Technical Report

NREL/TP-540-44247

April 2009

Feasibility of Thermoelectrics 

for Waste Heat Recovery in 

Conventional Vehicles 

K. Smith and M. Thornton
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393

303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov

NREL is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC

Contract No. DE-AC36-08-GO28308

Technical Report

NREL/TP-540-44247

April 2009

Feasibility of Thermoelectrics 

for Waste Heat Recovery in 

Conventional Vehicles 

K. Smith and M. Thornton

Prepared under Task No. FC08.2000
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iii

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the U.S. Department of Energy Vehicle 

Technologies Program under the Advanced Vehicle Technology Analysis and Evaluation 

Activity. We also appreciate the support and contributions of Lee Slezak, Technology Manager. 
iv

Executive Summary

Thermoelectric (TE) generators convert heat directly into electricity when a temperature gradient

is applied across the junctions of two dissimilar metals. These devices have the potential to 

increase the fuel economy of conventional vehicles by recapturing a portion of the waste heat 

from the engine exhaust and generating electricity to power a vehicle’s accessory loads. 

At present, device efficiencies are low (~5%); however, thin-film and quantum well technologies 

offer the possibility of higher efficiency in the future (~10 % to 15%). Four vehicle platforms are 

considered: a midsize car, a midsize sport utility vehicle, a Class 4 truck, and a Class 8 truck. A 

simple vehicle and engine waste heat model shows that the Class 8 truck presents the least 

challenging requirements for TE system efficiency, mass, and cost. This is because Class 8 

trucks have a relatively large amount of exhaust waste heat, have low mass sensitivity, and travel 

a high number of miles per year, all of which help to maximize fuel savings and economic 

benefits. 

A driving and duty cycle analysis for the Class 8 truck elucidates trade-offs in system sizing and 

shows the strong sensitivity of waste heat, and thus TE system electrical output, to vehicle speed 

and driving cycle. It is not feasible for a TE system to replace the alternator, as too little waste 

heat is available during city driving and/or idling. 

Together with a typical alternator, a TE system could enable the electrification of 8% to 15% of a 

Class 8 truck’s accessories, providing 2% to 3% fuel savings. Additional electrification would 

require a larger alternator and battery to augment the TE system so that adequate electrical power 

is available during low-speed driving and idling. Achieving an economic payback in three years 

dictates that the TE system cost less than roughly $450/kW, requiring an almost tenfold 

reduction from today’s costs. Such a cost reduction might be enabled in the future by thin-film

devices that use expensive TE junction materials more efficiently. 
v 

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................1 

2.0 Model ................................................................................................................................2 

 2.1 Thermoelectric System Model ..................................................................................2 

 2.2 Vehicle Model ...........................................................................................................3 

3.0 Results ..................................................................................................................................5 

 3.1 Comparison of Vehicle Platforms .............................................................................5 

 3.2 Duty and Driving Cycle Analysis for Class 8 Truck .................................................8 

4.0 Conclusions .....................................................................................................................14 

5.0 References .......................................................................................................................15 
vi 

List of Figures

1. Conversion efficiency of a thermoelectric device vs. figure of merit, ZT ...........................3 

2. Schematic of vehicle system model .....................................................................................4 

3. Data from a caterpillar C12 engine (overlay), shown in comparison to results of the 

exhaust waste heat model.....................................................................................................4 

4. Fuel savings under scenarios in which some or all of the engine’s mechanically driven 

accessories are replaced with electrically driven accessories ..............................................6 

5. TE system cost and mass required to achieve 3-year economic payback (i.e., recovering 

TE system initial cost through fuels savings) ......................................................................7 

6. Speed-versus-time traces for various driving cycles ...........................................................9 

7. Fraction of time spent above a given speed for various driving cycles ...............................8 

8. Percentage of time that a Class 8 truck spends above various levels of engine power 

for various driving cycles...................................................................................................14 

9. Contour lines showing average electrical power, Pelec, avg (kW), generated by a TE 

System with conversion efficiency, η TE sys., = 10% for a Class 8 truck ............................15 

List of Tables

1. Parameters for Four Vehicle Platforms in the Study ...........................................................5 

2. TE System Conversion Efficiencies Required to Eliminate the Alternator (Scenario 1) 

and Electrify All Accessories (Scenario 2) for 20-mph Steady-State Driving ....................8 

3. Average TE System Electrical Power for a Class 8 Truck under Different Driving 

Scenarios and TE System Conversion Efficiencies ...........................................................12 

4. Feasible Accessory Electrification Scenarios for a Class 8 Truck Incorporating TE 

Systems with Various Conversion Efficiencies .................................................................13 
1 

1. Introduction

Waste heat recovery devices can increase vehicle fuel economy by converting a portion of 

engine waste heat to useful work. Taking a conventional example, a turbocharger expands hot 

exhaust gases through a turbine and uses this shaft power to compress engine intake air and boost 

engine efficiency. Though they are not used in vehicles at present, adsorption and absorption 

refrigeration systems provide potential pathways to convert engine waste heat into passenger 

cabin cooling [1, 2], eliminating engine loads associated with traditional vapor-compression 

systems. 

