NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-58

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Alaska Fisheries Science Center

November 1995

Bycatch, Utilization, and Discards in

the Commercial Groundfish Fisheries

of the Gulf of Alaska, Eastern Bering Sea,

and Aleutian Islands

by L. E. Queirolo, L. W. Fritz, P. A. Livingston,

M. R. Loefflad, D. A. Colpo, and Y. L. deReynier
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS

The National Marine Fisheries Service's Alaska Fisheries Science Center

uses the NOAA Technical Memorandum series to issue informal scientific and

technical publications when complete formal review and editorial processing

are not appropriate or feasible. Documents within this series reflect sound

professional work and may be referenced in the formal scientific and technical

literature.

The NMFS-AFSC Technical Memorandum series of the Alaska Fisheries

Science Center continues the NMFS-F/NWC series established in 1970 by the

Northwest Fisheries Center. The new NMFS-NWFSC series will be used by

the Northwest Fisheries Science Center.

This document should be cited as follows:

Queirolo, L. E., L. W. Fritz, P. A. Livingston, M. R. Loefflad, D. A. 

Colpo, and Y. L. deReynier. 1995. Bycatch, utilization, and discards 

in the commercial groundfish fisheries of the Gulf of Alaska, eastern

Bering Sea, and Aleutian Islands. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.

Memo. NMFS-AFSC-58, 148 p.

 

Reference in this document to trade names does not imply endorsement by

the National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA.
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-AFSC-58

Bycatch, Utilization, and Discards in the

Commercial Groundfish Fisheries of the

Gulf of Alaska, Eastern Bering Sea, and

Aleutian Islands

L. E. Queirolo, L. W. Fritz, P. A. Livingston,

M. R. Loefflad, D. A. Colpo, and Y. L. deReynier1

Alaska Fisheries Science Center’

7600 Sand Point Way N.E., BIN C-15700

Seattle, WA 98115-0070

University of Washington1

School of Fisheries WH-10

Seattle WA 98195

Current mailing address:

Fisheries Management Division

Northwest Regional Office

7600 Send Point Way N.E.. BIN C-l 5700. Bldg. 1

Seattle, WA 98115-0070

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

D. James Baker, Under Secretary and Administrator

National Marine Fisheries Service

Roland A. Schmitten, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries

November 1995
This document is available to the public through:

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Abstract

Total harvest, bycatch, catch utilization, and discards are currently the subjects of considerable

attention and debate worldwide. This report documents reported catch, bycatch, utilization,

and discard data and attempts to identify patterns and trends in the commercial groundfish

fisheries of the Gulf of Alaska (GOA), eastern Bering Sea, and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) (areas

which currently make up the United States’ Exclusive Economic Zone off Alaska). The report

identifies existing data sources and examines the historical catch record, as well as current

domestic groundfish fisheries in these areas. 

 Many factors have contributed to the increased interest in this issue. Among these are: 1)

improvements in understanding of basic ecological relationships and fish stock dynamics; 2)

changes in fishing effort, capacity, and technology; 3) the increasing economic and market

importance of these fisheries; and 4) changes in management capability and authority (e.g.,

extension by the United States of exclusive management authority under the Magnuson Fishery

Conservation and Management Act of 1976).

There are many reasons why groundfish fisheries discard groundfish. Among these are: 1) the

directed fishery for a given species, say species A, may be closed (due to quota or other

restrictions) forcing all other fisheries which catch species A as bycatch to discard it; 2)

individual fish in the catch are too small or large for mechanical processors, or are the wrong

sex (e.g., males in the rock sole roe fishery); 3) to change the species composition of their

total catch for the reporting week, preventing the vessel from being considered a “participant”

in a particular fishery for that week, and as such, subject to different, possibly more stringent,

prohibited species bycatch rate standards set by the North Pacific Fishery Management

Council; 4) a lack of handling or processing capacity aboard the vessel; or 5) market

limitations on the utilization or retention of certain species. Particularly for various roundfish

fisheries (e.g. walleye pollock, Pacific cod, Atka mackerel and rockfish), the size composition

 of the target species population can greatly affect the rate of discard by the fishery. If a prerecruited year class is very strong, large catches of fish too small for market may be

unavoidable, increasing the rate of discard. Discards are subtracted from catch tonnage prior

to calculation of product recovery rates, but discarded fish are included as part of the total

harvest.

111
An analysis, based upon Weekly Product Reports for 1994, suggest that for all GOA and BSAI

groundfish fisheries combined, approximately 15% of the total catch was discarded in-theround. Significantly, the weight of offal returned to the sea was nearly four times as great as

the weight of discards. About 70%) by weight, of “target” catch is returned to the sea as

offal; offal discharges make up almost 60% of “total” catch. Thus, when considering energy

transfer in the ecosystem, offal production vastly overshadows discard amounts.

Groundfish discards may have unanticipated and/or undesirable economic implications.

Bycatch discards may, for example, impose direct economic costs on competing groundfish

fisheries in the form of foregone catches. Through a series of simplifying assumptions, it was

possible to estimate the “opportunity cost” (as measured at the first wholesale level) to target

fisheries of the foregone catch, attributable to groundfish bycatch discards in individual BSAI

and GOA fisheries.

In 1994, all BSAI groundfish fisheries discarded an aggregate total of 162,161 metric tons (t)

of allocated groundfish species for which the total allowable catch was binding. The

opportunity cost of these discards exceeded $91,848,000. The total retained catch of all

groundfish species in these fisheries was just over 1,699,500 t and had a value which exceeded

$925,229,800. Thus, the ratio of the value of retained catch to discards (Retained/Discard

Value Ratio), weighted by fishery, across all BSAI groundfish fisheries, was 10.1. That is,

for each dollar of bycatch “opportunity cost” imposed, $10.10 of output was produced from

retained catch. Individual rates varied from a high of $29.2 in the pollock target fishery, to a

low of $2.4 in the “other” groundfish target fishery. In the GOA groundfish fisheries,

equivalent discards totaled 15,685 t. The opportunity cost of these discards exceeded

$14,661,597. Total retained catch of all groundfish species in these fisheries was just over

196,588 t and had a value which exceeded $235,825,000. Thus, the Retained/Discard Value

Ratio, weighted by fishery across all GOA groundfish fisheries, was 16.1. That is, for each

dollar of bycatch “opportunity cost” imposed, $16.10 of output was produced from retained

catch. Individual rates varied from a high of 45.4 in the sablefish target fishery, to a low of

3.4 in the arrowtooth flounder target fishery.

Groundfish discards may also impact markets by affecting product form, supply, and price

which, in turn, influence international seafood trade and U.S. market share.

iv
Contents

Abstract....................................................................................................................................iii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Trends in Bycatch, Utilization, and Discards, 1972-94 ......................... . 4

Foreign, Joint Venture, and Domestic Fisheries, 1972-90 ................. . 4

Data Sources and Table Summaries ........................... . 4

Discussion of Trends ................... . . ............... . 5

Catch, Bycatch, and Discard by the Domestic Groundfish Fisheries 1990-94 ..... . 6

Data Sources and Table Summaries ........................... . 6

Groundfish and Other Allocated Species: Catch Trends .............. . 8

Prohibited Species: Catch Trends ............................. . 9

Other Species: Catch Trends .............................. . 9

Bycatch Discard Mortality ......................................... . 71

Review of Literature on Discard Mortality .......................... . 71

Gear-Related Factors Influencing Mortality ......................... . 71

Other Factors Influencing Discard Mortality ......................... 75

Discard Mortalities in North Pacific Groundfish Fisheries ................. . 76

Ecological Impacts .............................................. 85

Effects of Selective Fishing .................................... . 85

Consumers of Discards and Fish Processing Offal ...................... . 88

Unobserved Mortalities ....................................... 95

Catch Utilization ............................................... . 98

Product Forms ............................................. . 98

Limits on Production ........................................... . 102

Technical Limitations ...................................... . 102

Market Limitations ........................................ . 104

Product Recovery Rates (PRRs) .................................... . 106

Product Recovery Rates Variability in the Field ...................... . 111

Markets and Estimated Product Value ................................. . 112

Groundfish Exports ....................................... . 112

Factors Influencing Trade .................................... . 125

Estimating the Opportunity Cost of Bycatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

V
Introduction

Total harvest, catch utilization, bycatch, and discard levels have become increasingly

important considerations in the monitoring and management of the commercial fisheries in the

Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea. This report documents reported catch, bycatch, utilization,

and discard data and attempts to identify patterns and trends in the commercial groundfish

fisheries of the Gulf of Alaska (GOA), eastern Bering Sea, and Aleutian Islands area

(combined in BSAI), areas which currently make up the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

off Alaska.The report also identifies existing data sources and examines the historical catch .

record, as well as current domestic groundfish fisheries in these areas.

Concern about total catch; bycatch, and discards in the groundfish fisheries of the North

Pacific and Bering Sea has increased over time. Many factors have contributed to the

progressive increase in interest in this issue, including improvements in our understanding of

basic ecological relationships and fish stock dynamics; changes in fishing effort, capacity, and

technology; the increasing economic and market importance of these fisheries; and changes in

management capability and authority, (e.g., extension by the United States of exclusive

management authority under the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of

1976).

Because changes in fishery management and fishing practices have occurred in the last 20

years, empirical data on catch, utilization, and discards are not of uniform quality or detail and

come from a variety of sources. For example, data sources for the U.S. groundfish fisheries

off Alaska include the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Observer Program, the State

of Alaska Fish Ticket Database, and the Weekly Production Reports (submitted by the

industry). In general, however, these data increase in detail and reliability with time. This

report relies upon these various and variable data sources. The relative strengths and

limitations of particular data sources are noted.

Finally, we attempt to identify patterns and trends in the important commercial groundfish

fisheries in the EEZ off Alaska, and place them within a broader ecological, biological, and

economic context. In this way, the possible implications of changes in total catch, bycatch,

utilization, and discards may be more fully understood in terms of 1) their impacts on

individual fish stocks, 2) the linkages to domestic and world markets and, 3) the general health

of the North Pacific ecosystem.

Our report is intended for a general audience, including participants in these fisheries,

resource managers, and U.S. citizens, who have an ownership stake in the wise and efficient

utilization of these valuable living marine resourcesThe report reveals, in general terms, .
how and by whom these resources have historically been exploited; how these patterns have

evolved over time; and what ecological, biological, and economic trade-offs may be involved

in their future use. The analysis presented and conclusions drawn should be regarded as

preliminary and subject to modification as improved data become available.

There is an array of data available on the North Pacific groundfish fisheries. These sources

include processor catch reports, processor production reports, State of Alaska fish tickets, and

NMFS observer data. While there are several data sources available on historic catch, none

stands alone as the definitive source of groundfish harvest amounts. For example, State of

Alaska fish tickets provide a detailed synopsis of groundfish landings from Alaska waters, but

do not cover all of these vessels which process their fish at sea. In turn, observer data is very

useful, but observer coverage is not 100% for all vessels, nor are all fish observed on any

given vessel. Assumptions must be made about unobserved catch. Each year since records

have been kept on the groundfish fisheries, NMFS has used available data sources to estimate

the annual groundfish catch. This paper relies heavily on those annual estimates. All catch

estimates presented represent the best estimates based on the data available from various

sources during any given year. In general terms, data on bycatch, utilization, and discard

have also improved over time, yet continue to have some limitations,

Historically, Alaska groundfish were taken primarily by distant-water fishing fleets from

several nations with only limited United States participation in the Pacific cod (Gadus

mucrocephalus) fishery. Initial estimates of catch for the foreign vessels were from the

vessel’s own reports of catch amounts. While data exist for the years prior to 1977, they are

unverified and should be used with appropriate caution. In 1977, an onboard United States

observer program was implemented to collect independent data on catch quantities and

composition. This program developed and expanded such that by the early 1980s, large

portions of the fishing fleets were covered by observers. This increased coverage provided

two sources of catch data: observer catch estimates combined with the results of catch

composition sampling and vessel catch reports. Both reports were incorporated into models to

best estimate catches (Nelson et al. 1981).

The nature of the participants in the fisheries changed in the early 1980s as joint venture (JV)

operations between United States and foreign nations developed. In JV fisheries, domestic

catcher vessels harvested fish and delivered them to foreign vessels for processing. These JV

operations eventually displaced the directed foreign vessels as the fishery moved toward

“Americanization.” The data sources used to estimate total catch, however, remained

essentially the same. Vessel catch reports were used in concert with onboard observer reports

to estimate catch by species.

2
By the mid-1980s a domestic processing fleet began to develop. Initially, this domestic-fleet

was not required by regulation to carry observers and the only catch estimates available were

from unverified vessel reports and a limited voluntary observer program. In 1990, a

mandatory domestic observer program was implemented to provide observer coverage over a

broad segment of the fleet. The implementation of this domestic observer program coincided

with regulations mandating production and discard reporting for all processors. In the

transition to the domestic fleet, observer data recording procedures were modified to include

estimations of the portions of the catches by species and species group which were discarded

and retained.

Throughout the course of the foreign, JV, and domestic groundfish fisheries, the primary

focus of data collection activities has been on ascertaining the total catch by species or species

group. The emphasis on total catches is due to the need to quantify removals and manage

fishery quotas--this focus in data collection continues today.

Less emphasis has been placed on the disposition of catch after harvest. The data available to

distinguish between retained and discarded components of catch is limited and only provides a

rough approximation of what happened to the components of the total catch.

Prior to 1990, no verified data were collected on discard amounts of catch although we can

make certain assumptions about particular species groups. For example, we assume that

species whose retention was prohibited were routinely discarded. These include Pacific

salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis), king (Paralithodes

spp.) and Tanner (Lithodes spp.) crabs, and Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii). Similarly,

catches of species lumped together in the “other” groundfish species category, which includes

sharks and skates (Elasmobranchi), sculpins (Cottidae), grenadiers (Macrouridae), and smelts

(Osmeridae) are assumed to have been largely discarded.

