User Facilities 

of the 

Office of 

Basic Energy 

Sciences

A National Resource 

for Scientific Research

ENERGY

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF

	

ENERGY

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF

	


User Facilities of the Office of Basic Energy Sciences 

A National Resource 

for Scientific Research

Letter from the Director ..........................................................................................4

Synchrotron Radiation Sources ...............................................................................6

Advanced Light Source ..............................................................................................................................................8

National Synchrotron Light Source .........................................................................................................................12

Advanced Photon Source .........................................................................................................................................16

Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource ..........................................................................................................20

Projects:

National Synchrotron Light Source II ..................................................................................................................24

Linac Coherent Light Source ...............................................................................................................................28

Neutron Sources .................................................................................................32

Manuel Lujan Jr. Neutron Scattering Center ...........................................................................................................34

High Flux Isotope Reactor .......................................................................................................................................38

Spallation Neutron Source .......................................................................................................................................42

Nanoscale Science Research Centers ....................................................................46

Center for Functional Nanomaterials .......................................................................................................................48

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies ..................................................................................................................50

Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences ................................................................................................................52

Center for Nanoscale Materials ................................................................................................................................54

Molecular Foundry ...................................................................................................................................................56

printed on recycled paper

Produced for the 

U.S. Department of Energy 

Office of Science 

 

by 

Argonne National Laboratory

First printing 2009
About the Cover

The cover depicts several of the scientific user facilities described in this document. The photographs show, in 

descending order, the Los Alamos National Laboratory Gateway to the Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, 

the Spallation Neutron Source and Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 

the Center for Functional Nanomaterials at Brookhaven National Laboratory, the Advanced Photon Source and 

Center for Nanoscale Materials at Argonne National Laboratory, and the Molecular Foundry at Lawrence 

Berkeley National Laboratory. The pattern of purple and dark balls at the top of the page is an atomic 

force microscope image of self-assembled nanoscopic domains in a polymer structure. The light blue 

background is from an electron microscope image of metallic gold islands (blue) selectively decorating 

polystyrene domains of an ultrathin polymer film. Both of these science images were produced by 

Seth Darling of the Electronic and Magnetic Materials and Devices Group at the Center for 

Nanoscale Materials.

Electron Beam Microcharacterization Centers ........................................................58

Electron Microscopy Center ....................................................................................................................................60

Shared Research Equipment Facility........................................................................................................................62

National Center for Electron Microscopy ................................................................................................................64

The TEAM Project ..................................................................................................................................................66

Locations of User Facilities ...................................................................................68

Acknowledgements..............................................................................................69
4

Letter from the Director

The Scientific User Facilities Division (SUFD)1 sponsors 

the operation of a number of facilities nationwide that 

offer the technical tools needed for 21st century science in 

energy-related disciplines. Thousands of scientists conduct 

their research at these facilities each year. These researchers 

experience first-hand the thrill of scientific discovery, as 

they develop sample materials of scientific interest, guide 

beams (e.g., of neutrons, synchrotron radiation, or electrons) 

onto these samples, and detect signals that reveal material 

properties.

This brochure overviews the scientific infrastructure that is 

constructed, maintained, and operated at DOE laboratories 

for the pursuit of energy-related research. Individually and 

collectively, these BES facilities comprise a user program 

that strives for excellence in world-leading science and 

provides innovative, state-of-the-art tools and capabilities 

to the broad scientific community.

Why Does BES Steward These 

User Facilities?

The reason for a suite of BES user facilities, and a user 

program at each, is to enable scientific discoveries in energyrelated areas. This fulfills in part the BES mission, which is 

important not just for researchers, but also for society as a 

whole. That is, we all benefit from advances that impact our 

understanding of fundamental energetic processes within 

materials, because greater scientific understanding enables 

downstream technological developments for real-world 

applications.

The way in which scientific research is done in the 21st 

century involves specialized instrumentation and facilities 

that are on a larger scale than can typically fit inside an 

investigator’s own laboratory at his/her home institution. 

Therefore, user facilities such as those surveyed here are 

critical to the conduct of modern scientific studies. Indeed, 

these BES facilities constitute an infrastructure that supports a substantial research enterprise (conducted by over 

10,000 users per year) for basic research in topics related 

to energy. Such research advances the frontiers of knowledge of underlying physical processes, chemical reactions, 

and material properties that comprise our basic scientific 

understanding of energetic phenomena.

Open To Broad Scientific 

Community Via User Programs

Each facility described in this publication operates as a 

national user facility, with capabilities (e.g., state-of-theart equipment and technical expertise) that are available 

to prospective users from academia, industry, government 

agencies, and research institutions worldwide. Collectively, 

these users conduct research in a wide variety of disciplines. 

The vast majority of users gain access to BES user facilities 

via a merit-based peer review process. 

1

The SUFD is in the Office of Basic Energy Sciences (BES), part of 

the Office of Science (SC) in the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE).

Scientific Facility User Programs

The vast majority of facility users are granted 

access via a competitive peer review of their 

technical proposals in order to select those 

with the greatest scientific merit. After a 

research team’s proposal is accepted, that 

team is granted time at the facility to use its 

beam and/or specialized instrumentation for 

scientific experiments. Final research results 

are reported in the open scientific literature. 

Each facility has a user program to describe 

its specific offerings (e.g., characteristics of the 

specialized instruments available for use) and 

to administer the proposal submission and 

review process for prospective users.
5

The user program of each facility administers its peer review 

process to evaluate scientific proposals for access. Calls for 

these proposals take place at times indicated on each facility’s website. Scientific proposals submitted in response are 

typically quite brief and may propose independent or collaborative research. They are evaluated for scientific merit by 

independent proposal review committees or panels and for 

feasibility and safety by the facility, with those that are most 

compelling being accepted and allocated time. There is no 

charge for users who are doing non-proprietary work, with 

the understanding that they are expected to publish their 

results. Access is also available on a cost-recovery basis for 

proprietary research that is not intended for publication. After 

proposals are reviewed and time at the facility is awarded, 

the user program helps users prepare to visit the facility in 

order to conduct their research. Further information on 

proposal submission and other aspects of the user program 

is available on each facility’s website. 

External Advisory Groups 

of Scientific User Facilities

In addition to the independent proposal review bodies 

mentioned above, each facility has other established ways 

to receive advice and input on its activities. Each facility Director receives input from a Scientific Advisory 

Committee. Each facility also has a Users’ Executive 

Committee, or equivalent, which fosters information 

exchange and communication on issues that are of interest 

to the user community. Each facility’s operations are independently reviewed as well by external experts convened by 

BES on a periodic basis.

BES Mission

The Office of Basic Energy Sciences (BES) supports 

fundamental research to understand, predict, and 

ultimately control matter and energy at the electronic, 

atomic, and molecular levels in order to provide the 

foundations for new energy technologies and to support 

DOE missions in energy, environment, and national 

security.

As part of its mission, BES conceives, plans, designs, 

constructs, and operates scientific user facilities to probe 

the most fundamental electronic and atomic properties 

of materials at extreme limits of time, space, and energy 

resolution through x-ray, neutron, and electron beam 

scattering and through coherent x-ray scattering. 

Properties of anticipated new x-ray sources include the 

ability to reach to the frontier of ultrafast timescales of 

electron motion around an atom, the spatial scale of the 

atomic bond, and the energy scale of the bond that holds 

electrons in correlated motion with near neighbors.

Plan, administer, and fund the design, construction, 

and operation of major scientific user facilities to serve 

researchers from the university, national laboratory, and 

industrial research communities; and

Act as a steward of human resources, essential 

scientific disciplines, institutions, and premier 

scientific user facilities. 

www.sc.doe.gov/bes/

Dr. Pedro A. Montano

Director, Scientific User Facilities Division

Dr. Harriet Kung

Associate Director of Science for Basic Energy Sciences
6

Unlocking the World of the Ultra Small and the Ultra Fast

Synchrotron Radiation Sources

X-rays are an essential tool for studying the structure of 

matter and have long been used to peer into dense material 

through which visible light cannot penetrate. For instance, 

the x-rays used in medicine and dentistry reveal bones and 

dense tissues, but use a broad, relatively weak pulse of x-rays. 

Today’s synchrotron “light-source” facilities produce x-rays 

that are millions of times brighter than medical x-rays. 

Scientists use these highly focused, intense beams of x-rays to 

reveal the identity and arrangement of atoms in a wide range 

of materials. The tiny wavelength of x-rays allows us to see 

things visible light cannot resolve, such as the arrangement 

of atoms in metals, semiconductors, ceramics, polymers, 

catalysts, plastics, and biological molecules. 

The fundamental tenet of materials research is that structure 

determines function. The practical corollary that converts 

materials research from an intellectual exercise into a foundation of our modern technology-driven economy is that 

structure can be manipulated to construct materials with 

particular desired behaviors. To this end, synchrotron radiation has transformed the role of x-rays as a mainline tool 

for probing the atomic and electronic structure of materials 

and their surfaces. From their discovery in 1895, x-rays have 

tantalized scientists with their capability to reveal the interior 

structures of solid objects. For nearly a century, they have also 

been our principal means of unraveling the positions of atoms 

in crystallized solids, from the comparatively simple structures in metals and semiconductors to the highly complex 

arrangements in biological molecules, such as proteins and 

DNA. During the last four decades, however, the growth of 

synchrotron radiation with its bright, wavelength-selectable 

x-rays has markedly expanded the scope of investigation. 

The result for materials research is a tool that can probe 

in minute detail the interior and surface of all manner of 

samples, large and extremely small, including non-crystalline 

and inhomogeneous materials.

From its first systematic use as an experimental tool in the 

early 1960s, synchrotron radiation has vastly enhanced the 

utility of pre-existing and contemporary techniques, such 

as x-ray diffraction, x-ray spectroscopy, and imaging, and 

has given rise to scores of new ways to do experiments 

that would not otherwise be feasible, or even possible, with 

conventional x-ray sources. Synchrotron radiation is, in 

the newest facilities, 1 billion times brighter than the light 

from conventional x-ray tubes. Moreover, the wavelength 

can be selected over a broad range to match the needs of 

particular experiments. Together with additional features, 

such as controllable polarization (both linear and circular), 

coherence, and ultrafast pulsed time structure, these characteristics make synchrotron radiation the x-ray source of 

choice for a wide range of materials research.

The pages that follow describe a suite of light sources that 

generate synchrotron radiation using electron beams. Each 

operates as a user facility open to scientists for the conduct 

of their research.

Synchrotron Radiation is a Useful Probe of Material Properties

Synchrotron radiation is produced by acceleration of charged particles (e.g., electrons) that 

are traveling at speeds close to that of light. In the facilities discussed here, the synchrotron radiation comes from electrons in a storage ring. Application of a magnetic field (via 

a bending magnet, or a periodic array of magnets configured as an “insertion device” such 

as an undulator or wiggler) produces acceleration of the electrons (in directions transverse 

to their direction of motion) and concomitant emission of synchrotron radiation in a broad 

spectrum of energies (spanning the hard and soft x-ray regions as well as ultraviolet and 

infrared radiation). This radiation is captured and sent down beamlines where it impinges 

upon a material sample of interest. Signals such as the scattered photons are then detected 

and analyzed by researchers in order to deduce structural properties of their material.
7

The atomic arrangement 

of graphene (background) is a 

honeycomb lattice of carbon atoms 

arranged in a two-dimensional 

plane. Its electronic band structure 

consists of two bands (yellow) 

that intersect only at a few points 

at the corners of a hexagonal 

Brillouin zone (red).

The National School of Neutron and X-ray Scattering 

The National School of Neutron and X-ray Scattering is 

an annual two-week course funded by BES. The idea for 

such a school was first proposed and organized by Argonne 

National Laboratory (ANL) in 1999. The school provides 

45-60 graduate students attending U.S. universities a comprehensive introduction to the underlying scattering theory 

and experimental techniques that are available at DOEfunded neutron and x-ray facilities. The students receive a 

series of background lectures given by leading international 

experts (recruited from universities, national laboratories, 

and industry) and conduct hands-on experiments. For the 

first nine years, the school was hosted at ANL with experiments being performed using instruments at ANL’s user 

facilities. As of 2008, the school is being jointly hosted by 

ANL and Oak Ridge National Laboratory, enabling the 

use of High Flux Isotope Reactor and Spallation Neutron 

Source instruments for neutron scattering experiments. The 

school has been extremely successful in attracting highquality applicants from universities with a wide geographical, 

academic, and demographic distribution across the United 

States, and consistently has 2-3 times more applicants 

than space available. Despite the heavy workload, student 

feedback has been uniformly positive and many students 

have applied as a result of word-of-mouth recommendations from alumni. The school provides a unique grounding 

in both neutron and x-ray scattering techniques, revealing 

the complementarity of the two, and as a result is highly 

valued by many university research groups. Most alumni 

have continued as users of the scientific user facilities 

when they move on to postdoctoral and permanent 

research positions. The school plays an important 

strategic role in preparing the scientific community 

to take full advantage of the exciting new research 

opportunities that can be pursued with neutron 

and synchrotron facilities. 
8

Advanced Light Source

The Advanced Light Source (ALS) is a national user facility that generates intense x-ray radiation for scientific and 

technological research. The ALS is operated by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) of the University of 

California for the U.S. Department of Energy. Operation for users began in October 1993. The ALS synchrotron radiation 

source welcomes about 2000 scientists per year from universities, industries, and government laboratories around the world 

to use its portfolio of advanced insertion-device and bend-magnet beamlines for research broadly spanning the world of 

science and technology.

ALS Capabilities

The Advanced Light Source is optimized for high brightness 

at soft x-ray and ultraviolet photon energies with undulator sources. It also provides world-class performance in the 

intermediate-energy and hard x-ray regions with wiggler, 

superconducting bend-magnet (superbend), and normal 

bend-magnet sources. Infrared radiation is available, as 

well. 

Soft x rays and VUV are ideal tools for probing with high 

resolution the electronic and magnetic structure of atoms, 

molecules, and solids, such as high-temperature superconductors, as well as for studying solid surfaces and the molecules 

adsorbed on them. The high brightness and coherence 

makes the ALS particularly useful for soft x-ray imaging 

(e.g., biological structures, environmental samples, polymers, magnetic nanostructures, and other inhomogeneous 

materials), coherent (lensless) imaging, holography, and 

interferometry. The pulsed nature of the ALS light also 

offers special opportunities for time-resolved research, from 

the dynamics of phase transitions between different states 

of matter to that of the electronic processes that give rise 

to the basic properties of matter. 

In the hard x-ray range, experimental stations for structural 

molecular biology at the ALS provide world-class facilities 

for x-ray crystallography of proteins and other biological 

macromolecules. Facilities for x-ray microtomography and 

ultrahigh-pressure research are also available. Among new 

experimental facilities, one with state-of-the-art capabilities 

in the production and use of femtosecond x-ray pulses is now 

in operation, as are beamlines for studying magnetism and 

magnetization dynamics and for in situ studies of systems 

with photon-in/photon-out and photon-in/electron-out 

techniques.

Core capabilities in which the ALS is a world leader with 

multiple beamlines and end stations available for user research 

are grouped below, along with several examples of the science 

performed and possible measurements.

Microscopy

Imaging instruments at the ALS serve beamlines for scanning transmission x-ray microscopy (STXM), full-field 

transmission x-ray microscopy (TXM), photoemission 

electron microscopy (PEEM), and infrared microscopy. 

There is also a beamline for the growing field of coherent 

(diffractive) imaging.

PEEM images reveal how magnetic domains on interfaces 

between layers of magnetic nanostructures (on which computer hard disks store data) interact with each other and 

how these interactions are correlated with elemental and 

chemical composition of the materials—details critical to 

the continued development of next-generation data-storage 

devices. Installation of an aberration-corrected mirror in the 

new PEEM3 microscope will improve its spatial resolution 

from approximately 30 nm to less than 5 nm and will increase 

transmission by more than an order of magnitude.

A bend-magnet beamline with a transmission x-ray 

microscope (TXM) for the “National Center for X-Ray 

Tomography” is used for high-resolution soft x-ray microscopy and tomography of whole, hydrated biological cells. 

The research program at NCXT includes the development 

of novel methods for labeling proteins, both for x-ray and 

optical microscopy. 

Electron Spectroscopy

Electron spectroscopy instruments serve beamlines for 

x-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS), angle-resolved 

photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES), and ambient pressure 

x-ray photoemission spectroscopy (APXPS).

Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) is 

one of the most direct methods of studying the electronic 

structure of solids and has emerged as a leading technique for 

understanding the electronic structure of high-temperature 

superconductors and other complex oxides. Ambient pressure x-ray photoemission spectroscopy (APXPS), available 

at several ALS beamlines, allows measurements of processes 

such as catalysis and corrosion and of environmental and 

biological systems at pressures up to 10 Torr.
9

The ALS can operate 35 beamlines simultaneously for its users. In addition, six beamlines are in the commissioning or advanced 

construction stage—three based on undulator sources, two on normal bend magnets, and one on a superbend magnet. 

Photon Spectroscopy and Scattering

Instrumentation for photon spectroscopy serves beamlines 

for resonant inelastic x-ray scattering (RIXS), small-angle/

wide-angle x-ray scattering (SAX/WAX), x-ray absorption 

spectroscopy (XAS), and near edge x-ray absorption fine 

structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS).

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) combined with magnetic dichroism and the ability to modify the polarization 

of the x-rays and the angle of the applied magnetic fields 

is a powerful tool for understanding magnetic materials. A 

research team from Cambridge, UC Berkeley, and the ALS 

has now shown unambiguously that, contrary to common 

belief, the spectral shape and magnitude of x-ray magnetic 

linear dichroism (XMLD) signals are determined by not 

only the relative orientation of magnetic moments and 

x-ray polarization, but also their orientation relative to the 

crystallographic axes. Such complete orientation information 

is needed in order to accurately interpret the data.

Diffraction

Diffraction instruments serve beamlines for protein 

crystallography (PX), x-ray microdiffraction, and smallmolecule x-ray diffraction.

Protein crystallography (PX) has proven critical to understanding the function of macromolecular biological mechanisms. Using PX at a number of ALS beamlines, a team of 

scientists from Washington, Indiana, and Cambridge has 

shown how Auxin, a plant hormone, acts as a “molecule glue” 

to bring together two proteins to target the destruction of 

defective proteins. 

X-ray microdiffraction, available on an ALS high-energy 

x-ray superconducting bend magnet beamline, uses white 

x-rays focused to a sub-micron spot. Phase, grain orientation, stress, defect density, and other parameters are derived 

from Laue diffraction patterns, and 2D maps are built up by 

sample scanning. This technique gives structural information on the microscopic spatial scale that is important for 

understanding materials properties such as strength and 

fatigue resistance. 
10

Time-Resolved Spectroscopy 

A number of ALS beamlines provide the capability of timeresolved spectroscopy, from a timescale of nanoseconds to 

femtoseconds. Researchers from Oxford and the ALS have 

measured the ultrafast dynamics of the photo-induced atomic 

rearrangements in vanadium dioxide using NEXAFS on the 

femtosecond timescale.

Accomplishments

Basic Research with Wide-Reaching Applications. Over 

the course of its first 15 years of operation, the ALS has 

matured and produced an enviable record of scientific output broadly spanning the physical sciences, energy sciences, 

biosciences, environmental sciences, and general sciences, 

often with implications for wide-reaching application in 

energy, environmental cleanup, health, and technology. 

The quality of the science is indicated by the recent awards 

received by its users, including a Nobel award in chemistry, 

two Davisson-Germer Prizes, an A.H. Compton Award, a 

Langmuir Prize, a MacArthur Foundation Genius Award, 

and a Priestly Award.

Facility Innovations. Such outstanding science depends on 

a continuous development and renewal of resources, ranging 

from the accelerator itself to research instrumentation and 

techniques. Some key innovations and accomplishments by 

ALS or Berkeley Lab partners include:

R5 Superconducting bend magnets (superbends) expand 

the spectral range of the ALS without using up straight 

sections best reserved for undulators. Superbends have 

made the ALS a world-class protein crystallography 

source and added high-pressure, microdiffraction, and 

tomography capabilities.

R5 X-ray pulses down to the 100-fs time scale are produced 

by the laser slicing technique. First developed in conjunction with Berkeley Lab’s Center for Beam Physics on a 

bend-magnet beamline, laser slicing is now implemented 

on undulator beamlines for time-resolved diffraction and 

spectroscopy processes at time scales at which atomic 

motion of atom occurs.

R5 Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) metrology tools developed by 

Berkeley Lab’s Center for X-Ray Optics include essential 

at-wavelength interferometric and reflection instruments 

for a unique DOE laboratory–semiconductor industry 

program to develop next-generation EUV lithography 

technology.

R5 Advanced x-ray optics research (also by Berkeley Lab’s 

Center for X-Ray Optics) has yielded world-leading 

high-resolution diffractive lenses for x-ray microscopy 

of solids and biological structures.

R5 Photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) innovations 

include pioneering work both in development of PEEM 

instrumentation and its use to study magnetic nanostructures by x-ray magnetic circular and linear dichroism 

spectroscopic and time-resolved modes.

R5 Top-off (quasi-continuous beam injection) provides dramatic increases in brightness, stability, and effective lifetime 

that benefit users in all fields. 