Thermoacoustic devices [3, 4] provide a pathway to convert waste heat to sound and then to 

cooling or, if combined with a linear motor or piezoelectric generator, electricity. Thermoelectric 

(TE) devices, the subject of this report, offer an attractive direct conversion path from heat to 

electricity, with no moving parts [5]. This direct conversion of heat to electricity, combined with 

recent laboratory advances in efficiency, makes TE devices an interesting candidate for 

automotive waste heat recovery [6]. 

While TE generators have the potential to increase vehicle fuel economy by converting a portion 

of engine waste heat to electricity [7, 8], that electricity can be used in several ways. 

Conventional vehicles could derive a fuel economy benefit by using the extra electrical power to

reduce alternator loads and/or electrically drive accessories such as power steering [9]. Hybrid 

electric vehicles (HEVs) might also use the extra electrical power to directly assist with vehicle 

propulsion [10]. 

A typical engine wastes approximately two-thirds of the fuel’s combustion energy as heat. Some 

waste heat is transferred to the coolant system and/or carried from the engine block by 

convection and radiation. Although waste heat could potentially be recovered from the coolant 

system, the relatively low difference in temperature from ambient would result in low TE 

generator efficiency. This work assumes that the TE generator recovers heat from the engine 

exhaust, which has the highest temperature and, consequently, the most thermodynamically 

available waste heat.

In most vehicle applications currently being explored, the TE device employs heat exchangers to 

carry heat from the exhaust system to the hot side of the device (and isolate the device from peak 

exhaust system temperatures) as well as to remove heat from the cold side of the device [8, 11]. 

The cold side commonly uses ethylene glycol as a working fluid, either shared with the engine 

cooling loop or using its own dedicated radiator. 

This report provides a simplified analysis in which the energy conversion efficiencies of the TE 

device and associated heat exchangers, pumps, and other components are lumped into a single 

conversion efficiency representative of the entire TE system. In the analysis, four vehicle 

platforms—a midsize sedan, a midsize sport utility vehicle, a Class 4 truck, and a Class 8 

truck—are initially considered. A more detailed analysis of waste heat availability for the Class 8 

truck under various duty cycles then follows. 
2 

2.0 Model

2.1 Thermoelectric System Model

First discovered by Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821, a thermoelectric device generates 

electricity when a temperature gradient is applied across the junctions of two dissimilar metals. 

The performance of the device, determined by properties of the junction materials, is typically 

stated using a figure of merit, ZT. Yang [6] gives a timeline of advances in thermoelectric 

materials and their figures of merit. Bulk materials, such as bismuth telluride and lead telluride, 

which were identified in the 1960s and 1970s, have a ZT in the range of 0.5 to 1.0. These 

materials are most common in current applications, including vehicle waste heat recovery 

demonstration programs. 

More recently discovered thin-film materials, such as silicon carbon and boron carbon operating 

on a quantum well principle, have demonstrated a ZT of 4 to 5 in the laboratory, but designs that 

use these materials have yet to be scaled up to practical systems. In addition to higher efficiency, 

these thin-film designs offer the potential for much lower cost in comparison to bulk designs 

because less junction material is required; however, they usually have higher manufacturing 

costs. 

The efficiency of a TE device is the amount of electrical power generated for a given amount of 

heat input, ηTE = Pelec / Ph, in. This efficiency can be calculated as a function of the hot-side 

temperature, Th, the cold-side temperature, Tc, and ZT as [12] 

h hc

ch

TE ZT TT

ZT

T

TT

++

− −+ = 1

11

η . 

Figure 1 gives the TE device efficiency for a system with Tc = 95oC and various Th. A ZT in the 

range of 0.85 to 1.25 gives device efficiencies from 5% to 12%. The lower end of that range may 

be taken as present-day capability, while the upper end represents future capability. In an 

optimistic future scenario, thin-film devices might approach 20% efficiency. 

In a vehicle application, the overall system efficiency, ηTE sys = Pelec / Pexh, where Pexh is the 

engine exhaust heat, will be less than the device efficiency. This difference is due to exhaust line 

temperature drops (ΔT) between the engine and the TE system, cold- and hot-side heat exchanger 

effectiveness ε < 1, and parasitic losses due to pumps and electric power conversion devices. 

Given these losses, it is reasonable to expect that the efficiency of a complete system, 

ηTE sys = f(ηTE, ΔT, ε, Ppumps, ...), might be only half that of the thermoelectric device, ηTE. 

To complete a large design space search across multiple vehicle platforms, the current model 

neglects losses due to heat exchangers, pumps, and so forth. Instead, a simple “black box” TE 

system model is used to predict the TE system’s electrical power output, Pelec, as a function of 

the engine’s rate of exhaust heat output, Pexh, as 

( ) Pelec TE exhsys PP max,TE sys = min η , . 
3 

TE system efficiency, ηTE sys, and TE system maximum power output rating, Pmax, TE sys, are both 

treated as constant parameters for a given design.