Since 1990, two sources of discard and retained catch data are available; weekly production

reports and domestic observer data. The derivation of discard and retained amounts of catch

from each source warrants explanation. Weekly production reports are submitted by industry

and report the amounts and types of fish products produced for that reporting week, by

management area and gear type. The fish products are converted by NMFS to a round weight

equivalent by dividing them by an appropriate product recovery rate (PRR). This provides an

estimate of retained catch. Included with the production information is the vessel’s own

estimate of the round weight of fish discarded. Summing the two components, discard and

retained, provides an estimate of total catch by species from processor information.

3
Observers, in turn, first estimate the total catch by tow or set. They then sample a subset of

these catches to estimate the species composition. NMFS applies the sampled composition to

the catch estimates to provide an estimate of catch by species. Within the composition

sampling, observers also report the proportions of fish, by species and species groups, that

they judge were discarded by the vessel’s personnel. These observer discard/retained

proportions are also applied to the total catch estimates. It is important to note that the

observer estimates of the retained/discard percentages are roughly gauged based on what they

see happening, on the vessel. Discard percentages are difficult to estimate because discards

occur in many ways and places on vessels. Deriving this discard percentage is secondary to

the primary work of an observer, which is obtaining total catch and composition sampling

data. Thus, observer-derived discard estimates are provided as a rough gauge and are not to

be considered absolute. Vessel estimates of discard suffer from similar difficulties in

estimation.

In the 1990 domestic data, total domestic groundfish catch and discard amounts are based only

on the weekly production reports submitted by industry. The amounts of prohibited species

are estimated by applying observed rates to the total catch estimate derived from the

production reports. All of the prohibited species amounts were discarded.

Catch estimates from 1991-1994 utilize both observer data and vessel data in a “blend” model.

Thus, the catch data represent a combination of the two data sources. However, changes have

been made to the blend model over time. Catch reported in this paper for these 4 years is

based on the 1994 blend model applied to each year’s respective data. Thus, these catch

estimates may differ from those used to manage the fishery, and those reported in a variety of

other sources. Last, this 1994 model uses observer data from shoreside delivering vessels to

estimate the proportion of catch which is discarded at sea prior to delivery. This proportion is

added to reported landings to estimate total catch.

Trends in Bycatch, Utilization, and Discards, 1972-94

Foreign, Joint Venture, and Domestic Fisheries, 1972-90

Data Sources and Table Summaries -- The data presented are NMFS’ best estimates of catch

for each year that data exist for the foreign and joint venture fisheries. Foreign data for the

years 1972-1976 are as reported by Murai et al. (1981) and Forrester et al. (1983). Foreign

and JV catch statistics for the years 1977-1990 are as reported in Berger et al. (1986), Berger

et al. (1987), Berger et al. (1988), Berger and Weikart (1988), Berger and Weikart (1989),

Guttormsen et al. (1990), and Guttormsen et al. (1992). Prior to 1990, domestic catch is

4
based on the Pacific Fisheries Information Network (project of the Pacific States Marine

Fisheries Commission, Gladstone, OR) landings data derived from processor vessel estimates

and State of Alaska fish tickets as reported in Kinoshita et al. (1995); domestic catches of

Pacific cod from 1977-83 were obtained from Thompson (1994) and Thompson and Zenger

(1994). Since 1977, observer data were available and incorporated in catch estimation. These

procedures are described by Nelson et al. (1981), with updates by Berger et al. (1986). These

estimates of total catch (both retained and discarded) are summarized in Tables 1 and 2; no

data exist on the proportion discarded. Since the catch data from. 1972-1976 rely solely on

numbers supplied by foreign nations, data on fish removals should not be considered as

accurate as data collected from foreign, joint-venture, and domestic operations when U.S.

observers were on a large percentage of the fishing vessels. Catches of prohibited species by

foreign and JV groundfish fisheries are listed in Tables 3 and 4. All catches of herring and

shrimp in the BSAI and GOA, and most of the halibut catches from the GOA in Tables 3 and

4 were from the directed, non-groundfish fisheries of the United States and Canada (combined

in the category called All Others). These data were included because it was impossible to

separate the directed catches of herring, shrimp, and halibut from the bycatch of these species

in the small domestic directed groundfish fisheries (principally for Pacific cod).

Discussion of Trends -- During the 1970s, groundfish off Alaska were caught almost

exclusively. by the distant-water fleets of Japan, Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), Republic

of Korea (South Korea), Poland, and Republic of China. In the BSAI (Tables 1 and 3), Japan

and Russia targeted on the same species of groundfish currently sought by domestic fisheries:

walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma), Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus), sablefish

(Anoplopoma fimbria), and various flatfish (Pleuronectiformes) and rockfish (Sebastes spp.)

species. In these fisheries, Japan and Russia had “bycatches” of Pacific halibut and herring,

the latter of which for the Russians were as high as 54,000 metric tons (t) in 1972. Catches of

“other” species were also considerably higher by foreign fisheries in the 1970s than they

currently are for domestic fisheries, due in part to inclusion of current groundfish targets such

as Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius) in the “other” species category, but also

presumably because of greater reliance on bottom trawls to catch semi-demersal species such

as pollock. In the GOA (Tables 2 and 4), total fish removals were about 5-10 times less than

in the BSAI. Japanese trawl vessels in the GOA chiefly targeted Pacific ocean perch (Sebastes

alutus) through 1976, when they switched to pollock, cod, and flatfish; Japanese longliners

targeted sablefish and Pacific cod in the GOA through the 1970s and 1980s. Russian vessels

primarily targeted pollock and Atka mackerel using trawls. Interestingly, there were only

small reported catches of Pacific halibut by Russian vessels, and no reported catches of herring

by any foreign vessels fishing the GOA in the 1970s, which is clearly an inaccurate

representation of their total catch.

5
Joint-ventures between foreign processing ships and U.S. domestic catcher vessels began

operating in 1978 in the GOA, and in 1980 in the BSAI. Targeted groundfish species

remained the same throughout the 1980s. Allocations of pollock, cod, Atka mackerel, flatfish

and rockfish to domestic production elements (which included JV) in both the BSAI and GOA

increased through the 1980s. Bycatch of prohibited species was increasingly controlled

through time and area groundfish fishery closures, exclusion of certain gear types from critical

areas, and ultimately, caps on the amounts of halibut, crab, salmon, and herring that could be

incidentally caught by groundfish fisheries.

Fritz (in press) reviewed the bycatch rates of juvenile pollock by groundfish fisheries in the

BSAI and GOA from 1964-1991. The current U.S. domestic fishery and the joint-venture

fisheries of the 1980s in the BSAI generally retained pollock greater than 30 cm in length, but

targeted larger fish, and discarded fish smaller-than 30 cm (Wespestad and Dawson 1991).

Catch rates (catch in numbers of 2-3 year-olds divided by their population size) of 2-3 year-old

BSAI pollock (approximately 20-35 cm in length) averaged only about 2% from 1980-90.

Foreign fisheries in the mid- to late 1970s (1973-79), however, caught an average of 20% of

the 2-3 year-old BSAI pollock each year. Targeting on small fish, particularly the strong 1972

year class, may have occurred during this period, but the amount of discards is unknown.

Catch, Bycatch, and Discard By the Domestic Groundfish Fisheries 1990-94

Data Sources and Table Summaries -- The data presented are NMFS’ best estimates of catch

from 1990-1994 for domestic fisheries. Data since 1991 is based on a blend model

incorporating observer data and weekly processor reports. The blend model has developed

over time. For the 1991-1994 data, the 1994 blend model is applied to all years. A blend

model was not constructed in 1990. Instead, weekly production reports serve as the basis for

the groundfish catch data. For all years since 1990, the estimated catch of prohibited species

is based on observed bycatch rates applied to the total catch estimate.

The blended catch statistics contain the estimated amounts (in metric tons) of each allocated

groundfish species and species group that was retained or discarded by each target fishery,

processing mode (at-sea or shoreside processor, or mothership), and gear type, and within

each area (three-digit statistical area) and week. Data on total and discarded catch, and discard

rates (discarded/total catch) of each groundfish species and species group by year (1990-94),

region (BSAI and GOA), target species fishery, and gear type from these sources are

summarized in Tables 5-34, and in Figures 1-2. In these and the tables summarizing

prohibited and “other species” bycatches (Tables 35-52), the following guidelines were used

for reporting and aggregating data into target species/gear groups:

6
. the target fishery definitions developed by the NMFS Alaska Regional Office (AKR)

are used; to ensure this, the “blend” (1991-94) or the weekly processor report data

(1990) were run through a target fishery algorithm (which uses the same criteria

established by AKR, except for rock sole (Pleuronectes bilineatus) - other flatfish

fisheries) at the NMFS Alaska Fisheries Science Center, Seattle. This ensured a data

set with consistent target fishery assignments;

. all catches of rockfish and thornyheads (Sebastolobus spp.) were summed and reported

as one category (Rockfish);

. AKR assigns pollock target fishery types (pelagic or bottom trawl) to catch data based

on the percentage of pollock in the catch rather than by reported gear type. If the total

catch is composed of at least 95% pollock then a pelagic trawl pollock target is

(assigned; if pollock is the major species caught but comprises less than 95% of the

retained catch, then bottom pollock fishery is assigned;

l squid (molluscan order Decapoda) and other species are combined in the “other”

category;

. recently created flatfish target fisheries in the GOA (rex sole (Errex zachirus) and

flathead sole (Hippglossoides elassodon)) were included with Deepwater Flatfish.

. Atka mackerel in the GOA was included with “other” species until 1993.

Catches of prohibited species by each target fishery in the BSAI and GOA by gear in 1990-94

are summarized in Tables 35-44. Halibut and herring are listed in these tables by weight (t) of

catch, while salmon and crab are listed in numbers of animals caught. For halibut, the weight

listed is that caught, not the estimated mortality.

The “other” species category listed in Tables 5-34 consists of squids; octopi (molluscan order

Octopoda), smelts, sharks, skates, and sculpins, among others. These species have a

collective allocation or catch quota in both the BSAI and the GOA. Currently there is no

significant directed fishing on these species in the BSAI and GOA. Records of catches of

“other” species exist in observer sample data as well as in weekly processor reports and fish

tickets. To investigate the species composition of the “other” species category and how this is

affected by gear and target fishery, catch rates of each of the species groups listed above (and

more, including grenadiers, eelpouts (Zoarcidae), snipe eels (Macroramphosidae), greenlings

(Hexagrammidae), lumpsuckers (Cyclopteridae), hagfish (Myxinidae), ratfish

(Chimaeriformes), and poachers (Agonidae)) by each target fishery and gear were obtained

from the observer database. These rates were then applied to the target species/gear catches in

the “blend” file to obtain estimates of the catch weights of each “other” species group in the

BSAI and GOA in 1990-93 (Tables 45-52). In theory, the total obtained using this method

should be similar to the total listed in the “other” species category in Tables 5-34 for the same

time/area/fishery/gear cell.

7
Groundfish and other allocated species: catch trends -- Total discard rates (sum of total

discards/sum of total catch) by the domestic groundfish fisheries in the BSAI ranged between

12% and 16% in 1990-94. In the GOA, discard rates for the same period were slightly

higher, ranging between 17% and 21% (this may, in part, be due to the classification as

discards of some pollock from shoreside plants that was converted to fish meal). However,

the total tonnage discarded has been much greater in the BSAI (ranging between 197,660 t and

314,585 t in 1990-94) than in the GOA (ranging between 41,360 t and 60,760 t) due to the

much larger size of the fishery. In the BSAI, the majority of the discards (by weight) has been

pollock (between 37% and 60% of the total discards), with rock sole discards generally the

second largest by weight (6-14%). Pollock and rock sole discards combined have accounted

for not less than 50% of the total groundfish and “other” species discards each year from 1990

to 1994 in the BSAI. In the GOA, discards of arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias)

comprised more than one-third of the total discards each year from 1990 to 1994 (34-50%),

with pollock discards generally second, ranging from 16% to 30%.

Pollock fisheries in the BSAI and GOA have had the lowest total discard rates (discards of all

allocated groundfish and “other” species divided by total catches) of any North Pacific

groundfish fishery from 1990 to 1994, ranging from only 3% to 9% in the BSAI and 4% to

10% in the GOA. In the BSAI, the rock sole fishery has had the highest rate of total discard,

ranging from 60-70% in 1990-94, while in the GOA, it has been the deepwater flatfish fishery

that has had the highest total discard rates, ranging from 52% to 72% of their total annual

catch.

Despite their low rates of total discard, BSAI pollock fisheries have discarded the most

groundfish and “other” species of any BSAI groundfish fishery, averaging over 93,000 t per

year in 1990-94. Trailing the BSAI pollock fishery in total discards were the BSAI yellowfm

sole and Pacific cod fisheries, which have each averaged about 60,000 t per year. In the

GOA, total discards by the deepwater flatfish (average of 13,000 t per year) and Pacific cod

(average of 12,200 t per year) fisheries have accounted for about half of the total annual

discards by all GOA groundfish fisheries in 1990-94.

Target species discard rates have generally been higher for flatfish than roundfish fisheries in

both the BSAI and GOA. In the BSAI, target species discard rates in 1990-94 by each of the

two largest flatfish fisheries, yellowfin and rock sole, ranged from 21% to 28%) and 34% to

58%) respectively. In fact, the BSAI directed rock sole fishery had the highest rates of target

species discard of any fishery in the BSAI or GOA. By contrast, target species discard rates

in the same period-by each of the two largest directed BSAI roundfish fisheries, pollock and

Pacific cod, ranged from 2% to 6%, and 2% to 9%) respectively. In the GOA, 1990-94 target

species discard rates by deepwater and shallow flatfish fisheries ranged from 9% to 18%, and

6% to 26%) respectively, while the two largest GOA roundfish fisheries, pollock and Pacific

8
cod, discarded between 2% and 8%, and 2% and 4%) respectively of their target species

catches. In the GOA, the rockfish fishery has had the highest rate of target species discard

relative to its total catch, discarding between 11% and 30% in 1990-94. For this report,

however, the rockfish fishery includes all Sebastes and Sebastolobus spp. targets, and as such,

the reported discard rates for individual species or group targets may be misleading. The

lowest rates of target species discard have been achieved by the sablefish fisheries in the BSAI

and GOA, which have discarded less than 2% (by weight) of all their sablefish caught in both

areas each year from 1990-94.