Remaining at the Forefront

The 21st century requires us to take science beyond mere 

observation. It is important to be able to design materials 

and processes that have the required properties to meet 

humanity’s needs. This requires an ability to see functionality at the relevant length, time, and energy scales and then 

to go beyond probing to controlling matter and energy at 

the molecular, atomic, and subatomic levels. Over the next 

15 years, an ambitious upgrade progeram is planned to renew 

the facility and keep it at the cutting edge of synchrotron 

science with higher spatial, temporal, and spectral resolution 

than is now available.

Accelerator Upgrades 

The ALS produces light over a wide spectral range for users. 

The quality of the photons is intimately connected to the 

performance of the accelerator complex. In addition to the 

imminent migration to top-off operation, proposed upgrades 

will involve the following:

R5 New instrumentation for improved photon-beam stability and control,

R5 Replacing outmoded components for enhanced reliability 

of the accelerator complex,

R5 A lattice upgrade for higher horizontal brightness, and

R5 A novel storage ring operational mode to serve multi- and 

single-bunch users simultaneously.

Advanced Light Source (cont.)
11

Insertion Devices

Of the ten straight sections available for insertion devices, 

five are occupied by the original full-length planar undulators. 

To enhance the utilization of the straight sections, future 

advanced insertion devices with polarization control, higher 

brightness, and extended spectral range will, like current 

EPUs, be short enough to permit two in each straight section. 

In addition to EPUs, other devices would include a shortperiod undulator for harder (12 keV) photons. Advanced 

insertion devices pose challenges. Those that we intend to 

explore include the following:

R5 Non-mechanically-moving EPUs and/or improved field 

shapes, and

R5 Superconducting undulators for achieving ultimate 

brightness in the soft x-ray range and for significantly 

higher brightness than achievable with wiggler sources at 

12 keV.

Bringing New Beamlines into Operation

The ALS is a field-leader in core technology areas of spectroscopy, imaging, scattering, and ultrafast experimental 

techniques. Renewing and upgrading the key instruments in 

our core areas will allow the users to examine and characterize 

matter and energy at scales never before achieved. Among 

beamlines currently in the commissioning, construction, 

or advanced design stage are the four summarized below.

The Ultrafast X-ray Facility (Beamlines 6.0.1 and 6.0.2). 

This new facility consists of two undulator beamlines—one 

for hard x rays (6.0.1), the other for soft x rays (6.0.2). The 

facility is dedicated to time-resolved experiments on the 

femtosecond and picosecond time scales, increasing the 

flux of femtosecond x rays at the ALS a thousand-fold over 

an existing bend-magnet beamline. Many of the ultrashort 

pulse x-ray techniques to be developed on these beamlines 

will find direct applications in the experimental program 

at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) and will also 

provide unique capabilities in spectroscopy that will not be 

available at free-electron laser (FEL) sources. 

The Milli-Electron Resolution BeamLINe (MERLIN, 

The staff of the Ultrafast X-Ray Facility celebrates first 

light at Beamline 6.0.1. L-R: Front row: Bruce Rude, 

Phil Heimann, and Roger Falcone. Back row: 

Robert Schoenlein, Marcus Hertlein, and Ernie Glover.

Contact

Advanced Light Source 

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 

1 Cyclotron Road, MS 6-2100 

Berkeley, CA 94720 

http://www-als.lbl.gov/als

Beamline 4.0.1). This beamline provides high energy-resolution capabilities for photoemission and inelastic scattering 

experiments, which are crucial for understanding the behavior 

of strongly correlated systems such as conventional and 

high-temperature superconductors and magnetic systems. 

The MERLIN beamline has polarization control from a 

quasiperiodic elliptically polarizing undulator (EPU) in the 

VUV energy range below 150 eV. 

COherent Scattering and diffraction MICroscopy 

(COSMIC, Sector 7). The COSMIC beamline will provide coherent light in the 0.5–3 keV range with polarization 

control. One branch of this beamline will serve the soft x-ray 

coherent scattering community, where much of the interest 

is in magnetic phenomena. The other branch will be devoted 

to diffraction microscopy. This new form of lensless imaging 

is designed to provide 3D structures to 10-nm resolution 

for frozen hydrated biological specimens and even higher 

resolution where radiation damage is not a limitation. This 

will be a major new venture in the use of soft x rays as a 

nanoscale probe. 

Microscopy And Electronic STRucture Observatory 

(MAESTRO, Sector 7). The MAESTRO beamline will 

illuminate a new nanoARPES instrument specializing in 

valence photoemission spectroscopy in the energy range 

20–600eV. Small probe sizes enable the study of systems 

such as isolated homogeneous regions within inhomogeneous 

samples, small specimens of materials that are manageable 

in minute quantities but hazardous in larger quantities 

(e.g., transuranics), surfaces and structures that cannot be 

prepared in larger formats, and nanostructures created in 

the Molecular Foundry.
12

National Synchrotron Light Source

The National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) is one of 

the most prolific scientific user facilities in the world. Each 

year, about 2,200 scientists from more than 400 universities, government laboratories and companies use its bright 

beams of light for research in such diverse fields as biology, 

physics, chemistry, geology, medicine, and environmental 

and materials sciences. While the majority comes from 

academic institutions, about 7 percent of NSLS users are 

from industries.

The NSLS operates two electron storage rings: X-Ray (2.8 

GeV) and Vacuum Ultraviolet-Infrared (VUV-IR) (800 

MeV). These two rings provide intense light spanning the 

whole electromagnetic spectrum—from very long wavelength infrared radiation to ultraviolet light and super-short 

wavelength x-rays. Scientists use these intense light beams 

to study the electronic, chemical, and structural properties of 

materials at the atomic level. For example, researchers have 

used the NSLS to examine the minute details of computer 

chips, decipher the structures of viruses, probe the density of 

bone, determine the chemical composition of moon rocks, 

and reveal countless other fascinating aspects of science.

The facility operates 65 beamlines, with 52 beamlines on 

the x-ray ring and 13 beamlines on the VUV-IR ring. These 

beamlines are optimized for high-resolution atomic structure determination, two- and three-dimensional chemical 

and magnetic imaging with micron or sub-micron spatial 

resolution, as well as high-energy resolution spectroscopy. 

They are also equipped with state-of-the-art experimental 

apparati to allow the study of materials under extreme 

temperatures, pressures, and magnetic fields. In addition, the 

intense synchrotron light enables the study of very small or 

very dilute samples and high-throughput measurements that 

cannot be carried out with laboratory- based light sources.

IBM researcher Simone Raoux 

with a wafer that contains 

millions of new computer 

memory switches. Raoux 

performs research partly with 

time-resolved x-ray diffraction at the NSLS to develop a 

material that could lead to a 

new kind of computer memory 

chip used for storing digital 

media. Photo courtesy of Noah 

Berger/The New York Times/

Redux.
13

Summary of Experimental Techniques Available at the NSLS 

The wealth and variety of experimental techniques available to NSLS users is characterized by the wide photon energy range 

covered by two storage rings, spanning the far infrared to the very hard x-ray region. Most techniques, and the instruments 

that enable their performance, are associated with a particular photon energy range. Thus, the wide energy range enables 

the NSLS to offer to its users a correspondingly wide variety of experimental techniques, which are grouped below into five 

major categories: diffraction and scattering, macromolecular crystallography, microspectroscopy and imaging, spectroscopy, 

and other. The figure is a graphical presentation of the distribution of experimental techniques provided at the 65 operating 

beamlines around the two NSLS storage rings.

Each of the five general categories listed above encompasses a number of more specific experimental methods. These specific 

methods restrict themselves to certain ranges of experimental parameter space and are generally named by this specialization, e.g. angle-resolved or time-resolved variants of the generic techniques. A description of the five general categories, 

including several specific techniques, is provided on the following page. 
14

Diffraction and Scattering 

This category consists of a large set of photon-in, photon-out 

experimental techniques, encompassing specific methods 

distinguished by momentum transfer, angular range, incident 

photon energy, surface vs. bulk, degree of sample order, and 

degree of coherence. Zero energy transfer techniques include 

most types of diffraction, elastic scattering, and reflectivity, 

whereas non-zero energy transfer techniques are usually 

labeled inelastic scattering. Wide-angle x-ray scattering or 

diffraction (WAXS, WAXD) and small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) are labeled by the angular range of the scattered 

x-rays relative to the incident x-ray direction. X-ray scattering 

of photons with energy selected at an absorption peak of the 

sample is referred to as resonant x-ray scattering, whereas 

scattering at other photon energies is called non-resonant 

x-ray scattering. Surface x-ray scattering or diffraction is 

confined to the surface and near-surface region, e.g. using 

grazing angle of incidence. Diffraction or scattering from 

single crystals is distinguished from powder diffraction from 

an ensemble of small crystals (powders). If the incident x-ray 

beam is spatially coherent in the transverse plane, scattering 

of this beam is called coherent x-ray scattering, as compared 

to incoherent x-ray scattering when the phase space of the 

incident beam is significantly larger. Other variants include 

time-resolved scattering or diffraction, magnetic scattering, 

and liquid scattering.

Macromolecular Crystallography 

Macromolecular crystallography (MX) refers to x-ray diffraction from a crystallized array of macromolecules, where 

macromolecules have tens to hundreds of thousands of atoms 

in the unit cell. Macromolecules include proteins, viruses, 

and nucleic acids.

Microspectroscopy and Imaging 

The techniques in this category either utilize (1) tiny, focused 

beams of synchrotron radiation, where the sample is rasterscanned through the beam to generate an image, or (2) 

“full-field” illumination where large beams of synchrotron 

radiation are used to flood a sample and a pixel-array detector 

is used to capture the image. Many of these techniques also 

permit imaging as a function of incident photon energy, i.e., 

as a spectroscopy, hence the term microspectroscopy. The 

specific techniques in this category include FTIR-based 

infrared microspectroscopy (FTIRM), soft x-ray scanning 

transmission x-ray microscopy (STXM), photoemission 

electron microscopy (PEEM), x-ray microtomography, 

micro-diffraction imaging, diffraction enhanced imaging 

(DEI), x-ray topography, and x-ray fluorescence microprobe 

(μXRF).

Spectroscopy 

This category encompasses all techniques that vary the incident photon energy as the principal experimental variable, 

except microspectroscopy techniques. The largest specific 

technique in this category is x-ray absorption spectroscopy 

(XAS), which strictly refers to the transmission through the 

sample but is generally extended to include electron and 

fluorescence yield spectroscopies. Close variants of XAS 

include extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) 

spectroscopy and near-edge EXAFS (NEXAFS). Electron 

spectroscopies are included in this category, such as ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), angle-resolved photoelectron 

spectroscopy (ARPES), and spin-resolved spectroscopy. 

Other specific techniques in this category include UV circular dichroism (UVCD) and soft x-ray magnetic circular 

dichroism (MCD), IR spectroscopy, time-resolved spectroscopy, magneto-spectroscopy, and diffraction anomalous fine 

structure spectroscopy (DAFS).

Other 

A few specific techniques do not fall into any of the other 

four categories. At the NSLS, these techniques include 

metrology, radiometry, and x-ray footprinting.

Accomplishments

NSLS users and staff produce more than 900 publications 

per year. Of these, about 20 percent are published in premier scientific journals with high impact. The most notable 

example is work by Roderick MacKinnon, a visiting NSLS 

researcher from The Rockefeller University, who shared the 

2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for explaining how one class 

of proteins helps to generate nerve impulses.

The NSLS also supported work linked to the 2008 Nobel 

Prize in Chemistry, which was awarded to two American 

scientists and a Japanese researcher for their discovery and 

National Synchrotron Light Source (cont.)
15

Contact

National Synchrotron Light Source 

Brookhaven National Laboratory 

75 Brookhaven Avenue, Bldg. 725B 

Upton, NY 11973 

http://www.nsls.bnl.gov

development of a protein called green fluorescent protein 

(GFP). GFP, which is found in a type of jellyfish and glows 

green under ultraviolet light, has become an extremely 

popular tool for probing the insides of living cells or whole 

animals and watching molecules interact in real time. The 

structure of GFP was first solved with the help of x-ray 

studies at NSLS beamline X4A and reported in the journal 

Science in 1996. Roger Tsien, who won a third of the Nobel, 

was an author on that seminal paper (Publication: Ormö, 

M., Cubitt, A.B., Kallio, K., Gross, L.A., Tsien, R.Y., and 

Remington, S.J., “Crystal Structure of Aequorea victoria 

Green Fluorescent Protein,” Science 273: 1392-1395 (1996)).

The NSLS also has won nine R&D 100 Awards for innovations including a closed-orbit feedback system, x-ray 

microscopes, and the first device able to focus a large spread 

of high-energy x-rays. Other significant contributions made 

to the field of synchrotron radiation include: the ChasmanGreen Lattice, the storage ring design that is still used at 

light sources worldwide; resonant x-ray scattering techniques 

for probing magnetism; the development of coherent x-ray 

diffraction (or “lensless”) imaging, which allows the 3-D 

visualization of non-crystalline objects with nanometer-scale 

resolution; and pioneering free electron laser research.

In addition, scientists have used the NSLS to:

R5 develop a method for breast cancer detection that is more 

accurate than mammography

R5 study the structure and composition of plaques in 

Alzheimer’s disease using infrared and x-ray imaging 

techniques

R5 study the role of zinc in the development of age-related 

macular degeneration, the leading cause of blindness 

among elderly people in the developed world

R5 look for signs of life in comet and space dust collected by 

NASA’s Stardust spacecraft

R5 examine material dredged from the Port of New York/

New Jersey to determine the nature of pollutants in the 

sediment

R5 probe electrodes and electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries 

with the aim of improving their performance

R5 investigate magnetic materials to make better recording 

devices

R5 probe the properties of high-temperature superconductors, materials that conduct electricity with almost zero 

resistance

R5 explore new techniques for making denser, faster computer chips

The crystal structure of the potassium-ion channel, which was 

determined based on data partially collected at the NSLS. The 

structure, for which NSLS user Roderick MacKinnon received 

the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, is an important step in 

understanding how ion channels produce and control cellular 

electrical activity, which regulates hormone secretion, controls 

heartbeats, and drives the nervous system.

Extracellular

Membrane

Intracellular

Future Technology

The NSLS has continually updated its technology and 

expanded its scientific capabilities since its first operations 

in 1982. As the boundaries of scientific discovery have 

been expanded, however, many researchers are looking for 

additional capabilities beyond those that can be provided 

by the NSLS or any other synchrotron in the world. As a 

result, Brookhaven has proposed building a replacement for 

the present facility – NSLS-II. The new facility will be a 

state-of-the-art, world-leading synchrotron that will produce 

x-rays up to 10,000 times brighter than those generated by 

the current NSLS. Its superior capabilities will reinforce 

U.S. scientific leadership, enabling scientists to explore 

the challenges they face in developing new materials with 

advanced properties.
16

Advanced Photon Source

The Advanced Photon Source (APS) at Argonne National 

Laboratory is a third-generation storage ring source. This 

facility is optimized to produce radiation not from the bending magnets, which force the electrons to maintain their 

path on a closed orbit, but rather from insertion devices 

(IDs). The APS produces radiation in the hard x-ray range 

(from a few kiloelectron volts to 100’s of kiloelectron volts). 

The high-brightness x-rays in that energy range make the 

APS an ideal source for materials research because (1) the 

wavelength of the radiation is on the order of the interatomic distances of atoms in materials and, therefore, can 

be used for scattering experiments for the determination 

of the structure of materials; (2) the energy of the x-rays is 

in the right range to ionize (remove) core electrons from 

materials for spectroscopic studies of materials or to perform 

element-specific studies of materials; and (3) x-rays of this 

energy range are penetrating and so can be used to study 

bulk properties of materials, buried or liquid/solid interfaces, 

and/or materials in ovens, pressure cells, in situ reaction 

cells, etc. In addition, the x-ray beam is sufficiently intense 

that time-resolved studies can be carried out that follow the 

evolution of materials as they change under the influence 

of temperature, pressure, magnetic field, etc.

High-energy X-ray Scattering

High-energy x-rays (i.e., 50 keV to 120 keV) are extremely 

useful in the study of a variety of materials and a wide range of 

scientific areas, with the largest use being in applied materials 

science, in particular in the area of stress, strain, and texture 

measurements. Dedicated high-energy x-ray scattering capabilities at the APS include traditional aggregate strain/texture 

measurement capabilities, but also a three-dimensional x-ray 

diffraction microscope that is used to measure the diffraction properties of the individual single grains that make up 

polycrystalline materials. This is of great interest because the 

mechanical behavior of most structural materials is largely 

determined by a complex combination of the mechanical 

behavior of individual grains and the interaction between 

individual grains. Nearly all measurements of the mechanical properties of materials are made on bulk material as a 

whole (i.e., the aggregate of the single grains), and hence 

only average information is obtained. Following changes in 

materials grain-by-grain while they are exposed to physical 

transformations validates and extends our understanding of 

fundamental materials properties and has many implications 

for manufacturing.

The high-energy beamlines at the APS often utilize undulator radiation that is optimized for high brightness with full 

tunability in the high-energy x-ray regime. Special optics 

are available for a variety of focusing modes (down to a few 

microns if desired) and for high energy resolution. Primary 

areas of research are:

R5 Measurement of stress, strain, and texture from polycrystalline aggregates,

R5 High-energy diffraction microscopy to study single grains 

in polycrystals, 

R5 Pair distribution function (PDF) measurements of noncrystalline materials, and

R5 Measurements of samples under extreme (high-pressure 

and/or high-temperature) conditions.

Facilities for high-energy imaging and high-energy smallangle scattering are also available for users.

APS aerial showing the ANL Center for Nanoscale 

Materials at left side of the ring.
17

Inelastic X-ray Scattering

Depending on the energy resolution, inelastic x-ray scattering (IXS) techniques can provide insight on vibrational and 

elastic properties (high-energy-resolution IXS), dynamical 

properties and elementary excitations of electrons (mediumenergy-resolution IXS), and the chemical properties of 

low atomic number materials under extreme conditions of 

pressure and temperature: (low-energy-resolution IXS or 

x-ray Raman scattering). 

If the sample has a specific type of nuclear isotope that 

can be excited with x-rays, nuclear resonant (Mossbauer) 

inelastic x-ray scattering measurements can be made that 

provide information on vibrational and elastic properties, 

such as the phonon density of states and sound velocities. 

All these experiments have become possible due to the 

characteristics of third-generation synchrotron radiation 

sources such as the APS. 

At the APS, instruments have been specifically designed 

to perform these types of experiments. HERIX, a HighEnergy-Resolution (1.5 meV at 23.7 keV) Inelastic X-ray 

scattering spectrometer, is used predominantly for studies 

of collective excitations in solids and liquids. Research areas 

include phonons in solids; sound modes in complex fluids; 

collective vibrational dynamics of polymer molecules; protein 

dynamics; and electron-phonon coupling, particularly in 

superconductors. MERIX, a Medium-Energy-Resolution 

(50-200 meV at 5 to 12 keV) Inelastic X-ray scattering 

spectrometer, is used for collective electronic and magnetic 

excitations (e.g., plasmons, charge-transfer excitations, d-d 

excitations, double magnon excitations, etc.). The targeted 

energy resolution is ~100 meV, covering the K-absorption 

edge of vanadium to zinc. MERIX is presently the best-inclass resonant inelastic x-ray scattering spectrometer regarding count-rates, energy resolution, and available analyzers. 

LERIX, the Lower-Energy-Resolution Inelastic X-ray 

scattering spectrometer, allows high-energy, nonresonant 

experiments to be performed. Numerous experiments have 

been carried out, including measurements on Li-metal 

oxide electrode materials in Li-ion batteries, on isomers of 

a carborane molecule (which may be a novel component 

in future cancer therapies), and on carbon “nano-onions” 

(which have been proposed as an important constituent of 

interstellar dust). 

Plan view of the Advanced Photon Source showing 

the locations of high-energy x-ray scattering (HEXS), 

inelastic x-ray scattering, and hard x-ray imaging 

capabilities. The photos show imaging (nanoprobe), IXS 

(LERIX), and HEXS (stress/strain) instruments.
18

Advanced Photon Source (cont.)

Other 

federal lab.

Industry

Academic

Other

DOE lab. Engineering

Optics

Enviro.

Materials Earth

Biology & Life Chemistry

Other

Polymers

Physics

Medical 

applications

Instrumentation

Imaging with Hard X-rays

X-ray imaging capabilities at the APS cover a wide range, 

from x-ray micro- and nano-probes (scanning techniques) to 

full-field techniques such as transmission x-ray microscopy 

and microtomography.

The hard x-ray nanoprobe at the APS utilizes x-rays with 

photon energies between 3 and 30 keV to study nanostructures materials and devices at the highest spatial resolution. 

The instrument takes advantage of the high brilliance at high 

photon energy provided by the APS to produce diffractionlimited focal spots for scanning probe microscopy. Photon 

energies in the hard x-ray portion of the electromagnetic 

spectrum are ideally suited for imaging with contrast mechanisms such as x-ray fluorescence and x-ray diffraction. These 

contrast mechanisms allow researchers to characterize and 

quantify elemental constituents of materials with sensitivity to individual nanoparticles, and to observe atomic-scale 

structural properties of nanoscale materials and systems, 

such as crystal structure and strain. Hard x-rays also allow 

penetration of overlayers and windows of environmental 

sample chambers (e.g., high-pressure diamond anvil cells and 

high-temperature furnaces). The nanoprobe will provide an 

initial spatial resolution of 30 nm—the size of 100 atoms. 