Figure 1. Conversion efficiency of a thermoelectric device vs. figure of merit, ZT

2.2 Vehicle Model

The vehicle model consists of simple road load, engine waste heat, and driveline models. A 

schematic of the model, including the TE system, is given in Figure 2. Only a small portion of 

the vehicle’s fuel input energy is converted to useful work to drive the wheels and accessory 

loads. In a conventional vehicle, fuel may be saved by reducing the mechanical accessory load 

on the engine, Pacc, mech, and using power generated by the TE system to drive some or all 

accessories with electricity, Pacc, elec, instead. The power required at the wheels to drive the 

vehicle at speed, v, is 





 



 ++=

dt

dv

wheels aero roll mFFvP , 

where the aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance forces are, respectively, 

2

2

1 Fareo = ρ air fd vAC , 

F mg a roll = cos(θ ) . 

The power at the wheels is met by engine power, Peng, transferred to the wheels through a 

driveline with efficiency, ηdrv, = 85%: 

( ) wheels eng −= PPP , mechacc ηdrv . 

In addition to meeting road loads, the engine must also drive accessories consuming power, 

Pacc mech. Engine power is calculated as 
4 

eng mP fueleng LHVfuel =η  , 

where the engine efficiency and fuel flow rate are interpolated from empirical engine maps as a 

function of engine power and speed. Engine exhaust waste heat power output is calculated as 

PP r exh eng eng −= η )1( , 

where r is the fraction of engine waste heat exiting through the engine exhaust. As shown in 

Figure 3, we fit r to engine exhaust temperature and flow rate data for a diesel engine and obtain 

an adequate fit with r = 0.30 at low torque and 0.46 at peak torque. Values of r are interpolated 

for intermediate torques. The model suggests that 54% to 70% of total engine waste heat is 

dissipated by the coolant system, and convection and radiation from the engine block. 

Figure 2. Schematic of vehicle system model. Only a small percentage of fuel input energy is 

converted to useful work, powering the wheels and accessory loads.

Figure 3. Comparison of the exhaust waste heat model with data from a Caterpillar C12 engine 

Data

Model
5 

3.0 Results

Four vehicle platforms are compared on the basis of potential fuel savings and waste heat 

availability to determine which one might be best suited for early integration of TE systems. 

Table 1 gives the model parameters used for a midsize sedan, a midsize sport utility vehicle

(SUV), a Class 4 truck, and a Class 8 truck. The midsize sedan and midsize SUV are assumed to 

be powered by gasoline/spark-ignition engines; the Class 4 and 8 trucks are powered by more 

efficient diesel/compression-ignition engines. The Class 8 truck is found to present the least 

stringent TE system requirements in terms of cost, mass, and efficiency. The Class 8 truck is 

therefore investigated further for specific scenarios to select the TE system size and investigate 

the sensitivity of those scenarios to driving and duty cycles. 

Table 1. Parameters for Four Vehicle Platforms in the Study

Midsize 

Sedan

Midsize 

SUV

Class 4 

Truck

Class 8

Truck

Test mass, mveh (kg) 1565 2151 7700 36,300

Frontal area, Af (m2) 2.27 2.88 6.89 8.55

Drag coefficient, Cd 0.30 0.41 0.7 0.7

Rolling resistance coefficient, a 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009

Engine type gasoline gasoline diesel diesel

Engine power, Pmax, eng. (kW) 121 135 149 332

Alternator accessory load (kW) 0.55 0.55 0.6 0.7

Total accessory load (kW) 2.47a 2.86a 4.0 7.1a

Vehicle miles travelled (mi/yr) 12,240 12,240 18,720 80,000

a. Includes air conditioning with 50% duty cycle.

3.1 Comparison of Vehicle Platforms

To obtain rough bounds on potential fuel savings of TE systems, we initially ignore power and 

efficiency limits of practical TE system designs. Fuel savings are predicted under two simple 

scenarios: Scenario 1 unloads the engine by eliminating the alternator; scenario 2 unloads the 

engine by eliminating all mechanically driven accessories, including the alternator, power 

steering pump, and air conditioning compressor. In both scenarios, engine peak power is slightly 

downsized, commensurate with the reduced average engine power requirement; this downsizing 

provides additional fuel savings, as the smaller engine operates at a higher efficiency. Each 

scenario assumes that ample electrical power is available (either from a TE system or elsewhere)

and that the vehicle mass remains the same as that of the baseline vehicle. In this way, the fuel 

savings predicted are the best possible for a TE waste heat recovery system integrated into a 

conventional vehicle. 

