years)

1931-1935 238 1934 13 5.20 1932 >20

1937-1941 299 1941 17 12.40 1941 10

1949-1957 155 1955 8 8.70 1955 >10

1960-1964 1,020 1963 57 40.30 1964 >2

1967-1969 208 1968 12 37.60 1968 >2

1970-1977 845 1974 47 20.10 1977 >5

1980-1982 634 1981 35 21.90 1981 >5

1989-1992 306 1989 17 3.40 1990 >50

1998-2002 144 2000 8 8.90 2000 >10
Summary of Major Drought and Flood Events 25

Figure 24. The Suwannee River at White 

Springs at Highway 41 on September 13, 

1999, during the drought of 1998-2002 (left; 

photograph courtesy of Malcolm Greene).

452 ft3/s or about 26 percent of average, and 2,190 ft3/s or 

34 percent of average, respectively. The lowest 7-day low 

flow was 12.40 ft3/s during the drought in 1941, which has 

a recurrence interval of about 10 years (table 1).

Drought of 1949-57

The severe drought during the 9-year period from 

1949-57 affected the entire State of Florida. Most streams 

in northern Florida experienced less than normal runoff for 

3 to 9 consecutive years (Bridges and Franklin, 1991). The 

drought was less severe in southern Florida, but most streams 

were affected with below normal runoff for 2 to 5 consecutive years (Bridges and Franklin, 1991). The lowest annual 

streamflow of this drought was recorded in 1955 at the White 

Springs, Ellaville, and Pinetta gages. Streamflow averaged 

9 percent of the long-term average at White Springs with 

156 ft3/s (table 1). Streamflow at Pinetta was 236 ft3/s or 

14 percent of the average, whereas Ellaville was 1,300 ft3/s 

or 20 percent of the average. The lowest 7-day low flow was 

8.70 ft3/s during the drought in 1955, which has a recurrence 

interval of 10 to 20 years (table 1).

Drought of 1967-69

The 3-year drought during 1967-69 affected the 

panhandle and northern part of Florida with below normal 

runoff in most streams for 2 to 4 consecutive years (Bridges 

and Franklin, 1991). The lowest annual streamflow at all three 

streamgages during this drought occurred in 1968. The annual 

streamflow at White Springs during this drought was 208 ft3/s 

for 1968, approximately 12 percent of the period of record 

average (table 1). Pinetta recorded 247 ft3/s, or 14 percent 

of its period of record average. Ellaville reported 1,810 ft3/s, 

about 28 percent of the period of record average. The lowest 

7-day low flow was 37.60 ft3/s during the drought in 1968, 

which has a recurrence interval of greater than 2 years and less 

than 5 years (table 1).

Drought of 1989-92

The 1989-92 drought had a dramatic affect on streamflow 

at Suwannee River at White Springs, although the drought 

was statewide and affected most streams with less than normal 

runoff (Bridges and Franklin, 1991). The lowest instantaneous 

flow (2.8 ft3/s on September 26, 1990) and lowest annual 

7-day low flow (3.4 ft3/s beginning September 24, 1990) 

during the 100-year period of record of the White Springs 

gage were recorded during this drought. The lowest annual 

streamflow recorded during the drought at White Springs was 

306 ft3/s in 1989, about 17 percent of the period of record 

average (table 1). The gages at Pinetta and Ellaville also 

recorded their lowest annual streamflow during 1989, with 

739 ft3/s, about 43 percent of its period of record average; and 

2,600 ft3/s, or about 41 percent of its period of record 

average, respectively. The 7-day low flow was 3.40 ft3/s 

during the drought in 1990, which has a recurrence interval of 

greater than every 50 years (table 1).

Drought of 1998-2002

The 1998-2002 drought affected the entire State for 

5 years and is considered the most severe drought to affect 

Florida since the 1949-57 drought (Verdi and others, 2006). 

Most streams in Florida suffered from less than normal runoff 

during this period. The Suwannee River at White Springs 

recorded its lowest annual flow during its 100-year period of 

record in 2000 at 144 ft3/s, or 8 percent of the period of record 

average for the gage (table 1). The 

lowest annual streamflow at the gage at 

Pinetta during the drought was 333 ft3/s 

in 2002, about 20 percent of its period 

of record average. Ellaville recorded 

1,550 ft3

/s, approximately 24 percent 

of its period of record average in 2000. 

The lowest 7-day low flow was 

8.90 ft3/s during the drought of 2000, 

which has a recurrence interval of 10 

to 20 years (table 1).
26 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Figure 25. The Spring House at White Springs during the flood of September-October 1928 (above; photograph courtesy of the 

Florida State Archive).
Major Floods 27

Major Floods

The Suwannee River at White Springs gage has 

experienced several major floods since streamgage 

monitoring began in 1906. Severe floods in the 

Suwannee River are usually caused by single storm 

systems or sequences of storms that have the ability 

to impact a widespread area for several days (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, 1974). Atmospheric 

conditions are ideal during late winter or early spring 

for development of frontal-type rainfall systems that 

can stall for several days, causing large amounts of 

rainfall. An example was the flood of 1948, which 

was caused by a sequence of storms producing above 

normal rainfall during March and April. During the 

period of heaviest rainfall (March 31 to April 2), 

some locations within the Suwannee River basin 

recorded more than 10 in. of rain. 