Prohibited Species: Catch Trends -- Total catch and discard amounts and rates listed in Tables

5-34 do not include the mandatory discards of Pacific halibut, Pacific herring, salmon, and all

king and Tanner crabs by groundfish fisheries (Tables 3544). Groundfish fisheries are

prohibited from retaining these species’ to eliminate any incentive to target on them. In 1994,

inclusion of the discards of prohibited species with the discards of groundfish and other

species by all BSAI groundfish fisheries increases the estimates of total discards and total catch

by 18,812 t (to 313,551 and 2,013,081 t, respectively2), and the total discard rate by 1% (to

16%). Similarly, in the GOA, the estimates of total discards and total catch increase by 10,889

t (to 54,315 and 250,904 t, respectively) and the total discard rate by 4% (to 22%)3.

In groundfish fisheries, trawls capture not only the majority of the groundfish catch, but also

most of the bycatch of herring (primarily pelagic trawl pollock), salmon (trawl fisheries for

pollock and cod) and crabs (bottom trawl fisheries for flatfish, cod and pollock). Halibut are

caught as bycatch principally in the trawl fisheries for pollock, cod and some flatfish, but in

the hook and line fisheries for cod as well.

Other Species: Catch Trends -- In both the BSAI and GOA, almost, all of the “other” species

caught are discarded (Tables 25-34). As listed in Tables 45-52, the “other” species category

consists primarily of skates and sculpins in the BSAI (with lesser amounts of grenadiers,

1

 Beginning in January 1993, Pacific salmon bycatches have been retained in the BSAI

groundfish trawl fisheries under an experimental program whereby it is processed and

delivered to agencies which distribute food to the needy through food bank programs.

2

 Applying average weights of 4.3 kg/chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha),

2.8 kg/other salmon, 1.6 kg/red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus), 1.1 kg/other king

crab, 0.3 kg/bairdi Tanner crab (Chionoecetes bairdi), and 0.1 kg/other Tanner crab in BSAI

to numbers caught in Table 39; 1994 NMFS observer data.

3

 Applying average weights of 3.6 kg/chinook salmon, 3.2 kg/other salmon, 1.4

kg/red king crab, 0.2 kg/other king crab, 0.4 kg/bairdi Tanner crab, and 0.6 kg/other Tanner

crab in GOA to numbers caught in Table 44; 1994 NMFS observer data.

9
squid, octopus, and smelts), while in the GOA, grenadiers have been the principal “other”

species caught followed by skates and sculpins. The total “other” species catches listed in

Tables 45-52 do not match those in Tables 5-34 because they were not computed in the same

manner. The data in Tables 5-34 represent the blend estimates of total “other” species

catches, which are not broken out by species or species groups. The observer data in Tables

45-52 were obtained by looking specifically at catch rates of individual species or species

groups, and multiplying the observed rate per target species catch by the target species catch.

In the BSAI, annual blend estimates and expanded observer estimates of other species catches

were similar, both varying between about 16,000-33,000 t for 1990-93. Squid was caught

primarily by the pelagic pollock trawl fishery, octopuses by the bottom pollock and cod

fisheries, smelts by the yellowfin sole trawl fishery, grenadiers by the hook and line fisheries

for sablefish and Greenland turbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), and skates and sculpins by

almost every fishery, particularly those using trawls, in the BSAI This fairly close agreement

between the two data sets may reflect the relatively high rate of observer coverage on the

BSAI fishing fleet.

In the GOA, blend estimates were always less than the expanded observer estimates of “other”

species catches: in 1992 and 1993 the blend estimate was considerably less than one-half the

expanded observer estimate. Based on the data in Tables 49-52 and 10-14, almost all of the

differences between the two totals is due to sablefish hook and line fishery bycatches of

grenadiers. In 1990-93, the blend estimates of total “other” species bycatches by the GOA

sablefish fishery (almost all hook and line) totaled 688 t, 709 t, 815 t, and 1,109 t,

respectively. By contrast, the expanded observer estimates of grenadier bycatch alone by the

GOA sablefish fishery for these years were 8,386 t, 4,724 t, 11,843 t, and 15,522 t,

respectively. Apparently, there may be under-reporting of the catch of other species in the

GOA by unobserved vessels. The GOA sablefish fishery has had one of the lowest rates of

observer coverage (about 10% or less of the target species catch has been observed) in the

North Pacific because of the large number of vessels that are either exempt from observer

coverage ( < 65 ft in length) or are only required to have an observer on 30% of their fishing

days (65-125 ft in length). Thus, the expansion factors to correct “other” species catches for

that caught by the unobserved portion of the fleet were large (10 or larger) for the GOA

sablefish fishery, which could have introduced an upward bias in the “other” species catch

estimates. However, using these expanded estimates, grenadier bycatch by the sablefish hook

and line fishery has accounted for 50% or more of the estimated "other” species bycatch in the

GOA in 1990-93. For the remaining “other” species; squid has been caught principally by the

rockfish and pollock trawl fisheries; octopus by the cod pot fishery; smelts by trawl fisheries

for rockfish and pollock; and skates, sharks, and sculpins by a wide variety of primarily-trawl

fisheries.

10
Table 1. Total catches (t) of groundfish and other species by foreign and joint-venture fisheries from 1972-90. and domestic vessels from 1984-89 from the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands region.

1972-76 data by nation from Murai et al. (1981) and Forrester et al. (l983): “All Others” includes primarily landings of shrimp in the directed fisheries of the United States and Canada.

1977-90 foreign and JV data is NMFS blend from various publications (see text). 1984-89 domestic data are from Kinoshita et al. (in press). Other species includes

octopus, squid, and other fish not listed in Table 3.
Table 1. (continued).
Table 1. (continued)
Table 2. Total catches (t) of groundfish and other species by foreign, joint-venture and domestic vessels from the Gulf of Alaska, 1972-1989. 1972-76 data by nation From Murai et al. (1981):

“All Others” includes primarily landings of shrimp in the directed fisheries of the United States and Canada. 1977-89 Foreign and JV data are NMFS blend from various

publications (see text) 1984-89 domestic data are From Kinoshita et al. (in press). Other species includes octopus, squid, and other fish not included in Table 4.
Table 2. (continued).
Table 2. (continued)
Table 3. Catches (t) of halibut, herring, salmon, and crabs by foreign and joint-venture fisheries from 1972-90

from the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands. 1972-76 data by nation from Murai et al. (1981); “All Others” includes

primarily landings of halibut and herring in the directed fisheries of the United States and Canada. 1977-90 foreign and

JV data is NMFS blend from various publications (see text).

17
Table 3. (continued).

18
Table 4.Catches (t) of halibut, herring, salmon, and crabs by foreign and joint-venture fisheries

from 1972-88 from the Gulf of Alaska. 1972-76 data by nation from Murai et al. (1981);

“All Others” includes primarily landings of halibut and herring in the directed fisheries of the

United States and Canada. 1977-88 foreign and JV data is NMFS blend from various

publications (see text).

19
Table 4. (continued).

20
Table 6. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1991.

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold. The Other category is described in detail in Table 46.
Table 7. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and, gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1992.

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold. The Other category is described in detail in Table 47.
Table 8. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1993.

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold. The Other category is described in detail in Table 48
Table 9. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands. 1994

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold.
 Table 10. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1990.

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold. 1990 data are based on weekly processor reports, not NMFS blend used in 1991-94,

The Other category is described in detail in Table 49.
Table 11. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1991.

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold. The Other category is described in detail in Table 50.
Table 12. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska. 1992

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold. The Other category is described in detail in Table 51
Table 13. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1993.

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold. The Other category is described in detail in Table 52.
Table 14. Total catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, I994

Target species catches by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 15. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1990.

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold. 1990 data are based on weekly processor reports, not NMFS blend used in 1991-94.
Table 16. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1991

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 17. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1992

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold
Table 18. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1993

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 19. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands. 1994

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 20. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1990.

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold. 1990 data are based on weekly processor reports, not NMFS blend used in 1991-94.
Table 21. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1991.

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 22. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1992.

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 23. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1993

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 24. Discarded catch of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1994

Target species discards by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 25. Discard rates (discarded/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1990.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold. 1990 data are based on weekly processor reports, not NMFS blend used in 1991-94.
Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 27. Discard rates (discarded/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1992.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 28. Discard rates (discarded/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1993.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 29. Discard rates of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands, 1994

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 30. Discard rates (discarded/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1990.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold. 1990 data are based on weekly processor reports, not NMFS blend used in 1991-94.
Table 31. Discard rates (discarded/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1991.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold
Table 32. Discard rates (discarded/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1992.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold
Table 33. Discard rates (discarded/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1993.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold
Table 34. Discard rates (discard/total catch) of allocated groundfish species and species groups by target fishery and gear in the Gulf of Alaska, 1994.

Target species discard rates by fishery are listed in bold.
Table 35. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands region in 1990.

1990 data are based on weekly processor reports and observed bycatch rates, not NMFS blend data (used in 1991-94).

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.

51
Table 36. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands region 1991.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.

5 2
Table 37. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands region 1992.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.
Table 38. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands region 1993.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch. not tons of mortality.-

54
Table 39. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands region 1994.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.

5 5
Table 40. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Gulf of Alaska region in 1990.

1990 data are based on weekly processor reports and observed bycatch rates, not NMFS blend data (used in 1991-94).

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.

56
Table 41. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Gulf of Alaska region in 1991.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch. not tons of mortality.

57
Table 42. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Gulf of Alaska region in 1992.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.

58
Table 43. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Gulf of Alaska region in 1993.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.

59
Table 44. Bycatch of prohibited species by target fishery and gear type in the Gulf of Alaska region in 1994.

Halibut are listed as tons of catch, not tons of mortality.

6 0
Table 45. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish fisheries in 1990 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and weekly processor reported target species catches. "-" < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.
Table 46. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish fisheries in 1991 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and NMFS blend target species catches. "-" < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.

This is essentially a detailed breakdown of the Other Species category in Table 6, but resulting indifferent totals (see text).
Table 47. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish fisheries in 1992 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and NMFS blend target species catches. “-” < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.

This is essentially a detailed breakdown of the Other Species category in Table 7, but resulting in different totals (see text).
Table 48. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish fisheries in 1993 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and NMFS blend target species catches. “-” < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.

This is essentially a detailed breakdown of the Other Species category in Table 8, but resulting in different totals (see text).
Table 49. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Gulf of Alaska groundfish fisheries in 1990 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and weekly processor reported target species catches. "-" < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.

This is essentially a detailed breakdown of the Other Species category in Table 10, but resulting in different totals (see text).
Table 50. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Gulf of Alaska groundfish fisheries in 1991 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and NMFS blend target species catches. “-” < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.

This is essentially a detailed breakdown of the Other Species category in Table 11, but resulting in different totals (see text).
Table 51. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Gulf of Alaska groundfish-fisheries in 1992 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and NMFS blend target species catches. “-” < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.

This is essentially a detailed breakdown of the Other Species category in Table 12, but resulting in different totals (see text).
Table 52. Estimated catches (t) of other species by the Gulf of Alaska groundfish fisheries in 1993 using observer target

fishery, gear and subarea bycatch rates and NMFS blend target species catches. “-” < 0.5 mt of estimated catch.

This is essentially a detailed breakdown of the Other Species category in Table 13, but resulting in different totals (see text).
Figure 1. Total discard rates of Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish fisheries from 1991-94

(using blend data). Total discard rate equals discards of all allocated groundfish and other

species divided by total catch of allocated groundfish and other species (not including

prohibited species).

69
Figure 2. Total discard rates of Gulf of Alaska groundfish fisheries from 1991-94 (using blend data).

Total discard rate equals discards of all allocated groundfish and other species divided by total catch of

allocated groundfish and other species (not including prohibited species).
Bycatch Discard Mortality

Review of Literature on Discard Mortality

Discarded catch, whether an undesirable species or size, contributes to the fishing-related

mortality of many marine living resources. Discard mortalities vary-with gear types and

deployment duration, surface exposure duration and sorting methods, weight of catch for net

fisheries, and environmental conditions (Alverson et al. 1994). In general, fish species

mortality rates decrease with increasing size, and crustacean species mortality rates are

relatively high during molting or softshell stages (Wassenberg and Hill, 1989; Stevens, 1990).

High discard mortality rates also tend to increase energy flows to the scavenger species that

consume fisheries-generated waste.

Quantitative estimates of discard mortality rates are fairly limited in number and in

geographical representation (Table 53). A large amount of discard mortality research has been

generated by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), which focuses on

the northern Atlantic Ocean. Outside of the North Atlantic, much of the relevant research is

dedicated to incidental catch in shrimp and prawn fisheries, primarily because those fisheries

have been associated with some of the highest bycatch rates in the world. In domestic

fisheries off the coast of Alaska, fisheries managers and scientists have addressed the mortality

rates of halibut, salmon, and king and Tanner crab in groundfish fisheries. This research

pattern follows the North Pacific trend of separating and protecting halibut, salmon, and crab

from fisheries bycatch and discard. However, assessment scientists now include discards in

their estimates of total catch for all managed groundfish species in the GOA and eastern

Bering Sea, assuming 100% mortality rates for the discards. Expanded discard research in the

North Pacific would provide estimates of mortality effects on a given marine ecosystem, and

improve long-term fish population productivity through fishing gear and method modification

suggestions.