It is anticipated that significantly higher spatial resolution 

will be reached over the lifetime of the nanoprobe as x-ray 

optics continue to improve. 

Full-field imaging allows for efficient two- and threedimensional visualization of complex systems and devices. 

A recently completed, dedicated full-field imaging beamline 

was constructed at the APS to satisfy the rapidly growing 

need for advanced x-ray imaging investigations in materials science and biology, and to promote research and 

development to advance the cutting-edge in x-ray imaging. 

The facility currently supports research programs in static 

and dynamic phase-contrast imaging, ultra-small-anglescattering imaging, and transmission x-ray microscopy. The 

high x-ray flux offered by the APS undulator allows highdefinition, phase-enhanced imaging with exposure times as 

short as 200 μs in the monochromatic mode, and down to 

ultrafast single-pulse temporal resolution of ~150 ps in the 

white-beam mode, with simultaneous spatial resolution in 

the 1- to 5-μm range. These unique capabilities open new 

research areas in synchrotron x-ray imaging applications, 

from ultrafast imaging of materials processing and transient 

fluid dynamics to real-time and sub-video-rate imaging of 

biological functions in live insects and small animals. 

The APS User Community

Given the vast range of capabilities of the APS, it is no 

wonder that the community of scientists who use the facility 

is large and varied. Nearly 75% of APS users come from 

the academic community and the user community is almost 

equally split between the physical and life sciences. Industrial 

users have obtained important and socially relevant results in 

pharmaceutical development, energy-related breakthroughs, 

and environmental remediation. One example is Suva®, a 

reliable, proven, and safe replacement for freon. Research at 

the APS helped DuPont researchers to characterize metal 

oxide contents of candidate substitute catalysts, aiding in 

the development of Suva®, which is used in refrigerators 

and freezers, fire extinguishers, propellants, and residential 

and light commercial air conditioning applications. Suva® 

has the potential for zero impact on ozone depletion while 

reducing energy consumption and waste products in the 

manufacturing process.

General users (users not seeking access as members of a 

collaborative access team) obtain beam time through 

a centralized, fully Web-based peer review proposal 

process. For researchers who publish their data in the 

open literature, there is no charge for beam time; 

however, scientists can perform proprietary work for 

a full cost recovery fee.

APS user demographics: their home institutions 

and their scientific disciplines.
19

Contact

Advanced Photon Source 

Argonne National Laboratory 

9700 South Cass Avenue 

Argonne, IL 60439 

http://www.aps.anl.gov

Accomplishments

Facility Design: The APS runs more than 75% of the scheduled time in top-up (constant-current) mode—an operational mode pioneered at the APS and now used at other 

synchrotron light source facilities to increase the number of 

ampere-hours delivered, facilitate beam stability, and permit 

ring operation at lower emittance.

Science: Fuel-injector efficiency and clean combustion are 

dependent on the best mixture of fuel and air. To improve 

injector design, it is critical to understand how fuel is atomized as it is injected. Scientists using extreme-brightness x-ray 

beams at the APS have developed a technique that peers 

through high-speed dense liquids, allowing the researchers 

to capture, for the first time, the internal structure of the jet 

and map its velocity with clarity and confidence.

The structure and behavior of one of the most common 

proteins in our bodies has been resolved at a level of detail 

never before seen. Researchers have examined the structure 

of collagen, a protein that composes more than a quarter 

of all proteins in the human body and forms the principal 

component of skin, teeth, ligaments, the heart, blood vessels, 

bones, and cartilage. Researchers never had the ability to 

study the structure of an entire fibril in the same way that 

they could study an individual collagen molecule.

Iron and Neurodegenerative Disease: Mark Davidson (left), 

University of Florida (UF), and Joanna Collingwood, Keele 

University in the United Kingdom (UK), who is supported by 

a UK Alzheimer’s Society Research Fellowship and Dunhill 

Medical Trust, align a sample of Alzheimer’s brain tissue at 

the microfocus facility, beamline 10-ID at the APS.

Fuel injector efficiency and clean combustion are dependent on 

the best mixture of fuel and air. To improve injector design, it 

is critical to understand how fuel is atomized as it is injected. 

Scientists using extreme-brightness x-ray beams have developed a technique that peers through high-speed dense liquids. 

Shown here is the liquid breakup of a high-density stream 

from a fuel injector as imaged with ultrafast synchrotron 

x-ray full-field phase contrast imaging at X-ray Operations 

and Research beamline 32-ID. Other potential applications 

include the dynamics of material failure under explosive or 

ballistic impact, which is of major importance to transportation safety and national security, and material diffusion 

under intense heat.

A current problem of intense interest to the condensed matter 

physics community is the behavior of systems with strongly 

interacting electrons. Researchers using the APS have gained 

insight into this problem by uncovering a reconstruction 

of electronic orbitals confined at an interface between ferromagnetic and superconducting oxides. This insight has 

important implications for the behavior at interfaces between 

materials with strongly correlated electrons.

The application of intense, submicron-sized x-ray beams 

at the APS has made possible the discovery that deformed 

metals have large, variable internal stresses in opposing directions on very short (submicron or nanoscale) length scales. 

This result has profound implications for understanding the 

mechanical strength and behavior of metals.

Looking Ahead

As the APS looks to the future, we realize that revolutionary 

science requires a change in capabilities by a factor of at least 

10. As a result, renewal planning for the APS has focused 

on approaches that will revolutionize APS experimental 

capabilities along these lines. In the short term (next 1-5 

years), the APS is looking toward enhanced x-ray optics and 

detectors to achieve at least an order of magnitude improvement. One example is the innovation after construction of 

the Medium Energy Resolution Inelastic X-ray Scattering 

instrument, where an improvement in the energy resolution 

by a factor of 2, and the count rate improvement by a factor 

of more than 10, created a best-in-the-world facility.
20

Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource

The Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL) has provided synchrotron radiation to the scientific community 

for over 30 years. SSRL, a part of the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, utilizes x-rays produced by the Stanford 

Positron Electron Asymmetric Ring (SPEAR). The SPEAR accelerator was upgraded in 2004 to an intermediate energy 

(3-GeV), 500-mA capable, high-brightness “third-generation” storage ring, SPEAR3. This upgrade, jointly funded by the 

DOE and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), is an example of extraordinary teamwork and enables groundbreaking 

synchrotron science. 

State-of-the-Art Experimental Facilities 

In conjunction with the SPEAR3 upgrade, parallel upgrades of beam line optics and end station instrumentation were 

undertaken from 2004 through 2008, which provided 13 beam ports at SSRL serving 25 beamlines that can operate 

simultaneously. There are expansion opportunities for experimental stations to support additional techniques at numerous 

locations around the SPEAR3 ring.

Beamline instruments at SSRL. 
21

Scientific Opportunities

As shown in the accompanying diagram, SSRL beamlines 

offer a variety of experimental techniques to users. Selected 

beamline capabilities are briefly mentioned below.

High-Resolution Angle-Resolved Photoemission 

Spectroscopy (ARPES) equipment at BL5-4 is used to 

reveal the electronic structure of materials such as hightemperature superconductors, and how electron structure 

changes due to the existence of charge density waves. 

Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS), a well-established 

characterization method for microstructure investigations, 

is applied to studies of various materials. It probes structure 

of inhomogeneities (essentially electron density differences) 

from the near atomic scale (1 nm) to the micron scale (1000 

nm). Examples include dynamics of polymer structure, 

structure of teeth, nucleation/growth of nanoparticles on 

mineral surfaces, phase transitions of Langmuir monolayers 

of mixed fatty alcohols, characterization of porous metal 

films formed by dealloying.

X-ray Microscopy and Microanalysis – By tuning the x-ray 

microprobe beam at BL6-2 to a specific energy, researchers 

can scan a piece of material, measure the fluorescence that 

comes out, and produce a detailed map of where specific 

elements lie within that material. A new transmission x-ray 

microscope has demonstrated 40 nm resolution at 8 keV in 

both absorption and phase contrast as well as 3d imaging 

using tomography.

X-ray Scanning Microprobe Fluorescence Techniques at 

Bl6-2 have been used by an international collaboration to 

characterize the elemental chemistry of stardust samples 

from comet 81P/Wild-2 that was brought back to earth 

aboard the Stardust spacecraft in January 2007. 

Soft X-ray Spectroscopy – In 2008, SSRL opened a soft 

x-ray facility (BL13) for coherent scattering, surface science 

spectroscopy, speckle, and STXM. Scientific foci include:

R5 Hydrogen Storage in Carbon Nanotubes - developing 

suitable storage media to realize hydrogen as an energy 

carrier,

R5 Energy Production and Utilization Science - understanding of electrolysis of water and fuel cell catalysis, and

R5 Molecular Environmental Science – probing chemical 

reactions at water/oxide interfaces.

X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS), Photoemission 

Spectroscopy (PES), and X-ray Scattering (XS) Techniques

allow determination of the molecular structures and compositions of elements at mineral-water interfaces, in nanoparticles, bacteria and other living cells, amorphous and 

crystalline materials, liquids, and complex mixtures of these 

materials. The behavior of contaminants and nutrients in the 

environment is controlled by these properties. Therefore, these 

synchrotron-based techniques have become invaluable tools 

in environmental and interfacial science applications. 

Biological Small-Angle X-ray Scattering/Diffraction 

(SAXS/D) is used to study largely non-crystalline biological macromolecular systems, including proteins in solution 

and biological fibers. SAXS/D techniques can often study 

specimens in conditions similar to the physiological environment. The ease of controlling sample conditions is also 

an advantage of SAXS/D techniques in physio-chemical 

characterization and for time-resolved studies which follow 

the response of a biological system to a perturbation in the 

physical or chemical environment.

Biological X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) includes 

dilute metalloprotein XAS, polarized single crystal XAS 

studies, and microXAS imaging. Studies focus on understanding the electronic and geometric structure of active 

sites in enzymes, in order to understand the mechanism 

by which they perform their biological function. A wide 

array of beam line facilities and equipment are provided 

for XAS users.

R5 Detailed analysis of metal centers in proteins (non-crystalline conditions)

R5 Reaction intermediates in metalloproteins (trapped in 

frozen solution or crystals)

R5 Single crystal XAS

R5 XAS imaging and spectro-microscopy

Macromoleular Crystallography – Each of the SSRL crystallography beamlines is equipped with identical beam line 

hardware, computational environment and software interface 

for a highly standardized, user-friendly and robust environment. Highly efficient robots enable automated screening 

and data collection, and remote-access techniques enable 

the users to perform the experiments from their home 

institution. A significant amount of science is devoted to 

structure based drug design for medical therapeutics. Work 

by R. Kornberg and collaborators on understanding how 

DNA transcription works and is regulated was awarded 
22

the 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 2007, SSRL opened 

the Molecular Observatory, an undulator microfocus crystallography beam line (BL12), funded by the Gordon and 

Betty Moore Foundation. A new bend magnet crystallography beam line is under development (BL14), funded 

by Genentech and JCSG (NIH). All beamlines feature 

advanced detectors.

The Synchrotron Structural Biology Resource is supported 

by the NIH (NCRR & NIGMS) and DOE-BER to push 

the science envelope and develop technologies in macromolecular crystallography, x-ray absorption spectroscopy and 

small angle x-ray scattering/diffraction and to disseminate 

these methodologies for use in the biomedical research 

community. The Resource is advancing the scientific forefront with novel instrumentation, innovative software and 

automated/high-throughput systems for: 

R5 studying high resolution structures of large, complex 

macromolecules, including molecular machines; 

R5 investigating fundamental questions in biophysics such 

as protein and RNA folding;

R5 developing and improving methods for imaging noncrystalline biological materials at near atomic resolution 

to study the spatial distribution and chemical nature of 

the involved elements; and

R5 studying very fast time-resolved structural changes in 

chemical and biological systems with ultrafast absorption 

and scattering techniques. 

This Resource serves ~1,300 investigators per year who 

publish ~200 publications annually. The Resource holds 

Summer Schools and workshops, and carries out extensive 

training programs for users. 

Molecular Environmental and Interface Science (MEIS) 

research focuses on the fundamental interfacial, molecular- and nano-scale processes that control the behavior of 

contaminants and nutrients in the environment. This research 

makes significant use of the entire suite of SSRL-based 

synchrotron techniques to provide direct in-situ probes of 

physical and electronic structure. Basic research in these 

areas at SSRL contributes directly to important U.S. national 

priorities in the areas of energy, environment, and homeland 

security.

User Operations

SSRL operates about nine months each year, with beam 

line upgrades and facility maintenance scheduled during 

the summer shutdown. Over 1,000 scientists from a variety 

of national and international institutions annually benefit 

from utilizing SSRL beamlines. 

SSRL users have published more than 8,500 papers since 

SSRL started, with the first one submitted in 1974. This 

total includes over 500 ‘high profile’ publications in journals 

such as PRL, Science and Nature. More than 850 graduate 

student theses have resulted from studies performed partially 

or fully at SSRL reflecting a significant impact on education 

of the scientific workforce.

Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (cont.)

Transmission X-ray Microscope installed at SSRL BL6-2. 

This instrument is the heart of an NIH funded, hard x-ray 

bio-imaging facility capable of resolutions of 40 nm as well as 

tomography in both phase and absorption contrast.
23

Central Management 

Ensures Optimal Utilization

The experimental facilities at SSRL are all scheduled and 

managed centrally to ensure that the unique resources are 

most efficiently utilized and to ensure that all visiting scientific users have a productive experience. SSRL focuses 

on serving the general scientific user community, providing 

access to beamlines, instrumentation, ancillary equipment 

and dedicated staff scientists and technicians in numerous 

areas, such as: 

R5 Correlated and Magnetic Materials – high TC materials 

and oxides with nanoscale ordering phenomena, magnetic 

materials and magnetic nanostructures

R5 Molecular Environmental and Interfacial Science – 

fundamental interfacial, molecular- and nano-scale 

processes that control contaminant and nutrient cycling in 

the biosphere with the goal of elucidating global elemental 

cycles and influences on the environment

R5 Structural Biology/Chemistry – local electronic and atomic 

structure and bonding, macromolecular crystal structure, biophysical approaches to static and time-resolved 

structure-function relationship

R5 Surface and Interface Science – surface reactions, catalysis, 

liquid-solid interfaces

Science Program Highlights

SSRL serves the research needs of a growing number of 

national and international scientists across a broad range 

of science, engineering, environmental and biomedical disciplines. Research results are widely disseminated through 

publications and presentations at scientific conferences 

and are also frequently recognized through international 

awards. 

Future Opportunities in the Ultrafast 

and Ultrasmall

SPEAR3 offers high brightness x-ray radiation, which 

is emitted as ultrashort (about 30 ps) x-ray pulses. These 

capabilities allow the development of new instrumentation 

such as x-ray microscopy and scientific applications in new 

areas such as nanoscience. More generally, it will become 

increasingly important in the future to create micro- or 

nano-sized x-ray beams with high-intensity, well defined 

polarization and time structure. Such studies promise unique 

insight into materials such as the following:

R5 Materials under extreme conditions (e.g., pressure or 

high fields),

R5 Materials that exhibit nanoscale dynamics (i.e., respond to 

excitations on the second to picosecond time scale),

R5 Artificial nanostructures or those intrinsically inhomogeneous on the micro- and nanoscale, and 

R5 Biological crystals which only exist on the microscale.

SSRL, well known for outstanding user support and important contributions to science and instrumentation, is well 

poised to continue to facilitate scientific discovery, in ways 

that also train the future technical workforce.

Contact

Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource 

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory 

2575 Sand Hill Road, MS 99 

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu
24

National Synchrotron Light Source II

Why This Facility?

The National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) at 

Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) provides essential 

scientific tools to about 2,200 users/year from more than 

400 institutions, including universities, national laboratories, 

and industry. It has pioneered many advances in photon 

science and technology and is distinguished by providing a 

very broad range of photon energies that supports a diverse 

and productive scientific community, resulting in more 

than 900 publications per year and the 2003 Nobel Prize 

in Chemistry. Progress toward the development of more 

powerful microchips and more efficient hard drives, research 

toward reducing pollution by improving catalytic converters, 

new detection methods for breast cancer and osteoarthritis, 

and steps toward possible eventual development of a vaccine 

for HIV and AIDS are only a handful of the areas in which 

the NSLS has accelerated scientific progress. 

Synchrotron light sources such as NSLS, which has operated 

since 1982, have launched many scientific revolutions but 

the capabilities of present facilities fall short of requirements. 

Major advances in energy technologies – such as the use of 

hydrogen as an energy carrier; the widespread, economical 

use of solar energy; or the development of the next generation of nuclear power systems – will require scientific 

breakthroughs in developing new materials with advanced 

properties. A key barrier to progress is the absence of nondestructive tools that will allow researchers to peer inside 

their samples and see the smallest and most subtle details. 

They need the ability to study the atomic and electronic 

structure, the chemical composition, and the magnetic 

properties of materials with nanoscale resolution, and to do 

so under real-world conditions of extreme temperatures and 

harsh environments, such as found in catalytic reactions in 

the chemical industry.

The discovery potential of the nation’s researchers is 

being greatly expanded by replacing NSLS with National 

Synchrotron Light Source–II (NSLS-II). NSLS-II will be 

a new synchrotron light source, highly optimized to deliver 

ultra-high brightness and flux and exceptional beam stability, 

which enable the study of material properties and functions 

with a spatial resolution of 1 nanometer, an energy resolution of 0.1 millielectron volt, and the ultra-high sensitivity 

required to probe atomic-scale features. It will deliver the 

world’s finest capabilities for both x-ray imaging and highresolution energy analysis, using a beam designed to be 

approximately 10 times brighter than any other synchrotron 

worldwide that is now operating or under construction. 

Scheduled for completion in 2015, NSLS-II will provide 

advanced tools for discovery-class science in condensed matter and materials physics, chemistry, and biology – science 

that ultimately will enhance national and energy security and 

help drive abundant, safe, and clean energy technologies. The 

resulting scientific advances will support technological and 

economic development in multiple sectors of the economy, 

with powerful applications to biotechnology, nanotechnology, 

and the study of materials under extreme conditions.

Artist’s rendition of NSLS-II facility when in operation and use, as seen 

from the outside of one of the laboratory office buildings planned to be built 

on the outside of the Ring Building.
25

Instrumentation

NSLS-II will provide advanced insertion devices, optics, 

detectors, robotics, and an initial suite of scientific instruments. It will ultimately have the capacity for over 60 

beamlines. These will serve a diverse range of scientific communities including energy sciences (improving efficiency and 

storage), materials science and engineering, environmental 

science, and bio-sciences. The beamlines will take advantage 

of the unprecedented performance of the storage ring to 

produce x-ray beams of world-leading flux and resolution. 

x-ray beams as small as 1 nanometer will be produced, and 

energy resolution as small as 0.1 millielectron volt will be 

achieved. In addition the experimental program will give 

users access to advanced sample environments allowing 

them to probe the nature of materials in extreme working 

conditions (for example, in high pressure or temperature, 

or surrounded by unusual gas compositions).

To enable such experimentation, the NSLS-II beamline 

quality places demands on the electron beam and synchrotron 

radiation properties in the NSLS-II design. To meet design 

goals, research and development activities are underway that 

include magnet measurement and alignment and the development of advanced optics. For example, aggressive x-ray 

optics research and development is underway to produce 

optics capable of delivering, with high efficiency, the very 

high spatial and energy resolutions required.

The conceptual layout of the IXS beamline incorporates a novel x-ray optics design based on the concept of asymmetric backreflection wavelength dispersion proposed by Yuri Shvydko of the Advanced Photon Source. It consists of a standard high-heatload pre-monochromator followed by an ultrahigh-resolution 0.1 meV monochromator. The incident beam is focused by a pair of 

Kirkpatrick-Baez mirrors to a 1 μm by 3 μm spot on the sample position. The scattered x-rays are collected by a pair of multilayer 

collimating mirrors and then analyzed by an identical 0.1 meV optical system to record the inelastically scattered x-ray spectrum. 

Initial Beamlines

Within the NSLS-II construction project scope, six insertion-device beamlines are being built. As detailed below, this 

initial suite of beamlines aims to achieve extraordinary capabilities in x-ray imaging, scattering, and spectroscopy, with 

many world-class characteristics that will meet the needs of the scientific community and enable new studies that are not 

possible to conduct at present-day facilities.

Inelastic X-ray Scattering (IXS) Beamline

Inelastic x-ray scattering allows studies of the dynamic behavior of various materials at molecular and atomic levels by 

detecting and analyzing the small energy differences between the incident and the scattered x-rays. Due to difficulties in 

high-resolution x-ray optics and limitations in x-ray flux, at present the best energy resolution available at other synchrotron facilities is about 1 meV. The IXS beamline aims to achieve world-leading ultra-high energy resolution of ~0.1 meV, 

thus opening up uncharted territories in studies of materials dynamics of disordered systems at high momentum transfers. 

Examples of scientific applications at ultra-high energy resolution include dynamic studies of liquids and disordered systems, vibration dynamics of materials under high pressure, relaxation dynamics of biomolecular assemblies in glassy states, 

and surface lattice dynamics in crystalline systems.