During the summer and fall seasons, low 

pressure tropical disturbances can develop in the 

 

Rank Date Peak streamflow 

(ft3

/s)

Peak water-level 

elevation 

(feet above 

NGVD 1929)

Recurrence 

interval 

(years)1

1 April 10, 1973 38,100 88.56 >350

2 April 5, 1948 28,500 85.17 >50

3 April 10, 1984 26,200 85.40 40

4 September 17, 1964 23,300 84.34 25

5 October 29, 1947 23,300 83.99 25

6 October 1, 1928 20,600 82.44 >10

7 March 22, 1959 20,100 83.14 >10

8 October 5, 1929 19,600 82.04 >10

9 February 26, 1998 19,300 84.73 >10

10 October 3, 2004 17,600 84.03 10

1

Computed based on period-of-record peaks to water year 2006.

 

Table 2. Major floods and their impacts on the Suwannee River at White Springs streamgage 

location.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; NGVD 1929, National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929]

Gulf of Mexico or Atlantic Ocean. These events can 

deliver intense rainfall across the path of the system, 

especially on the eastern or northeastern side of 

the center of low pressure. One example was the 

flood of September 1964, which resulted from the 

landfall of Hurricane Dora. Heavy rainfall occurred 

during the 3-day period of September 10 to 12 in 

the Suwannee River basin. For example, 18.47 in. 

of rain was recorded in Live Oak (Butson, 1964) 

and inundated the town with almost 5 ft of water 

(Bridges and Franklin, 1991).

The 10 major floods on the Suwannee River 

at White Springs are summarized in table 2 with 

information on peak streamflow, peak water-level 

elevation, date of occurrence, and recurrence 

intervals of each flood. A photographic example of 

damage from a major flood in 1929 shows that the 

Spring House recreational facility at White Springs 

had water rise halfway up the building during the 

peak period (fig. 25).
28 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

1928

JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV.

1 14 28

JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY DEC.

1 14 281 14 281 14 281 14 28 1 14 28 1 14 28 1 14 28 1 14 281 14 28 1 14 281 14 28 10

200

500

1,000

2,000

5,000

10,000

20,000

30,000

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

ELEVATION, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

1928

JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV.

1 14 28 50

JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY DEC.

1 14 281 14 28 1 14 281 14 281 14 281 14 281 14 28 1 14 281 14 28 1 14 281 14 28

100

20

50

Figure 26. Water-level elevation and streamflow hydrographs of the three floods on the 

Suwannee River at White Springs during 1928.
Major Floods 29

Flood of 1928

The upper and middle Suwannee River basin received 

above-average rainfall in 1928 with 68.21 in. recorded at Lake 

City and 70.95 in. recorded at Madison in Florida (Mitchell, 

1929), and 62.26 in. recorded at Alapaha in Georgia (von 

Herrmann, 1929a). The White Springs gage experienced three 

peaks in 1928 (fig. 26), due to runoff from the rainfall, which 

exceeded the flood stage of 77.00 ft above NGVD 29 as 

determined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA). The first of these episodes occurred 

from March to May and was caused by the compounded 

effects of a series of frontal systems moving through the area 

in late February, March and April. Rainfall during the 3-day 

period of February 23-25 totaled 3.21 in. at Madison and 

4.38 in. at Lake City, Florida (Mitchell, 1928a). This rainfall 

event caused a small rise in river levels (fig. 26).

In March, three additional storm systems produced heavy 

rainfall that caused even higher river levels, with the most 

significant rise occurring during the 3-day period of March 

25-27 (fig. 26). Rainfall amounts for the month of March 

totaled 7.98 in. at Lake City, 8.58 in. at Live Oak, and 8.72 in. 

at Madison in Florida (Mitchell, 1928b), and 5.61 in. at Fargo 

and 7.12 in. at Alapaha in Georgia (von Herrmann, 1928a). 

River levels started receding in April; however, four more 

storm systems moved across the area producing rainfall that 

ultimately led to the peak of 79.09 ft above NGVD 29 and a 

flow of 13,000 ft3

/s on April 30. Rainfall amounts were above 

normal for the month, totaling 10.40 in. at Lake City, 12.16 

in. at Live Oak, and 12.34 in. at Madison, Florida (Mitchell, 

1928c). Rainfall amounts totaled 10.96 in. at Fargo and 

8.96 in. at Alapaha in Georgia (von Herrmann, 1928b).

 The next two flood events in August and another in 

September 1928 were each caused by a combination of 

typical summertime thunderstorms and two hurricanes. 