Gear-Related Factors Influencing Mortality

Trawl gear is often associated with high discard mortality rates. Fish caught in trawl nets may

be fatigued from trying to swim with the speed of the net, crushed by the weight of the towed

catch, have scales removed by net abrasions, or suffer damage under close proximity to spiny

or predatory fish. Discard mortality rate increases are often directly related to the length of

trawl time primarily because long tow times raise the overall weight of the catch and the

71
pressure of that weight on each individual in the catch (van Beek et al. 1989). Hard-shell

crustaceans generally suffer less discard mortality than fish or cephalopods, particularly if they

do not lose limbs during the trawl (Wassenberg and Hill, 1990).

Longline gear does not cause as much overall body damage to fish as trawl gear, but the hooks

do inflict puncture wounds to the head area (Neilson et al. 1989). Hook injuries have also

been noted in troll fisheries for Pacific salmon, where survival rates were greatly improved

with the introduction of barbless hooks (Alverson et al. 1994). One advantage of longline gear

in reducing discard mortalities is that fish caught by longlines tend, to have shorter handling

times than those caught by trawl gear. The length of time that bycatch lies exposed on deck

usually relates directly to discard mortality rates (Neilson et al. 1989; van Beek et al. 1989;

Evans et al. 1994). Longline gear allows fishing crews to deal with each individual as it

comes out of the water, limiting deck exposure for both target and non-target species.

However, longline gear may have longer capture times and increased mortality may result.

Pot gear is associated with low discard mortality rates for fish and crab, although the rates

vary with the frequency of pot retrieval. Once fish begin to gather inside the pots, their close

proximity to each other increases the spread of scale infections or puncture wounds inflicted

by spiny fish. Death by scale. infections may also be a pitfall, for researchers holding

incidentally caught fish in tanks in order to determine discard mortality over time (Millner et

al., 1993). Direct body damage, however, is limited in pot fisheries, because the crushing

weight of the trawl and the puncture of the hook are eliminated. In the intensive North Pacific

crab pot fisheries, the effects of repeated captures and surface exposures may compound crab

mortality rates (Shirley, 1990). Although discard mortality rates for crab in pot gear are

low, the total number of discarded crab in Bering Sea pot fisheries is very high, and total

mortality of discarded crab in pot fisheries may exceed that of trawl fisheries (Stevens and

MacIntosh, l993).

72
Table 53. Summary of literature relating to estimates of bycatch mortality rates.

Reference Fishery/Gear Bycatch species % Mortality/Time
Table 53 (continued).
A gear type that is particularly damaging to crabs is the tangle-net, used in the Australian

spanner crab fishery and formerly used in the Alaska crab fisheries. This fishing method uses

bait to entice crabs to walk across an entangling mesh net, where they are trapped until they

are brought to the surface. If the crabs are removed from the net with care, they are far more

likely to survive the discard process. Unfortunately, researchers noted that fishermen

generally took less care in removing undersized crabs from the tangle nets, since they were

unmarketable (Kennelly et al., 1990). This experiment is relevant to other gear types because

it shows increased mortality rates for those crabs that had lost legs or dactyli due to brusque

removal from the net. Fisheries that risk entangling or removing crustacean limbs should be

viewed as inherently dangerous to crustacean bycatch survival rates.

Murawski and Serchuk (1989) experimented with the mortality rates associated with the

dredge gear fisheries for U.S. Atlantic scallop (Phacopecten magellanicus), quahog (Arctica

islandica) and surf clam (Spisula solidissima) fisheries. Dredges that skim just above the

bottom for scallops tend to either catch or miss the scallops without crushing them. The

hydraulic dredges used to harvest quahogs and surf clams, however, can be quite destructive

and crush many of the bivalves that are not caught in the dredges. Dredges and certain types

of trawl gear have also been noted for their destructive impacts to benthic environments.

(Murawski and Serchuk, 1989; van Beek et al., 1989).

Other Factors Influencing Discard Mortality

Fisheries discard mortality rates can be affected by post-catch sorting methods, particularly

with regard to the length of time organisms spend out of the water. Neilson et al. (1989)

found that for Atlantic halibut survival as incidental catch, the length of handling time had a

multiplicative effect with the length of trawl tow time in determining mortality rates. Long

tow times coupled with long handling times were exponentially more likely to result in halibut

death than short tow times coupled with short handling times. Conversely, Wassenberg and

Hill (1989) found that, in an Australian prawn fishery, handling time had little effect on

mortality because the extreme mortality rate caused by the trawling process preempted any

measurement of the effects of prolonged deck exposure. Once deck-time begins to affect

Pacific halibut survival, survival rates of Pacific halibut decrease to zero after about 20

minutes (Pikitch and Erickson, 1993).

75 
Evans et al. (1994) discovered that crustaceans are also affected by long handling times in a

study on the fate of bycatch in the North Sea Nephrops fishery. Experimentally caught

Nephrops that were left on deck for 1 hour suffered a 15% mortality rate. Commercial

Nephrops fishing vessels tend to leave their catch on deck for 24 hours, which increases the

mortality rate to 79%. These authors also noted that 70% of the discarded catch was eaten by

seabirds immediately upon reaching the sea surface: Thus, even the discarded Nephrops that

had survived extended deck exposure were unlikely to reach their sea floor habitat.

Associated species in the catch tend to contribute to mortality rates if they are particularly

 tenacious predators, or if their bodies have sharp spikes to puncture other fish in the catch

(Neilson et al. 1989). Non-commercial animals associated with the target species may have an

affect on mortality rates; surface scavengers, like seabirds, prevent discarded organisms from

re-entering their proper habitats. Environmental conditions may also have an indirect effect on

discard mortality by influencing fishing methods. Fishermen may be inclined to sort their

catch more quickly in rough weather, or to leave fixed gear, like pots, in place longer to avoid

struggling with the weather.

Discard Mortalities in North Pacific Groundfish Fisheries 

North Pacific groundfish fisheries inflict mortality on the following categories of species, 1)

target groundfish species, 2) prohibited species, and 3) non-target groundfish species. For

in-season catch and fishing mortality monitoring, it is assumed that all groundfish and other

species, except for halibut, caught and discarded at-sea are returned to the sea dead. For most

of the trawl-caught fish, both flatfish and roundfish, this assumption is probably valid for

discards. Similarly, most roundfish, but particularly those inhabiting slope and outer shelf

environments, would probably not survive the ordeal of capture by any gear and the

subsequent return to the ocean. For prohibited species, all herring, salmon, and crab are

assumed to die after capture, but Pacific halibut are not. Based on research on survival of

halibut released after capture by trawls (Hoag, 1975) and numerous observations of halibut

on-deck condition prior to release by fisheries using all gear types, estimates were made of the

percentage mortality of halibut in each groundfish fishery (Williams, 1989). Based on

additional years of data collection in 1990-93 in both the BSAI and GOA, Williams (1994)

recommended halibut mortality rates for each gear, fishery and area for 1995 (Table 54). As

expected, halibut mortality rates associated with fixed gear (longline and pot) fisheries were

lower than those from trawl fisheries. Variation in mortality rates between trawl fisheries was

76
associated with size of hauls (larger hauls associated with greater mortality) and time-on-deck

(or out of water). Application of these mortality rates to the 1994 halibut bycatch amounts in

Tables 39 and 44 results in a reduction to 5,712 t of estimated halibut mortality associated with

the BSAI groundfish fisheries, and to 3,892 t of estimated halibut mortality associated with the

GOA groundfish fisheries.

Catch weights of discards for targeted species in groundfish fisheries can be compared to

population biomass and to total catches (discards + retained) in the BSAI and GOA (Tables

55-56). As noted before, these discards are accounted for in stock assessments of the main

groundfish species targets. Discard amounts relative to population biomass are low, ranging

from 5% of biomass for arrowtooth flounder to less than 1% of population biomass for Atka

mackerel and sablefish in the BSAI and less than 2% of any of the allocated species biomasses

in the Gulf of Alaska. Highest discard amounts relative to total catch occur for arrowtooth

flounder and the miscellaneous species category "other." Rock sole and other flatfish in the

Bering Sea also have high discard percentages of around 60-75% of total catch. Intermediate

discard rates (2540% of total catch) are seen in the rockfish, yellowfin sole, Greenland

turbot, deepwater flatfish, and shallow flatfish groups. The lowest discard rates (2%-17%) are

seen for sablefish, Atka mackerel, pollock and cod.

Discard mortalities for prohibited species in groundfish fisheries can be compared to the

amounts landed of each prohibited species in their respective target fisheries and to population 

size (Table 57). The weight of dead halibut discarded in groundfish fisheries in the Bering

Sea is approximately equal to landed weight in the Bering Sea halibut fishery but is only about

3.5% of the estimated population biomass in that area. Many of the halibut caught in

groundfish fisheries in the BSAI are juveniles, which might have recruited to other areas such

as the Gulf of Alaska or even off the coast of British Columbia. The amount of dead halibut

discarded in groundfish fisheries in the Gulf of Alaska is only about 11% of halibut landings

in that area. Herring bycatch in groundfish fisheries in the eastern Bering Sea during 1993

was only 3% of herring landings in the eastern Bering Sea. The amount of chinook and other

(primarily chum) salmon caught in groundfish fisheries could be around 20% of the landed

catch by number in the Bering Sea and less than 4% in the Gulf of Alaska. However, because

chum salmon are wide-ranging, the rivers of origin for chum salmon intercepted by groundfish

fisheries could be rivers that empty into the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and also the western

side of the North Pacific Ocean. Mortality of crab in the eastern Bering Sea groundfish

fisheries is’ around 18% of the landed number of bairdi Tanner crab and 9% of the red king

77
crab landings in that area. Because some of the bairdi Tanner crab caught by groundfish

fisheries are pre-recruit crab, the actual number of those pre-recruits that would have survived

to enter the directed crab fishery is less than the number caught by groundfish fisheries.

78
Table 54. Halibut discard mortality rates recommended by the International Pacific Halibut

79
Table 55.-- Groundfish fishery discards and total catch (retained + discarded) biomass as a fraction of population biomass

and discards as a fraction of total catch biomass in the eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands for 1990 to 1994.
Table 56.-- Groundfish fishery discards and total catch (retained + discarded) biomass as a fraction of population

biomass and discards as a proportion of total catch biomass in the Gulf of Alaska for 1990 to 1994.

( - means no biomass or discard estimate was available.)
Table 57. - Groundfish fishery discard mortality of prohibited species, expressed as a fraction of

target fishery landings and population size in 1993, assuming mortality rates for

halibut from Williams and Wilderbuer (1993), 100% mortality for other fish

and 80% mortality for crab.

1

 Target fishery landings do not include estimates of at-sea discards in the target fishery.

2

 Halibut biomass is from trawl survey estimates of <80km fish and IPHC CAGEAN model estimates

of age 8 + fish (round weight).

Salmon run size estimates are from D. Rogers, Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington,

1993 estimates for Chum salmon run size were used for other salmon population.

Chinook population estimates were the average of 1990-92 run sizes.

3Assumes most other salmon are chum salmon-target fishery landings are of chum salmon.

Although chum salmon caught in one region could have rivers of origin from another region

the population numbers used are those from the region of capture.

82
Estimates of mortality due to discards in the target fisheries or in other non-groundfish

fisheries are not available for all prohibited species. However, these discard mortalities can be

larger than those induced by groundfish fisheries. For example, the bycatch of bairdi Tanner

crab in crab pots during the 1993 bairdi crab season was estimated to be 68,910,000 crabs. If

a mortality factor of 8% (from Table 53) is applied to these, then discard mortality of bairdi

crab in crab pot fisheries was about 36% of the landed number of bairdi crab, which was

15,317,000 crabs. Similarly, for red king crab in 1992 the crab pot fishery discarded around

7,320,000 crabs. If mortality is again assumed to be around 8%) then crab pot fishery discard

mortality of red king crab was around 40% of the red king crab landings, which were

1,415,000 crabs, or about four times larger than the mortality induced by groundfish fishery

discards shown in Table 57.

Finally, it is possible that the amount of “other” species caught and discarded in groundfish

fisheries could be an important source of mortality for those species. The mortality of groups

such as skates, sculpins and grenadiers, which make up the largest bycatch amount for “other”

species in groundfish fisheries, has not been explicitly considered in the past. The amount of

these “other” species groups discarded in groundfish fisheries can be compared to biomass

estimates of these species to get an idea of the impact of fisheries on these groups (Table 58).

Exploitation rates (catch biomass/population biomass) are low for skates and sculpins in the

BSAI and GOA areas, ranging from 14%. The exploitation rate for grenadiers in the Gulf of

Alaska appears high (32 %) but biomass estimates of grenadiers are severely underestimated by

bottom trawl surveys in the GOA that only cover bottom depths up to 500 m since the majority

of grenadier biomass is found in deeper waters. It is likely the true exploitation rate of

grenadiers is close to those of skates and sculpins.

83
Table 58. Bycatches of three “other” species groups in the groundfish fisheries of the

Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands region (BSAI) and Gulf of Alaska (GOA)

as percentages of the estimated biomasses of each group in each region.

For the BSAI, percentages represent ranges from 1990-1993; for the GOA,

data are from 1993.

84
Ecological Impacts

Several aspects of the current fishing, discarding, and processing practices of North Pacific

groundfish fisheries have the potential to alter the regular paths of energy flow and balance in

the BSAI and GOA. Although estimated mortality due to direct removals and discard of

utilized groundfish species is accounted for in the stock assessment process, little is known

about the ecosystem-level effects, of selective harvesting on only a small number of species.

Also, fishing removes biomass from the system but discarding and fish processing return some

biomass back to the system. The recipients, locations, and forms of this returned biomass may

differ from those in an unfished system. Finally, the fishing process itself may cause

unobserved mortalities in animals escaping through the trawl mesh or caught by abandoned

pots or longlines. Mortality of bottom-dwelling animals can also be caused by the mechanical,

action or weight of fishing gear on the bottom.