Detector

Focusing 

mirrors 

(V, H)

Sample

Pre-mono

CDDW mono

Comb 

crystal CDDW analyzer

0.1 

meV

0.1 

meV

Bandwidth 

~1 eV

~0.1 mrad

~5 mrad 

Acceptance

Undulator

E = 9.1 keV Multilayer 

collimating 

mirrors(s)
26

Hard X-ray Nanoprobe (HXN) Beamline

The HXN will be a state-of-the-art beamline that aims to 

achieve world-leading ~1 nm spatial resolution for x-ray 

fluorescence imaging and nanodiffraction, using advances 

in x-ray fluorescence, high-dynamic-range area detectors, 

and x-ray focusing optics such as multilayer Laue lenses. 

The HXN beamline will take advantage of the NSLS-II 

brightness and the penetration power of hard (2-30 keV 

energy) x-rays in order to enable x-ray structural and chemical imaging at nanometer scales, with an ultimate elemental 

sensitivity of a single atom.

The endstation instrument will incorporate cutting-edge 

focusing optics with specimen manipulation techniques. The 

instrument will be equipped with active and passive vibration controls as well as an active position feedback system 

for nanometer-scale positioning and stability between the 

optic and the specimen. 

Coherent Hard X-ray Scattering (CHX) Beamline

The CHX scattering beamline will support x-ray photon 

correlation spectroscopy (XPCS) for microscopic dynamic 

studies of glassy and nonequilibrium systems, nanostructured 

fluids, nanoscale domain-walls in correlated condensed matter, and biological systems such as proteins in solution and 

bio-membranes. The beamline plans to use x-ray mirrors and 

focusing optics with ultralow distortions in order to guide 

a coherent x-ray flux onto the sample under investigation. 

The world-leading brightness of NSLS-II promises to 

deliver coherent flux to XPCS experiments that is one to 

two orders of magnitude higher than at any other facility 

worldwide, thus enabling new regimes of dynamic studies 

at two to four orders-of-magnitude faster time scales in 

intensity correlation experiments. 

Besides XPCS, the CHX beamline offers the exciting potential to advance coherent diffraction imaging research as well 

as microbeam small-angle x-ray scattering studies on materials or biological samples. These techniques provide powerful 

ways to study the structure of noncrystalline materials.

Coherent Soft X-ray Scattering and Polarization 

(CSX) Beamline

The CSX beamline seeks to take advantage of the extraordinary brightness of soft x-rays at NSLS-II to facilitate coherent speckle imaging, metrology, and polarization switching 

experiments. The CSX beamline conceptual layout produces 

two beams in the 200-2200 eV soft x-ray range using two 

elliptically polarized undulators in a canted configuration. 

One beam is optimized for the highest possible degree of 

spatial coherence and the other is optimized for the highestperformance polarization-sensitive experiments with the 

capability to switch between opposite polarization states 

at a rate of up to 1 kHz. This high polarization switching 

rate achieves a high magnetic-moment sensitivity in x-ray 

magnetic circular dichroism experiments that is unmatched 

in other facilities. This beam is useful for scientific research 

on highly dilute magnetic materials, micrometer-size single 

crystals, magnetic nanoparticles, and interfaces.

The scientific motivation for the high-coherence beam is to 

provide world-leading high coherent flux to soft x-ray coherent scattering methods, including phase retrieval imaging and 

photon correlation spectroscopy, in order to transform these 

presently signal-limited methods into high-throughput, high 

productivity techniques for science-driven experiments. The 

design of the endstation instrument incorporates a Fresnel 

zone plate to allow studies of material inhomogeneities at 

better than 40 nm spatial resolution. Applications include 

the quest for better understanding of phase segregations in 

strongly correlated materials, such as ferromagnetic metalNational Synchrotron Light Source II (cont.)

Schematic view of the hard x-ray nanoprobe beamline, with a 

remote satellite building at ~100 m from the source.
27

lic and antiferromagnetic insulating regions in manganites 

displaying colossal magneto resistance, and the antiferromagnetic insulating and superconducting regions in high-Tc 

superconducting cuprates. 

Submicron Resolution X-ray Spectroscopy (SRX) 

Beamline

The SRX beamline provides a spectroscopic imaging capability. The conceptual layout of the beamline uses two beams 

from canted, high-brightness undulators. One beam uses a 

Kirkpatrick-Baez mirror system to focus 4-25 keV x-rays to 

0.1 – 1 μm, and the other is based on a Fresnel zone plate to 

achieve a targeted high resolution of 30 nm in the 2-4 keV 

range. Both beams use high resolution x-ray fluorescence 

imaging and take advantage of the exceptional high brightness of NSLS-II to produce a world-leading scanning-probe 

spectroscopy and imaging tool. 

The principal scientific objective of the SRX beamline is 

to conduct frontier research at important interfaces of the 

nanomaterials, environmental, and biological sciences. For 

example, elemental mapping by x-ray fluorescence nanoprobe 

helps to understand how semiconducting nanoparticles such 

as TiO3 can be incorporated into different regions in biological cells for potential cancer therapy applications. Studies of 

metal distribution in micro-organisms (e.g., the subcellular 

localization of metals, as well as mechanisms relevant to 

nutrient distribution and clearance of excess (toxic) metals 

across membranes by active transporters) give insight into 

microbial pathogenesis and bioremediation. Nanoscale 

trace-metal element mapping of micro-organisms and plants 

helps to understand metal-binding mechanisms in diverse 

organisms and cells, and informs the development of new 

agricultural, pharmaceutical, and biofuel technologies. The 

SRX beamline will enable these frontier investigations with 

unprecedented sensitivity and data-collection rates, making 

many experiments possible that are impractical today. 

X-ray Powder Diffraction (XPD) Beamline

The XPD beamline will be a state-of-the-art damping-wiggler 

based beamline equipped with high-energy powder diffraction and pair-distribution function (PDF) instrumentation 

with high-angular-resolution and time-resolved structural 

analysis capabilities. This beamline is designed to support 

measurements that (a) quantitatively characterize complex 

and nanoclustered material structures in their heterogeneous 

functional conditions and in extreme environments, (b) 

enable time-resolved in-situ studies of structure evolution 

under external excitation or during chemical reaction, and 

(c) provide critical structural information during the early 

stages of advanced material synthesis when single crystal 

specimens are often unavailable. Equipped with advanced 

powder diffraction capabilities, the XPD beamline will 

enable a wide range of scientific applications in areas such 

as the physics of complex materials, earth and geological 

sciences, and energy and catalysis research.

The conceptual layout of the XPD beamline consists of 

a main beam with a tunable energy range of 40-100 keV 

and a side beam for dedicated high-energy PDF studies 

at a fixed energy of 80 keV. The experimental station will 

house a heavy-duty diffractometer to accommodate specimen environmental cells for structural studies at extreme 

conditions of high temperature, high pressure, and high 

magnetic field. Advanced capabilities will include a multicrystal analyzer array for high-resolution powder research, 

a 7000-element strip detector for millisecond time-resolved 

studies, and a robotic sample mount for automated sample 

handling for high-throughput structural studies in chemical 

and material synthesis. 

Future Scientific User Program

The NSLS-II Project is working closely with the user community to develop an overall scientific strategic plan that 

will guide the development of the experimental facilities 

for NSLS-II. The specific laboratory and experimental 

capabilities for particular beamlines are being designed in 

collaboration with Beamline Access Teams (BATs) consisting 

of a small number of experts in a specific technique.

Stakeholder interest in NSLS-II is strong as evidenced by 

a financial commitment by New York State to fund the 

construction of the Joint Photon Sciences Institute ( JPSI) 

adjacent to the NSLS-II facility. The JPSI will serve as an 

intellectual center for the development and application of 

photon sciences and as a gateway for users of NSLS-II.

Contact

National Synchrotron Light Source-II Project 

Brookhaven National Laboratory 

Building 817, P.O. Box 5000 

Upton, NY 11973-5000 

http://www.bnl.gov/nsls2
28

Linac Coherent Light Source

For more than 40 years, the 3-km-long linear accelerator at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory has produced cutting edge science from high-energy electrons and positrons. Now, scientists will continue this tradition of discovery using 

part of the SLAC linac to create an entirely new kind of x-ray source. It will be used much like a super-high-speed strobe 

flash, enabling scientists to take stop-motion pictures of atoms and molecules in motion, illuminating the fundamental 

processes of physics, chemistry, and biology on unprecedented timescales.

by many orders of magnitude. The SLAC linac is uniquely 

capable of producing the intense, high-energy electrons 

required to drive such an x-ray source, and LCLS will be 

the first FEL facility operating in the hard x-ray spectral 

range, enabling frontier science.

Probing the Ultra-small, 

Capturing the Ultra-fast

Since their discovery, x-rays have been primarily used for 

studying structures—such as broken bones as well as the 

atomic arrangements in the proteins that drive biological 

processes. Their short wavelength and penetrating power 

make x-rays particularly useful for probing the ultra-small 

world of molecules and nanostructures. Increasingly, scientific 

attention is turning to the dynamics of these ultra-small 

materials—how molecules and nanoparticles change their 

structures under the influence of outside forces or their own 

interactions. Unfortunately, the time scale for these changes 

is incredibly fast, so standard x-ray studies catch only a blur. 

LCLS will be the first x-ray source to offer both the intensity 

necessary to probe complex ultra-small structures and the 

short pulse required to resolve their ultra-fast motions. It 

will capture images with a “shutter speed” of less than 100 

femtoseconds. Photosynthesis is an example of an ultra-fast 

chemical process; x-ray pulses from LCLS could capture the 

details of the sequence of chemical structures involved in 

this reaction. A better understanding of photosynthesis—a 

highly efficient use of the sun’s energy—has implications 

for future energy sources and for agriculture.

Structure of a protein molecule imaged using x-ray 

diffraction at the SSRL synchrotron source. LCLS plans 

to not only increase the range of biological materials whose 

structures can be studied, but also to enable the study 

of ultra-fast dynamics at the atomic scale.

An X-ray Laser

The Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) will produce 

ultra-fast pulses of x-rays billions of times brighter than 

synchrotron sources. LCLS will exploit the free-electron laser 

(FEL) process, in which a pulse of high-energy electrons 

traveling through a very long periodic magnet structure 

creates x-rays and then coherently amplifies their intensity 
29

Construction

Groundbreaking for the LCLS took place in October of 

2006. Transforming SLAC’s venerable linear accelerator 

into a next-generation x-ray light source has benefited 

from the efforts of hundreds of scientists from all over the 

world. The LCLS construction project involves a collaboration including three Department of Energy laboratories 

(SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Argonne National 

Laboratory, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory), 

and the University of California, Los Angeles. LCLS is currently completing construction of infrastructure for future 

experiments and support staff; the project will be completed 

by July 2010.

The SLAC linear accelerator will accelerate pulses of electrons to 

nearly the speed of light, and use them to create extremely intense, 

coherent pulses of x-rays through the free-electron laser process.

The free-electron laser itself was operated for the first time in 

April 2009 and was quickly brought to full power. Beginning 

in September 2009, scientists from around the world will 

come to SLAC to prepare for first use of the extraordinary 

capabilities of this research facility. The first experiments 

will employ the atomic/molecular/optical science (AMO) 

instrument, which has been constructed by the LCLS Project. 

The AMO instrument is the first of six instruments designed 

for LCLS science in the next three years. Two more instruments, for soft x-ray materials science and x-ray pump/probe 

studies, will be available in mid-2010.
30

Instruments

Several instruments which will use the LCLS beam for 

research are in various stages of design and development. 

Each instrument, described briefly below, is tailored to 

support a different type of scientific experiment. When 

completed, each instrument’s use will be managed by the 

LCLS User Program, which administers the peer review 

proposal process to grant access to those investigators with 

research proposals of greatest merit. 

Atomic, Molecular & Optical Science (AMO) 

This instrument will enable the study of the interaction 

between the extremely intense LCLS x-ray pulses and the 

basic constituents of matter: atoms and molecules. It could 

also be used to follow the evolution of chemical reactions 

in the gas phase on their natural time scales using powerful 

tools such as photoelectron spectroscopy. A suite of instrumentation including focusing optics, gas delivery systems, 

electron, ion and photon spectrometers and a synchronized 

high-power laser are currently being built. 

Soft X-ray Materials Science (SXR) 

This instrument will enable the high brightness and timing 

capability of the LCLS to be applied to scattering and imaging experiments that require the use of soft x-rays. Examples 

of such experiments are the dynamics of nanoscale magnetic 

domains in advanced data storage media and the dynamics 

of electron ordering in correlated-electron materials. The 

instrument will include an insertable grating monochromator 

so that the natural LCLS FEL bandwidth can be reduced 

for spectroscopic studies. A synchronized ultra-fast laser 

will be available for pump-probe experiments.

X-ray Pump Probe (XPP) 

This instrument will use a fast optical laser to generate 

transient states of matter, whose subsequent dynamics will 

be probed by x-ray pulse from LCLS. The laser pump will 

have the ability to conduct precise optical manipulations, 

in order to create the desired excited states. The instrument 

design will emphasize versatility. To maximize the range of 

phenomena that can be excited, it will be necessary to be 

able to manipulate the laser pulse energy, frequency, and 

temporal profile. X-ray scattering will be the dominant 

tool for probing the laser-induced structural changes. These 

experiments require the union of four experimental capacities: 

the generation and delivery of x-ray and laser pulses to the 

sample, the preparation of the excited state in the sample, 

and the detection of the x-ray scattering pattern. 

Coherent X-ray Imaging (CXI) 

This instrument will take advantage of the extremely bright, 

ultra-short LCLS x-ray pulses to allow imaging of nonperiodic nanoscale objects, including single or small clusters 

of biomolecules, at or near atomic resolution. The high 

coherence of the LCLS x-rays will allow single particles to 

be imaged at high resolution, while the short pulse duration 

will limit radiation damage during the measurement. The 

instrument will allow imaging of biological samples beyond 

the damage limit that cannot be overcome with synchrotron 

sources. Samples can be introduced to the x-ray beam either 

fixed on targets or using a particle injector that will deliver 

free particles to the beam. High-quality focusing optics will 

generate sub-micron foci, and will allow imaging of single 

nanoparticles of various sizes, pushing the limit down to 

single biomolecules. 

Linac Coherent Light Source (cont.)
31

Contact

Linac Coherent Light Source 

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory 

2575 Sand Hill Road 

Menlo Park, CA 94025 

http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/lcls

An aerial view of the 3-km-long linear accelerator at 

the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. LCLS 

in its initial phase utilizes one third of the linac to 

drive an x-ray laser. The LCLS experimental halls are 

located beyond the bottom edge of this photograph.

X-ray Correlation Spectroscopy (XCS) 

This instrument will observe dynamical changes of large groups of atoms in condensed 

matter systems over a wide range of time scales using x-ray correlation spectroscopy and 

coherent x-ray scattering. The XCS instrument allows the study of equilibrium- and nonequilibrium dynamics in disordered or modulated materials, such as glass-forming liquids 

and solids near phase transitions, on timescales ranging from 100 femtoseconds to several 

nanoseconds, and also from 10 milliseconds to thousands of seconds. 

Matter in Extreme Conditions 

This instrument will enable the detailed study of states of matter created when normal 

condensed matter is suddenly heated to very high temperatures, well above melting. Such 

matter occurs naturally in planetary cores, and briefly in materials during shock waves or 

implosions, but is extremely difficult to study in the laboratory. The instrument will include 

a powerful pulsed laser for creating extreme conditions in a sample.
32

Versatile Probes of Material Properties

Neutron Sources

Scientists worldwide use neutrons to study the arrangement, 

motion, and interaction of atoms in materials. Research 

using neutrons provides valuable information that often 

cannot be obtained using other techniques, such as optical 

spectroscopies, electron microscopy, and x-ray diffraction. 

Scientists need all of these techniques to provide the maximum amount of information on materials.

The inherent physical properties that govern how neutrons 

interact with other matter make neutrons versatile probes of 

material structure. Scientists guide neutron beams to material samples of interest, and control the neutron direction 

of travel, energy, and sometimes other properties (e.g., their 

spin). Detected signals come from neutrons that strike and 

scatter off of the material sample. These scattering signals 

are decipherable – when analyzed, they reveal information 

about the material under investigation.

Jiandi Zhang of Florida International University works 

with the HB-3 Triple-Axis Spectrometer at HFIR.

The facilities described next produce neutrons for such 

scientific experiments. One way of generating neutrons 

is via a research reactor—the High Flux Isotope Reactor 

(HFIR) is this type of neutron source. The other way to 

generate neutrons is via an accelerator to generate protons 

that strike a target. As a result of the impact, neutrons are 

produced in a process known as spallation. The Manuel 

Lujan Jr. Neutron Scattering Center (Lujan Center) and 

the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) each use this type of 

neutron source.
33

For neutron scattering experiments, it is ideal 

to match the wavelength and energy of the 

neutron to the length and energy scales, 

respectively, of the materials under investigation. The thermal (room temperature) neutron 

spectrum of a reactor produces neutrons with 

wavelengths on the order of a few tenths of 

a nanometer, well matched to investigating 

atomic length scales and lattice vibrational 

energies. When thermal neutrons are passed 

through a container of low-temperature liquid 

hydrogen, they are slowed by inelastic collisions with the hydrogen. The process produces 

slower neutrons better suited for studies of 

soft matter. Because they reflect well from 

surfaces, cold neutrons can be transported 

over long distances with little loss. Neutrons 

with longer wavelengths and lower energies—

cold neutrons—are better for studying largescale structures (e.g., molecular organization, 

nanopore-size distributions, and aggregate size 

and shape) and low-energy excitations (e.g., 

excitations in frustrated systems and various 

problems in magnetism, superconductivity, 

and correlated electron systems).

Neutron scattering has guided the 

development of giant molecules 

that make up synthetic 

fibers for clothes.

Outreach and Education

Outreach and education activities help develop a user 

community and identify the resources needed to perform 

cutting-edge science. In response to requests from the user 

community for additional information, several means of communication have been established. These include workshops, 

progress reports that are distributed electronically, webpostings, fact sheets, technical journal articles, user newsletters, 

and annual reports.

The building blocks of 

DNA direct the synthesis 

of proteins. Research 

using neutron scattering 

could help determine the 

shape and structure of 

those proteins.
34

Load frame furnace for 

the SMARTS instrument 

at the Lujan Center

Manuel Lujan Jr. Neutron Scattering Center

At the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), academic 

researchers work side-by-side with national security researchers at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE). 

Perched on its own mesa between steep canyons laden with 

archeological sites, the Manuel Lujan Jr. Neutron Scattering 

Center (Lujan for short) at LANSCE provides state-of-theart instrumentation and support for user-driven materials 

and nuclear research. The Lujan Center specializes in securely 

melding academic science and national security because the 

fundamental science is the same. 

Neutron scattering is indispensable in today’s condensed 

matter and materials sciences. Neutrons are created by spallation - knocking them out of a tungsten nucleus after being 

hit by a speed-of-light proton from the LANSCE accelerator 

– and scatter from nuclei in solid and liquid matter, carrying 

away useful information about atomic spacing, vibrational 

motion, and internal magnetic fields. When combined with 

their high penetration through centimeters of heavy metal 

atoms, unmatched sensitivity to hydrogen and other light 

atoms, and their ability to distinguish isotopes of the same 

element, neutrons are uniquely suited to probe materials in 

special, powerful ways. Researchers measure the neutron’s 

time of flight after scattering to determine their energy (i.e. 

wavelength) accurately even after losing or gaining energy 

by scattering from a sample. Combining the energy with 

the angle at which neutrons scatter allows one to determine 

which atoms are where and how they move. No information 

is more fundamental to the properties of materials.

Neutrons are scarce even at a powerful spallation source 

like LANSCE. While the Lujan Center currently has a 

competitive peak flux—running at 100kW—its distinction 

is that it is one of the world’s most brilliant sources at long 

wavelengths, due in part to efficient, liquid-hydrogen moderators and a low repetition rate of 20 Hz between neutron 

pulses. The low repetition rate provides a large bandwidth 

between the fastest and the slowest scattered neutrons in a 

pulse and the long wavelengths match biological and soft 

matter well. Among recent scientific results, Lujan Center 

instruments have been used to determine the fundamental 

chemical function of xylose isomerase, the biocatalyst used 

to convert fructose, and to test the hypothesis that the 

Egyptian pyramids were made with the aid of an ancient 

form of concrete.

Classified experiments can also be performed at the Lujan 

Center in support of the national defense. Recent advances 

include studies of challenging materials such as cholera toxin, 

high explosives, and fundamental studies of excitations in 

plutonium relating to how it compresses in a nuclear weapon 

to reach critical mass.

R&D Areas of Emphasis

The Lujan Center emphasizes the following areas of 

science:

R5 National Security,

R5 Bioscience and nanoscience,

R5 Geoscience,

R5 Materials engineering and science,

R5 Condensed matter physics, and

R5 Advanced neutron instrumentation including spallation 

physics.

The first area is sponsored by the DOE National Nuclear 

Security Administration, whose programs at Los Alamos 

National Laboratory offer constructive synergy to the pursuit 

of the other areas, which are briefly discussed below. 