Figure 4 shows fuel savings for the four vehicles traveling at various constant speeds. The 

savings that can be achieved under scenario 1 are modest, at approximately 1% to 3%; the 

savings achievable under scenario 2 are appreciable, however, at approximately 3% to 15%, 

depending on speed and vehicle platform. On average, the gasoline-fueled vehicles derive a 

slightly higher benefit than diesel-fueled vehicles, because the gasoline-fueled vehicles have less 

efficient engines.
6 

Figure 4. Fuel savings under scenarios in which some or all of the engine’s mechanically driven 

accessories are replaced with electrically driven accessories. Assumptions: (1) sufficient electricity 

available from the TE system; (2) no increase in vehicle mass with addition of TE system.

In terms of cost and mass requirements imposed on a TE system, the Class 8 truck holds 

advantages over the other vehicle platforms in that this vehicle presents the least challenging 

requirements for early market introduction. Figure 5 shows the break-even TE system costs, in 

which a vehicle with a TE system will pay for its initial cost out of three years of fuel savings. 

For now, we assume that waste heat and TE system performance are sufficient to realize all of 

the fuel savings shown in Figure 4, though this is typically not the case. The break-even cost is 

expressed as a function of TE system mass because, for the same efficiency and operating 

characteristics, a heavier TE system will achieve less fuel savings as its extra mass penalizes 

vehicle efficiency. 

Note that the allowable TE system mass shown on the y-axis of Figure 5 should not be taken as 

absolute, because those results are calculated using a steady-state model predicting less mass 

sensitivity than expected under transient operation. However, the constant speed results are still 

useful for comparing the relative merits of each vehicle platform.

In Figure 5, the results across vehicle platforms show a relative trend separating the Class 8 truck 

from the other vehicles. Under both scenarios, the heavy Class 8 truck can tolerate a higher TE 

system mass (kg/kW) and still achieve fuel savings. The higher number of vehicle miles traveled 

per year also means that the Class 8 truck will achieve larger aggregate fuel savings within a 

three-year payback period. The TE system can thus bear a higher cost ($/kW) and still be 

economically acceptable. 

Note also that scenario 1 tolerates much higher TE system costs than scenario 2 does. At early 

market introduction, when TE system costs are expected to be the highest, a modest level of 

waste heat recovery is economically favorable in comparison to aggressive levels. Because

today’s commercially available TE devices cost on the order of $3000 to $6000/kW [13, 14], 

costs must still be reduced considerably for vehicular waste heat recovery applications to become 

economically favorable. 

Scenario 1:

Eliminate Alternator

Scenario 2:

Electrify All Accessories
7 

Infeasible

Design

Feasible

Design

Class 8

Class 4

SUV

Sedan

Scenario 2

Scenario 1

Infeasible

Design

Feasible

Design

Class 8

Class 4

SUV

Sedan

Scenario 2

Scenario 1

Figure 5. TE system cost and mass required to achieve 3-year economic payback (i.e., recovering 

TE system initial cost through fuel savings). Heavy systems will negate a portion of potential fuel 

savings and thus must have a lower initial cost to be economically feasible. Assumptions: (1) sufficient 

electricity available from the TE system; (2) steady-state operation at 50 mph; (3) 2006 average fuel 

prices: $2.58/gal. gasoline, $2.71/gal. diesel; (4) alternator: $400/kW, 20 kg/kW.

Results thus far have not addressed whether adequate exhaust waste heat is available to achieve a 

given accessory electrification scenario. Dividing the required electrical power by the amount of 

waste heat available at various vehicle speeds provides an estimate of the overall TE system 

conversion efficiency (including heat exchangers, pumps, and all other ancillaries) necessary for 

a given scenario. Waste heat is strongly dependent on vehicle speed, scaling with vehicle speed 

to the third power. Low-speed driving requires little power from a vehicle’s engine and is 

accompanied by a small amount of waste heat. The most challenging efficiency requirement for 

a TE system will be to generate the required amount of electricity at low vehicle speeds. Though 

not considered in this report, it is worth noting that TE systems are best matched to electrify 

accessory loads that increase with the speed of the vehicle.

For comparison purposes, Table 2 gives the TE system conversion efficiencies necessary to 

eliminate the alternator (scenario 1) and electrify all accessories (scenario 2) for 20 mph steadystate driving. Assuming that TE system efficiency (estimated to be around one-half of TE device 

efficiency because of ancillary losses) might at best approach 10% in the future, Table 2 shows 

that the available waste heat is insufficient for complete accessory electrification in low-speed 

driving situations. 