Effects of Selective Fishing

The fishing process selectively removes certain species and sizes of fish. This selection

process could alter the balance between predators and prey and thus the species composition of

the ecosystem. If the species composition is much different from the “natural” state the system

could be more unstable. Another concern expressed in recent years is the negative effects of

“fishing-down” the food web, or the practice of intensively harvesting top-predators and then

moving down the food web to harvest forage of top-predators (Christie, 1993). Yield

enhancements expected through this fishing-down process have not materialized in regions

where this practice has been implemented. In fact, the recent steps taken toward multispecies

management in the northwest Atlantic Ocean (Shelton, 1992) and in the Southern Ocean have

been directed at limiting the target catches of forage species such as capelin (Mallotus villosus)

and krill (Euphausiidae).

In a review of marine regions where species replacement changes occurred, Daan (1980) noted

that overfishing was a likely trigger. He found that changes in species composition

in other regions where overfishing was not occurring were more likely environmentally driven

cyclic fluctuations. An analysis of trends in species composition in the eastern Bering Sea

(Livingston et al., 1994) showed that although there have been fluctuations in species biomass

in some groups over the last 15 years, these fluctuations do not appear to be linked to

exploitation rates. Exploitation rates in this region have been conservative when compared to

regions where replacement changes due to overfishing have occurred.

85
To determine whether North Pacific fisheries were “fishing-down” the food web, the trophic

level of the catch in the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, and Gulf of Alaska areas was

calculated bydeterminin g the trophic level of each species in the catch from published

accounts of diet for non-groundfish species and the food habits database of the Alaska

Fisheries Science Center for groundfish species. Trophic level (e.g., 1 for phytoplankton, 2

for consumers of primary production, 3 for consumers of secondary production) of the total

catch was determined by weighting the trophic level of each species in the catch by the

proportion (by weight) of that species in the total catch and summing the weighted trophic

levels in each year. Stability in the trophic level of the total fish and invertebrate catches in

the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands, and Gulf of Alaska (Fig. 3) are an indication that the

“fishing-down” effect is not occurring in these regions. Catch biomass in the eastern Bering

Sea has consisted mainly of pollock since the late 1960s. In the Aleutian Islands area catches

were mostly Pacific ocean perch in the 1960s and walleye pollock, Pacific cod, and Atka

mackerel in the late 1970s to the present. Gulf of Alaska catches in the 1960s were dominated

by rockfish and changed to pollock-dominated catches in the 1980s with declining

contributions of pollock to the total catch in the 1990s. Although, there has been a general

increase in the amount of catch since the late 1960s in all areas, the trophic level of the catch

has been high and stable over the last 25 years. A trophic level of 4 indicates the dominance

of top-level predators in the catch.

The combination of relatively conservative exploitation rates and high trophic level of the

catches over the last 15 years, at least in the eastern Bering Sea, could be responsible for the

relative stability of overall community composition over this recent period shown by

Livingston et al. (1994). A study of the trophic levels of the catch in the North Sea (Yang,

1982) showed the apparent stability of the North Sea ecosystem during a period when the

trophic level of the catch was high. Recent analysis of the North Sea community structure

(Anon., 1994) confirms the stability of community diversity of that area even though fishing

has apparently changed the shape of the size spectrum via the removal of large predators.

However, these factors cannot explain the obvious changes that have occurred in the

abundance of several species in the North Pacific, notably the declines in red king crab and

some piscivorous bird species in the Bering Sea and Steller sea lions in the Gulf of Alaska.

There have also been large declines in whale and fur seal populations prior to 1979.

Environmental changes or localized habitat alteration by fishing have been suggested as

possible explanations but no conclusive evidence exists to identify the causative factor(s).

86
Figure 3. --Historical estimates of the total biomass and trophic level of the fish and

invertebrate catch (excluding salmon) in the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands

region, and Gulf of Alaska.
Consumers of Discards and Fish Processing Offal

Several years of groundfish food habits data collected by the Trophic Interactions Program at

the Alaska Fisheries Science Center confirm the consumption of fish processing offal by fish

in the eastern Bering Sea, Aleutian Islands region, and Gulf of Alaska. Estimates of

groundfish consumption of offal in the Bering Sea during the main feeding season show a level

of offal consumption by several species of groundfish approaching 200,000 t/yr (Table 59).

Although the estimated total amount of offal consumed by pollock is fairly high at around

45,000 t/yr, the percentage of offal in the diet is less than 1% by weight. It is the large

biomass of pollock relative to other predators that brings its estimated consumption up to this

level. Pacific cod consumed the most offal compared to other groundfish in 1990 and 1991.

The percentage by weight of offal in the diets of Pacific cod and skates is higher than the other

groundfish species sampled in the eastern Bering Sea.

Diet information on groundfish from the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands region (Yang,

1993 and 1995) also show several species consuming unground offal (Table 60). In the Gulf

of Alaska, sablefish had the largest percentage by weight of offal in the diet (29%), followed

by Pacific cod (13%) and Pacific halibut (7%). The amount of offal in the diet of groundfish

from the Aleutian Islands region is low, except for northern rockfish (Sebastes polyspinis) (9%

of the diet by weight). It should be noted that the diet percentages for the Gulf of Alaska and

Aleutian Islands region were derived from grouping all food habits data for a species over the

whole region. Lower percentages would likely result from predator-size and area stratification

of the diet information.

An estimate of the amount of offal returned to the sea by at-sea and onshore processors can be

obtained from subtracting the total round weight of the groundfish catch retained and

processed from the product weight, which is available for 1994 (see Table 61). Estimated atsea offal production in the GOA and BSAI is 862,483 t (= round weight of the catch

(1,240,858 t) - product weight (378,375 t)) and shoreside offal production is 477,312 t.

Presumably, the majority of offal produced at sea is in the Bering Sea and consists of pollock

parts. Based on the estimates in Table 59, it appears that groundfish in the eastern Bering Sea

consume at least 20% of offal production. This compares to an estimate of about 11% of total

discards consumed by fish and crab in a study area off Australia (Wassenburg and Hill, 1990).

88
Table 59.- Estimated amounts of offal consumed (metric tons) by groundfish on the

eastern Bering Sea shelf during the main feeding season, May through

September. (ns - not sampled).

89
Table 60 .-- Estimates of percentages by weight of offal in the diets of groundfish

in the Gulf of Alaska during 1990 and the Aleutian Islands region in

1991 (from Yang (1993) and Yang (1995), ns - not sampled).

Other upper-trophic level scavenger species likely to benefit from offal production include

sculpins, crabs, other predatory invertebrates, and marine birds such as gulls, kittiwakes, and

fulmars. Studies performed in, the North Sea and Australia indicate that birds are a likely

recipient of discards and offal thrown overboard during daytime and which do not immediately

sink (Anon., 1994; Evans et al., 1994; Wassenburg and Hill, 1990), while crabs may be the

first to arrive in areas when discards reach the bottom (Wassenburg and Hill, 1987). Offal not

consumed by these predators would presumably be decomposed by bacteria and also become

available as detritus for benthic filter-feeding invertebrates.

Estimates are not available for groundfish consumption of whole animal discards in the BSAI

and GOA areas. When analyzing stomach contents of groundfish, it is impossible to discern

whether a whole animal in the stomach contents was consumed when alive or dead.

Presumably, whole discards are consumed by many of the same scavengers that consume

unground offal.

Table 61 provides a summary of the magnitude of offal and discard amounts relative to catch

in the BSAI and GOA groundfish fisheries. The weight of offal returned to the sea is almost

four times as large as the weight of discards. About 70% of the target catch is returned as,

90
offal. Almost 60% of the total catch becomes offal while only 15% of the total catch is

discarded whole. Obviously, when considering energy transfer in the ecosystem, offal

production overshadows discard amounts. The large proportion of the total catch returned to

the sea as offal and discards could reduce any potential impacts of fishing to energy loss in

these areas. However, availability of the returned energy (as offal and discards) to various

ecosystem components may differ from that of the undisturbed energy form (live fish).

Ecosystem level concerns about discards and offal production primarily center on the

possibility that these fishery practices might alter the regular paths of energy flow and enhance

the growth of scavenger populations. In the eastern Bering Sea, at least one-half of the

discards and most of the offal produced are from pollock. Most of the remaining discards

tends to be flatfish such as yellowfin sole (Pleuronectes asper) and rock sole. All of the

groundfish species found to be consumers of offal (Table 60) are also predators of pollock,

and some of them (Pacific cod and halibut) also consume flatfish (Livingston et al., 1993).

The scavenging birds (gulls, fulmars, kittiwakes), are also documented predators of pollock

(Hunt et al., 1981). The annual consumptive capacity of these scavenging birds, groundfish,

and crab in the eastern Bering Sea alone is over an order of magnitude larger than the total

amount of offal and discards in the BSAI and GOA (Livingston, unpublished data). Since

many of the main predators of pollock are consuming offal and discards, it appears that the

practice of returning them to the ocean may not significantly disrupt regular paths of energy

flow when the geographic location of the return to the sea is close to the capture location.

Although fishing removes some biomass from the system, the actual amount removed in the

BSAI and GOA is much less than the total catch would indicate. A large proportion of the

total catch is, in-fact, returned and apparently consumed by predators.

Even if offal and discards are not used by the upper trophic level scavengers that are a regular

part of the energy pathway for pollock and flatfish, the total amount of dead organic material

(detritus) that would reach the bottom is’ small relative to other natural sources of detritus.

Walsh and McRoy (1986) estimate detrital flow to the middle and outer shelf of the eastern

 Bering Sea to be 188 gCm2 yr

-1 and 119 gCm2

 yr

-1

, respectively. When converted to biomass

over the whole area4, an estimated 337.7 million t of naturally-occurring detritus goes to the

bottom each year. Approximately 40% (142.9 million t), is unused (Walsh and McRoy, op.

4Assuming 0.4 gC/1g dry weight and 0.5 g dry weight/lg wet weight, and total middle

shelf area = 4 x 105 km2 and outer shelf area = 2.2 x 105 km2.

91
cit.). The total offal and discard production in the BSAI and GOA as estimated for 1994 (1.3

million t; Table 61) is only 1% of the estimate of unused detritus already going to the bottom.

Simulation model results of discard effects on energy cycling in the Gulf of Mexico (Browder,

1983) confirmed that discards tend to be a small portion of the dead organic material on the

bottom. However, depending on model assumptions, changing the amount of discards through

full utilization or through selective fishing methods had the potential to change populations of

shrimp and its fish competitors. Uncertainty about the predation rates and assumptions about

alternate prey utilization indicated a need for further research to fully understand and predict

responses of populations to changes in food availability.

92
Table 61 .-Summary of offal and discard amounts in the BSAI and GOA groundfish

fisheries for 1994 compared to total and retained catch amounts.

93
Local enrichment and change in species composition in some areas might occur if discards or

offal returns are concentrated there. There is evidence that such effects have been seen in

Orca Inlet in Prince William Sound and in Dutch Harbor, Alaska. Poor water quality and

undesirable species composition have been cited (Thomas, 1994) as the result of the current

policy for grinding fish offal released in inshore areas and the inadequate tidal flushing in that

region. However, deepwater waste disposal of offal in Chiniak Bay of Kodiak Island has not

shown such problems (Stevens and Haaga, 1994). No apparent species composition changes,

anaerobic conditions, or large accumulations of offal occurred in Chiniak Bay where such

wastes have been dumped for over a decade. Local ocean properties (water depth and flow)

and amount of waste discharged per year could be important factors determining the effect of

nearshore disposal on local marine habitat and communities.

So far, most of the scavenger populations are not showing obvious signs of increase related to

offal production. Kittiwake populations that nest on the Pribilof Islands have apparently

declined from 1979 to 1989 (Hatch et al., 1993). Decline in food availability has been cited as

a possible reason for the decrease in productivity for both kittiwake species. The distribution

and timing of the pollock catch processing has shifted away from a predominance of fishing

during summer around the outer shelf to a winter (A season) and summer (B season) fishery

that occurs farther south in the outer and middle shelf areas (Fritz, 1993). This shift in fishing

distribution away from summer bird foraging areas did not occur until about 1987 (Fritz et al.,

1994) and cannot explain the population decline. Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)

population size at the Pribilof Islands is showing a possible increase, particularly from 1989 to

1992. However, there is large variability around fulmar counts that makes determination of

the population trend uncertain (Climo, 1993; Dragoo and Sundseth, 1993). Kittiwake

population increases have been noted in Chiniak Bay, the site of offal disposal at Kodiak

Island. The increases there occurred between the late 1970s and mid-1980s (Hatch et al., op

cit.); apparently before offal disposal at that site began. Some of the main scavengers in the

groundfish community of the eastern Bering Sea such as Pacific cod, skates, halibut and

sculpins have shown a combined biomass of around 1.2 million t in 1979 to over 1.3 million t

in 1993 (Livingston et al., 1994). The only member of that group that might be exhibiting a

constant increasing trend in biomass is the skates, whose biomass has doubled between 1982

and 1993. Little is known about the skate population, such as size or age-frequency over time,

that might provide clues to why this change in biomass has occurred.

94
Unobserved Mortalities

The fishing process itself may cause unobserved mortalities in animals that escape through the

mesh of trawls or that are damaged by the action of the trawl passing over them. In addition,

longline and pot gear may continue to fish after being lost or abandoned. A recent review of

studies on the condition of fish escaping from fishing gear (Chopin and Arimoto, 1995) found

a wide range of estimated mortalities. The percent age mortality of fish escaping from trawl

gear ranged’ from 9% to 90% depending on the fish species, size of fish, and conditions of the

experiment. Fish with an opercular circumference of the same or larger size as the mesh may

sustain more physical damage than smaller fish but stress inflicted due to the capture process

(e.g., long sustained periods of swimming) can also be an important source of mortality for all

fish. The authors suggest that standard protocol for conducting survival experiments,

including longer term studies to estimate survival due to stress ‘are required before

knowledgeable decisions regarding the effect of mesh size restrictions can be evaluated. They

advise that management measures undertaken to increase escapement of immature fish by

increasing minimum mesh size could also increase mortality and conclude that such measures

may not be the best method for protecting immature fish.