Bioscience and Nanoscience 

The Lujan Center’s bioscience activities are centered at 

the Protein Crystallography Station (PCS), the first dedicated neutron diffractometer for structural biology in North 

America and one of the first in the world. Because of its 

success since commissioning in 2002, the neutron science 

centers of ISIS (in the United Kingdom) and JPARC (in 

Japan) plan to build protein crystallography instruments. 

Among the science of interest to neutron scatterers in nanoscience and technology are biomembranes, self-assembling 

materials, selective membranes, smart materials, and bioinspired synthesis. In general, the high-performance 

density of biological systems is far from being matched 

by engineered systems, and mastery of the nanoscale 

is critical to developing that capability. 

Other instruments at the Lujan Center typically 

subscribed by nanoscience users are SPEAR (reflectometer, biomembrane science), LQD (small-angle 

scattering, nanostructured materials), and NPDF 

(powder diffractometer for pair distribution analyses, 

nanoscale structure of materials).
35

Team of researchers from Cal Tech, including Professor 

Brent Fultz, standing on the Pharos spectrometer at the 

Lujan Center where they studied the entropy of metals.

Geoscience

With the commissioning of the High-Pressure Preferred 

Orientation (HIPPO) diffractometer, the geoscience community now has a fully instrumented center of excellence. 

A suite of sample environments, including a 100-position 

sample changer and texture goniometer, a stress-strain 

rig, and several options for high-pressure studies at high 

temperature, provides HIPPO users with new research 

opportunities. It is through fundamental materials science 

with geomaterials that huge resources such as methane 

hydrates (clathrates) may be accessible to meet future 

energy needs. 

Materials Engineering and Science

A differentiating strength of neutrons for the study of 

the mechanics of hard materials is the ability to monitor 

strain in situ. In this area, the Lujan Center is a recognized 

world leader. The ability to stress a material at high or low 

temperature and to measure its response at the atomic scale 

is a unique strength of Lujan Center engineering science. 

Condensed Matter Physics

Spurred by the completion and commissioning of Pharos, 

and the commissioning of an 11-Tesla magnet, the condensed 

matter physics community utilizes Lujan instruments for 

cutting-edge research in correlated electron systems, magnetism, and the physics of fundamental excitations. 

Advanced Neutron Instrumentation

Staff at the Lujan Center have a long tradition of 

pushing the state of the neutron scattering art. 

From source to detection, LANL scientists and 

engineers have made substantial contributions to 

spallation neutron science, exemplified with the 

first side-coupled linac in 1972. The invention 

of partially coupled, cold moderators at the 

Lujan Center was put into practice in 1998, 

concurrently with the planning for IN500, 

a prototype beamline on FP13 designed to 

make optimum use of that new cold moderaStaff at the Lujan Center ha

pushing the state of the ne

From source to detection, 

engineers have made subst

spallation neutron science

first side-coupled linac i

of partially coupled, co

Lujan Center was put 

concurrently with the 

a prototype beamline 

make optimum use of t

tor design. The result of these efforts is a state-of-the-art 

chopper spectrometer with several innovations: 

R5 Ballistic neutron guides that produce a flux advantage 

over long distances. 

R5 “Event recording” data acquisition, a technique that 

involves recording the position and time of every arriving neutron. This method—enabled by high performance 

computing, DSPs, and massive storage—allows essentially 

full reconstruction of the scattering experiment.

R5 Repetition-Rate Multiplication, a complex Time-OfFlight (TOF) scheme to handle frame overlap, to extend 

bandwidth dramatically while filling the counting frame 

efficiently.

User-driven science is the well-spring of innovative ideas 

for instrumentation. Recent experiments include:

R5 The first demonstration of pulse-echo encoding at a pulsed 

source,

R5 Magnetic neutron lenses, and

R5 Baez-style neutron focusing lenses,

to name just a few areas.
36

Manuel Lujan Jr. Neutron Facility (cont.)

Lujan Center Instrument Suite

Target

The Lujan Center’s unique split spallation target with its 

flux-trap moderators yield a higher peak neutron flux than 

any other spallation neutron source outside of the Spallation 

Neutron Source (SNS) at ORNL. Running routinely at 100 

kW, the Lujan Center compares very favorably with the best 

pulsed spallation neutron source outside the United States: 

ISIS (in the United Kingdom) has a higher average (160 

kW)—but a lower peak—neutron intensity. A significant 

strength of the Lujan Center is its high peak flux of cold 

neutrons and its low pulse repetition rate. At 20 Hz, the Lujan 

Center has wide time-of-flight bandwidth relative 

to other facilities (e.g., SNS at 60 Hz and ISIS 

at 50 Hz). Second target stations, proposed and 

in-progress at SNS and ISIS, will approximate 

Lujan Center’s repetition rate and flux. The Lujan 

Center strives to be complementary to SNS, the 

centerpiece of US neutron scattering strategy. 

Floor Plan

For the national neutron scattering 

user program in materials and biological sciences, BES currently operates 

ten of the Lujan Center’s instruments 

(Flight Paths 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11a, 

16), including their operational costs and 

the administration of the user program. 

One beam line (FP13) has a prototype 

scattering instrument funded by the 

Laboratory, and another (FP15) is part 

of the neutron scattering user program 

with substantial support from the DOE 

Office of Biological and Environmental 

Research. Two additional beamlines 

(FP12, 14) are dedicated to nuclear 

physics and are not part of the BES 

neutron scattering user program. A final 

beam line (FP5) is split between nuclear physics and 

neutron scattering user program activities. Flight 

Paths 8 and 11b are empty at this time. 

ER-1

ER-2

FDS

SCD 7

6

All-Purpose Beam

5 HIPPO

4

HIPD

3

SPEAR

9

LQD

10

Asterix

11a

Nuclear Physics

12

IN500

13 DANCE PCS 14 15

PHAROS

16

NPDF

1

SMARTS

2

In 2008, the Lujan Center experimental areas received 

new instruments (FPs 1, 2, 4, 11a, 12, 14, and 15), 

upgrades to others (FPs 3, 9, 16), and one instrument 

under feasibility testing (FP 13).

Nine of Lujan Center’s seventeen flight paths were 

equipped in 2007 with new or upgraded instruments 

from an instrumentation campaign in the late 1990s. 

Twelve instruments are for materials research, three are 

devoted to fundamental nuclear physics, and two flight 

paths are empty. Six of the materials research instruments 

and two of the nuclear physics beamlines are considered 

world class. Owing to resource limitations and age, only 

an additional three neutron scattering instruments are 

competitive enough to be in a user program at some level. 
37

Contact

Lujan Neutron Scattering Center at LANSCE 

Los Alamos National Laboratory 

P.O. Box 1663 

Los Alamos, NM 87545 

http://www.lansce.lanl.gov/lujan

Sample Environment Capabilities

Continual efforts are made to enhance the availability and 

flexibility of the Lujan sample environment suite. A significant investment has been made in low and high temperature 

facilities particularly directed toward condensed matter physics users. Cryogenic temperatures are readily accessible at all 

instruments using closed-cycle refrigerators and cryostats. 

A dilution refrigerator capable of 15mK was added in 2008. 

An 11-Tesla cryomagnet is available to provide a unique 

polarized-beam reflectivity capability over the temperature 

range 1.5-300K. For experiments above room temperature, 

there are two cryofurnaces, a heating stage, and a furnace. 

Additional effort has been directed toward liquid and gas 

cell pressure capabilities and toward anvil-type pressure cells. 

For example, a number of fluids-driven pressure cells (< 0.5 

GPa) are available, which can be used on most beamlines.

Future Plans

The next phase of Lujan Center history is expected to be a 

period of significant growth for LANSCE and the Lujan 

Center in beam reliability, user support, and instrument 

capability. While the LANSCE Refurbishment Project will 

breathe new and longer life into the 30+ year-old accelerator, the Enhanced Lujan Project will more than double the 

utilization of the powerful beamlines on the neutron source. 

By 2013, with up to three new instruments, several upgraded 

ones, and more than twice the user support in the form of 

personnel and sample environments, the Lujan Center will 

be over 90% utilized. Although the core strength in diffraction will continue, much of the new instrumentation will 

be for inelastic scattering.

By 2010, the new Mark III target, which incorporates 

several innovations, will produce a 2-fold enhancement 

in cold neutron flux. The LANSCE accelerator has been a 

megawatt-class proton accelerator since 1986 and ran over 

4,000 hours of production in 2005.

Starting in 2004 and lasting until the SNS comes to full 

power and instrumental strength, the Lujan Center leads 

as the DOE’s largest neutron scattering program. It serves 

the nation in a unique way by providing a place to perform 

national security research in a safe and secure manner without 

disrupting access by academic and industrial users. 

A special treat for neutron facility staff and users is the 

annual LANSCE Neutron Scattering School. Serving 

30 graduate students and postdocs per class, the School 

is one of the few topical scattering schools in the world, 

with a curriculum that includes concentrated subjects like 

magnetism, soft matter, and hydrogen materials. Students 

hear lectures by world-leading faculty followed by hands-on 

experience with actual neutron scattering experiments. Begun 

in 2003, alumni of the School are part of the worldwide 

neutron community.

Centerpiece 11-tesla superconducting magnet gives 

users at the Lujan Center a 

wide regime in magnetic field 

studies.
38

High Flux Isotope Reactor

The 85-MW High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) provides 

one of the highest steady-state neutron fluxes of any research 

reactor in the world. HFIR fulfills three important missions: 

neutron scattering research, isotope production, and materials 

irradiation (e.g., for neutron activation analysis). The neutron 

scattering instruments installed on its neutron beamlines 

enable fundamental and applied research into molecular 

and magnetic structures and behavior of materials, including 

high-temperature superconductors, polymers, metals, and 

biological samples. The reactor is used to produce isotopes 

for medical, research, and industrial uses; to study damage 

resulting from bombardment of materials by neutrons; and 

to examine trace elements in the environment by neutron 

activation. A cold neutron source is installed that uses liquid 

hydrogen to slow the movement of neutrons, making them 

particularly useful for certain types of experiments. This cold 

source greatly enhances the reactor’s research capabilities, 

particularly in the biological sciences.

Description and Missions

The HFIR at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory is one 

of the highest flux reactor-based source of neutrons for 

condensed matter research in the world. Thermal and cold 

neutrons produced by HFIR are used for research probing 

the fundamental properties of condensed matter and for 

radioisotope production. The users of HFIR are from a wide 

range of U.S. and international university and industrial 

research and development organizations.

The HFIR has three main missions. The first is to generate 

neutrons for use in scattering experiments. Neutrons are 

an ideal probe for investigating the arrangements of and 

interactions between atoms and molecules. This activity 

has grown in both scientific and economic importance and 

today provides essential knowledge about the molecular and 

magnetic structures and behavior of materials, including 

high-temperature superconductors, polymers, metals, and 

biological samples. The neutron-scattering instruments 

installed on the HFIR horizontal beam tubes are used in 

fundamental studies of materials of interest to solid-state 

physicists, chemists, biologists, polymer scientists, metallurgists, and colloid scientists. These instruments are open 

to use by university and industrial researchers on the basis 

of peer-reviewed scientific merit. 

The second key mission of HFIR is to produce radioisotopes, 

including californium and other transuranium isotopes, 

which are used for research, industrial, and medical applications. These materials are produced in the flux trap in the 

center of the HFIR fuel element where a working thermalneutron flux of 2.0 x 1015 neutrons/(cm2·s) is available 

to irradiate the target material. Additional irradiation 

facilities are also provided in the beryllium reflector. 

The HFIR is the western world’s sole supplier of 

californium-252, an isotope used in cancer therapy 

and in detection of environmental pollutants and 

explosives in luggage. 

HFIR Instrument Support Manager working on the General 

Purpose SANS Instrument in the Cold Guide Hall
39

The third mission of HFIR is to provide unique capabilities 

for instrumented and un-instrumented materials irradiation 

studies (e.g., in neutron activation analysis). The HFIR 

provides for a variety of irradiation tests and experiments 

that benefit from the exceptionally high neutron flux available. In the fuel element flux trap, a hydraulic tube provides 

access to the high thermal-neutron flux in the reactor for 

short-term irradiations, and other positions are ideal for 

fast-neutron irradiation-damage studies. A modification 

Two-dimensional scattering pattern 

of a polymer from data taken at the 

Bio-SANS instrument.

Inelastic neutron scattering results 

revealed the Perovskite crystal structure, 

shown in this drawing, of a manganite 

phase that exhibits colossal magnetoresistance.

Facilities and Capabilities – Instruments and Cold Source

The HFIR is a world-class facility operating at a power level of 85MW. Major additions to the original facility are a guide 

hall for cold source instruments, a liquid hydrogen cold source, upgraded instruments, and new control systems. With these 

renovations and the successful commissioning of the cold source, HFIR has become a premier research and development 

facility. Fully instrumented, the HFIR can support 15 state-of-the-art neutron scattering instruments, several of which are 

designed exclusively for cold neutron experiments. The reactor is currently equipped with 10 neutron scattering instruments 

deployed across four horizontal beamlines. 

The installation of the cold source is especially significant to prospective HFIR users. The cold source has a brightness 

comparable to the best in the world and is the first forced-circulation super-critical hydrogen cold source placed into a 

nuclear reactor. The neutron flux and the brightness of the cold neutron beams have been tested using time-of-flight methods, revealing the brightness to be significantly greater than predictions by computer simulations before installation. The 

cold source generates a substantial useful neutron flux in the 2- to 12-Å range. The cold neutrons from the source 

illuminate four neutron guides that bring beams to instrument positions in the cold neutrons guide hall. 

Two of the guides provide beams to small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) instruments. One of these 

is a general-purpose SANS, designed for experimentation on hard and soft condensed matter and 

magnetic systems. The other, the Bio-SANS, is designed especially for studying the structure 

and function of biological materials and complexes, including biomacromolecules such 

as proteins and viruses, membranes, and biomimetic systems. These two capabilities 

are among the most advanced SANS instruments in the world.

of the flux trap experiment facilities in 1986 has provided 

two locations in the maximum flux region that can accommodate instrumented capsules and engineering loops. The 

beryllium reflector contains numerous experimental facilities with thermal-neutron fluxes up to 1.0 x 1015 neutrons/

(cm2·s). These facilities can accommodate static experimental 

capsules, complex fuel-testing engineering loops, and special 

experimental isotope irradiations. 
40

High Flux Isotope Reactor (cont.)

Specific Instrumentation

Diffractometers

Recently upgraded, HB2A is a high-resolution neutron 

powder diffractometer. With a single wavelength, HB2A 

is particularly adapted for polarization analysis and hence 

the structural study of magnetic materials. Funded under a 

US-Japan collaboration, the WAND diffractometer (HB-2C) 

is a high-intensity instrument, with the ability to tilt either 

the sample or the detector plane. Applications of WAND 

include phase transformation kinetics, diffuse scattering in 

single crystals, and liquid and glass materials. The HB-2B 

is a residual stress diffractometer, particularly well suited for 

stress mapping in engineering materials. A motor-driven 

load-frame is also available for insitu deformation studies. 

High accuracy, small molecule crystallography can be done 

using the HB3A four-circle diffractometer with available 

sample temperatures of 10 to 300K.

Spectrometers

Triple-axis spectrometers are the most versatile instruments to study elementary excitations of solids, such as 

phonons and magnons. They have the ability to measure 

the scattering at any point in momentum-energy space 

that is physically accessible by the spectrometer. There are 

currently three operational thermal triple-axis spectrometers 

with complementary capabilities. The combination of the 

world’s highest continuous flux of thermal neutrons and a 

wide range of incident energies (between 5 and 120 meV) 

makes these instruments particularly well suited for the 

study of current problems in condensed matter physics such 

as magnetic excitations in high-Tc superconductors, multiferroic materials, colossal magnetoresistance manganites, 

heavy fermions, new classes of metals, quantum magnets, 

magnetic multilayers, and commercial magnetic alloys. The 

HB-1 triple-axis is designed to operate as a polarized-beam 

instrument and as a general-purpose unpolarized-neutron 

spectrometer. The HB-3 triple axis spectrometer is designed 

to operate as a versatile high-intensity unpolarized-neutron 

instrument. The availability of three monochromator crystal 

choices makes this spectrometer extremely versatile for a wide 

range of studies on material properties. The third thermal 

triple-axis spectrometer located at the HB-1A port is a fixed 

incident-energy (14.6 meV) instrument. This is an excellent instrument for measuring low-lying excitations, elastic 

studies of lattice or magnetic structures and transitions, and 

elastic studies on thin film or small samples where high 

flux on sample and very low higher order contamination 

of the beam are critical issues. A cold neutron triple-axis 

spectrometer (CG-4C, part of the US-Japan collaboration 

on neutron scattering) is under installation. 

The United States’ highest flux reactor-based source 

of neutrons for condensed matter research.

HB-1A

HB-1

HB-2A

HB-2C

HB-2B

HB-3 HB-3A

HB-2D
41

Large Scale Structures

The two Small-Angle Neutron-Scattering instruments at the 

HFIR receive neutrons from the brightest cold source in the 

world, with integrated fluxes comparable to the best facilities worldwide. Each instrument has a large-area detector 

(1 m

2

), uses wavelengths from λmin (= 4.8Å and 6Å) to λmax 

(~30 Å), and provides extended Q-ranges (0.002-1.0 Å-1) 

which enable a wide variety of research opportunities. The 

General Purpose SANS instrument (CG-2) is optimized for 

studies of soft condensed matter including the exploration of 

in-situ processing of soft materials to follow structural evolution in industrially relevant equipment (e.g., during extrusion 

or stretching). On this instrument, it is also possible to study 

small (~ 1 mm

3

) crystals of high-Tc superconductors to probe 

flux line lattice melting processes and to undertake kinetic 

studies (e.g., investigations of phase-separation kinetics in 

polymer blends and metallic alloys). On the Bio-SANS 

instrument (CG-3, operated in cooperation with DOE’s 

Office of Biological and Environmental Research), effective 

studies of biological materials, which are often weakly scattering (with cross sections ~ 10-1 to 10-3 cm-1), are possible. 

Bio-SANS can probe small samples (~1 mg). Sample size is 

an important consideration for biological materials, which 

are often difficult to prepare in bulk, and for developmental 

polymers and pharmaceuticals, where only small amounts are 

initially available. High fluxes on both SANS instruments 

allow experiments to be performed close to the contrast 

“match point” and allow examination of the finer details 

of the structure (e.g., adsorbed surface layers on polymer 

latexes, core-shell colloids, and micelles).

Contact

High Flux Isotope Reactor 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

P. O. Box 2008 MS-6398 

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6398 

http://neutrons.ornl.gov

CG-4A

CG-4B

CG-4D

CG-3

CG-1 CG-2

CG-4C
42

Spallation Neutron Source

The Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) is an acceleratorbased neutron source that provides the most intense pulsed 

neutron beams in the world for scientific and industrial 

research and development. This powerful scientific tool 

gives researchers detailed snapshots of minute samples of 

physical and biological materials. The diverse applications 

of neutron scattering research provides opportunities for 

experts in practically every scientific and technical field. 

With the eventual SNS suite of best-in-class instruments 

located on 18 beamlines, scientists will be able to count 

scattered neutrons, measure their energies and the angles 

at which they scatter, and map their final positions. These 

instruments will allow measurements of greater sensitivity, 

higher speed, higher resolution, and in more complex sample 

environments than ever before.

SNS Facility in Brief

The SNS at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is 

a powerful pulsed neutron source that ORNL and its partners 

built under sponsorship from DOE. Hydrogen ions (H-) are 

produced in an ion source, accelerated in a radiofrequency 

(rf ) linear accelerator (linac), sent through a stripping foil 

to convert them to protons, and stored in an accumulator 

ring that then delivers them as a pulsed proton beam onto 

a mercury target, in order to generate spallation neutrons. 

These neutrons are moderated and sent to distinct beamline 

locations in the SNS Target Building. At these beamlines, 

some instruments are already available for scientific research, 

and other instruments are under assembly or planned for 

future development. The ORNL operates the SNS as a user 

facility, granting scientists access to specific instruments for 

experiments using neutrons, based on peer review of their 

scientific research proposals that request such access.

Instruments at the SNS

The Backscattering Spectrometer, Liquids Reflectometer, 

and Magnetism Reflectometer are the initial three instruments that have been available to scientific users since their 

commissioning in the Spring of 2006. Over time, other 

instruments are added as a result of ongoing instrument 

development and construction activities that are projected 

to continue through at least 2013. 

Outside view of the backscattering reflectometer. For a sense 

of the size and scale of neutron scattering instrumentation, 

note the man standing on the top platform.

Detector Table

Hexapod Sample Support 

and Omega Table
43

Magnetism Reflectometer. 

Hardware items depicted 

here, from right to left, are 

the incident optics, hexapod 

sample support, and detector 

tables.

One of the scientists of a polyelectrolyte coatings research collaboration.

The World’s Most Powerful Pulsed 

Spallation Neutron Source 

Construction of the Spallation Neutron Source Project was 

formally completed in June 2006. In 2007, SNS became the 

world’s most powerful pulsed spallation neutron source. This 

banner year brought one celebration after another as achievements in accelerator operations far exceeded the goals that 

were set. For example, on August 11, 2007, a world record for 

pulsed sources was set with operation at 183 kW for more 

than one day. Another world record of 1.1 × 1014 protons per 

pulse was set on September 21, 2007. Facility plans are to 

offer users thousands of hours of beam time each year, and 

to ramp up to the full operating power of 1.4MW. 