Less aggressive partial accessory electrification scenarios might be possible, depending on how 

often higher vehicle speeds are attained. Comparing across vehicle platforms, the Class 8 truck 

presents the least challenging conversion efficiency requirement because of the large amount of 

waste heat available in its exhaust. Smaller vehicles and/or vehicles with highly efficient engines 

generate less waste heat and require higher TE system conversion efficiencies to generate a fixed 

amount of electrical power. 
8 

Table 2. TE System Conversion Efficiencies Required to Eliminate the Alternator (Scenario 1) and 

Electrify All Accessories (Scenario 2) for 20-mph Steady-State Driving 

Scenario 1:

Eliminate Alternator

Scenario 2:

Electrify All Accessories

Class 8 truck 2%-3% 20%-35%

Class 4 truck 5%-8% 30%-60%

Midsize SUV 5%-6% 20%-40%

Midsize sedan,

 nominal engine (121 kW) 4%-10% 20%-45%

Midsize sedan,

 small engine (75 kW) 7%-12% 30%-55%

3.2 Duty and Driving Cycle Analysis for Class 8 Truck

As discussed above, the Class 8 truck platform holds multiple advantages over the other 

platforms considered, which makes it the most attractive application for early market 

introduction of a TE waste heat recovery system. Although the remainder of this analysis focuses

on the Class 8 truck, the approach and discussion generally apply to the other vehicle platforms. 

This section assesses the quantity of waste heat available under various driving situations, 

determines an appropriate TE system size, and evaluates the level of accessory electrification 

that is practical for a Class 8 truck. 

 

Figure 6 shows speed-versus-time traces for the eight different driving cycles used in this

analysis. Given that waste heat is strongly dependent on vehicle speed, Figure 7 quantifies the 

cumulative percentage of time spent above various speeds for eight different driving cycles. For 

discussion purposes, the cycles are grouped on the basis of their speed-time statistics into three 

classifications: city cycles, suburban cycles, and highway cycles. These cycles are plotted in red, 

blue, and magenta, respectively, in Figure 7. 

Each of the two highway cycles shows a vehicle being driven more than 50% of the time at 

greater than 40 mph; this suggests that, in highway driving situations, it might be advantageous 

to size the TE system to capture the amount of waste heat available at 40 mph (~55 kW for the 

Class 8 truck). In practice, we want to avoid sizing a TE system too small or too large for 

expected driving situations. For example, a 40-mph-peak waste heat design would be too small 

to make complete use of the waste heat available at speeds higher than that. Conversely, the 

same TE system would be oversized for city driving situations. In these low-speed situations, a

smaller, lighter, and less expensive TE system would be more appropriate. 

In practice, exhaust waste heat depends not just on the vehicle speed but also on the magnitude 

and frequency of acceleration events. City and suburban cycles in particular contain frequent 

acceleration events that are important to characterize. For the Class 8 truck, Figure 8 presents the 

percentage of time spent above a given level of exhaust power, predicted using a transient 

vehicle model that captures the exhaust waste heat produced during acceleration and deceleration 

events. Compared with Figure 6, Figure 8 shows less separation between the highway cycles and 

the city and suburban cycles because acceleration events are more frequent in low-speed cycles. 
9 

Figure 6. Speed-versus-time traces for various driving cycles
10 

Figure 7. Fraction of time spent above a given speed for various driving cycles. Suburban 

(magenta) and city (red) cycles spend relatively little time at high speeds in comparison to 

highway/interstate (blue) driving cycles, in which a plentiful amount of exhaust waste heat is available. 

Figure 8. Percentage of time that a Class 8 truck spends above various levels of engine power for 

various driving cycles. Although city (red) and suburban (magenta) driving cycles have frequent 

acceleration events, they require much lower engine power settings when compared with higher-speed 

highway/interstate cycles (blue).
11 

For a given duty cycle, or percentage of time spent at some level of exhaust power, it is possible 

to calculate the average amount of electrical power generated by a TE system. Assuming a fixed 

conversion efficiency, ηTE sys, and maximum power rating, Pmax, TE sys, the average electrical 

power generated by the TE system is

max, 0, max( )1(), elec v PfP TE sys ηTE Pexhsys v ηTE Pf exhsys ⋅= ⋅−+ , 

where fv is the percentage of time spent at exhaust waste heat Pexh, and Pexh,0 is the exhaust waste 

heat produced by idling the engine. For a Class 8 truck with ηTE sys = 10%, Figure 9 graphically 

depicts the equation above with contours of Pelec (kW) versus fv. The maximum power rating, 

Pmax, TE sys, appears on the left y-axis; consequently, contours of Pelec are unobtainable if they 

occur above a horizontal line drawn to intersect a chosen value of Pmax, TE sys. For reference, 

limits on TE system power output during constant-speed driving are given on the right y-axis. 

Figure 9. Contour lines showing average electrical power, Pelec, avg. (kW), generated by a TE system 

with conversion efficiency, ηTE sys., = 10% for a Class 8 truck. Duty cycle (x-axis) is the fraction of time 

spent driving at a constant speed (100%) versus idling (0%). Left y-axis gives limits on Pelec, avg. as a result 

of the maximum power rating of the TE system, Pmax, TE sys. Right y-axis gives limits on Pelec, avg. for 

constant-speed driving. Statistics from Figure 8 are overlaid to estimate Pelec, avg. for different driving cycles.