The evidence regarding the mortalities of animals in or on the bottom and possible long-term

changes in the sea floor due to fishing gear shows mixed conclusions. Comparison of gearinduced mortality rates with natural mortality rates of the benthos in the heavily fished North

Sea indicated that natural mortality rates were much larger than those from fishing (Daan,

1991), suggesting that fisheries exert a relatively small influence on the biomass of benthos.

Most studies agree, however, that the larger, longer-lived animals in the sediments such as

some clams are likely to be the most affected (Daan, 1991; Anon., 1994). Long-term changes

in the benthos and persistence of trawl tracks have been found particularly in very deep water

(Jones, 1992). Even though direct contact with gear may not inflict direct mortality, the gear

action can expose burrowing animals and make them more vulnerable to predation (Kaiser and

Spencer, 1994). It has been hypothesized that intensive fishing in an area could promote longterm changes in benthic communities by promoting populations of opportunistic fish species

that migrate into fished areas to feed on animals disturbed by the fishing process.

Diet of a benthic-feeder, yellowfin sole, was examined during the period from 1984 to 1991 to

determine if any changes have been apparent and could be linked to fishing activities in the

eastern Bering Sea (Fig. 4). Prey composition was analyzed in two adjacent areas, a no-trawl

95
zone (North Pacific Fishery Management Council area 512 where trawling has been excluded

since 1986) and a trawl zone ( a similar size area just west of area 512 where trawling still

occurs in the eastern Bering Sea). No definitive trends in diet composition could be seen

between the two areas. Polychaete worm consumption was similar between the two areas and

consumption of echiuran worms increased in the trawled area compared to the no-trawl area.

Echiurans are relatively short-lived worms that burrow into the sediment. Trawling could

expose these animals and make them more vulnerable to predation immediately after a trawl

passed through. If trawling were responsible for the increase in predation on echiurans, it

would have been expected that the fraction of echiurans in the diet would have been

consistently high in the trawl zone over the whole time series and would have declined in the

no-trawl zone during the years when no-trawling was in effect (1986-91). Other studies have

found an increase in amphipod predation due to the effects of trawling (Kaiser and Spencer,

1994) but our data indicate slightly higher predation on amphipods in the no-trawl zone than in

the trawl zone. It is difficult to know whether changes have occurred in the eastern Bering

Sea benthos without detailed study of the benthos and its biomass and composition before and

after trawling. Yellowfin sole do not consume large, longer-lived clams or colonial ascidians

that could be more sensitive indicators of the effects of fishing. However, there does not

appear to be any major changes in certain species based on their amounts in the yellowfin sole

diet.

96
Figure 4. --Diet composition of yellowfin sole in the eastern Bering Sea

from 1984 to 1991 in two adjacent areas, one with no

trawling from 1986 to 1991 and one with trawling from

1984 to 1991.
Catch Utilization

Product Forms

Groundfish harvested in the commercial fisheries of the GOA and BSAI are utilized in a wide

variety of ways. The range of product forms extend from relatively “high unit value” products

(e.g., roe, individually quick-frozen fillets), to industrial products (oils and meals) and bait.

New product forms continue to emerge in response to market opportunities. Indeed, many

products which are economically very important to the U.S. industry today were not regarded

as products in which U.S. fishers and processors were interested, nor suited to produce, only a

relatively few years ago (e.g., surimi or pollock roe). Thus, the list of groundfish products

contained in Table 62 should not be regarded as exhaustive or final. Instead, the list reflects

the best current information on the variety of products which are presently being prepared by

U.S. processors from groundfish harvested in the GOA and BSAI.

Table 62 lists all product forms reported to NMFS from 1994 groundfish harvests off Alaska

(the most recent year for which complete data are available). Products are divided among

"primary", “ancillary” and “industrial” product forms, based on current regulatory definitions.

The list of “primary products” includes outputs such as whole fish, headed-and-gutted product,

fillets of various forms, surimi, and minced fish. In commercial practice in these fisheries, the

proportion of the whole fish utilized in the production of these “primary” products reportedly

range from 13% to 100%.

Products defined as principally “ancillary” (e.g., roe, heads, and cheeks) are assumed to be

produced in addition to a primary product. For example, “cod heads” are presumed to be an

ancillary product to headed-and-gutted cod. Processors could, if not explicitly prohibited by

regulation, choose to produce traditionally "ancillary" product forms as there “primary”

product, under some circumstances. This practice could result in utilization of 5% or less of

the whole fish, by weight, based upon the reported product recovery rates (PRRs), by species,

in these fisheries.

Economic, logistic, regulatory, and biological considerations would dictate the extent of such

activities. For example, markets forces could induce this behavior for some species and/or

product forms over some period of the fishing season. Similarly, logistical considerations

within an individual processing facility (e.g., breakdowns, excess deliveries, conflicts with

98
other fisheries such as salmon, halibut, and crab) could result in diverting fish into product

forms generally regarded as “ancillary” (or discarding them altogether). Regulations may also

dictate such production decisions. For example, a short duration opening may result in

processors maximizing “through put” of a particular species, rather than “utilization” (e.g.,

roe stripping of pollock), before it was banned. In other circumstances, the “poor condition”

of a species during some periods of the year may prompt its use only for “ancillary” product

forms.

The specific output form and product mix in the BSAI and GOA groundfish fisheries is highly

variable. Production characteristics (i.e., form, grade, and product mix) may vary in response

to, among other factors, the type of processing operation (e.g., m-shore or at-sea); the season

of the year (e.g., the presence or absence of roe); regulatory restrictions (e.g., roe-stripping 

prohibition, bycatch-only or non-discretionary discard status); and the nature of the market

(e.g., surimi prices are low relative to fillets). It would be incorrect, therefore, to attribute,

for example, “high” recovery rates, particular product forms, or specific quality or grades

with ‘one specific operational type or configuration. Influenced by these biological,

technological, regulatory, and economic factors, performance may diverge from operation to

operation between and within each category, and even within any given operation, from season

to season, and fishery to fishery.

It should be noted that the comparison of physical measures of product output (e.g., PRRs or

quantity of output) as a measure of utilization may be misleading. The appropriate comparison

is the value of the product produced. For example, if the greatest product recovery from each

fish were the correct measure by which to compare alternative product forms, then fish “soldin-the-round” would always be the preferred form of utilization. Clearly, this is not the case.

Instead, the unit value of each product provides an efficient means of making comparisons

across product forms and across species. Product price serves as an efficient mechanism to

compare the “value” of utilizing a fish to produce, say, a unit of pollock fillets and a unit of

pollock headed and gutted (II&G).

5

 Value net of production costs would be the theoretically correct measure with which

to make these comparisons. Often net values are not available, in which case gross values are

employed.

99
Table 62 - Reported processed product for all groundfish retained and processed

at-sea in the GOA and BSAI in 1994 (t).

100
Table 62 (continued). - Reported processed product for all groundfish processed by shoreside

plants in the GOA and BSAI in 1994 (t).

101
 Limits on Production

Technical Limitations

Changes in industry standards of retention and utilization of catch involve adjustment costs.

Historically some groundfish discards in the BSAI and GOA fisheries have been required by

regulations, economic considerations (e.g., lack of markets or lower values than the primary

target species, etc.), or other discards that may have occurred for “technical” reasons.

Existing mechanical processing technology imposes both effective and absolute limits on the

size (and to perhaps a lesser extent, species) of fish which can be efficiently converted into a

marketable product form (excluding, of course, meal reduction). From the standpoint of

assessing changes in processed product form or recovery rates, existing production capacity

and technology can be regarded as fixed, in the short-run, and only marginally flexible in the

intermediate-run. While each operation in the BSAI and GOA groundfish fisheries is unique

in terms of configuration, capacity, and technology, all are constrained by similar

technological and market limitations on what can be produced from the raw catch. These

limitations may be useful indicators of the potential for change in catch retention and

utilization patterns.

Size frequencies and species composition in the BSAI and GOA fisheries vary significantly.

Some of the most pronounced year-to-year variability can be explained by the presence of an

exceptionally strong (or weak) cohort, which can be seen to move through the fishery in

successive years. So, for example, when an unusually abundant year class first recruits into a

fishery, the proportion of “small fish” to total catch of a given species may increase

dramatically. As this year class grows and matures, it represents a greater share of each

year’s total catch of that species. Over time, the proportion of “small fish” to total landings

falls. Therefore, in any given year, for any given species, the range of size of fish, and the

proportional composition of each size class to the total may be different. Because size and

maturity are important aspects of some product forms for some species, these biologicallyrelated externalities can directly affect catch utilization, product mix, and value,

An example of how the population dynamics of a groundfish stock can affect catch

composition, and thus utilization, is presented below. While the example selected focuses on

102
the BSAI mid-water pollock fishery, a similar dynamic would apply to most other directed

groundfish fisheries in this region.

In the case of the BSAI mid-water pollock fishery, utilizing a 5-year mean from 1989 through

1993, pollock ranging in size from 11 cm (about 12 gm) to over 83 cm (more than 4,000 gm)

are reported in the catch. For the same period, approximately 25% of the catch was equal to

or less than 40 cm (approximately 465 gm) in size, approximately 25% was between 41 cm

and 45 cm (up to 650 gm), 25% was between 46 cm and 49 cm (up to 830 gm), and roughly

the final 25% was greater than 50 cm (up to 3,800 gm),

Industry sources and others knowledgeable about this sector of the fish processing industry,

report that, at the present time, the at-sea processing sector fillet and surimi production relies

heavily on Baader processing technology (e.g., Baader 182, 190, and 212 filleting machines).

The shorebased operators rely upon the same technology, although additional Toyo processing

capacity exists in this sector.

Technical information, provided by Baader Fish Processing Machinery, suggests that each of

these filleting machines have absolute limits on the size of pollock which can be processed.

For the Baader 190, the limits range from 33 to 66 cm. For the Baader 212, which also

allows the extraction of roe, the bounds are 35 to 55 cm. The 182 Baader machine, in its

standard configuration, can process pollock in the range of 27 to 42 cm; although in its more

commonly used alternative configuration, with mechanical modifications, the machine can

process fish of 35 cm to 52 cm.

These mechanical limits define the boundaries of possible production for specific product

forms without modification to the machines. Utilizing these technical limits, in combination

with historical size composition data for the BSAI mid-water pollock fishery, it appears that,

on average, approximately 1.75% of the catch (in numbers of fish) will be below the minimum

size for mechanical processing for operations employing the factory configured Baader 182

machines. With the more common modification to utilize 35 to 55 cm fish, 7.4% of the

pollock catch would be too small for the Baader 182. Just over 5% of total pollock catch will

be too small to process using Baader 190s and 7.4% will be below the lower size limit for use

of the Baader 212 machine. Reportedly, Toyo machines will process pollock as small as 27

cm, equivalent to the lower bound of the standard Baader 182 configuration.

103
Market Limitations

Technology, currently available to the industry, does not provide a means to utilize a fish at

the lower end of the size range taken in the pelagic trawl fishery for anything but meal

reduction purposes.6 One operator reported that, “you put the really small fish into the

system and they just fall through the grates ‘in the machines. ”

At the upper-limits, using the standard factory configuration of the Baader 182 would mean

that, in the pelagic trawl pollock fishery, nearly 59.5% of the total pollock catch would be too

large for these machines. In the modified configuration which accommodates fish as large as

52 cm, just over 10% of the pollock catch would be too large for the machines. For operators

with Baader 190 machines, less than 0.25% of the catch could not be processed by machine.

The Baader 212, with an upper bound of 55 cm, could handle all but about 4.4% of the

pollock caught. Toyo machines reportedly have an upper-bound limit of 2,000 gm or about 66

cm. This is equivalent to the Baader 196 limit. Very large fish, which cannot be

mechanically processed, could perhaps be processed by hand.7

Beyond the technological limits of the existing physical plant in these fisheries, there are

limits which dictate how (or if) a particular processor will utilize delivered catch. In a sense,

the technological limits describe what “can” be processed, while markets define what “should”

be processed, at least in the short-run, from the perspective of the plant operator.

If a profit-maximizing firm expends scarce productive resources (e.g., labor, capital), to

produce a product for which there is no market, that firm will not remain in business for long.

It is important, therefore, to consider what “market” limitations (in addition to the

6

 Obviously, very small fish could be frozen in-the-round, however, it is unlikely a

market could be found for such a product.

7

 A vessel may undertake actions which exert some control over the size composition

of its catch, although trawling is; by definition, a non-selective technology. Further, if space

were no limitation, a mixture of machines could permit mechanical processing of most of the

pollock. However, physical limitations do constrain the options available to most vessels and

cost considerations, touched on in the next section, also dictate utilization decisions.

104
“technological limitation”) may confront the domestic groundfish industry in the short-run.

Continuing to use the BSAL mid-water pollock fishery as an example, industry sources suggest

that current markets dictate the following limits. For pollock fillet production the “minimum”

size fish that can be used to produce a marketable product is about 350 gm round weight (or

roughly 36 cm). For surimi production, the lower limit is about 300 gm (approximately 34

cm). Pollock H&G requires a fish of no less than 350 gm. Another industry source reported

that, as a rule, his operation did not buy pollock of less than 450 gm (approximately 40 cm),

although fish of as small as 400 gm (about 38 cm) would be the lower limit for surimi

production. Deep-skin blocks and individually quick frozen fillets required fish of 600 gm

(roughly 44 cm). Small fish under the identified minimums could not be utilized to produce a

“saleable” product (other than meal) in existing markets.

These market limits, when compared to average size composition data for the BSAI mid-water

pollock fishery, cited above, suggest that the range of useable pollock is somewhat narrower

than the range dictated by technology, all else equal. Operations producing fillets or H&G

product may not be able to market “primary” product from the smallest 9.4% of the total

catch, that is, fish less than 36 cm in length. Surimi producers may not be able to produce

marketable primary product from as much as 6% of the pollock catch. Obviously, for those

products and producers which “require” larger fish, even more of the average pollock

production would be unsuited to primary product production, (e.g., deep-skin block).

While the BSAI mid-water trawl fishery catch is consistently made up of 99% pollock, the

catch does contain other species. Pacific cod with small amounts of flatfish make up most of

the catch balance. Species other than that “targeted” by an operator potentially present

significant additional problems, both technical and market-related. For example, a processing

facility configured and equipped to process, say, pollock surimi would be ill-equipped to

convert flatfish into a marketable product form. Likewise, that same surimi processor might

discover that handling, packaging, and marketing an unfamiliar product form, that is, flatfish

fillets, is unprofitable.

105
Historically, NMFS found it necessary, for management, monitoring, and enforcement

purposes, to define, in formal regulation, standard product types and associated PRRs for the

groundfish fisheries of the BSAI and GOA. Used to estimate round weight equivalents of

groundfish catches, standardized PRRs assume a fixed proportion of the amount of primary

processed product to be derived during processing. Additional products obtained from the

same fish are classified as ancillary products.

Beginning in 1990 and continuing through 1991, NMFS monitored groundfish catches in the

Bering Sea and Gulf fisheries solely on the basis of standard PRRs, by applying the

appropriate “standard” recovery rate to the amount of processed product reported by industry

 through the Weekly Production Reports. In 1992, NMFS began the monitoring of deliveries

of groundfish to onshore processors on the basis of landed weight, thus avoiding for the most

part the use of PRRs for this sector of the industry. However, catches, of groundfish in the

offshore processing sector continued to be monitored on the basis of product weights and

standard PRRs.

An important exception to this rule was made in for the pollock fishery. In 1992, NMFS

utilized a “blend” system for at-sea pollock catches which compared observer estimates of total

catch with that reported by the operator in the Weekly Production Report. If the two sources

were within 10% of one another, the Weekly Production Report was employed. If they varied

by more than 10%) the observer estimate was used. The single exception to this rule came in

the case where the Weekly Production Report was more than 20% higher than the observer

estimate, in which case the Weekly Production Reportwas accepted. While the “blend”

procedure reduced the relative importance of standardized PRRs, they continue to be

employed, in combination with the Weekly Production Report data, in this estimation method.

The following year, 1993, the “blend” estimation procedure was adopted for all at-sea

groundfish processors. The “decision threshold” which dictated the use of observer

information or the Weekly Production Report was lowered to 5%. In 1994, the “blend”

model was again modified, such that, in the pollock fishery only, the threshold for selecting

the Weekly Production Report estimates when the observer data are significantly lower, was

changed from 20% to 30%. For all other species, the threshold remained at 20%.

106
Consistent estimation of total catch remains a critical consideration in assuring optimum

utilization of the groundfish resource, over tune. While direct use of PRRs has diminished in

importance for catch monitoring, accurate determination of round weight equivalent catch

estimates, derived by backcasting from processed product utilizing PRRS, continues to be a

necessary means of in-season catch monitoring and enforcement. In this way the fullest

possible harvest may be obtained, while minimizing the risk of overfishing these valuable

resources.

Standardized PRRs are also used to estimate the round weight equivalent of retained species

for purposes of assigning vessels to specific fisheries for monitoring bycatch allowances of

prohibited species (PSC), or monitoring compliance with fishery specific standards under

Vessel Incentive Programs to reduce PSC rates.

At present, NMFS has established a total of 30 standard product types for these fisheries.

With each standard product type, for each listed species, there is associated a single standard

PRR (with the exception of pollock surimi for which two PRRs are prescribed: one for the Aseason and one for the B-season). The official PRRs are listed in Table 63.

107
Table 63. Species categories, product codes and descriptions, and standard product recovery rates for groundfish species referenced in 50 CFR 672.20(a)(l) and/or 50 CFR 675,20(a)(l).
Table 63. (continued).
Table 63. (continued).
Product Recovery Rates Variability in the Field

The foregoing discussion suggests the importance of establishing accurate “standard” PRRs, by

species and product form. A standard PRR set too high has the potential to result in the

overharvesting of the resource, while if set too low could inappropriately restrict catches and

impose unjustified costs on users.

However, because the groundfish resources in the North Pacific and Bering Sea are so diverse,

numerous product forms have emerged to take advantage of specific attributes of the catch and

to meet particular market needs and demands. Operationally, PRRs are highly variable and

may differ from operation to operation, or period to period, depending on such factors as

product mix, fish size and condition, market demand, and species/gender composition.

Some PRRs, by definition, are very low (e.g., heads, cheeks, and milt). Others may be

variable over the course of a fishing season or in response to biological or market conditions

(e.g., roe or surimi). The actual rate of recovery attained in an operation may be linked to a

number of competing considerations. For example, the “maximum” PRR attainable is 1.0

(i.e., a “whole” fish). This product form may not, however, yield the highest product value.

Even within a particular product type, there may be a direct trade-off between recovery rate

and value. Consider the case of pollock surimi. A processor which has the capability to

produce a range of grades of surimi will find that the recovery rate for very high grade

product (e.g., SA grade), may be somewhat lower than that for a lower grade product (e.g., A

or B grade). However, the value of the higher quality product may more than off-set the

reduction in output. In this case, reliance on comparative PRRs to judge the relative efficiency

of an operation may be inappropriate. As suggested, the physical measure of output, in the

absence of information on relative economic value, ignores

quantity and quality, and may lead to inefficient decisions.

the inherent trade-off between

The groundfish biomass in the BSAI and GOA is relatively abundant and diverse. This

resource base has traditionally provided a wide array of production opportunities and product

options. It is reasonable to assume that new uses and product forms will continue to emerge in

response to market opportunities and changing consumer preferences. As new markets,

innovative uses of groundfish, or additional products develop, managers will be challenged to

respond with programs which simultaneously facilitate development opportunities, while

ensuring the sustainability of the resource base.

111
Markets and Estimated Product Value

The majority of the groundfish harvested in the United States EEZ off Alaska finds its way

into export markets (Kinoshita et al., 1994). Many of the principal groundfish products are

exported after undergoing only primary processing in the United States and are reprocessed

into final products, by secondary processors, outside the United States.

Groundfish from the U.S. EEZ off Alaska are exported to many countries. The principal

export markets include Japan, the Republic of Korea, Canada, the People’s Republic of China,

and the European community8

. Numerous other countries also purchase Alaska groundfish

products, but in much smaller quantities.

In 1990, exports of groundfish products, deriving from fish harvested in the U.S. EEZ off

Alaska, totaled more than 432,700 t, with an estimated value of $775,180,000. In 1994, the

total quantity of these exports had risen only slightly, to 433,959 t, but with an estimated value

of $870,275,000.

The following tables summarizes 1) the reported quantities of these groundfish products, by

primary product form and species category, exported to each of the principal markets, for

1990 through 1994, and 2) their associated value. These data are drawn from United States

Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census sources for customs districts in Alaska and

Washington. To the maximum extent practicable, only products deriving from groundfish

harvested off Alaska are included in the reported export quantities.

The world seafood market was fundamentally changed with the. wide-spread implementation of

Extended Jurisdiction Zones in the early-to-mid 1970s (Queirolo, Johnston and Zhang, l995).

The U.S. fishing industry, and particularly those of the. Pacific Northwest and Alaska, was

among the principal beneficiaries of much of this change, expanding into new markets and

supplying new product forms.

8

 The European community, in this context, is distinct from the European Union (EU),

here including Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Germany, United Kingdom, Netherlands,

Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, and Ireland.

112
In an effort to respond to these institutional changes, official statistical data on U.S. export

product categories have changed over time, although there often is a significant lag in this

response. These changes have been made ostensibly to provide greater detail by species and

product form. However, as a result, not all products appear as distinct export categoriesin

each year, although the product may have been present in substantial quantities. For example,

“surimi” was not a separate product category until 1992. Prior to that time, export quantities

of surimi may have been recorded under product categories, “fish, meat/minced”, “fish,

minced”, or “fish balls, cake, pudding”. Despite these difficulties, these export data

demonstrate the wide variety of product forms which derive from the utilization of groundfish

harvested in the U.S. EEZ off Alaska. They also demonstrate the important contribution these

groundfish resources make to U.S. seafood export trade, and by extension to the economic

well-being of the region, and the world’s supply of seafood products.

Groundfish exports from fisheries in the U.S. EEZ off Alaska varied between 1990 and 1994,

both in terms of specific product categories and total quantity. As the data in Table 64

illustrate, total 1990 groundfish exports were 432,744 t for these fisheries. This total

increased by 8.62% in 1991, to 470,061 t, and by 2.71%, to 482,807 t, in 1992. In both 1993

and 1994, total groundfish exports, attributable to the U.S. fisheries in the EEZ off Alaska,

actually declined, first by 5.62% in 1993, then by 7.18% in 1994.

An indication of the increasing product value associated with these groundfish exports is

revealed in Table 65. For example, while the quantity of total exports of these products grew

by 8.62% from 1990 to 1991, the total value increased by 40%. A portion of this increase can

be attributed to a general increase in the world price for groundfish products. In particular,

the price of Alaska-origin exports in categories “roe” (up on average $l/lb., from $2.79 to

$3.79), and the “other products” category (primarily surimi, nearly doubling from $.76/lb. to

$1.33/lb.) were sharply higher. 9 Additional factors influencing this sharp increase in total

export value may have included growth in U.S. processing capacity and capability to produce

outputs with higher “value-added” characteristics, as well as the changing structural

relationship in seafood trade between, in particular, the United States and Japan, its principal

9

Source: R. Kinoshita, A. Greig, and J. Terry, Economic status of the groundfish

fisheries off Alaska, 1994. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech Memo. NMFS-AFSC-00, xx

P. (In prep).

113
market (see, Sproul and Queirolo, 1994).

Total export value for this region increased again, by 3.36%, between 1991 and 1992. In

1993, however, the estimated export value moved sharply lower, declining in aggregate by

24%, The principal source of this decline was attributable to a 36.6% drop in surimi prices

(from an average $1.45/lb. to $.92/lb.) in that year10 The value of exports rose only slightly,

by approximately

2.5%, in 1994.

10 Currency exchange rates and world supply of "substitute" products, including

among others meat, poultry, and seafood, influence international trade, and thus U.S. exports,

in a major way. Over the period of interest, currency, exchange rates have changed rapidly,

especially between the U.S. dollar and the Japanese yen. Because Japan is the largest single

market for groundfish products deriving from the fisheries off Alaska, the influence has be

magnified with respect to this region’s export statistics.

114
Table 64. - Principal Alaska groundfish product exports, 1990-94 (in metric tons).

115
Table 64. - Continued.

116
Table 64. - Continued.

117
Table 64. - Continued:

118
Table 64. - Continued.

Sources: U.S. Dep. Commer., Bur. of the Census: database from Natl. Mar.

Fish. Serv., Fish. Stat. Div., Silver Spring, MD 20910: and

Alaska Fish. Sci. Cent., 7600 Sand Point Way NE, BIN C15700,

Seattle, WA 98115-0090.

119
Table 65. - Value of principal Alaska groundfish product exports, 1990-94 (in $1,000).

120
Table 65. - Continued.

121
Table 65. - Continued.

122
123
Table 65. - Continued.

Sources: U.S. Dep. Commer., Bur. of the Census: database from Natl. Mar.

Fish: Serv., Fish. Stat. Div., Silver Spring, MD 20910: and

Alaska Fish. Sci. Cent., 7600 Sand Point Way NE, BIN C15700,

Seattle, WA 98115-0090.

All values are reported in "nominal" U.S. dollars.

124
Factors Influencing Trade

Several exogenous factors influence international seafood trade. Among the most significant

are currency exchange rates and world supplies of fishery products. The large quantities of

groundfish products exported by U.S. producers, especially from fisheries off Alaska, as well

as the substantial quantities of fish products supplied by foreign producers (a significant

amount of which is imported into U.S. markets) place the U.S. and foreign seafood suppliers 

in competition with one another in the world marketplace. International currency exchange

rates play a very important role in determining the respective economic performance (i.e.,

market-share) of each by affecting relative prices.

International exchange rates, particularly between the U.S. dollar and the currencies of its

major seafood trading partners, have been extremely volatile over the period 1990 to the

present (Table 66). In 1990, for example, the U.S. dollar was relatively strong against the

Japanese yen, with the dollar buying as many as 158.5 yen in April of that year. However,

from that relative high point, the dollar has moved in an almost uninterrupted downward slide,

reaching post-World War II historical low levels against the yen, in recent years. By the end

of the first quarter of 1995, the U.S. dollar would buy only 90.8 yen, a decline in purchasing

power of almost 43%. Because Japan has traditionally been the principal market for fishery

products from the United States (and particularly from Alaska and the Pacific Northwest), the

yen-dollar volatility has been especially important. In general, the U.S. dollar's relative

weakness against the yen has the effect of making U.S. exports, such as groundfish from the

EEZ off Alaska, appear relatively “inexpensive” to Japanese purchasers.

Over the same period, however, the U.S. dollar actually strengthened against the currencies of

other major seafood trading partners (and competitors). In January of 1990, for example, the

U.S. dollar would buy 1.171 Canadian dollars. Over the next 5 years, the U.S. dollar

strengthened relative to the Canadian currency until, in January of 1995, the U.S. dollar

purchased 1.413 Canadian dollars, an increase of nearly 21%. Similarly, the relative value of

the U.S. dollar and Republic of Korea won changed markedly over this period. In early 1990,

the U.S. dollar bought 683.4 Korean won. By 1994, the dollar was trading at more than 800

won, up roughly 18% in relative value.