Granite Floor

Incident Optics Table
44

Spallation Neutron Source (cont.)

Specific Instrumentation

Diffractometers

The diffraction instrument suite includes powder and singlecrystal diffractometers, and the SNAP instrument which is 

optimized for the study of powder and single crystal samples 

under extreme conditions of pressure (50 to 100 GPa) and 

temperature. SNAP is being commissioned and will be 

available to the user program in 2009.

Two initial instruments in the powder diffraction suite was 

made available to the user program in 2009. POWGEN is 

designed for solving the structure of complex crystalline 

materials. With resolution matched to the lattice spacing, 

it produces refinable diffraction data in a matter of minutes, 

enabling a wide range of parametric studies. VULCAN 

is designed for materials science and engineering studies 

with an emphasis on the mechanical behavior of materials. Applications include stress mapping in engineering 

components, fundamental aspects of deformation under 

multi-axial loading, and use of the high neutron flux to probe 

transient behavior during in-situ synthesis and processing. 

Scheduled for completion in 2010, NOMAD is optimized 

for the study of disordered materials such as liquids, glasses, 

and nanostructured materials.

The suite of single-crystal diffractometers at the SNS will 

enable neutron crystallography for unit cell sizes from 

small molecules to macromolecules, with higher flux and 

higher throughput than is possible elsewhere. The atomic 

arrangements of crystals will be studied using the diffraction 

instruments TOPAZ and MaNDi, planned to be completed 

in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Disorder will be the specific focus of the diffuse scattering instrument CORELLI, 

planned for completion in 2013.

Spectrometers

Seven beamlines are dedicated for inelastic neutron scattering 

(spectroscopy), providing the capability to measure excitations ranging in energy from micro-electron Volts up to an 

electron Volt. BASIS is an instrument in the user program 

that is optimized for the measurement of the “quasi-elastic” 

scattering that results from the diffusional motion of atoms, 

ions, and molecules in materials or the quantum tunneling of molecules between different states. Three chopper 

spectrometers – CNCS, ARCS, and SEQUOIA – provide 

complementary capabilities. ARCS is optimized for measuring lattice dynamical excitations in materials such as 

The world’s most intense pulsed, accelerator-based neutron source.

ferroelectrics, thermo-electrics, superconductors, metals and 

alloys, and elementary excitations in quantum liquids. CNCS 

is designed for the measurement of low-energy excitations in 

these materials as well as in soft materials such as polymers 

and biological samples. SEQUOIA is optimized for the 

measurement of excitations in magnetic and superconducting 

materials. HYSPEC is anticipated to begin commissioning 

in mid-2010 and will use polarized neutrons to distinguish 

(BASIS)

(NOMAD)

(TOF-USANS)

(SNAP)

(Liquids Reflectometer)

(Magnetism Reflectometer)

(CNCS)

(EQ-SANS)

(VULCAN)

(CORELLI)
45

Contact

Spallation Neutron Source 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

P. O. Box 2008 MS-6477 

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6477 

http://neutrons.ornl.gov

between lattice dynamical and magnetic excitations from 

small single crystal samples. VISION, planned to be commissioned in 2011, is optimized for the measuring molecular 

vibrations in materials such as catalysts and hydrates. Finally, 

the Neutron Spin Echo spectrometer will provide access to 

an unprecedented dynamical range of six decades in time 

from 1ps to 1μs. It is especially well-suited for investigations 

of slow dynamical processes in soft-matter.

Large Scale Structures

The suite of instruments for probing structures on large 

length scales includes two reflectometers that are currently 

available in the user program. The Liquids Reflectometer is 

designed to illuminate horizontal surfaces (including liquid 

surfaces) and is useful for a wide range of science, including 

interfacial studies in polymers and surface chemistry involving thin layers of surfactants or other materials deposited on 

liquid surfaces. The Magnetism Reflectometer is optimized 

for studies of magnetic thin films and interfaces using polarized neutrons. Both reflectometers can obtain reflectivity 

curves approximately six times faster than the next best 

instruments in the U.S. and are able to reach minimum 

reflectivity values that are best-in-class worldwide. The 

combination of the high-power neutron source and the use 

of advanced neutron optics also enables studies of in-plane 

structures using off-specular scattering. The EQ-SANS 

instrument provides access to a wide range of length scales 

from less than 0.1 to 150 nm, with applications in diverse 

fields including the life sciences, polymer and colloidal 

structures, porous materials, and nanomaterials. Planned for 

completion in 2012, the ultra small angle SANS instrument 

(TOF-USANS) will extend the length scale of traditional 

SANS to the μm range.

(POWGEN)

(MaNDi) (TOPAZ)

(SEQUOIA)

(HYSPEC)

(VISION)

(Neutron Spin Echo)

(ARCS)
46

Nanoscale Science Research Centers

Exploring New Realms in Understanding Matter 

and Controlling its Behavior

Nanoscience is the study of materials and their behaviors 

at a nanometer (nm) scale - probing single atoms, clusters 

of atoms, and molecular structures. The scientific quest is 

to observe and understand how these systems function, 

including how they interact with their environment. The 

nanoscale world is often complex and not yet fully known 

-- and scientists are working hard to understand these 

complexities and unknowns, because within them lie many 

of nature’s important secrets, such as how photosynthesis 

really works. Scientific advances lead to engineering applications such as the fabrication of nanomaterials with superior 

properties (e.g., tailored carbon nanotubes), or the purposeful 

control of a chemical reaction so as to direct its outcome to 

a useful end product (e.g., as with synthetic catalysts made 

from nanoparticles). 

Developments at the nanoscale have the potential to 

make major contributions to meeting the U.S. DOE’s 

mission (discovering the solutions to power and 

secure America’s future) and the DOE’s Office 

of Science mission (... to deliver the remarkable discoveries and scientific tools 

that transform our understanding of energy and matter and 

advance the national, economic, and energy security 

of the United States). 

The DOE joins other Federal agencies in sponsoring nanoscience research. The five nanoscience centers featured here 

are the cornerstone of the BES effort to create a vibrant 

research community working at the research frontier. As 

described in the pages that follow, each center has premier 

expertise in several technical theme areas, with state-of-theart facilities staffed by laboratory scientists. This research is 

inherently multidisciplinary. 

Researchers seek advances in nanoscience that will enhance 

scientific understanding in challenging technical areas. Some 

sample topics are as follows:

R5 inventing both top-down and bottom-up assembly methods to fabricate nanoscale systems, 

R5 assessing interfaces and energy transfers between nanoscale systems, and

R5 determining the design principles that govern how nanoscale system properties lead to larger-scale collective 

properties and functionalities.

Scientific progress in these and related topics creates the 

potential for engineering opportunities — exploiting the 

gain in scientific knowledge in order to tailor, fabricate, 

or otherwise control a system to serve a useful purpose. In 

particular, the study of nanostructured materials and their 

behaviors may enable advances in energy-efficient processes 

and devices such as more efficient catalysts, fuel cells, photovoltaics, or solid-state lighting.

Molecular model of a covalent carbon nanotube 

network that uses nonhexagonal rings such as 

heptagons and octagons as linking units at the nodes. 

The specific network structure shown is known as superdiamond, in which four armchair nanotubes are linked at 

each node by octagons. (Courtesy of J.M. Romo-Herrera, 

M. Terrones, H. Terrones of IPICyT, Mexico, and S. Dag, 

V. Meunier of CNMS, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.)
47

Perspective on the size of various natural and man-made objects. Probing nano-scale phenonema 

enables scientists to understand larger-scale structures and how they function.

Human hair

~50-150 μm wide

Dust mite

200 μm

Red blood cells

~2-5 μm

~10 nm diameter

DNA

~2.5 nm diameter Atoms of silicon

Head of a pin

1-2 mm

10-2 m 1 cm

106

 nanometers

103

 nanometers

Microworld Nanoworld

Visible spectrum

0.1 mm

100 μm

0.01 mm

10 μm

0.1 mm

100 nm

0.01 mm

10 nm

0.1 nm 

1 angstrom

1 nanometer (nm)

10-3 m

10-4 m

10-5 m

10-6 m

10-7 m

10-8 m

10-9 m

10-10 m

Microelectromechanical Devices

~10-100 μm wide

Nanotube electrode Nanotube transistor

Quantum corral of 48 iron atoms

Corral diameter 14 nm

ATP synthase

Fly ash

~10-20 μm

Ant

~5 mm

Lights, Camera, Action! CFN user Professor Peter Bennett 

of Arizona State University (at right) and facility 

scientist Peter Sutter (at left) align the CFN’s lowenergy electron microscope, a unique tool for 

capturing real-time movies of dynamic surface 

processes at the nanometer scale.
48

The Center for Functional Nanomaterials (CFN) at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is a user-oriented research 

center that provides external users broad access to state-of-the-art facilities for the preparation and study of advanced 

materials. The CFN staff carries out a scientific program in energy-related materials at the nanoscale and at the same time 

interacts closely with external users, in an environment that stimulates scientific exchange and collaboration. 

Center for Functional Nanomaterials

Scientific Themes

The overarching theme of the CFN is the development and 

understanding of nanoscale materials that address the nation’s 

challenges in energy security. Nanostructured materials play 

a key role in processes and devices that are energy efficient or 

alternatives to fossil fuels, such as catalysis, solid-state lighting, fuel cells, or photovoltaic elements. Research programs 

in the CFN focus on three key areas:

Nanocatalysis: Nanocatalysis uses tiny structures, a few 

nanometers in size, to accelerate chemical reactions essential 

to modern life. Metal-containing nanoparticles are indispensable ingredients in industrial chemical production and 

energy-related processes. For instance, fuel cells for powering 

electric vehicles use bi-metallic particles of platinum and 

ruthenium to catalyze the conversion of chemical energy 

into stored electrical energy. These particles are less than 

100 nanometers in size and comprise only a few percent 

of the catalyst’s weight, yet they provide the active sites 

where chemical reactions take place. CFN scientists are 

now developing new experimental and theoretical tools to 

image and understand chemical reactions activated by such 

nanoparticles.

Biological and Soft Nanomaterials: Soft nanomaterials 

include polymers, liquid crystals, and other relatively “squishy” 

materials that fall into a state between solid and liquid, whose 

properties can be engineered to replicate those of conventional “hard” materials, yet are lighter, transparent, cheaper, 

and, in some cases, biocompatible. Of current interest at the 

CFN is the development of methods that mimic nature to 

assemble novel nanomaterials by combining inorganic and 

biological components that maintain biofunctionality. Such 

nano-engineered systems will find applications in advanced 

devices that require the placement of nano-objects with 

high precision. To achieve this, CFN scientists are developing novel ways to biofunctionalize nanoparticles and 

nanotubes with DNA and proteins. Using the advanced 

facilities available at the CFN, scientists are devising ways 

to use biomolecules as scaffolds, or “guides,” to build two- or 

three-dimensional arrays of organized nano-objects, and they 

are learning how cooperative effects among those objects 

can be exploited in applications.

Scanning electron 

microscope image of a 

lamellar-phase block 

copolymer thin film. This 

self-assembled striped 

pattern has feature sizes 

of 18 nanometers with 

36 nanometer period 

spacing.
49

Electronic Nanomaterials: At the nanoscale, materials can 

exhibit electrical and optical characteristics that are quite 

different from those of macroscopic dimensions. Examples 

include large enhancement in electronic mobility and large 

changes in the emission or absorption of light. The CFN 

program emphasizes the preparation of nanomaterials and 

understanding of their optoelectronic properties. Scientists 

are using advanced synthesis and nanofabrication at the 

CFN to create both individual nanostructures and organized 

assemblies of them. With advanced electrical and optical 

probes and theory, the researchers seek to understand the 

emergent properties of such materials and assemblies, and 

to assess their potential for applications in energy conversion devices.

Facilities and Capabilities

The CFN is a hub of interdisciplinary nanoscience research in 

the northeastern United States and complements BNL’s other 

facilities and programs whose missions include developing 

or understanding energy-related materials. In particular, the 

CFN is well paired with the National Synchrotron Light 

Source (NSLS), where intense light reveals the structure 

and function of a wide range of materials. A next-generation synchrotron facility (dubbed NSLS-II), 10,000 times 

brighter than NSLS, will be located adjacent to the CFN, 

and together will make BNL a laboratory unique in the 

world for nanoscale research.

The capabilities at the CFN available to staff and 

external users can be arranged into seven major facilities:

R5 Materials Synthesis: Chemical vapor deposition and 

other synthesis methods for the growth of nanowires 

and quantum dots; biofunctionalization of nano-objects 

and surfaces

R5 Nanofabrication: Nanopatterning via optical, electronbeam and nanoimprint lithography; wet or reactive-ion 

etching, focused ion-beam, thin-film deposition by evaporation and sputtering for materials processing and device 

fabrication in a class-100 facility

R5 Proximal Probes: An array of scanning probe tunneling 

and atomic force microscopies for advanced surface and 

interface analysis

R5 Electron Microscopy: Advanced transmission electron 

microscopy that, in addition to imaging, allows the study 

of electronic, magnetic and optical properties at the atomic 

level

R5 Optical Spectroscopy: CW and ultrafast spectroscopy tools 

for the study of optical processes, and their dynamics, in 

nanomaterials, down to single molecules

R5 Dedicated Beamline at the NSLS: Especially designed for 

small- and large-angle x-ray scattering and ideally suited 

for the study of soft materials and interfaces

R5 Theory & Computation: Staff and computational tools 

directed to understanding the formation and structure of 

nanoscale materials and associated electronic, optical and 

chemical phenomena

The CFN also offers access to BNL’s Laser Electron 

Accelerator Facility for studying the kinetics of radiationinduced reactions and especially suitable to understand charge 

injection into and charge transport between molecules.

Contact

Center for Functional Nanomaterials 

Brookhaven National Laboratory 

P.O. Box 5000 

Upton, NY 11973-5000 

www.bnl.gov/cfn

Scientists Mark Hybertsen 

and Eli Sutter discuss metalcarbon core-shell nanostructures 

prepared in-situ in an electron 

microscope.
50

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies

The Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies (CINT) is a Department of Energy/Office of Science Nanoscale Science 

Research Center operating as a national user facility devoted to establishing the scientific principles that govern the 

design, performance, and integration of nanoscale materials. Through its Core Facility and Gateway to Los Alamos 

Facility, CINT provides access to tools and expertise to explore the continuum from scientific discovery to the integration 

of nanostructures into the micro and macro worlds.

Inelastic scattering of a continuous 

wave on a femtosecond soliton in a nanostructured photonic crystal fiber, observed with 

simultaneous time and spectral resolution using crosscorrelation frequency resolved optical gating techniques.

Scientific Themes

To address the national grand challenges of nanoscience 

and technology, CINT supports four scientific thrusts that 

serve as synergistic building blocks for integration research 

available to the user community:

R5 Nanophotonics & Optical Nanomaterials: Synthesis, 

excitation and energy transformations of optically active 

nanomaterials and collective or emergent electromagnetic phenomena (plasmonics, metamaterials, photonic 

lattices).

R5 Nanoscale Electronics, Mechanics & Systems: Control 

of electronic transport and wavefunctions, and mechanical coupling and properties using nanomaterials and 

integrated nanosystems.

R5 Soft, Biological & Composite Nanomaterials: Solutionbased materials synthesis and assembly of soft, composite 

and artificial bio-mimetic nanosystems.

R5 Theory & Simulation of Nanoscale Phenomena:

Assembly, interfacial interactions, and emergent properties 

of nanoscale systems, including their electronic, magnetic, 

and optical properties.

Facilities and Capabilities

The CINT community can access dedicated research capabilities in the Core Facility (in Albuquerque) and the CINT 

Gateway to Los Alamos. Together, these facilities provide 

laboratory and office space for researchers to synthesize and 

characterize nanostructured materials, theoretically model 

and simulate their performance, and integrate nanoscale 

materials into larger-scale systems in a flexible, clean-room 

environment. These include:

R5 Materials Synthesis: Molecular beam epitaxy; physical 

and chemical vapor deposition; pulsed laser deposition; 

inorganic, organic and polymer synthesis; nanoparticles 

and nanowires; thin film deposition; membranes and 

monolayers; mesoporous materials; biomaterial synthesis 

and biomolecular recognition.

R5 Characterization: Scanning probe microscopies; electron 

microscopies; optical spectroscopy and microscopy; single 

molecule spectroscopy; ultrafast laser spectroscopies; nano/

micro-mechanics; Raman microscopy; terahertz spectroscopy; transport.

0

w

structure

simultaneous ti

correlation frequency 
51

Computer generated model of a copper 

nanofoam deformed under volume 

conserving planar strain.

Preparing a slide of quantum dot attached microtubules 

for an atomic force microscopy experiment.

R5 Nano-Micro Integration: Photon and electron beam 

lithography; soft nanolithography; focused ion beam; 

etching and deposition.

R5 Theory and Simulation: atomistic theory; predictive 

capability development; interpretation and design of 

experiments; multi-scale material modeling; and large 

scale computing.

R5 Discovery PlatformsTM: Modular, micro-laboratories 

designed and batch fabricated expressly for the purpose of 

integrating nano and micro length scales and for studying 

the physical and chemical properties of nanoscale material and devices.

CINT researchers also have access to selected Los Alamos 

and Sandia capabilities in biosciences, microsystems, nanofabrication and computing on a limited basis. Joint proposals 

involving other national user facilities at both locations, 

including the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center and 

the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, are encouraged. CINT also welcomes user proposals related to the 

DOE National Laboratory Center for Solid-State Lighting 

Research and Development.

Contacts

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies 

Sandia National Laboratories 

P.O. Box 5800, MS-1315 

Albuquerque, NM 87185 

http://cint.sandia.gov

Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies 

Los Alamos National Laboratory 

P.O. Box 1663, MS K771 

Los Alamos, NM 87545 

http://cint.lanl.gov

c
52

The Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences (CNMS) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) integrates nanoscale 

science with neutron science; synthesis science; and theory, modeling, and simulation. Operating as a national user facility, 

the CNMS has a highly collaborative and multidisciplinary environment for research to understand nanoscale materials 

and phenomena. 

Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences

Scientific Themes

Research at the CNMS focuses on understanding, designing 

and controlling the dynamics, spatial chemistry, and energetics of functionality and properties of nanoscale materials 

and architectures. 

R5 Origins of Functionality at the Nanoscale: This theme 

focuses on the development of instrumentation to image 

functionality and couples research to develop understanding of the new emerging physics and chemistry 

at the nanoscale with ORNL’s expertise in developing 

tools and techniques for forefront research with scanning probes, neutron scattering, electron microscopy, and 

related techniques.

R5 Functional Polymer Architectures: This theme focuses 

on advancing our fundamental understanding and control of polymer structure, property and function that 

are controlled by weak forces and whose properties are 

largely dependent on interfacial phenomena. This theme 

is rooted in controlled synthesis of well-defined polymers 

and bio-inspired polymers, and in rigorous nanoscale 

characterization.

R5 Emergent Behavior in Nanoscale Systems: This theme 

builds on a strong theoretical effort, focusing on understanding the emergence of collective behavior at every 

scale from the electronic structure to the mesoscale and 

includes multiscale aspects of functionality in complex 

systems and assemblies of nanoscale materials such as 

oxides and bio-inspired nanomaterials. 

Research Capabilities

The CNMS is housed in an 80,000-ft2 facility on the Chestnut Ridge Campus of ORNL, adjacent to the Spallation 

Neutron Source. It is equipped with a wide range of specialized tools for synthesis, characterization, and integration 

of hard and soft materials. CNMS encompasses expertise 

and instrumentation for user research in a broad range of 

disciplines selected to address forefront research in nanoscience and nanotechnology. Many user projects take advantage 

of multiple capabilities in tackling research to understand 

complex nanoscale phenomena. 

R5 Macromolecular Nanomaterials: Synthesis and molecular 

level characterization of small molecule building blocks, 

polymers, and polymer-modified interfaces, including 

biologically inspired systems, deuterated molecules and 

polymers for neutron scattering studies.

R5 Multiscale Functionality: Synthesis and characterization 

of inorganic and hybrid nanomaterials and assemblies with 

emphasis on functional performance for energy applications. Evolution of atomic-level and nanoscale structure 

and dynamics with varying environments; electron microscopy and laser spectroscopy at high resolution; neutron 

and x-ray characterization. Specialized laser, chemical, 

and CVD synthesis of catalysts, carbon nanostructures, 

oxide heterostructures, and related structures.

Theoretical studies of 2D and 3D ordered networks of carbon nanotubes.
53

R5 Scanning Probes: Imaging of functionality and dynamics 

in nanostructures including magnetic domains, electromechanics, energetics, chemical reactions and local phase 

transitions, mesoscale and quantum electrical transport, 

electronic, structural and spin phases, electro-optical and 

photovoltaics.

R5 Nanomaterials Theory Institute: Multiscale modeling, 

nanomaterials design, and virtual synthesis using ultrascale 

computing capabilities.

R5 Nanofabrication Research Laboratory: Controlled 

synthesis and directed assembly of nanomaterials in a 

10,000-ft2 cleanroom environment; chemical and biological functionalization of nanoscale materials.