As an example, consider a Class 8 truck traveling at a 40-mph constant speed and producing 

roughly 55 kW of exhaust power. As long as the 10% efficient TE system is sized sufficiently to 

capture this amount of power (i.e., Pmax, TE sys ≥ 5.5 kW), the TE system will produce Pelec = 5.5 

kW. If the Class 8 truck is driven half the time at 40 mph and is idled half the time at zero speed

(i.e., fv = 50% duty cycle), the TE system will produce, on average, approximately Pelec = 2.8 kW.
12 

Figure 9 is overlaid with exhaust power statistics from Figure 8 to provide an approximation of 

how much electricity a 10% efficient TE system could produce for each of the eight driving 

cycles. For a specific driving cycle, the ideal TE system size lies in the region where that driving 

cycle’s time-at-exhaust power statistic reaches a maximum with respect to the average electrical 

power contours. Figure 9 shows that, for the most waste-heat-intensive cycle (the highway fuel 

economy test, or HWFET), the 10% efficient TE system can produce at most Pelec = 4.1 kW

electricity on average. Generating this level of electricity requires a TE system rated somewhere 

in the range of Pmax, TE sys ≈ 7 to 9 kW to capture enough of the high-speed and acceleration 

exhaust power peaks to make up for time spent at low speeds and/or idling. Sizing the TE system 

any larger generates incrementally less additional electricity.

Figure 9 shows that relatively small amounts of electrical power are available in city driving 

situations as a result of limited waste heat and low TE system conversion efficiency. For a 10% 

efficient TE system, the least waste-heat-intensive cycle (West Virginia University, or WVU

City) would produce Pelec ≈ 0.95 kW electricity, using a system of size Pmax, TE sys ≈ 6 kW. 

Extending these results to TE systems with various conversion efficiencies (ηTE sys = 5%, 10%, 

and 15%), Table 3 quantifies the amount of electrical power achievable for city, suburban, and 

highway driving cycles. Near-term TE systems could be 3% to 6% efficient, so it is clear that 

generating sufficient electricity to replace the Class 8 truck’s 0.7 kW alternator is not possible in 

the near term.

Table 3. Average TE System Electrical Power for a Class 8 Truck under Different Driving Scenarios 

and TE System Conversion Efficienciesa

ηTE sys. = 5% ηTE sys. = 10% ηTE sys. = 15%

Interstate driving 1.4-2.0 kW 2.7-4.1 kW 4.1-6.1 kW

Suburban driving 0.7-1.0 kW 1.5-2.1 kW 2.2-3.1 kW

City driving 0.4-0.5 kW 0.9-1.1 kW 1.4-1.6 kW

a. Ranges shown depend on the driving cycle.

For a conventional, non-hybrid-vehicle platform with minimal onboard electrical energy storage 

and no backup generator other than the alternator, the amount of accessory-electrification 

possible will be constrained by how much electricity a combined alternator and TE system can 

rapidly generate under a worst-case situation of cold-start, city driving. A comparison of coldand hot-start urban dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS) chassis dynamometer data sets for a 

Class 8 truck indicated that it takes about 8 minutes for the engine and exhaust system to warm 

up to pseudo-steady-state following a cold start (not shown). The effect of the cold start is thus 

approximated using an 8-minute slew rate from zero exhaust power to full exhaust power as

predicted by the steady-state waste heat model.

For TE system conversion efficiencies of ηTE sys = 5%, 10%, and 15%, Table 4 presents the 

amount of electrical accessories that can be powered reliably by a combined 

battery/alternator/TE system under the cold-start, city driving scenario mentioned earlier. In each 

case, the maximum rated power, Pmax, TE sys, is sized to provide good waste heat recovery on city 

driving cycles, as discussed for Figure 9. In the most realistic TE system scenario today—e.g., 

5% efficiency—only 0.55 kW of the Class 8 truck’s 7.1 kW total accessory load can be 

electrified. Forty-three watt-hours of battery energy are required to partially power the 0.55 kW 

of electrical accessories for the first 10 to 12 minutes of city driving following a cold start. 
13 

Suburban and highway driving replenish the battery much faster, in just 3 to 8 minutes for 

suburban driving and 2 to 4 minutes for highway driving, depending on the exact driving cycle 

chosen. 

Table 4. Feasible Accessory Electrification Scenarios for a Class 8 Truck Incorporating TE 

Systems with Various Conversion Efficiencies

TE System Characteristics

Conversion efficiency, ηTE sys (%) 5% 10% 15%

Maximum rated power, Pmax, TE sys (kW)a 3.0 6.0 9.0

Accessory Electrification

Feasible level of electrification, Pelec (kW)b 0.55 1.10 1.66

Cold-start energy storage requirement (W-h) 43 85 128

Fuel Savings and Economic Analysis

Fuel savings (%)c 1.2%-2.0% 1.8%-2.5% 2.4%-3.1%

Fuel savings ($/yr)d $460-$760 $690-$950 $913-$1,179

Battery cost ($)e $32 $64 $96

Maximum TE system cost—3-year breakeven 

($/kW) $450-$750 $330-$460 $290-$380

a. TE system sized for good waste heat recovery in city driving (45 mph constant speed waste heat). 

b. Maximum power consumption that allows for charge-sustaining operation of overall system within first 12 

minutes of cold-start city driving.

c. Extrapolated from constant-speed-averaged simulation results of Figure 4.

d. Assumptions: $2.71/gal diesel (2006 avg, EIA), 80,000 mi/yr traveled, 5.7 mpg nominal (2002 avg., Ref. [16]).

e. Assumptions: $150/kWh deep-cycle lead-acid battery, sized for 5x energy requirement.