Rainfall amounts in August were above average and totaled 

8.71 in. at Lake City and 14.97 in. at Madison, Florida 

(Mitchell, 1928d), and 8.12 in. at Fargo and 14.43 in. at 

Alapaha, Georgia (von Herrmann, 1928c). The first hurricane 

made landfall just north of Fort Pierce on August 7 and 

traveled northwest through central Florida, through the 

Suwannee River basin in northern Florida, and into southwestern Georgia on August 9 and 10. The storm then curved 

to the northeast and moved throughout the southeastern United 

States, exiting into the Atlantic Ocean near the Virginia Capes 

on August 12 (Young, 1928; Barnes, 1998). The storm lost 

hurricane strength and became a tropical storm soon after its 

landfall in Florida. This storm produced an average of 5.10 in. 

of rainfall in the Suwannee River basin. However, subsequent 

summertime thunderstorms produced additional rainfall in the 

basin, with runoff eventually causing a peak of 77.06 ft above 

NGVD 29 and flow of 9,050 ft3/s on August 25 (fig. 26).

A second hurricane struck Florida on September 16, 

1928, as a category 4 storm and caused what is referred to as 

“The Great Okeechobee Flood.” This same storm caused 

flooding on the Suwannee River at White Springs, thus 

producing the third flood event during 1928. This hurricane 

made landfall near West Palm Beach and moved northwest 

across Lake Okeechobee and the peninsula, with the center 

passing between Ocala and Cedar Key. The storm then 

turned north-northeast and moved into southeastern 

Georgia (Mitchell, 1928). The hurricane produced 5.10 in. 

of rain upstream from White Springs at Fargo, Georgia 

(von Herrmann, 1928d). Prior to and subsequent to the 

September 1928 hurricane, the White Springs area received 

several localized rainfall events. September 1928 rainfall 

totals were 8.27 in. at Lake City and 6.70 in. at Madison in 

Florida (Mitchell, 1928e) and totals were 13.16 in. at Fargo 

and 9.25 in. at Alapaha in Georgia (von Herrmann, 1928d). 

Runoff from these storms ultimately led to a flood peak of 

82.44 ft above NGVD 29 and flow of 20,600 ft3

/s on 

October 1 (fig. 26; table 2). The recurrence interval on 

this flood was estimated to be between 10 and 25 years 

(table 2). This 1928 flood ranks sixth of the major 10 floods 

impacting the Suwannee River at White Springs from 

1906 to 2006.

Above: Photographs of the Suwannee River in April 1924 (left) and April 1925 (right; photographs by USGS).
30 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Flood of 1929

The second hurricane of 1929 was from September 28 

to October 4. The storm moved through the Florida Straits, 

with the eye of the storm due south of Miami on the morning 

of September 28 (Mitchell, 1929). By 8:00 p.m., the center of 

the hurricane was located between Key West and Fort Myers 

traveling northwest into the Gulf of Mexico (Mitchell, 1929). 

Near midnight, the storm moved inland near Panama City. 

The storm made a turn toward the northeast on 

October 1 and moved through southern Georgia (Mitchell, 

1929). 

Before the hurricane made landfall in northern Florida, 

the Suwannee River at White Springs had experienced 

several days of rainfall, according to Mr. Scarborough, the 

USGS observer at the time. Mr. Scarborough’s comments 

indicated that it rained each day during September 23-25. 

On September 27, heavy rain had fallen all day. September 28 

was cloudy with no rain, but rainfall commenced on 

September 29 and continued through October 1. Rainfall at 

the weather gage at Fargo in Georgia totaled 11.00 in. during 

September 23-30, of which 7.88 in. was from the 2-day period 

of September 26-27 (von Herrmann, 1929b). 

The flood peaked on October 5, 1929, at a water-level 

elevation of 82.04 ft above NGVD 29 and streamflow of 

19,600 ft3

/s (table 2). The recurrence interval on this flood 

was computed to be between 10 and 25 years (table 2). This 

1929 flood ranks eighth of the major 10 floods impacting the 

Suwannee River at White Springs from 1906 to 2006.

Flood of 1947

The flood of 1947 resulted from a combination of three 

tropical disturbances, two of which reached tropical storm 

strength and the other reached hurricane strength. The first 

tropical storm made landfall between Tampa and Cedar Key 

in the evening on September 23 and produced heavy rain 

throughout the peninsula and northern Florida as it traveled 

northeast. The storm then moved west of Jacksonville and 

up through southeastern Georgia, exiting into the Atlantic 

Ocean between North Carolina and the Virginia Capes on 

September 25 (Sumner, 1947). The rainfall total was 7.16 in., 

which was 2.75 in. above normal for Jasper, Florida, 

during September 1947 (Bennett, 1947a). The rainfall total 

was 12.94 in., which was 8.12 in. above normal for Lake City, 

Florida (Bennett, 1947a).

Another tropical storm hit in early October, just as the 

waters in the Suwannee River at White Springs were 

receding. This storm made landfall near Brunswick, Georgia, 

about midnight on October 6-7 (Sumner, 1947) and continued 

to move west across the Suwannee River basin. The tropical 

disturbance made a circular loop around the Florida Big Bend 

area on October 7, then tracked north through the Suwannee 

River basin and into southern Georgia.

The third tropical disturbance was a hurricane that made 

landfall on October 11 in southwest Florida near Cape Sable, 

then moved northeast, exiting between Miami and West Palm 

Beach on October 12 (Sumner, 1947). As the storm tracked 

through the Atlantic Ocean, it gained strength and turned west, 

moving into southern Georgia on October 15 (Sumner, 1947). 

The storm produced heavy rain with runoff that produced the 

peak of the flood of 1947. The rainfall totals for both storms 

were 9.58 in, which was 7.10 in. above normal (Bennett, 

1947b). In Lake City, rainfall was 14.45 in., which was 

11.72 in. above normal (Bennett, 1947b).

The flood peaked October 29, 1947, at a water-level 

elevation of 83.99 ft above NGVD 29 and streamflow of 

23,300 ft3

/s. The recurrence interval on this flood was 

computed to be between 25 and 50 years (table 2). This 1947 

flood ranks fifth of the major 10 floods impacting the 

Suwannee River at White Springs from 1906 to 2006.

Flood of 1948

The flood of 1948 resulted from a sequence of storms 

that produced prolonged, heavy, and above normal rainfall 

throughout most of the basin during March and April 1948. 

The heaviest rainfall occurred from March 31 to April 2 (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, 1974). Rainfall amounts for the 

3-day period totaled 5.40 in. at Lake City and 10.73 in. at 

Madison in Florida (Bennett, 1948a,b), and 9.52 in. at Alapaha 

and 10.22 in. at Moultrie in Georgia (Cornelius, 1948a,b). 

The Suwannee River at White Springs, including the basin 

from the coast north to the Florida-Georgia border, was out of 

its banks during the period of peak streamflow and water-level 

elevations (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1974). Several 

towns along the river were inundated with flood waters. For 

example, parts of Ellaville, Dowling Park, and Old Town 

were flooded with up to 8 ft of water (U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, 1974). Throughout the basin, the flood damaged 

bridges, highways, and railroads. Transportation had to be 

rerouted for as long as 3 weeks while flood waters receded 

and damaged roadways were repaired (U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, 1974).

The flood peaked on April 5, 1948, at 85.17 ft above 

NGVD 29 and streamflow of 28,500 ft3

/s. The recurrence 

interval on this flood was computed to be between 50 and 

100 years (table 2). This 1948 flood ranks second of the 

major 10 floods impacting the Suwannee River at White 

Springs from 1906 to 2006.
Major Floods 31

Flood of 1959 

Two frontal-type systems brought 6 to 8 in. of rainfall to 

the Suwannee River basin during the first and third weeks of 

March 1959. The Suwannee River basin was already saturated 

because of higher than normal rainfall during the preceding 

3 months, but the two frontal systems produced flooding along 

nearly 350 mi2 of the river (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

1974). Some recreational facilities, such as the Spring House 

in White Springs, were affected by the flood waters (fig. 27). 

Highway 41 in White Springs was also flooded when the 

Suwannee River overflowed its banks (fig. 28).

The peak water-level elevation and streamflow occurred 

on March 22, 1959 at 83.14 ft above NGVD 29, about 2 ft less 

than the flood of 1948, with streamflow of 20,100 ft3/s. The 

recurrence interval of this flood was computed to be between 

10 and 25 years (table 2). This 1959 flood ranks seventh 

of the major 10 floods impacting Suwannee River at White 

Springs from 1906 to 2006.

Figure 27. The Spring House partially submerged during 

the flood of 1959 (upper right; photograph courtesy of 

Marlene Shaw).

Figure 28. Highway 41 in White Springs. The road is 

submerged in water due to flooding of the Suwannee 

River in 1959 (right center; photograph courtesy of 

Marlene Shaw).

Right: Downtown 

White Springs in 

1928 (photograph 

courtesy of the 

Florida State 

Archive).
32 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Figure 29. The streamgage at 

Highway 41 during the flood 

on September 16, 1964. The 

walkway to the gage was 

submerged in water. 

(left; photograph by USGS).

Figure 30. Looking west at 

Highway 41 at White Springs 

during the flood on September 16, 

1964 (left; photograph by USGS).
Major Floods 33

Flood of 1964

The flood of 1964 resulted from rainfall due to Hurricane Dora, which came ashore at St. Augustine about midnight on 

September 10 (Dunn and others, 1965). Dora maintained movement to the west while pouring heavy amounts of rain over 

many northern Florida and southern Georgia river basins, including the Suwannee River (Dunn and others, 1965). As the storm 

approached the panhandle of Florida on September 11, Dora began curving to the northwest. By the morning of September 12, 

Dora made a U-turn and traveled east through southern Georgia. During the 3-day period from September 10-12, Dora’s rainfall 

totals were 9.64 in. at Jasper, 11.69 in. at Lake City, and 18.47 in. at Live Oak in Florida (Butson, 1964). Figures 29 to 31 show 

photographs of the Suwannee River at White Springs at the Highway 41 Bridge on September 16, 1964 (the day before the river 

crested). Flood waters were just short of submerging the bridge, but covered the walkway that USGS personnel used to access 

the streamgage located at the Highway 41 Bridge.

The flood peaked on September 17, 1964, at a water-level elevation of 84.34 ft above NGVD 29 and streamflow of 

23,300 ft3

/s. This flood has a recurrence interval of between 25 and 50 years (table 2). This 1964 flood ranks fourth of the 

major 10 floods impacting the Suwannee River at White Springs from 1906 to 2006.

Left: The main channel of the 

Suwannee River from the right bank 

at I-75 on September 17, 1964 

(left; photograph by USGS).

Figure 31. Looking upstream of the 

Highway 41 Bridge at White Springs 

during the flood on September 16, 1964 

(left; photograph by USGS).
34 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Flood of 1973

A sequence of frontal storms with above 

normal rainfall moved through the basin during 

February, March, and April 1973 (U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, 1974), producing the record 

flood at the Suwannee River at White Springs 

gage. Rainfall was heaviest during the first 

week of April. Rainfall totals on April 1 were 

4.95 in at Jasper, 1.63 in. at Lake City, and 

3.40 in. at Live Oak in Florida (Environmental 

Data Service, 1973). Rainfall totals on April 4 

were 8.45 in. at Jasper, 3.15 in. at Lake City, and 

4.09 in. at Live Oak in Florida (Environmental 

Data Service, 1973). The flood closed highways 

and railroads, and damaged recreational facilities 

along the river (fig. 32). The Suwannee River 

submerged the Highway 41 Bridge and flooded 

the Spring House in White Springs up to its roof 

during the peak of this flood (fig. 33).

The hydrograph of water-level elevation 

and streamflow (fig. 34) for the Suwannee River 

at White Springs shows the flood peak occurred 

on April 10, 1973. The peak water-level elevation was 88.56 ft above NGVD 29 and streamflow was 38,100 ft3

/s. The recurrence interval of 

this flood was computed to be between 200 and 

500 years (table 2). This 1973 flood ranks first 

of the major 10 floods impacting the Suwannee 

River at White Springs from 1906 to 2006.

Flood of 1984

In March 1984, two storms (March 5-6 and 

March 27-28) moved through southern Georgia 

and northern Florida producing above normal 

rainfall (Perry and others, 2001). The storms 

on March 27-28 produced high winds as well as 

intense rain (Perry and others, 2001). Rainfall 

totals were 12.01 in., which was 7.58 in. above 

normal at Jasper, Florida, during March 1984 

(National Climatic Data Center, 1984a). March 

rainfall totaled 10.11 in. at Lake City, Florida, 

which was 5.87 in. above normal (National 

Climatic Data Center, 1984a). Additional 

rainfall recorded on April 4 totaled 3.18 in. 

at Jasper and 2.82 in. at Lake City in Florida 

(National Climatic Data Center, 1984b).

The flood peaked on April 10 at a waterlevel elevation of 85.40 ft above NGVD 29 

and streamflow of 26,200 ft3

/s. This flood has 

a recurrence interval between 25 and 50 years 

(table 2). This 1984 flood ranks third of the 

major 10 floods impacting the Suwannee River 

at White Springs from 1906 to 2006.

Figure 32. Highway 41 Bridge at Suwannee River at White Springs 

on April 10, 1973. View is north toward the submerged bridge and 

highway and the Seaboard Coastline railroad bridge 

(above; photograph by Richard C. Heath, USGS).

Figure 33. The Spring House in White Springs in April 1973 

(above; photograph courtesy of Marlene Shaw).

Above: Water flowing over Highway 41 during the flood of 1973 

(photograph by USGS).
Major Floods 35

1973

FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE

1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

10,000

20,000

60,000

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

1973

FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE

1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28

8,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

ELEVATION, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

Figure 34. Hydrograph of water-level elevation and streamflow for the Suwannee River at 

White Springs during the flood of 1973.
36 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

precipitation fell from August 12-13 as a result of the 

storm (National Weather Service, 2004a). This precipitation 

led to a very slight rise in the water level and streamflow 

(fig. 37).

Hurricane Frances made landfall near Fort Pierce on 

September 5, 2004. The slow-moving hurricane weakened 

to a tropical storm as it moved through Florida on a northwestward track, exiting to the Gulf of Mexico near New Port 

Richey (National Weather Service, 2004b). Continuing to 

move toward the northwest, Frances made the second Florida 

landfall near the mouth of the Aucilla River. The center of 

the storm did not travel through the Suwannee River basin; 

however, the storm was so large in diameter that it produced 

significant rainfall in the area. Rainfall totaled 9.11 in. at 

White Springs during September 4-8 (National Climatic Data 

Center, 2004); this event produced a sharp second peak in the 

September hydrograph (fig. 37).

Hurricane Jeanne made landfall at nearly the same 

location as Hurricane Frances near Fort Pierce on 

September 26. Shortly after landfall, Jeanne curved to 

the northwest and was downgraded to a tropical storm as it 

moved through the Florida peninsula (National Weather 

Service, 2004c). The center of the storm traveled directly 

over the Suwannee River basin before entering southern 

Georgia. Hurricane Jeanne produced an additional 6.40 in. 

of rain at White Springs during September 25-27, thus adding 

to the rainfall produced by Hurricane Frances 3 weeks earlier 

(National Climatic Data Center, 2004). 

This last storm produced the third and highest flood peak 

in 2004 (fig. 37). On October 3, the flood peaked at 84.03 ft 

above NGVD 29 with a flow of 17,600 ft3

/s. This flood has 

a recurrence interval of 10 years (table 2). This 2004 flood 

ranks tenth of the major 10 floods impacting the Suwannee 

River at White Springs gage from 1906 to 2006.

Flood of 1998

A strong El Niño phenomenon in the fall and winter 

of 1997-98 produced heavy rainfall which ultimately led 

to the flood on the Suwannee River at White Springs 

in February 1998. Rainfall from October 1997 to 

February 1998 was well above normal and totaled 29.23 in. 

(11.44 in. above normal) at Jasper, Florida, during the 

5-month period (National Climatic Data Center, 1998; 1999). 

Rainfall totaled 28.12 in. (11.47 in. above normal) during the 

same period at Lake City, Florida (National Climatic Data 

Center, 1998; 1999). The remnants of the Spring House at 

White Springs were flooded (fig. 35). The Suwannee River 

overflowed its banks and washed out or submerged roads 

along the river (fig. 36). 

The flood peak occurred February 26, 1998, at a waterlevel elevation of 84.73 ft above NGVD 29 and streamflow 

of 19,300 ft3/s. A flood of this magnitude is expected to occur 

once every 10 to 25 years (table 2). This 1998 flood ranks 

ninth of the major 10 floods recorded at Suwannee River at 

White Springs from 1906 to 2006.

Flood of 2004

Florida endured one tropical storm (Bonnie) and four 

hurricanes (Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne) in 2004 

(Verdi, 2005). The impact of three of these storms—Bonnie, 

Frances, and Jeanne—led to the flood of 2004 on the 

Suwannee River at White Springs. 

Tropical Storm Bonnie made landfall on August 12, 

2004, in the panhandle just south of Apalachicola and quickly 

weakened to a tropical depression. Bonnie continued to 

move northeast through the Suwannee River basin and into 

southeastern Georgia. At White Springs, 1.38 in. of 

Figure 36. The Suwannee River at White Springs 

looking upstream from the Highway 41 Bridge during the 

flood of 1998 (above; photograph courtesy of Malcolm 

Greene).

Figure 35. The remnants of the Spring House in White 

Springs during the flood of 1998 (above; photograph courtesy 

of Malcolm Greene). 
Major Floods 37

Tropical Storm Bonnie

Hurricane Frances

Hurricane Jeanne

AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER

2004

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28

ELEVATION, IN FEET ABOVE NGVD 29

AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER

2004

30,000

1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28 1 7 14 21 28

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

20,000

10,000

5,000

2,000

1,000

500

200

100

Figure 37. Water-level elevation and streamflow hydrographs of the floods on the Suwannee River at 

White Springs during 2004.
38 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

Progress of Streamgaging 

Activities and Costs

New technology and methodology for streamgaging 

allows for more reliable data sets and safer, more efficient 

measuring techniques. These tools can be used to assist local, 

State and Federal agencies in making sound decisions when 

dealing with severe drought, floods, and water-management 

issues. This section discusses the newest technologies and 

methodologies used at the streamgage for the Suwannee River 

at White Springs.

New Technology and Instrument Upgrades

Hurricanes during the record-breaking 2005 hurricane 

season, which included Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, destroyed 

or damaged many USGS hydrological monitoring stations 

along the Gulf coast from Texas to Florida. In 2006, the 

U.S. Congress approved a supplemental funding appropriation of $5,300,000 to facilitate repair, replacement, and gage 

hardening at USGS streamgages that are part of the National 

Streamflow Information Program (NSIP). The White Springs 

streamgage is included in the NSIP, which is discussed later in 

this report.

A part of the appropriation was designated for streamgages to be hardened to withstand the 200-year flood level. 

An analysis of peak streamflow data from the Suwannee River 

at White Springs determined that the 200-year flood level 

was 89.76 ft above NGVD 29. For streamflow, the 200-year 

flood level is 35,100 ft3/s. A recent survey of elevation at the 

streamgage location determined the shelf that the DCP and 

associated power supply was situated on within the gage house 

was approximately 3 ft below the 200-year flood level. Work 

was performed to raise the shelf inside the gage house to an 

elevation of about 90.00 ft NGVD 29, which is slightly above 

the 200-year flood level. Additionally, equipment upgrades 

were made to provide more timelier and reliable data using 

state-of-the-art instrumentation.

The original DCP was replaced with a High Data Rate 

(HDR) DCP which is able to perform routine data transmissions every hour. Prior to the HDR, the transmission interval 

from the unit to the GOES satellite was every 3 or 4 hours at a 

rate of 100 baud using an assigned transmit time and 1-minute 

window on a routine-transmission channel. These data can 

be transmitted during emergency situations, such as floods or 

droughts, at intervals equal to the update interval of the data 

(for example, hourly) on a separate non-routine channel. 

The emergency transmissions provide the most up-to-date 

information for water managers and emergency management 

officials. A high-water threshold or rate of rise threshold 

during a flood would trigger the alarm within the DCP, thus 

prompting the unit to begin transmitting at the more frequent 

intervals. The same transmission can be accomplished by 

setting a low-water threshold during extreme drought 

conditions. The new HDR DCPs have the capability to 

transmit three times the amount of data compared to the 

traditional DCP’s capability to transmit in a window of 

10 to 15 seconds. This improvement is advantageous as more 

previously recorded readings can be sent along with the 

current data, so that a more complete data set can be obtained. 

Older style units were less reliable. If the DCP missed more 

than two consecutive transmissions, previous readings were 

missed and created a “gap” in the data set that had to be filled 

in manually after downloading the data from the DCP several 

weeks afterward. 

An additional stage sensor, a radar, was installed on the 

Highway 41 Bridge at the White Springs gage to provide 

backup water-level readings if the primary stage sensor, a 

pressure transducer, malfunctioned. Additional equipment is 

necessary during floods when the data are used to forecast 

water levels downstream. The radar unit measures the 

distance to the water level in the stream using an electronic 

signal and converts it to a water-level elevation using an 

offset equation programmed within the radar unit.

Streamflow Measurements

The USGS and SRWMD personnel have made 

636 streamflow measurements from 1906 to 2006. All 

have been used to relate the water-level elevation to streamflow in the Suwannee River at White Springs. Until recently, 

streamflow measurements have usually been taken using Price 

current meters similar to measurements taken 100 years ago. 

However, the advent of acoustics technology and the rapid 

advancement and use of acoustic Doppler current profilers 

(ADCP) (fig. 38) during the 21st century are revolutionizing 

how flow measurements are made.

An ADCP is a device that transmits acoustic pulses along 

four beams in a downward direction of the water column 

(Simpson and Oltmann, 1993). Parts of the acoustic pulses are 

reflected to the transmitter by particle movement within the 

water column being measured (Simpson and Oltmann, 1993). 

Frequency shifts of the reflected pulses are caused by Doppler 

effects; the frequency shifts are a function of the speed of the 

moving particles in the water column being measured (Simpson and Oltmann, 1993). The ADCP converts the frequency 

of these shifts into water velocity by using mathematical 

equations programmed within the ADCP (Simpson and 

Oltmann, 1993).

An ADCP measurement can be made more quickly and 

safely than a traditional flow measurement. For low 

and medium flows, the ADCP can be mounted on a small 

catamaran-type flotation device and tethered across the stream 

channel on the bridge. It takes about 3 to 5 minutes per pass 

across the channel; four passes are required for the measurement. For comparison, a current meter measurement made by 

wading or by bridge crane typically takes about 1 hour. An 

ADCP measurement permits the hydrographer making the 

flow measurement to spend less time on the bridge, which 
Progress of Streamgaging Activities and Costs 39

can be a safety risk. For higher flows, the ADCP can be 

mounted on a boat and the measurement can be obtained by 

making the passes across the stream channel. Newer acoustic 

devices exist that can be mounted on a wading rod, if tethering a catamaran is impractical. All of these acoustics methods 

require some manual note taking, but far less is required than 

with traditional measurements. The data are stored electronically on computers and can be downloaded and calculated 

along with inputs made by the hydrographer making the flow 

measurement.

Streamgaging Costs Then and Now

The streamgage for Suwannee River at White Springs 

is one of approximately 7,300 streamgages maintained by 

the USGS across the Nation. Through cooperative partnerships, these streamgages are funded by local, State, Federal, 

inflates to $2,260 in 2007 dollars. The 1906 allocation was 

reduced to $6,850 in 1907 and to $4,900 in 1908 (Follansbee, 

1994). These budget reductions probably caused the discontinuance of the streamgage on December 31, 1908. The end 

product from the work during 1906-08 was the publication of 

mean daily flow values in USGS reports. These volumes are 

known as the USGS water data annual reports, which became 

the standard information product for long-term hydrologic 

data collection for about 100 years. 

The cost to maintain the continuous record streamgage 

in the Suwannee River at White Springs during fiscal year 

2007 was $16,300 per year. This amount includes the cost 

of the DCP, water-level sensor, satellite air time, streamflow 

measurement equipment, gage repairs or refurbishment, field 

personnel labor, vehicles and boats, field supplies, travel, 

quality assurance, and computation, review, and publication 

of the data. Also included are costs associated with program 

administration as well as the development and distribution of 

Figure 38. Acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) 

used to make streamflow measurements (right; 

photographs by USGS).

and Tribal agencies. 

Streamflow data from the 

streamgage for Suwannee 

River at White Springs, as 

well as other surface-water, 

groundwater, and waterquality data in Florida, can 

be accessed through the 

NWISWeb at http://waterdata.usgs.gov/fl/nwis/. 

Funding during the 

1906 fiscal year for the 

South Atlantic States District (North Carolina, South 

Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama, 

and Florida) was set at 

$10,000 (Follansbee, 1994). 

This is the same year that 

the streamgage for 

Suwannee River at White 

Springs was established. 

An equal dispersion of this 

funding amongst all 

96 streamgages in 1906 

would indicate that the 

cost to operate the White 

Springs gage was about 

$104. This dollar amount 
40 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

the data to conveyances like NWISWeb. For the first time in 

USGS history, all finalized data from the White Springs gage 

for the 2006 water year, as well as every other continuousrecord or periodic gage in USGS data programs, were 

publicly accessible on the Internet. Supporting gage information and statistics, such as station drainage area, contributing drainage area, gage datum, hydrologic unit, latitude and 

longitude, and daily, monthly, and annual statistics, are also 

available on the Internet either at NWISWeb or as part of the 

new annual data report products. Thus, while costs today are 

higher than in 1906, the end product has enhanced scientific 

value and increased public accessibility of streamflow and 

gage operations data. 

National Streamflow Information Program

The White Springs streamgage was federally funded in 

fiscal year 2006, through NSIP, which was designed to meet 

local, State, regional, and national streamflow information 

needs. The program is also designed for collecting critical 

information during floods and droughts, evaluating streamflow 

characteristics to assess the implications of climate and 

land-use changes, developing a highly reliable system for 

delivering data to users, and implementing a program of 

research to build better data collection, delivery, and 

interpretation capabilities for the future.

The USGS identified five main goals to be achieved by 

the core set of streamgages in NSIP (http://water.usgs.gov/

nsip/federalgoals.html, accessed September 9, 2007), which 

are funded by the USGS. The goals determined to have the 

highest priorities are:

• Interstate and International Waters - Interstate 

compacts, court decrees, and international treaties 

mandate long-term, accurate, and unbiased streamgaging by the USGS at State-line crossings, compact 

points, and international boundaries.

• Streamflow Forecasts - Real-time stage and discharge 

data are required to support flood forecasting by the 

National Weather Service across the country.

Above: Archival images (left and right) of White Springs, Florida, depicting views looking down the Suwannee River from 

the bridge and an outlet on the Suwannee River (images courtesy of the Florida State Archive).
Conclusions 41

• River Basin Outflows - Resource managers need to 

account for the contribution of water from each of 

the Nation’s 350 major river basins to the next downstream basin, estuary, ocean or the Great Lakes.

• Sentinel Watersheds - A network of streamgaging 

stations is necessary to accurately respond to changes 

in climate, land use, and water use in 800 watersheds 

across the country that are relatively unaffected by 

flow regulation or diversion and typify major 

ecoregions and river basins.

• Water Quality - Streamgaging stations are critical in 

providing streamflow information for three national 

USGS water-quality networks (1) the Nation’s 

largest rivers; (2) intermediate-sized rivers; and 

(3) small, pristine watersheds.

The White Springs gage serves as a streamflow flood 

forecast point. Because of the length of record, this gage 

can also serve as a sentinel for the Suwannee River 

watershed. Additional information about the NSIP program 

can be obtained at http://water.usgs.gov/nsip/, accessed 

September 9, 2007.

Conclusions

The USGS streamflow records from 1906 to 2006 

have provided accurate data for various interpretive studies 

regarding climatology, hydrology, ecology, and biology. 

For example, the peak flow data are used to determine floodfrequency relations (2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, 100-, 200-, and 

500-year recurrence intervals of floods) at White Springs. 

Real-time data from Florida gage sites are proving to be 

valuable resources that will improve statistical analyses for 

future interpretive studies with longer periods of record. 

Continued availability of real-time data and successful USGS 

operation of the streamgage at White Springs are crucial 

as this site serves as a flood forecast point for the National 

Weather Service.
42 A Centennial Tribute, 1906-2006: Suwannee River at White Springs, Florida

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