While the dollar moved cyclically down, then up, then back down over this period against the

British pound, it ended at about the same level in the first quarter of 1995 as it had in January

of 1990; 0.625 pounds per dollar and 0.606 pounds, respectively. The dollar’s performance

against the Norwegian kroner was very similar, moving from 6.54 kroners per dollar in

January of 1990, principally downward through the early-1991, recovering through late-1991,

125
then moving lower through late-1992. During 1993 and 1994, the U.S. dollar was relatively

strong. By the end of the first quarter of 1995; the kroner/dollar exchange rate was once again

in the range seen in early 1990. Indeed, this general pattern is reflected in a number of other

currency exchange rates from western Europe.

The effect of these relative exchange rate changes has been, 1) to make U.S. exports

(including groundfish products) relatively more expensive in Canada and South Korea, 2) to

make Canadian and Korean exports into the U.S. market relatively “less expensive”, and 3) to

make Canadian and Korean products more “price competitive” with U.S. products in the world

seafood marketplace.

International exchange rate volatility introduces an important external factor of “uncertainty”

into the decision-making process for domestic groundfish producers as they assess utilization,

product mix, and marketing options and opportunities.

There is also uncertainty concerning future harvest quotas because of the condition of the

resource base. These concerns are associated both with the condition of stocks for the target

groundfish species themselves, as well as those of “prohibited bycatch species”, such as

Pacific halibut, king and Tanner crabs, Pacific salmon, and Pacific herring.

Uncertainty about access to harvestable groundfish resources in the EEZ off Alaska also

surrounds the interaction of these fish stocks and marine mammals, especially those marine

mammal species which are listed as “depleted” or “threatened” under the U.S. Marine

Mammal Protection Act.

All of these exogenous factors, and perhaps others not yet apparent, will influence the pattern

of development and continued growth of the U.S. groundfish industry harvesting, processing,

and exporting product from the EEZ off Alaska. Historical trends may provide some

indication of where this important industry has come from, and where it may be headed.

 Nonetheless, the natural volatility in the ecological, biological, and economic environments

demand continued careful examination of this important natural resource of the United Stat&.

126 
Table 66. - International Currency Exchange Rates for Selected Countries, 1990- 1995 *.

(Expressed in national currency units per U. S. dollar).

127
Table 66. - (continued).

128
Estimating the Opportunity Cost of Bycatch

As noted in the foregoing discussion, the ecological and biological impacts of groundfish

discards in the GOA and BSAI groundfish fisheries, while difficult to quantify, may be

minimal. Fish which are intercepted as unwanted bycatch by one fishery, and ultimately

discarded, may, absent their loss as bycatch, have been harvested and utilized to produce a

marketable product in another fishery. Their capture and subsequent disposal, therefore, may

impose direct economic costs on segments of the industry which target the species.

If a series of simplifying assumptions are made, it is possible to estimate the approximate

value of the foregone catch of fish taken as bycatch and discarded in BSAI and GOA

 groundfish fisheries. For purposes of the following analysis, it is assumed that the 1994 catch

utilization and discard patterns in the BSAI and GOA groundfish fisheries are typical, and that

prices and product mixes remain constant.; Further, it is assumed that bycatch mortality for

discarded groundfish is 100%.

It must be acknowledged that not all groundfish discards represent foregone catches in

alternative fisheries. Two categories where this is so can be immediately identified. First, at

present some species (e.g., bearded eel pout) are not regarded as having economic value as

retained catch. Therefore, the discard of these bycatch species cannot reasonably be

considered to have imposed costs on other fisheries. Second, some groundfish species for

which markets do exist, nonetheless, are not fully utilized by fishermen, e.g., arrowtooth

flounder. Thus, if the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of a species is not taken during the

fishing year, bycatch discards of that species in one fishery can be regarded as surplus to the

needs of any other fishery targeting that species. Therefore, such discards cannot be said to

impose economic costs on the target fisheries for the discarded species. For all other species,

however, it is reasonable to conclude that bycatch mortality does impose economic costs on

target fisheries, and these costs should be recognized and accounted for, if possible.

One caveat must precede the derivation of these estimated losses. The economic value of

bycatch discards can be thought of as having two components. The first is the opportunity

cost of the bycatch mortality, measured, in this case, as the value of the products foregone in

target fisheries which would have harvested and utilized the fish, had it not been taken as

bycatch. The second component is the. value of the bycatch as a variable input to production

129
of the target species catch (and subsequent product output), in the intercepting fishery. That

is, if Pacific cod, for example, is caught in the bottom pollock fishery and discarded as

unwanted bycatch, the value of that discarded cod has two economic components. First, if the

discarded cod would have been harvested and utilized in a cod target fishery, the value of the

foregone cod in that use is its opportunity cost.11 In addition, however, if some cod bycatch is

unavoidable in order to catch pollock, then the cod used as bycatch also has an economic value

as an input in the harvest and utilization of pollock. It should be noted that these economic

value components are not additive.

The value of bycatch discards as a variable input to production may be larger or smaller than

the estimated opportunity cost derived below, depending upon the species discarded, the target

fisheries in question, and the respective market values of the outputs produced and foregone.

It is not possible at this time to estimate the value of the bycatch discard as an input to

production for the BSAI and GOA groundfish fisheries. It is possible, however, by employing

a series of simplifying assumptions, to make a crude estimate of the opportunity cost of the

groundfish discards in these fisheries.

By utilizing 1994 catch, production, and product price data, an estimate was made of the first

wholesale value (for a round weight equivalent ton), weighted by product form and mix, for

11 By definition, “opportunity cost” is the value of the resource in its next best use. It

is a measure of “social”, not “private” cost. As the groundfish fisheries in the U.S. EEZ of

the North Pacific and Bering Sea are currently managed, it is reasonable to assume that the

“opportunity cost” of bycatch of a given species is appropriately measured as the foregone

revenue from its use in the fishery targeting that species. This is so because the TAC is the

sum of both retained and discarded catch. Thus, when a ton of catch is discarded, it reduces

by a ton the total amount that can be retained. Only in the case where, for example, the

bycatch occurs in fishery A, the target fishery is B, and a third fishery, say C, is limited in the

catch of its target because the TAC for the species targeted in fishery B and discarded in

fishery A is taken, would it be possible for the “opportunity cost” to be other than as assumed.

Few such examples exist in the BSAI or GOA groundfish fisheries.

130
each groundfish species, with an allocated TAC for which that TAC was binding. 12 These

round weight equivalent wholesale values were then applied to the estimated discards, by

species, by target fishery, under the assumption that, absent the bycatch loss, an equal quantity

of catch of the discarded species would have accrued to other fisheries targeting and retaining

that species. That is, if a ton of sablefish was-caught and discarded, for example, in the GOA

“deepwater flatfish” fishery, by assumption, the opportunity cost of that ton of discarded

sablefish would be the weighted product value per ton of retained sablefish catch in the GOA

target sablefish fishery. All groundfish discards, by species, for each directed fishery were

treated in the same way. They were then summed across species to yield the total estimated

value of the foregone groundfish production attributable to that target fishery. These estimates

are reported, by target fishery, by BSAI and GOA management areas, in Tables 67 and 68,

respectively.

To place these bycatch discard opportunity cost, estimates in context, a ratio was prepared for

each target fishery, which portrays the relationship between the value of the total product of

the target fishery, with the opportunity cost imposed by that fishery on other target fisheries,

as a result of bycatch discards. These ratios are also presented in Tables 67 and 68 for the

respective management areas.. They may be interpreted, subject to the limitations of the

estimation procedure cited above, as the value of output obtained per dollar of bycatch

opportunity cost imposed. That is, say fishery A has a retained/discard value ratio of 5.5.

This suggests that, for target fishery A, for each dollar of bycatch opportunity cost it imposes

on other fisheries, target fishery A produces $5.50 of product output value from its retained

catch.

In 1994, there were six target groundfish fisheries in the BSAI management area for which the

TAC was binding. There were five target groundfish fisheries in GOA which met this

criterion. Since, by assumption, opportunity costs attributable to bycatch discards can only

accrue if a species TAC is attained (and thus no unutilized surplus quantity of that species is

available to the fishery), these eleven target fisheries are the only ones for which an

12 “Wholesale” product value was employed rather than “exvessel” value because many

of these fisheries have significant participation by catcher/processors, for which an exvessel

price is neither available nor particularly relevant. Use of wholesale values also avoids the

problem of “post-season” price adjustments from processor to fisherman, which may not be

captured in the available exvessel price data.

131
opportunity cost estimate, and retained/discard value ratio can be made.13

In 1994, all BSAI groundfish fisheries taken together, discarded 162,161 mt of allocated

groundfish species for which the TAC was binding (hereafter referred to as AGFS). The

opportunity cost of the AGFS discards exceeded $91,848,000. Total retained catch of all

groundfish species in these fisheries taken as a whole was just over 1,699,500 t. The

aggregate retained value of this catch exceeded $925,229,800. Thus, the Retained/Discard

Value Ratio, weighted by fishery across all BSAI groundfish fisheries, was 10.1. That is, for

each dollar of bycatch opportunity cost imposed, $10.10 of output was produced from retained

catch. Individual rates varied from a high of 29.2 in the pollock target fishery, to a low of 2.4

in the “other” groundfish target fishery.

In the GOA groundfish fisheries, taken as a whole, AGFS discards totaled 15,685.4 t. The

opportunity cost of the AGFS discards exceeded $14,661,597. Total retained catch of all

groundfish species in these fisheries, taken as a whole, was just over 196,588 t. The

aggregate retained value of this catch exceeded $235,825,000. Thus, the Retained/Discard

Value Ratio, weighted by fishery across all GOA groundfish fisheries, was 16.1. That is, for

each dollar of bycatch opportunity cost imposed, $16.10 of output was produced from retained

catch. Individual rates varied from a high of 45.4 in the sablefish target fishery, to a low of

3.4 in the arrowtooth flounder target fishery.

The individual estimates presented in these tables should be regarded as only “preliminary. ”

However, they do suggest that the value of the retained catch associated with current levels of

bycatch discards consistently, exceeds the estimated attributable opportunity cost imposed on

target groundfish fisheries. This should not be interpreted to suggest that current discard

levels are somehow “optimal. ” Indeed, if bycatch discards could be reduced without adversely

affecting total retained catch, the Retained/Discard Value Ratio would be even higher than

estimated below. Because some bycatch is virtually unavoidable, given available fishing

technology, it is not clear by how much bycatch discards can be reduced, without a

13 Discard and retained quantity estimates are derived from 1994 “blend” data.

Weighted “first wholesale” price estimates are derived from Alaska Region product value files,

which utilize the National Marine Fisheries Service-Alaska Department of Fish and Game

Processor Survey. These data are reported annual prices, by species and product form, by

either BSAI or GOA management area, No gear-type differentiation has been included.

132
simultaneous reduction in the value of the retained catch. This trade-off between the foregone

value of discards and the revenue stream deriving from retained catch is key to maximizing the

benefits that flow from this resource.

133
Table 67. - Derivation of “Opportunity Cost” and Retained/Discard Value Ratios for BSAI Groundfish Fisheries

[Part A]

Discard Allocated Species or Species Groups

134
Table 67. - (continued).

[Part D]

135
Table 67. - (continued).

136
Table 67. - (continued).

[Part F]
Table 68. - Derivation of “Opportunity Cost” and Retained/Discard Value Ratios for GOA Groundfish Fisheries

[Part A]

Discard Allocated Species or Species Groups (t)

138
Table 68. - (continued).

[Part D]

139
Table 68. - (continued).

[Part E]

Estimated First Wholesale Price/(t) of Catch, [for all retained species] ($)15

140
Table 68. - (continued).

[Part F]

Total Retained Value ($)

141
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56 DORN, M. W., S. M. FITZGERALD, M. A. GUTTORMSEN, and M. R. LOEFFLAD. 1995. An evaluation

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55 PELLA, J., R. RUMBAUGH, and M. DAHLBERG. 1995. Incidental catches of salmonids in the 1991

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54 KINOSHITA, R. K., A. GRIEG, and J. M. TERRY. 1995. Economic status of the groundfish fisheries off

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53 WING, B. L., and D. J. KAMIKAWA. 1995. Distribution of neustonic sablefish larvae and associated

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52 HONKALEHTO, T., and N. WILLIAMSON. 1995. Echo integration-trawl survey of walleye pollock

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51 CLARY, J. C. (editor). 1995. Poster abstracts and manuscripts from the Third International Conference

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50 MUNRO, P. T., and R. Z. HOFF. 1995. Two demersal trawl surveys in the Gulf of Alaska: Implications

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49 STARK, J. W., and D. M. CLAUSEN. 1995. Data Report: 1990 Gulf of Alaska bottom trawl survey, 221

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48 NARITA, R., M. GUTTORMSEN, J. GHARRETT, G. TROMBLE, and J. BERGER. 1994. Summary of

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47 DORN, M. W., E. P. NUNNALLEE, C. D. WILSON, and M. E. WILKINS. 1994. Status of the coastal

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46 SINCLAIR, E. H. (editor). 1994. Fur seal investigations, 1993, 93 p. NTIS No. PB95-178943.

45 SINCLAIR, E. H. (editor). 1994. Fur seal investigations, 1992, 190 p. NTIS No. PB95-173472.

44 KINOSHITA, R. K., and J. M. TERRY. 1994. Oregon, Washington, and Alaska exports of edible

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43 FERRERO, R. C., and L. W. FRITZ. 1994. Comparisons of walleye pollock, Theragra chalcogramma,

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NTIS No. PB95-155602.

42 ZIMMERMANN, M. , M. E. WILKINS, R. R. LAUTH, and K. L. WEINBERG. 1994. The 1992 Pacific

west coast bottom trawl survey of groundfish resources: Estimates of distribution, abundance, and length

composition, 110 p. plus Appendices. NTIS No. PB95-154159.