Table 4 also gives an approximate range of fuel savings, calculated by interpolating speedaveraged values from Figure 4. The smaller value represents fuel savings achieved by shifting 

the specified amount of mechanical accessories to electrical power. The larger value represents 

additional fuel savings achieved by unloading the alternator once charge-sustaining operation is 

reached. A designer will be forced to limit the level of accessory electrification based on the 

worst-case cold-start, city driving requirement. However, under higher speed suburban and 

highway cycles, the TE system will generate sufficient power to also unload the alternator. 

Table 4 gives a range of allowable costs necessary for the TE system to pay for itself with 3 

years of fuel savings, depending upon the fuel savings achieved. For a new technology, a higher 

allowable cost is preferred; this means that a TE system that is less expensive than the allowable 

cost will pay for itself in fewer than 3 years. Compared with a $300/kW cost requirement for 

initial market penetration into light-duty automotive applications [15], the high number of 

vehicle miles traveled of the Class 8 truck tolerates a slightly higher TE system cost of $450 to 

$750/kW for a 5% efficient system and $330 to $460/kW for a 10% efficient system. With 

higher diesel fuel prices of $4.00/gal (compared with the $2.71/gal base case), these allowable 

TE system costs can increase by some 50% and still achieve payback in 3 years.

Table 4 predicts relatively modest fuel savings for TE waste heat recovery systems, on the order 

of 2% in the near term and 3% in the future. Additional fuel savings may be possible by 

optimizing the system as a whole. A larger alternator (not explored here) would help to relax 

cold-start constraints and enable an increase in accessory electrification and thus fuel savings. 

Also, in the case of suburban and highway driving, it is possible to generate much more 

electricity by incorporating a larger (and more expensive) TE system than that of Table 4. The 

challenge in realizing fuel savings from this additional electricity is that the electricity must be 
14 

either (1) used immediately while the vehicle is operated at high speeds or (2) stored in large 

batteries for future low-speed driving. This challenge can be partially overcome by electrifying 

accessories having loads that increase with vehicle speed. In the extreme case, the system could 

help drive the electric traction motors of a hybrid electric powertrain. Another possibility is to 

couple the TE system with other vehicle systems that require substantial onboard energy storage 

and charge while the vehicle is being driven. A no-idle sleeper cab system that powers hotel 

loads from a bank of batteries (rather than idling the truck engine) is an example of this type of 

possible system.

4.0 Conclusions

A combined vehicle model and engine waste heat model were used to compare various accessory 

electrification scenarios for four different conventional vehicle platforms: a midsize car, a 

midsize sport utility vehicle, a Class 4 truck, and a Class 8 truck. The Class 8 truck—which has a 

large amount of waste heat, low mass sensitivity, and a high number of miles traveled per year—

was found to be most attractive for early market penetration of a TE waste heat recovery system. 

For the Class 8 truck, a near-term-achievable TE system with 5% overall efficiency (taking into 

account heat exchangers, pumps, and other ancillary losses) can be expected to generate from 0.4 

kW for city driving cycles to 2.0 kW for highway driving cycles. This amount of electrical power 

is insufficient to eliminate the alternator, particularly during cold-start, city driving. Depending 

on the TE system conversion efficiency, the fuel savings expected by integrating a modest TE 

system into a conventional Class 8 truck platform are on the order of 2% to 3%. A suitable 

battery with usable energy on the order of 40 to 80 W-h must also be selected to source/sink 

electricity during worst-case transients. Current TE system costs of $3,000 to $6,000/kW must be 

reduced substantially, to about $450/kW for the Class 8 truck platform application, to become 

economically justifiable.

For conventional vehicle platforms, fuel savings are limited by the amount of accessories that 

can be electrified. In turn, the amount of accessories that can be electrified is limited by all of the 

following: 

• Maximum rated power of the alternator

• Amount of waste heat in the exhaust, particularly in cold-start city driving scenarios

• Conversion efficiency of the TE system 

• Size of the battery

• Maximum rated power of the TE system.

Future analyses should focus on specific driving scenarios that produce large amounts of waste 

heat (e.g., a Class 8 truck used for over-the-road, interstate hauling). Additional analyses should 

also ensure that the complete system is robust to all other types of driving (e.g., a Class 8 truck 

driving in the city without a trailer).

Vehicle configurations well-matched for TE technology are not directly addressed in this work. 

These configurations include vehicles in which accessory loads increase with vehicle speed, a 

large alternator or battery is already present, and a hybrid electric powertrain is present with 
15 

electric traction motors, onboard energy storage, and a large (not downsized) engine. Each of 

these scenarios holds potential for additional fuel savings beyond 2% to 3%. Each case would 

require a larger TE system with more stringent cost requirements than the $450/kW presented 

here, however. Finally, efforts should be made to reduce or eliminate TE system ancillary 

devices, such as heat exchangers, that increase system mass and volume. 

5.0 References

[1] Hendricks, T.J.; Johnson, V.H.; Keyser, M.A. “Heat Generated Cooling Opportunities.” 

Available online at www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/ancillary_loads/pdfs/heat_cooling.pdf; 

accessed January 22, 2009. 

[2] Lambert, M.A.; Jones, B.L. “Automotive Adsorption Air Conditioner Powered by Exhaust 

Heat. Part 1: Conceptual and Embodiment Design.” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical 

Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 220 (7); pp. 959-972. 

[3] Garrett, S.L. “Resource Letter: TA-1: Thermoacoustic Engines and Refrigerators.” American 

Journal of Physics 2 (1), 2004; pp. 11-17. 

[4] Swift, G. “Thermoacoustics: A Unifying Perspective for Some Engines and Refrigerators.” 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 113 (2379), 2003. 

[5] Winters, J. “Heat to Power, Directly.” Mechanical Engineering, August 2008. 

[6] Yang, J. “Potential Applications of Thermoelectric Waste Heat Recovery in the Automotive

Industry.” IEEE 24th International Conference on Thermoelectrics, Clemson, South Carolina, 

2005. 

[7] Bass, J.; Elsner, N.; Ghamaty, S.; Jovanovic, V.; Krommenhoek, D. “High Efficiency 

Quantum Well Thermoelectrics for Waste Heat Power Generation.” Diesel Engine-Efficiency 

and Emissions Research Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 2005. 

[8] LaGrandeur, J. “Automotive Waste Heat Conversion to Electric Power using Skutterudites, 

TAGS, PbTe and Bi2Te3.” IEEE 25th International Conference on Thermoelectrics, Vienna, 

Austria, 2006. 

[9] Smith, K.; Thornton, M. “Feasibility of Onboard Thermoelectric Generation for Improved 

Vehicle Fuel Economy.” Diesel Engine-Efficiency and Emissions Research Conference, Detroit, 

Michigan, 2007. 

[10] Smith, K.; Thornton, M. “Feasibility of Thermoelectrics for Waste Heat Recovery in 

Hybrid Vehicles.” 23rd International Electric Vehicle Symposium, Anaheim, California, 2007. 

[11] Sagr, K.M.; Mansour, M.K.; Musa, M.N. “Thermal Design of Automobile Exhaust Based 

Thermoelectric Generators: Objectives and Challenges.” Int. J. Automotive Technology 9 (2), 

April 2008; pp. 155-160. 
16 

[12] Pollock, D.D. “Thermoelectric Phenomena.” In CRC Handbook of Thermoelectrics. D.M.

Rowe, Ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1995. 

[13] Hi-Z Technology, Inc. “Thermoelectric Modules.” Available online at http://www.hiz.com/products.php; accessed January 22, 2009. 

[14] Bell, L. “BSST Waste Heat Recovery Program.” U.S. Department of Energy 2008 Vehicle 

Technologies Program Annual Merit Review, February 25-28, 2008. 

[15] Fairbanks, J. Personal communication. 2007. 

[16] Anderson, J.; Bertram, K.; Santini, D.; Vyas, A. “Diesel Trucks – Then and Now.” Diesel 

Engine Efficiency and Emissions Research Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 2005. 
F1147-E(10/2008) 

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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Feasibility of Thermoelectrics for Waste Heat Recovery in 

Conventional Vehicles

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6. AUTHOR(S)

K. Smith and M. Thornton

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13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 Words)

Thermoelectric (TE) generators convert heat directly into electricity when a temperature gradient is applied across 

junctions of two dissimilar metals. The devices could increase the fuel economy of conventional vehicles by 

recapturing part of the waste heat from engine exhaust and generating electricity to power accessory loads. A simple 

vehicle and engine waste heat model showed that a Class 8 truck presents the least challenging requirements for TE 

system efficiency, mass, and cost; these trucks have a fairly high amount of exhaust waste heat, have low mass 

sensitivity, and travel many miles per year. These factors help maximize fuel savings and economic benefits. A 

driving/duty cycle analysis shows strong sensitivity of waste heat, and thus TE system electrical output, to vehicle 

speed and driving cycle. With a typical alternator, a TE system could allow electrification of 8%-15% of a Class 8 

truck’s accessories for 2%-3% fuel savings. More research should reduce system cost and improve economics. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

thermoelectrics; waste heat recovery; advanced vehicle systems; fuel economy

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