Scanning probe microscopy-based 

manipulation of local polarization in 

ferroelectric materials enables studies 

of bias-induced phase transitions on a 

single-defect level, and can also serve as 

the physical basis of ultrahigh-density 

information storage. Related techniques 

may be used to probe electromechanical 

energy conversion mechanisms 

 and electrochemical reactions on the 

 nanoscale. (Courtesy of Stephen Jesse 

 and Sergei V. Kalinin, CNMS, 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory.)

Contact

Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

P.O. Box 2008 

Oak Ridge, TN 37831 

http://www.cnms.ornl.gov

CNMS has established partnerships with other ORNL 

user programs. The CNMS Nanomaterials Theory Institute 

provides collaborative workspaces, visualization equipment, 

and high-speed connections to the ultrascale computing 

facilities of ORNL’s National Center for Computational 

Sciences. The intense neutron beams from the Spallation 

Neutron Source and from the recently upgraded High Flux 

Isotope Reactor afford unique and expanding opportunities for fundamental studies of the structure and dynamics 

of nanomaterials. The CNMS also provides a gateway to 

electron microscopy, atom probe, nanoindentation and other 

capabilities in the Shared Research Equipment and High 

Temperature Materials Laboratory user programs.
54

The Center for Nanoscale Materials (CNM) at Argonne National Laboratory is a national user facility that provides 

capabilities explicitly tailored to the creation and characterization of new functional materials on the nanoscale. The CNM 

mission includes supporting basic research and advanced instrumentation development, including a hard x-ray nanoprobe 

beamline at the Advanced Photon Source. 

Center for Nanoscale Materials

Scientific Themes

The CNM focuses on the self-assembly of nanostructures, 

exploring the nanoscale physics and chemistry of nontraditional electronic and magnetic materials, developing 

approaches to solving various energy issues, and creating new 

probes for elucidating nanoscale structure and phenomena. 

To address these grand challenges within nanoscience and 

nanotechnology, using both experiment and theory, the 

CNM is organized around six scientific themes:

R5 Electronic & Magnetic Materials & Devices: Discovers, 

understands, and uses new electron- and spin-based 

materials and phenomena in constrained geometries for 

reduced power dissipation, new medical imaging methods, 

improved efficiency of data storage by spin current and 

electrical field-assisted writing, and enhanced energy 

conversion in photovoltaic devices. 

R5 Nanobio Interfaces: Integrates biological and organic 

molecular assemblies with inorganic nano-architectures 

to create functionally integrated biomolecule-inorganic 

hybrid conjugates and their assemblies, that are not found 

in nature but are guided by its principles, for energy and 

information transduction, advanced medical therapies, 

biosensors, and novel electronic devices.

R5 Nanofabrication & Devices: Fabricates new nanostructured materials, nanodevices, and nanosystems by 

advancing the state-of-the-art techniques in nanopatterning that incorporate both “top-down” and “bottom-up” 

approaches.

R5 Nanophotonics: Controls optical energy and its conversion on the nanoscale by combining the properties of 

metal, organic, semiconducting, and dielectric materials 

to create strongly coupled states of light and matter for 

enhanced chemical/catalytic reactivity, photonic circuits, 

new chemical and biological sensors, and enhanced optical non-linearities.

R5 Theory & Modeling: Develops the theory, modeling, and 

computational capabilities to establish a Virtual Fab Lab 

for nanoscience, with the ultimate goal of designing novel 

nanoscale materials with user-defined properties.

R5 X-ray Microscopy: Utilize x-rays to image new materials 

and novel phenomena at the nanoscale, with a particular 

emphasis on operation of the hard x-ray nanoprobe in 

collaboration with the Advanced Photon Source, and 

develop new concepts for nanofocusing x-ray optics.

Ultra-high vacuum scanning 

tunneling microscopy image 

 of a point defect in graphene that 

has been epitaxially grown 

on 6H-SiC(0001).
55

Facilities and Capabilities 

The CNM building, funded by the State of Illinois, is an 

85,000 ft2 facility encompassing 11,000 ft2 of cleanroom 

environments, 13,000 ft2 for conventional labs, as well as 

offices and public areas, and is equipped with a wide range of 

specialized tools. Many projects take advantage of multiple 

capabilities for engaging in research initiatives spanning the 

boundaries defined by the scientific themes above.

R5 Materials Synthesis: Synthetic techniques include, for 

example, hierarchical assembly using bottom-up polymeric 

and bio-templating, core-shell colloidal nanoparticle 

synthesis, peptide/DNA biosynthesis methods, complex 

oxide molecular beam epitaxy, and PECVD nanocrystalline diamond.

R5 Nanofabrication Research: Controlled synthesis and 

directed assembly of nanomaterials; lithographically 

assisted patterning of hybrid structures; chemical and 

biological functionalization of nanoscale materials; 

electron beam lithography, focused ion beams, and nanoimprint patterning methods.

R5 Proximal Probes: An array of scanning probe tunneling 

and atomic force microscopy capabilities for advanced 

surface, interface, and magnetic analysis; near-field scanning optical microscopy.

Contact

Center for Nanoscale Materials 

Argonne National Laboratory 

9700 S. Cass Avenue 

Argonne, IL 60439 

http://www.cnm.anl.gov

R5 Dedicated Hard X-ray Beamline at the APS: The 

nanoprobe beamline provides fluorescence, diffraction, 

and transmission imaging with a spatial resolution of 

30 nm or better over a spectral range of 3-30 keV.

R5 Computational Nanoscience: Theory and multiscale computer simulations provide the interpretive and predictive 

framework for understanding fundamental studies and 

to aid in the design of new nanoscale functional systems. 

The CNM’s state-of-the-art 10TFlop supercomputer 

accommodates highly parallel applications for modeling, 

simulation, and visualization.

Facilitation to other Argonne User Facilities: The CNM 

also assists users with facilitated access to Argonne’s other 

major user facilities:

R5 The Advanced Photon Source, one of the world’s brightest 

sources of x-ray beams; and

R5 The Electron Microscopy Center, housing several of the 

world’s most advanced microscopes and microcharacterization tools.

The CNM hard x-ray nanoprobe beamline provides fluorescence, diffraction, and transmission imaging, both static and 

dynamic, with a spatial resolution of 30 nm or better over a 

spectral range of 3-30 keV. The Fresnel zone plate being placed 

in the beam path by facility scientists Martin Holt, next to 

Robert Winarski, focuses the x-ray beam using a series of 

nanometer-sized concentric rings etched into the gold sheet.

AFM image of Pd(0) nanoparticles 

electrodeposited on the surface of 

SWNTs which display applicability 

as flexible hydrogen sensors. (Courtesy 

of H. Wang, Materials Science 

Division, and Y. Sun, CNM, 

Argonne National Laboratory.)
56

Molecular Foundry

The Molecular Foundry at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory operates as a national user facility specializing in the 

synthesis of novel nanostructured building blocks, measurement and simulation of their properties, and their integration 

into complex assemblies. Utilization of these capabilities is enhanced through close ties to the other DOE User facilities 

at LBL, including the National Center for Electron Microscopy, the Advanced Light Source, and the National Energy 

Research Scientific Computing Center.

Research at the Molecular Foundry exploits the uniquely 

multi-disciplinary environment created through its six scientific facili¬ties by integrating the research interests of our 

diverse scientific staff within four major themes:

R5 Combinatorial synthesis of nanomaterials: Using robotic 

synthesizers to create libraries of biological and inorganic 

nanostructures for self-assembly and functional selection 

of optical, electronic and thermal properties.

R5 Multimodal in situ imaging and spectroscopy: Applying 

scanned probe microscopy, nanophotonics and electron 

microscopy to investigation of dynamic nanoscale phenomena in liquid and vapor environments, with a strong 

emphasis on soft materials.

R5 Interfaces in nanomaterials: Engineering the mechanical 

and transport properties of hybrid nanomaterials through 

synthesis of heterostructures and interfaces, first-principles 

simulations, and characterization of function.

R5 “Single digit” nanofabrication: Utilizing biological and 

organic templates, advanced lithographies and probebased surface modification to deterministically fabricate 

arbitrary structures with sub-10nm precision.

Facilities and Capabilities

The Molecular Foundry is a six-story, 94,500 square-foot 

laboratory. Its six facilities are fully equipped with state-ofthe-art, sometimes one-of-a-kind instruments. It includes 

approximately 4,800 square feet of modular cleanroom 

space comprised of Class 100 labs for nanofabrication/

lithography and clean measurement, and a 5,500 squarefoot low vibration, low-electromagnetic-field laboratory 

housing state-of-the-art imaging and manipulation tools. 

Space is allocated for equipment and staff dedicated to the 

preparation and characterization of inorganic, organic and 

biological nanostructures and for a theory group to collaborate with the experimentalists. Offices and laboratories 

are available for visiting scientists and resident technical 

user-support staff.

R5 Inorganic Nanostructures Facility: Synthesis and integration of diverse inorganic nanocrystals, nanotubes, and 

nanowires is pursued, driven by energy conversion and 

electronics applications. Advanced synthetic capabilities 

include a unique Workstation for Automated Nanocrystal 

Discovery and Analysis (WANDA) and two cold-wall 

Metal-Organic Chemical Vapour Deposition (MOCVD) 

reactors for nanowire growth. Synthetic development 

focuses on heterostructured nanocrystals and nanowires, as 

well as soluble metal-chalcogen clusters, and the integration of these building blocks into composite materials and 

functional systems. In addition to optical spectroscopies 

and x-ray diffraction, in house expertise includes the fabrication and characterization of transistors, thermoelectric 

devices, and photovoltaic cells based on nanomaterials.

R5 Nanofabrication Facility: This facility provides state-ofthe-art lithographic and thin-film processing, including 

high-resolution electron-beam, focused ion beam and 

nano-imprint lithography. The research program emphasizes new lithographic, etching and resist technologies, 

their integration with chemical and biological nanosystems, 

and the development of nanoelectronic, nanomagnetic 

and nanophotonic devices.

In situ AFM image of S-layer proteins during self-assembly in fluid. 

Black (white) circles indicate newly attached (detached) proteins. 

Inset shows high-resolution image revealing tetrameric substructure 

of growth units.
57

Contact

Molecular Foundry 

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 

One Cyclotron Road, MS 67-R3207 

Berkeley, CA 94720 

www.foundry.lbl.gov

R5 Organic and Macromolecular Synthesis Facility: This 

facility provides expertise and access to organic molecules, macromolecules and their assemblies, as well as 

components, polymers, hybrid materials and functional 

assemblies. In addition to self-assembly, techniques range 

from classical organic to combinatorial to polymerizations 

of all types. In addition to instrumentation supporting 

the synthetic methods, this facility has also capabilities 

enabling separation and purification of the molecules 

and assemblies and their detailed characterization. The 

in-house program of staff scientists focuses on nanoporous 

polymers for hydrogen storage and separations, microfluidic devices, polymers for fabrication of photovoltaic 

cells and light emitting diodes, organic polymer-inorganic 

nanocrystal hybrids, as well as functional supramolecular 

assemblies.

R5 Biological Nanostructures Facility: This facility studies the 

synthesis, analysis and mimicry of biological nanostructures. Expertise and capabilities are available to develop 

new materials based on the self-assembly of peptides, 

proteins, nucleic acids, and bio-inspired polymers. New 

bio-friendly imaging probes based on functionalized 

inorganic nanocrystals are being developed and are available to facilitate state-of-the-art bio-imaging studies. 

Synthetic biology techniques are used to re-engineer 

organisms and create hybrid biomolecules to interface 

with devices. Additional capabilities include synthesis 

of bio- and biomimetic polymers, bioconjugation, and 

combinatorial peptide and peptoid library synthesis and 

screening. Protein expression, microbial and eukaryotic cell 

culture, phage display, cellular engineering and biological 

microscopy, including deconvolution and single molecule 

imaging are offered.

R5 Imaging and Manipulation Facility: Facility staff work 

with users to develop and apply advanced imaging and 

characterization tools to a wide range of nanoscale materials and systems using electron, optical and scanning probe 

microscopes. Technical capabilities include analytical 

transmission electron microscopy, field-emission scanning 

electron microscopy, commercial and lab-built scanning 

probe microscopes operating in ambient, controlled gas 

environments, liquids and vacuum, and ultra-fast optical 

confocal and near-field spectro-microscopy, as well as 

conventional optical microscopy, x-ray photoemission 

Forest of GaN nanowires grown by MOCVD 

on a saphire substrate using a Ni catalyst. The 

nanowires are about 100 nm in diameter.

spectroscopy and Auger electron microscopy. Research 

efforts include tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) 

and coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) 

using plasmonic antennas, development of advanced 

cantilever probes, imaging of soft biological materials, 

in-situ SEM and TEM, and using cathodoluminescence 

to study nanoscale optical properties. 

R5 Theory of Nanostructured Materials Facility: This Facility 

works with users and performs internal research to understand experiments, develop new theoretical and computational methods, and predict the behavior of new nanoscale 

materials and assemblies. Expertise is offered in a broad 

range of quantum and classical simulation techniques—

from first-principles electronic excited state and transport methods, to coarse-grained statistical mechanical 

approaches—for the study of spectroscopy, charge dynamics, and self-assembly of hard and soft nanomaterials. 

Selected recent interest areas include charge transport 

in single-molecule junctions, new techniques for x-ray 

spectroscopy, nanoscale solar energy conversion and storage, and soft matter self-assembly dynamics.

R5 Affiliated Laboratories: A number of research laboratories 

at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab and the University 

of California at Berkeley, whose capabilities complement those of the Foundry facilities, are available to User 

Projects. Information on these labs can be found at the 

Molecular Foundry’s website.

R5 Other User Facilities at LBL: A single review process can 

be used for joint proposals to the Foundry and LBNL’s 

other User Facilities including: The Advanced Light Source, 

one of the world’s brightest sources of ultraviolet and soft 

x-ray beams; The National Center for Electron Microscopy, 

housing several of the world’s most advanced microscopes 

and microcharacterization tools; and The National Energy 

Research Scientific Computing Center, providing highperformance computing tools and expertise. 
58

Electron Beam MicroCharacterization Centers

Electron Interactions with Matter Provide Atomic Scale Information

Electron beam characterization provides structural and 

chemical information about materials over critical length 

scales complementary to those probed by neutrons and 

photons. Today’s most advanced electron microscopes 

can produce beams of extremely high brightness that 

can be used to generate an image, spectrum, or diffraction pattern from sub-nanometer volumes of material. 

Consequently, electron beam methods play a key role in 

a wide variety of fields ranging from physics, chemistry, and materials science to biology and medicine. The 

information gained from such studies helps researchers 

understand how materials behave, leading to new breakthroughs in materials performance. For example, studies 

on materials used in buildings, aircraft, bridges, and other 

structures provide knowledge that can help researchers 

improve a material’s strength, durability, and/or resistance 

to corrosion. Electron beam studies of other materials, 

such as electronic or magnetic materials that are important in modern technologies, allow researchers to better 

understand how a material conducts electricity or changes 

its magnetic properties. In addition, electron beams can 

be focused to very tiny probes, and thus are ideally suited 

to studies of nanoscale materials. This capability allows 

scientists to explore new regimes of man-made materials with unique or tailored properties. Therefore, electron 

beam studies will be leading the way for technology that 

employs the next generation of advanced materials. 

Electron scattering is a key tool for materials characterization because of its unique ability to obtain structural 

and spectroscopic information from nanoscale volumes of 

material and, in some cases, individual atoms. Electrons can 

be accelerated to nearly the speed of light and focused into 

atomic-resolution probes and images using electromagnetic 

lenses. Over the last 50 years, electron microscopy has contributed enormously to our understanding of materials and 

their properties—by helping engineers to analyze failure 

modes, developers to design stronger alloys, and explorers to 

discover new materials. Most of our knowledge about dislocations – the fundamental units of deformation in crystals - is 

based on diffraction contrast imaging in electron microscopy, 

and entirely new classes of materials such as nanotubes and 

quasicrystals were discovered by electron microscopy. Much 

of our understanding of how high-temperature superconductors work or how atomic-scale defects control oxides – with 

applications ranging from skin care products to recording 

media - has been learned from electron scattering. The exceptional ability of electron microscopy to correlate structure 

and properties on a nanometer scale have positioned the use 

of this tool at the core of materials science.

The BES electron beam microcharacterization centers are an 

important part of DOE’s arsenal of extraordinary facilities 

for scientific research that are made available as a shared 

resource to the scientific community. Collectively, these 

centers have made significant contribution to broad areas of 

materials science, including phase transformations, defects, 

deformation, radiation effects, science of interfaces, surfaces 

and thin films, alloys, ceramics and microelectronic materials. 

The instrumentation and associated expertise at the electron 

beam microcharacterization centers are playing a central role 

in the development of nanoscience. Understanding how the 

properties of a nanoparticle are related to its microstructure 

and processing is an essential part of the scientific process that 

underlies the development and discovery of new materials. 

The materials studied at these facilities find applications in 

advanced technologies that power economic growth, support national security, and foster the efficient generation 

and usage of energy. 
59

Outreach Activities in the Scientific Community

Electron microcharacterization national user facilities play a role in expert training of scientists in the theory 

and practice of electron scattering, and in leading communications and educational events such as workshops, 

summer schools, discussion forums, special issues of journals, and symposia at scientific meetings. Such events 

are in support of outreach to the scientific community and help stimulate discussion on topical issues as well as 

training of the next generation of scientists. 
60

The Electron Microscopy Center (EMC) at Argonne 

National Laboratory (ANL) provides scientific researchers 

with essential resources for electron beam characterization of 

a wide range of materials and through a suite of instrumentation that includes several of the world’s unique electron 

microscopes. The instrumentation available to investigators in the EMC provides a broad range of capabilities for 

imaging, diffraction, and spectroscopy that are essential 

for world-class materials characterization. The EMC also 

provides capabilities for in situ studies of materials using 

state-of-the art microscopy. Traditionally strong research 

activities in the EMC include defect and transformation 

processes, microstructure and properties of complex oxides, 

physical behavior of nanoscale and magnetic materials, and 

the structure of amorphous materials through fluctuation 

electron microscopy. More recently, the EMC has developed 

programs in magnetic structures and domain dynamics. 

The EMC also provides expertise in aspects of fabrication 

and characterization of nanostructured materials based on 

focused electron and ion beams. These research activities have 

been enabled by the recent development within the EMC of 

electron beam-based probes of local properties, quantitative 

modeling and imaging of defect structures, and nanoscale 

dynamic phenomenon imaged and recorded in real time by 

advanced in situ techniques. At the same time, the EMC 

provides new scientific opportunities through the innovative 

development of techniques and instrumentation.

Electron Microscopy Center

The EMC currently operates eight instruments for user 

research. EMC users come from universities, national 

laboratories, and industry and conduct studies ranging 

from imaging of electron-sensitive soft materials to in situ 

observations of phenomena at elevated and cryogenic temperatures in pure metals and alloys, semiconductors, and 

ceramics. Access to the EMC is through a peer-reviewed 

proposal process. The instrumentation in the EMC includes 

transmission electron microscopes, scanning electron 

microscopes, and ion beam-based instruments. Many of 

the instruments in the EMC are optimized for analytical 

electron microscopy, including state-of-the-art transmission 

and scanning transmission electron microscopes (TEM 

and STEM, respectively), high-resolution scanning electron microscopes (SEM), scanning electron microscopes 

with environmental capabilities (ESEM), and dual ionand electron-beam instruments (FIB-SEM) that provide 

unique capability for nanoscale manipulation of materials. These instruments are utilized by users for a wide 

range of materials research. In addition, the EMC operates 

the Intermediate Voltage Electron Microscope (IVEM)- 

Accelerator, a facility provides capability for high-resolution 

imaging of a material under the influence of a high-energy 

ion beam. This unique capability is employed by investigators 

from around the world for a variety of in situ studies, especially for dynamic recording and structural characterization 

of the effects of ion irradiation.

Another important aspect of research conducted within the 

EMC is to drive important developments in the field of 

electron microscopy and scattering. For example, the EMC 

has led the development of aberration-correcting optics 

for use in the Transmission Electron Aberration-corrected 

Microscope (TEAM) instrument. The EMC is also developing unprecedented capabilities for in situ experiments that 

will be ideally suited to comprehensive studies of single 

nanoparticles in controlled environments, including gaseous 

and liquid environments. Complementing this work is the 

EMCs research in the area of new technologies for high 

spatial resolution analytical spectroscopy and its application 

to computationally mediated experiments. Very high spatial 

resolution chemical imaging is being developed utilizing 

aberration-correction, and the EMC is working to make 

A combined focused ion beam and scanning electron 

microscope (FIB-SEM) instrument provides researchers 

in the EMC with unique capabilities for nanoscale 

manipulation of materials. 
61

those capabilities available to the broad scientific community. Together these efforts provide a balanced program 

that provides leading edge tools needed to understand and 

characterize current and future technologically advanced 

nanomaterials.

Through the resources within the EMC, researchers carry 

out world-class studies in a variety of areas. For example, 

using the EMC’s focused ion beam – SEM capability, 

researchers produced the first three-dimensional images 

of the interior of a fuel cell -providing a new tool for the 

study and development of fuel cells. These images provide 

a nanometer-scale view of the inside of a fuel cell, much 

like magnetic resonance imaging provides a view inside the 

human body, and are helping to unravel how fuel cells work 

so they can be improved and made more reliable.

Scientists are using the IVEM-Accelerator to provide a 

key experimental confirmation for the origin of interstellar 

material to improve our understanding of understand the 

processes that formed the materials of the early solar system, 

In this work, scientists used this EMC capability to make 

the first in-situ TEM ion radiation study of pyrrhotite, a 

mineral that is found in both stardust and in interplanetary 

dust particles. The results provided confirmation of the current working model for the formation of these nanophase 

aggregates, and have potential application for modeling the 

space radiation exposure histories of other extraterrestrial 

materials. In different experiments, in situ studies are carried 

out in the IVEM-Accelerator facility that are providing 

critical insight into the durability of nuclear reactor and 

waste storage materials that is an important part of the 

nation’s energy future.

The analytical capabilities of the EMC’s field-emission gun 

scanning transmission electron microscope have been used 

to establish a correlation between grain boundary solute 

segregation and the atomic structure of the grain boundary 

Contact

Electron Microscopy Center 

Argonne National Laboratory 

9700 S. Cass Avenue 

Argonne, IL 60439 

http://www.msd.anl.gov/groups/emc

High-resolution momentum resolved spectroscopy developed 

within the EMC allows researchers to investigate the orientation dependence of the electronic properties of materials.

in an engineering alloy. High spatial resolution analysis of 

composition at various grain boundaries compared to the 

composition within grains was used to show that special, 

highly ordered grain boundaries exhibit less segregation 

than less well ordered boundaries in an aluminum-copper 

alloy. Improving our understanding of solute effects on 

microstructural evolution will greatly improve the control 

of industrial alloys used so widely in today’s electronics, 

aerospace and other industries. A new analytical technique, 

high-resolution momentum resolved spectroscopy, is being 

developed by EMC researchers to investigate the orientation 

dependence of the electronic properties of materials. This 

technique uses angular-dependent spectroscopy, measuring 

either x-ray or electron energy loss, to probe local structure 

on the length scale of a few Å. By varying the angle of 

incidence of the electron beam, a researcher can probe the 

orientation dependence of electronic and magnetic states. 

As an example, this approach has been used to measure 

the magnetic anisotropy in hematite, Fe2O3, using the electron energy loss variant technique known as HARECES 

(High Angular Resolution Electron Channeling Electron 

Spectroscopy).

ΔE

Δq

Ι(ΔE, Δq)

π∗

σ∗
62

Z-Contrast Imaging of Changes to Pt 

Shared Research Equipment Facility

Since its inception in 1977, the Shared Research Equipment 

(SHaRE) user facility at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) has provided users with access to a suite of 

advanced electron microscopes and staff scientists with 

microscopy and materials expertise in order to collaborate 

on research projects. Transmission, scanning-transmission, 

scanning electron microscopes, and ancillary spectroscopic 

capabilities are all made available to U.S. researchers (including materials scientists, chemists, physicists, and biologists) 

for the structural and compositional characterization of 

materials (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, 

and composites) at the μm to atomic scales. The SHaRE 

program has 3 primary focused research areas:

R5 Transmission/scanning-transmission (TEM/STEM) 

and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), including 

aberration-corrected STEM and high-angle annular dark 

field (HAADF) imaging, equipped with spectroscopic 

techniques such as Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 

(EELS), Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS), and 

Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD)/orientation 

imaging microscopy (OIM).

R5 Atom probe tomography (APT) using a local electrode 

atom probe (LEAP); Atom probe tomography is an atomic 

spatial resolution microstructural technique for visualizing 

and quantifying the three-dimensional distribution of 

solute content in a material. The technique enables solute 

clusters to be detected and the size, number density, and 

composition of precipitates from their earliest stages of 

evolution to be determined. 

R5 Surface science using X-ray Photoelectron Spectrometry 

(XPS) and Auger electron Spectroscopy (AES).

Faculty and students of U.S. accredited universities, industrial 

researchers, and scientists at national laboratories, including 

ORNL, may access SHaRE’s state-of-the-art microstructural 

characterization facilities by submitting a SHaRE research 

proposal. SHaRE staff will collaborate with users to conduct world-class materials characterization research and to 

develop new/improved analytical techniques, data analysis, 

and instrumentation. Access is granted free of charge, based 

on the scientific excellence of the proposed research and the 

ability to publish the scientific results in the open literature. 

Access may also be granted for proprietary research on a 

full-cost recovery basis.

Proposals to access the SHaRE User Facility are accepted at 

any time during the year and will be immediately assessed 

internally for feasibility and then sent for external review. 

Each proposal is reviewed by 3 members of the 50-member 

SHaRE Proposal Review Committee (PRC), where each 

member has expertise in one of the focus research areas 

supported within SHaRE. Once a proposal is reviewed 

and accepted, access to the requested SHaRE facilities is 

granted.

In the first image, single Pt atoms in fresh catalyst appear 

 as white dots ~ 1Å in diameter. After reduction treatment 

 to enhance catalytic activity, the second image shows 

 these Pt atoms forming small (<2nm) clusters.
63

Contact

SHaRE User Facility 

Oak Ridge National Laboratory 

1 Bethel Valley Rd, Bldg. 4515 

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6064 

http://www.ms.ornl.gov/share

Accomplishment and Highlights

R5 Approximately a hundred SHaRE-supported journal 

publications are published each year.

R5 The SHaRE Facility collaborates with ORNL’s Center 

for Nanophase Materials Science (CNMS) to make 

advanced microscopy facilities available to CNMS users, 

thus becoming the microscopy research center for many 

nanoscience research projects both internal and external 

to ORNL.

R5 Internationally-recognized expertise in high spatial resolution STEM, Z-contrast imaging, probe aberration-correctors, and STEM-based analytical electron microscopy, 

including experience in both the practical application 

and the theoretical aspects of sub-Angstrom STEM 

imaging. 

R5 The SHaRE User Program has traditionally focused on 

specific research topics that are unique to this facility, such 

as spectroscopy technique development and application 

to materials science, irradiated materials characterization, 

and atom probe tomography. Recently, SHaRE capabilities have also focused on the characterization of the 

atomic-structure of materials using aberration-corrected 

HAADF-STEM (especially related to catalysts, interfaces, 

nanostructures, etc.).

R5 SHaRE scientific research has focused on the development and application of “in-situ” microscopy for materials 

characterization. For example, TEM holders are being 

developed for high-resolution in-situ liquid STEM, atomic 

force microscopy, nanoindentation, electrochemistry, etc. 

In-situ characterization is certainly a large part of research 

and development efforts in SHaRE.

An aberration-corrected 

 TEM/STEM instrument.

Catalyst Particles on γ-Al2O3 Support
64

Before and after in-situ deformation 

experiment of 200-nm-diameter hollow 

nanospheres of cadmium sulfide.

The National Center for Electron Microscopy (NCEM) 

develops and supports some of the world’s most powerful 

tools for atomic-scale characterization using electron scattering. Located at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, the facility 

provides forefront resources and expertise to help researchers 

design, diagnose and discover new materials. 

As a national user facility, NCEM is open to scientists 

from universities, government and industrial laboratories. 

Its distinguished scientific and technical staff assists and 

guides researchers in exploring the behavior of materials 

over length scales ranging from single atoms to hundreds 

of nanometers.

Based upon NCEM’s unique instrumentation, its infrastructure of user support, and the research expertise of its 

scientific staff, the facility has been a leading lab for atomic 

resolution electron microscopy for over two decades. The 

high-voltage Atomic Resolution Microscope (ARM) first 

brought atomic resolution electron microscopy to materials 

science. This instrument helped solve a number of important 

scientific puzzles such as the origin of diamond-hexagonal 

National Center for Electron Microscopy

silicon, the atomic structure of strengthening particles in 

aluminum alloys, and the atomic arrangement at contacts 

in semiconductor devices. A second major advance was the 

achievement of 1 Angstrom resolution with the 300 kV 

One-Angstrom Microscope (OAM) in combination with 

computer processing. The OAM has been providing subAngstrom phase-contrast imaging for a decade, delivering 

the first images of nitrogen in gallium nitride, imaging 

sub-Angstrom atomic spacings of aluminum in sapphire, 

and reporting the direct observation of expanded crystal 

planes near the active surface of a catalytic platinum-iron 

particle.

NCEM’s experience in high-resolution electron microscopy 

served as the foundation of the Transmission Electron 

Aberration-Corrected Microscope (TEAM) project, a collaboration with other DOE-funded electron scattering efforts 

to redesign the electron microscope around aberrationcorrecting optics. The prototype double-corrected monochromated TEAM 0.5 microscope officially opened for user 

operations in the fall of 2008, one year before the dedication 

of the final TEAM instrument, which will feature the first 

corrector for chromatic as well as spherical aberration.

NCEM scientists conduct high-level research by applying 

new techniques to critical materials problems, and by collaborating with external research groups on the application 

of electron optical methods to materials characterization. 

Core areas of expertise include atomic resolution imaging 

of nanostructures, high resolution spectroscopy and in-situ 

observation of reaction mechanisms and dynamics. Advances 

in these scientific fields are supported by the development 

of techniques and instrumentation.
65

Instrumentation and Infrastructure

NCEM houses a full complement of highly specialized 

instruments designed to characterize the atomic structure 

and composition of materials. In addition to the TEAM 

microscope, the center features other advanced instruments 

such as two monochromated transmission electron microscopes and an aberration-corrected scanning transmission 

electron microscope. The facility also operates a unique 

instrument for imaging of magnetic surfaces with spinpolarized low-energy electrons, and develops techniques 

and instrumentation for dynamic in-situ experimentation. 

In support of its electron microscopes, NCEM maintains 

a state-of-the-art specimen preparation facility including 

a focused ion beam nanofabrication instrument, as well as 

advanced data analysis stations. 

Contact

National Center for Electron Microscopy, MS 72-150 

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 

Berkeley, CA 94720-8250 

http://ncem.lbl.gov

NCEM users have access to state-of-the-art 

instrumentation and techniques for quantitative analysis of atomic-scale structure and 

composition of materials.

Series of atomic resolution images recorded on TEAM 

0.5, showing a nanobridge connecting two gold crystals. 

Arrows highlight atomic rearrangements.

NCEM’s exceptional capabilities are making an important 

contribution to DOE’s scientific infrastructure. The center’s 

unique instrumentation and expertise, and its proximity to 

other LBNL user facilities such as the Molecular Foundry 

and the Advanced Light Source provide a strong platform 

for scientific discovery and innovation. With the growing sophistication of nanoscience, the need for nanoscale 

characterization will continue to increase rapidly. The future 

development of NCEM will complement Berkeley Lab’s 

strength in new energy technologies and fundamental science by further advancing electron optical instruments 

and methods to investigate the structure, composition and 

bonding of materials with extraordinary precision.
66

The TEAM Project

In his famous 1959 lecture, now widely seen as the founding 

vision for nanoscience, Nobel laureate Richard Feynman 

said it would be easy to analyze any complicated chemical 

substance; “all one would have to do would be to look at it and 

see where the atoms are. The only trouble is that the electron 

microscope is one hundred times too poor ... I put this out as a 

challenge: Is there no way to make the electron microscope more 

powerful?”

50 years later, a group of scientists prepared to meet the 

Feynman challenge by completing the TEAM microscope 

at LBNL’s National Center for Electron Microscopy. 

With an image resolution of half an Angstrom the TEAM 

microscope will provide unprecedented opportunities to 

observe the atomic scale order, electronic structure and 

dynamics of individual nanostructures. This will allow scientists to address key issues in nanoscience that were identified 

in a series of workshops. Foremost among these are the 

observation of local electronic structure 

and bonding, single atom spectroscopy and atomic resolution 

tomography. Using unique aberration-corrected electron 

optics with an ultra-stable sample stage in a speciallydesigned “quiet” microscope lab it will become possible 

to record a series of real-time atomic resolution images, 

which can be used to assemble 3D tomographic images of 

individual nanocrystals. 

The Transmission Electron Aberration-corrected Microscope 

(TEAM) project is 5-year collaborative effort amongst leading microscopy groups to design and construct the world’s 

most advanced electron microscope as a platform for a new 

generation of electron scattering instruments built around 

sophisticated aberration-correcting optics. The vision for the 

TEAM project is the idea of providing a sample space for 

electron scattering experiments in a tunable electron optical environment by removing some of the constraints that 

have limited electron microscopy until now. The TEAM 

microscope will feature unique corrector elements for 

spherical and chromatic aberrations, a novel Atomic 

Force Microscope-inspired specimen stage, a high 

brightness gun and numerous other innovations. The 

improvement in sensitivity, brightness, signal to noise 

and stability will make it possible to address major 

challenges in nanoscience.

The world-leading monochromated, aberrationcorrected TEAM 0.5 microscope is capable of 

half-Angstrom imaging in both, broad-beam and 

scanning-probe modes of operation.
67

TEAM 0.5 is controlled from a remote workstation 

and operates as a user instrument.

Using a monochromated beam at 80kV, TEAM 0.5 is able to resolve atomic 

defects such as this arrangement of 5- and 7-fold rings in graphene sheets only 

one atom thick. (after Meyer et al. NanoLetters 2008)

To meet its ambitious goals, the TEAM project utilized 

three test instruments to develop novel technologies at 

three different locations in a parallel process: optimization 

of aberration-corrected STEM imaging at ORNL, development of chromatic aberration correction for TEM imaging at 

ANL and double-corrected instrument integration for halfAngstrom image resolution at LBNL. The initial prototype 

instrument (TEAM 0.5) installed at LBNL’s National Center 

for Electron Microscopy, has demonstrated unprecedented 

performance, and was made available as a user instrument in 

October 2008. TEAM 0.5 will be surpassed only by the final 

TEAM I microscope, which will feature the first chromatic 

aberration corrector in a TEM, other sophisticated electron 

optics, an extra-high brightness source, a revolutionary new 

stage, high throughput electron detectors and integrated 

software to enable remote operation. 

The unparalleled capabilities of the TEAM instrument enable 

the development of novel techniques to meet challenges such 

as atomic resolution tomography that were previously out 

of reach. Its high brightness gun, improved signal-to-noise 

ratio, exceptional resolution, chromatic aberration correction, 

and tunable electron optical environment help minimize 

the effect of radiation damage and optimize contrast and 

data collection.

One of the key scientific goals of the TEAM instrument is 

the experimental atomic-scale analysis of individual nanoparticles on the size scale that is just becoming accessible to 

first principles calculations. Combining the best experimental 

and computational capabilities presents new opportunities 

for exceptional insights into the behavior of materials.
68

Locations

Locations of the BES scientific user facilities discussed in this publication. 

For further information, contact each facility or BES 

at http://www.sc.doe.gov/bes/.

($"# 

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Argonne National Laboratory

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Oak Ridge National Laboratory

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Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

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Los Alamos National 

Laboratory

Sandia National Laboratory

Brookhaven National Laboratory

SLAC National Accelerator 

Laboratory
69

This booklet reflects contributions provided by the following individuals:

Ian S. Anderson, Associate Laboratory Director, Neutron Sciences Directorate, ORNL

Kelly Beierschmitt, Executive Director, High Flux Isotope Reactor, ORNL

Lynn A. Kszos, Manager, Strategic Planning and Administration, Neutron Sciences Directorate, ORNL

Alan J. Hurd, Director, Lujan Neutron Scattering Center at LANSCE, LANL

Roger Falcone, Director, Advanced Light Source Division, LBNL

Janos Kirz, Scientific Advisor, Advanced Light Source Division, LBNL

Elizabeth Moxon, Advanced Light Source Division, LBNL

J. Murray Gibson, Associate Laboratory Director, Scientific User Facilities, Advanced Photon Source, ANL

Dennis M. Mills, Deputy Associate Laboratory Director, Scientific User Facilities, Advanced Photon Source, ANL

Richard Fenner, Manager, Scientific Information Services, Scientific User Facilities, Advanced Photon Source, ANL

Chi-Chang Kao, Chair, National Synchrotron Light Source Department, BNL

Kathleen Nasta, User Administrator, National Synchrotron Light Source, BNL

Joachim Stöhr, Director, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource and Associate Director, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

Cathy Knotts, Manager, SSRL User Research Administration, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

John N. Galayda, Linear Coherent Light Source Project Director, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

Bradley R. Plummer, Communications Officer, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

Steve Dierker, Associate Laboratory Director for Light Sources and Director, National Synchrotron Light Source-II Project, BNL

Diane Hatton, Division Director for Project Support, National Synchrotron Light Source-II Project, BNL

Qun Shen, Director, Experimental Facilities Division, National Synchrotron Light Source-II Project, BNL

Ulrich Dahmen, Director, National Center for Electron Microscopy, LBNL

Dean J. Miller, Director, Electron Microscopy Center, ANL

Karren L. More, Director, Shared Research Equipment User Facility, ORNL

Emilio Mendez, Director, Center for Functional Nanomaterials, BNL

Grace Webster, User Administration Program and Outreach Coordinator, Center for Functional Nanomaterials, BNL

Eric D. Isaacs, Deputy Lab Director for Programs, Center for Nanoscale Materials, ANL

Stephen Streiffer, Director (Acting), Center for Nanoscale Materials, ANL

Kathleen Carrado Gregar, Manager, User and Outreach Programs, Center for Nanoscale Materials, ANL

Carolyn Bertozzi, Director, Molecular Foundry, LBNL

James J. De Yoreo, Deputy Director, Molecular Foundry, LBNL

Mark D. Alper, Deputy Director, Molecular Foundry, LBNL

Robert Hwang, Co-Director, Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, SNL

Neal Shinn, User Program Manager, Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, SNL

Toni Taylor, Co-Director, Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, LANL

Linda L. Horton, Director, Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, ORNL

Tony E. Haynes, User Program Manager, Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, ORNL

Pedro A. Montano, Director, Scientific User Facilities Division, BES, DOE-SC

Altaf H. Carim, Program Manager, Scientific User Facilities Division, BES, DOE-SC

Thomas E. Kiess, Program Manager, Scientific User Facilities Division, BES, DOE-SC

Roger W. Klaffky, Program Manager, Scientific User Facilities Division, BES, DOE-SC

Michele M. Nelson, Graphic Designer, Technical Services Division, ANL

Acknowledgements
70

Robert Winarkski (left) of the CNM X-ray Microscopy group 

explains the CNM x-ray nanoprobe beamline to a group of 

students from Notre Dame University.

Light-induced charge transport is 

possible in these dumbbell architectures 

of bridged donor-acceptor particles 

scaffolded by DNA (top) and protein 

(bottom), studied in the CNM’s 

Nanobio Interfaces group.

Chemistry students Miranda Vanden Brink (undergraduate, 

foreground) and Saravana Kumar Thauman Pillai 

(graduate student, background), from the University 

of South Dakota conduct experiments in the catalyst 

synthesis labs at the Center for Nanophase Materials 

Sciences in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, during an extended visit.

X-ray crystal 

structure of the plant 

TIR1-ASK1 complex 

bound to auxin and a substrate 

degron peptide. The auxin receptor 

TIR1 (blue) binds to ASK1 (magenta), 

together forming a mushroom-shaped protein 

complex. The plant hormone auxin (green and 

red spheres) and the substrate degron peptide 

(orange) occupy a single pocket on top of the TIR1 

mushroom cap with auxin sitting at the bottom. 

A previously unknown inositol hexakisphosphate 

(IP6

) molecule is found in the middle of TIR1 

right under the auxin-binding site (the red stick 

model in the center of the mushroom “cap”).

The 

advanced 

targetmoderator 

assembly at 

the Lujan 

Center. Lujan Center targets 

inaugurated flux-trap design 

and partially coupled moderators, now standard throughout 

the world.
This document was prepared by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the 

United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees or officers, 

makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility 

for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately 

owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, 

or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not 

necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, 

or favoring by the United States Government or any agency 

thereof. The views and opinions of document authors 

expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect 

those of the United States Government or any 

agency thereof.

About the back cover:

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory’s linear accelerator serves as 

the backbone of a new kind of x-ray laser, the Linac Coherent Light 

Source (LCLS). This photograph shows the construction of a transport 

hall to carry beams of electrons toward experimental facilities nearly 

half a mile away. The LCLS will allow scientists to make freeze-frame 

images of atoms and molecules as they vibrate and interact, revealing 

the chemistry of life as it happens.

The Advanced Light Source (ALS) is a national user facility that generates intense x-ray radiation for scientific and technological research. 

The ALS is operated by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 

(LBNL) of the University of California for the U.S. Department of 

Energy. Operation for users began in October 1993. As the world’s 

first third-generation synchrotron radiation source, the ALS welcomes 

researchers from universities, industries, and government laboratories 

around the world. 

The luminous zone of the flame shown here (just to left of the glowing 

red sampling cone) has the typical blue-violet or blue-green color associated with chemiluminescence from electronically excited CH and C2

. 

Structure and charge density of a 2-nm titanium 

dioxide nanoparticle from ab initio calculations. 

(Courtesy of Paul Kent, Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, and James Kubicki, Penn State 

University.)

Cu-TCNQ nanowires on ZnO nanowires. 

Here TCNQ is the common abbreviation 

for 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane, 

an organometallic semiconductor charge 

transfer material. (Courtesy of Kai Xiao, 

CNMS, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.)
ENERGY

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF