United States

Department

of Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky Mountain

Research Station

General Technical

Report

RMRS-GTR-11

July 1998

Peatlands on National Forests of

the Northern Rocky Mountains:

Ecology and Conservation

Steve W. Chadde

J. Stephen Shelly

Robert J. Bursik

Robert K. Moseley

Angela G. Evenden

Maria Mantas

Fred Rabe

Bonnie Heidel
Rocky Mountain Research Station

(formerly Intermountain Research Station)

324 25th Street

Ogden, UT 84401

The Authors

Steve W. Chadde is an Ecological Consultant in Calumet, MI. At the time of this research project he was

Ecologist with the USDA Forest Service’s Northern Region

Natural Areas Program.

J. Stephen Shelly is a Regional Botanist with the USDA

Forest Service’s Northern Region Headquarter’s Office

in Missoula, MT.

Robert J. Bursik is Botanical Consultant in Amery, WI.

At the time of this research he was a Botanist with the

Idaho Department of Fish and Game’s Conservation

Data Center in Boise, ID.

Robert K. Moseley is Plant Ecologist and Director for the

Idaho Department of Fish and Game’s Conservation

Data Center in Boise, ID.

Angela G. Evenden is a Botanical Consultant and

former Natural Areas Program Manager with the USDA

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station in

Missoula, MT.

Maria Mantas is Forest Botanist with the Flathead National Forest in Kalispell, MT.

Fred Rabe is an Aquatic Biologist and retired professor

from the University of Idaho in Moscow, ID.

Bonnie Heidel is Botanist with the Montana Natural

Heritage Program in Helena, MT.

Research Summary

Peatlands are an uncommon landscape feature in the

Northern Rocky Mountains of the United States and

provide habitat for a number of plant and animal species

dependent on these environments. As such, peatlands

are an important contributor to local and regional biological diversity. Peatlands also have considerable scientific

value (via coring) as repositories of pollen and ash

deposits, providing insight into postglacial vegetation

and climates. Included in this report are a description of

the physical components, vegetation, vascular and

nonvascular flora, and invertebrate fauna associated

with peatlands on National Forests in northeastern Washington, Idaho, and Montana. Also included are descriptions of 58 sites representative of the diversity of peatlands

present within the study area. Research needs and

conservation tools to protect peatlands are discussed.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank a number of reviewers for sharing

their expertise and comments in the preparation of this

report. In Montana, support for the project was provided

by the Natural Areas Program of the Northern Region/

Rocky Mountain Research Station, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service. Dan Svoboda (BeaverheadDeerlodge National Forest) and Dean Sirucek (Flathead

National Forest) contributed portions of the soils and

geology chapters. Louis Kuennen and Dan Leavell

(Kootenai National Forest) guided the authors to several interesting peatlands. Mark Shapley, hydrologist,

Helena, MT, volunteered his time and provided insights

into the hydrology and water chemistry of several rich

fens. Dr. Diana Horton, University of Iowa identified a

number of moss collections.

In Idaho, most of the peatland studies were conducted

through the University of Idaho, with funding from the

C. R. Stillinger Trust and the Idaho Conservation Data

Center, with funding from the following United States

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service offices: Idaho

Panhandle, Targhee, and Sawtooth National Forests,

Intermountain Region, and the Rocky Mountain Research Station. Bob Shackleford and Jill Blake, both

formerly with the Idaho Panhandle National Forests, and

Nancy Shaw from the Rocky Mountain Research Station

were especially helpful. Other scientists who contributed

to the inventory and research of peatlands in Idaho

include Douglass Henderson, University of Idaho (deceased), Peter Mehringer, Washington State University,

Peter Van de Water, Arizona State University, John

Rumely, Montana State University (retired), Charles

Wellner, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

(retired), Michael Mancuso and Steven Caicco, Idaho

Conservation Data Center, and Linda Cazier, PalouseClearwater Environmental Institute. Russell C. Biggham

contributed to the invertebrate descriptions. John Christy,

Oregon Natural Heritage Program, identified Idaho moss

collections.

Peter Lesica, Stephen Cooper, Dr. Joe Elliott, and Dr.

Steve Arno reviewed the final manuscript and provided

many useful comments. Joe Elliott also provided valuable moss information for a number of peatlands.
Contents

Page

Introduction ................................................................1

Objectives ..................................................................2

Methods .....................................................................2

Site Selection ..........................................................2

Plant Community Sampling ....................................3

Site Evaluation and Ranking ...................................3

Peatland Distribution ..................................................4

Idaho and Northeastern Washington ......................6

Montana ..................................................................6

Northwestern Wyoming...........................................6

Physical Setting..........................................................6

Climate ....................................................................6

Geology ..................................................................7

Terrestrial Vegetation .............................................7

Peatland Types ..........................................................8

Poor Fens ...............................................................9

Rich and Extremely Rich Fens .............................10

Ombrotrophic Bogs ...............................................10

Peatland Formation ..................................................10

Lake-Fill or Basin Peatlands .................................11

Flow-Through or Slope Peatlands ........................11

Patterned Fens .....................................................11

Paludification ........................................................12

Peatland Soils ..........................................................12

Classification of Peatland Soils .............................13

Peat Profiles .........................................................13

Peatland Water Chemistry ....................................13

Peatland Components..............................................14

Floating Mats ........................................................14

Carr .......................................................................14

Paludified Forest ...................................................14

Lakes and Ponds ..................................................15

Stream ..................................................................15

Beaver Activity ......................................................15

Palsa .....................................................................16

Peatland Vegetation and Flora.................................16

Vascular Flora .......................................................16

Bryophyte Flora ....................................................17

Classification of Plant Community Types .............17

Rare Vascular Flora ..............................................21

Photographs of the Different Types of

 Peatland Environments ......................................23

Photographs of Common and Rare Peatland

 Plants .................................................................26

Peatlands as Historical Archives ..............................29

Peatland Fauna ........................................................30

Invertebrates .........................................................30

Vertebrates ...........................................................31

Peatland Conservation .............................................31

Threats ..................................................................32

Management of Peatlands on National Forests .....32

Site Protection Through Special Area

Designations .......................................................33

Site Evaluation and Ranking .................................33

Research and Monitoring Needs..............................35

Inventory ...............................................................35

Classification .........................................................35

Monitoring .............................................................36

Research ..............................................................36

Education ..............................................................36

Glossary ...................................................................36

References ...............................................................40

Appendix A: Vascular and Nonvascular Plant

Species of Peatlands in Idaho and Western

Montana ..............................................................44

Appendix B: Peatland Site Descriptions...................54

Appendix C: Invertebrates Associated with

Peatlands in the Northern Rocky Mountains ......73

Page

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USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 1

Introduction ____________________

Peatlands are generally defined as wetlands with

waterlogged substrates and approximately 30 cm or

more of peat1 accumulation (Kivinen and Pakarinen

1981). Once peat has developed to this depth, the

availability of oxygen and nutrients essential to plant

growth drops sharply, and plant roots must obtain

their mineral nutrients from the saturated, oxygenpoor peat. Lack of oxygen and cool temperatures limit

plant growth, microbial decomposition, and subsequent nutrient cycling. Peatlands are, therefore, dependent on external supplies of nutrients from either

the atmosphere or inflowing, mineral-enriched water.

Peatlands are most extensive in northern latitudes

with cool, humid climates where precipitation exceeds

evapotranspiration. They are best developed on lowelevation, nearly level landforms having some degree

of impeded drainage. Worldwide, extensive peatland

areas occur in boreal regions, including significant

portions of Siberia, Eastern Europe, Finland, Canada,

and Alaska. In North America, major peatland areas

are located in the Hudson Bay lowlands and Great

Slave and Great Bear Lake areas of Canada, and the

Glacial Lake Agassiz region of Canada and northern

Minnesota (fig. 1) (Zoltai and Pollet 1983). An estimated 12 percent of Canada’s land area is peatland

(Zoltai 1988).

In the Northern Rocky Mountains2

 of the United

States, peatlands are uncommon, in large part due

to a climate unfavorable to their extensive development. Peatlands become even rarer southward in the

cordillera. For example, in the central and southern

Rocky Mountains of Wyoming and Colorado, there

may be sites with adequate moisture or humidity for

peatland development, but intense solar radiation

may be unfavorable to the establishment of peatland

plants (Larsen 1982). In the same area, summer dry

Peatlands on National Forests of

the Northern Rocky Mountains:

Ecology and Conservation

Steve W. Chadde

J. Stephen Shelly

Robert J. Bursik

Robert K. Moseley

Angela G. Evenden

Maria Mantas

Fred Rabe

Bonnie Heidel

1Words in bold italics are defined in the glossary. The glossary

also includes terms generally used to describe peatland

environments and features not included in this report. 2In this report, Northern Rocky Mountains is used as a generic

term to encompass the study area of Idaho, western Montana, and

northwestern Wyoming. Most peatlands included here lie within

the Temperate Steppe Regime Mountains Division of Bailey and

others (1994). At the province level, the peatlands occur within the

Northern, Middle, and Southern Rocky Mountains Provinces. 3Due to the lack of common names for many of the plant species

discussed in this report, we have elected to use scientific names as

the standard reference. Appendix A provides a list of common

names, and in addition we have selectively used common names (in

parentheses) where we thought it would help the less technical

reader.

periods may limit plant growth and peat accumulation. A number of species often found in peatlands,

including Orchis rotundifolia3 (round-leaved orchis)

and Cypripedium passerinum (sparrow’s-egg lady’sslipper), range southward into the United States

along the Rocky Mountains, reaching their southern

limit in Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, or Colorado

(Cooper and Andrus 1994).

Peatlands are characterized by extreme environmental conditions not found in other wetland ecosystems. Due to their great mass of water-holding

organic matter, peatlands are exceptionally stable

and may persist for centuries. In the absence of disturbance, peatlands support autogenic or self-perpetuating communities. Anaerobic, acidic, and nutrientpoor peatland conditions limit decay of organic

matter. This suite of environmental conditions that

leads to the widespread formation of peatlands in far

northern latitudes is uncommon in the Northern

Rocky Mountains of the United States. The combination of habitat rarity, habitat stability, and extreme
2 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Figure 1—Major peatland concentrations

in North America: (1) Glacial Lake Agassiz

region, (2) Hudson Bay lowlands, (3) Great

Bear-Great Slave Lake region, (4) Interior

Alaska. Lightly stippled areas mark boreal

regions of Canada and Alaska (Glaser 1987).

habitat conditions explain the distinctiveness of the

flora in peatlands, as well as the high concentrations

of rare species that are restricted to peatland environments in the Western United States. For example, in

Idaho about 10 to 15 percent of the State’s rare flora

are restricted to peatlands (Bursik and Moseley 1992c).

The ecological, scientific, and aesthetic values of

peatlands are disproportionately high compared to

their extent on the landscape.

Despite their uniqueness, few studies on peatlands

had been conducted in the Northern Rocky Mountains

of the United States until recently (Lesica 1986; Rumely

1956). In contrast, many floristic and ecological studies of peatlands have been conducted throughout other

boreal and temperate parts of the world, including

numerous studies in Canada (Slack and others 1980;

Vitt and Slack 1975) and the Eastern United States

(Crum 1988; Damman and French 1987; Glaser 1987).

Beginning in 1987, peatland inventories and monitoring studies were initiated in Idaho (Bursik 1990, 1993;

Bursik and Henderson 1995; Caicco 1987, 1988;

Moseley 1989, 1990, 1992; Moseley and others 1991,

1992, 1994) and Montana (Chadde and Shelly 1995;

Mantas 1993). Additional studies have focused on

understanding community-level and landscape-level

patterns in peatlands (Bursik 1993; Bursik and Moseley

1992a,b).

Objectives _____________________

This report summarizes preliminary reports and

published and unpublished studies by the authors and

other researchers in the Northern Rocky Mountains

of the United States. As such, study objectives varied

somewhat in each case. The objective of this report is

to describe the major ecological features of peatlands

including: peatland types, peatland formation, classification of major plant communities, vascular and

nonvascular flora, and invertebrate fauna. Major ecological processes affecting peatlands are outlined, although specific data apart from water chemistry measurements were not collected by the authors.

A second objective was to identify major threats to

peatlands and discuss the significance of these threats

to the continued existence of peatlands. Management

techniques to maintain peatlands and to minimize adverse impacts to these ecosystems are also discussed.

A third objective was to evaluate the conservation

significance of inventoried peatlands. A ranking system using seven criteria was developed to identify

sites with a high conservation value.

Methods _______________________

Because this report summarizes a number of studies, peatland sampling and inventory procedures were

varied. Cited publications and reports should be consulted for field methods and data analysis techniques.

In field studies conducted by the authors, at a minimum, listings were compiled of vascular plant species

encountered in each peatland. Mosses were also identified at most study sites or collected for later determination. Voucher specimens were placed at various

regional herbaria including the University of Idaho,

University of Montana, Missoula Forestry Sciences

Laboratory (Rocky Mountain Research Station), Oregon State University, University of Iowa, and the

University of Alberta. Most surveyors placed special

emphasis on locating plant species listed as sensitive

by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

or as species of special concern by the Idaho Conservation Data Center (IDCDC) and Montana Natural Heritage Program (MTNHP). Vascular plant nomenclature and authority names follow Hitchcock and

Cronquist (1973). A common wetland sedge commonly

referred to as beaked sedge was erroneously referred

to as Carex rostrata in previous studies in the region.

In this report, this species is named Carex utriculata

(Griffiths 1989). Carex rostrata is apparently rare and

may be present in northwestern Montana but was not

encountered during peatland inventories by the authors. Moss nomenclature follows Anderson and others

(1990), except for Sphagnum, which follows Anderson

(1990).

Site Selection

Peatlands were selected for sampling based on previously published studies, interviewing knowledgeable

local sources, reviewing air photos, and by searching
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 3

element occurrence records maintained by State

natural heritage programs for species typically found

in peatlands. A ranking system was developed to

evaluate the biological and conservation significance

of each peatland. Sites included in this report represent a subset of peatlands present in the region and

are also a subset of the inventoried sites. First, only

those occurring on National Forest lands are included.

Apart from two sites in Wyoming, all the peatlands

have been personally visited by one or more of the

authors of this report. Second, only those peatlands

having a moderate to high significance are described.

It should be emphasized that a number of significant

peatlands, especially those found at lower elevations,

are privately owned, and many of them have not been

studied in any detail. Similarly, high-elevation peatlands have been somewhat under-sampled due to

their inaccessibility (Cooper and Lesica 1992). However, subalpine and peatlands generally lack the

rare species found in lower elevation peatlands

(Bursik and Henderson 1995).

Plant Community Sampling

A shared objective of a number of studies was an

attempt to develop a classification of the major plant

communities characteristic of peatlands in the region.

Site description and community sampling methods

and forms developed by the Western Heritage Task

Force of The Nature Conservancy (Bourgeron and

others 1992) were used in Montana by Chadde and

Shelly (unpublished data on file at the Northern Region Botany Program, Missoula, MT) and in Idaho by

Moseley and others (1994). Circular sample plots having an area of 50 m2

 were subjectively placed within

patches of homogeneous vegetation possessing a relatively uniform structure, composition, and hydrologic

regime. In Idaho, Bursik (1993) used ECODATA sampling techniques detailed in Jensen and others (1994).

Plots were grouped into tentative community types

by considering the dominant vascular plant species,

similarities in environmental factors (especially substrate and hydrologic characteristics), and grouping

resulting from ordinations by the authors and other

researchers. In Montana, tentative community types

were compared to those in a comprehensive, Statewide wetland classification developed by the Montana

Riparian and Wetland Association (Hansen and

others 1995).

Site Evaluation and Ranking

To assess the conservation significance of peatlands in the Northern Rocky Mountains, a ranking

system was developed and used to evaluate each site’s

ecological features (table 1). The system was then used

Table 1—Conservation significance ranking criteria for Northern Rocky Mountain peatlands.

Attribute Ranking

Representativeness 3. Site is an outstanding example of a particular vegetation type or peatland feature.

2. Site is an adequate example of a particular vegetation or peatland type, but its value may be lessened by

other factors.

1. Site is a fair to poor example of a particular vegetation or peatland type; other factors may be influencing

the site.

Quality 3. Site is essentially pristine; human impacts absent or minimal.

2. Some impacts apparent in surrounding watershed that may affect peatland, for example, nearby timber

harvests, livestock grazing, roads.

1. Peatland has been directly affected by impacts such as draining, ditching, or exotic species.

Rarity 3. Site has a high concentration of rare species, uncommon vegetation types, or peatland features.

2. Site has a low to moderate concentration of rare species, uncommon vegetation types, or peatland features

1. Rare species, uncommon vegetation types, or peatland features low in number or absent.

Diversity 3. Site has a high diversity of vegetation types or peatland features.

2. Site has a moderate diversity of vegetation types or peatland features.

1. Site has a low diversity of vegetation types or peatland features.

Viability 3. Site has a high probability to persist over the long term.

2. Site has moderate potential of persisting over the long term.

1. Site may not persist over the long term.

Defensibility 3. Site protection feasible, completed, or already proposed.

2. Site protection possible.

1. Site protection difficult or unlikely.

Scientific and educational value 3. Site has a demonstrated value for research and education; site is reasonably accessible to researchers or

visitors.

2. Site has potential scientific and educational value; access varies.

1. Site has limited value for research or education; access may be difficult.
4 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

to identify highly significant peatlands and to direct

conservation efforts. The system is modified from

evaluation schemes developed for peatlands in

Minnesota (Wright and others 1992), Maine (Davis

and others 1983), and Idaho (Bursik and Moseley

1995; Jankovsky-Jones 1996; Rabe and Savage 1977).

For each peatland, seven criteria were subjectively

assessed:

Representativeness—Emphasis was given to

peatlands typifying the range of peatland features

such as type of peatland, topographic setting, and

vegetation type. Geographic representativeness is also

important so that peatlands occurring within a broad

range of environmental conditions are included in a

representative system of protected peatlands. In this

study, geographic representativeness was not used

as a ranking factor because the peatlands inventoried

by the authors span most of the Northern Rocky

Mountains.

Quality—Peatlands undisturbed by adverse human

or other negative impacts such as ditching, trampling,

or invasive species were assigned a higher value.

Rarity—Emphasis was given to those peatlands

having concentrations of rare plants, rare plant communities, or uncommon peatland features.

Diversity—Higher value was given to those peatlands having the greatest diversity of plant communities and other peatland components.

Table 2—Peatland sites on National Forests (NF) in Idaho, northeastern Washington, western Montana, and northwestern

Wyoming. RD = Ranger District, RNA = Research Natural Area, SIA = Special Interest Area, p = proposed, TNC =

The Nature Conservancy. See appendix B for descriptions of each site.

Site location Special Designation

Idaho

Bonner County

Armstrong Meadows Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Bismark Meadows Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Bottle Lake Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD RNA

Dubius Creek Fen Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Hager Lake Fen Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD, private —

Hoodoo Lake Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Kaniksu Marsh Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD RNA

Lamb Creek Meadows Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD, private —

Lost Lake Kaniksu NF, Sandpoint RD —

Mosquito Bay Fen Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD, private —

Packer Meadows Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Potholes Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD RNA

Upper Priest Lake Fen Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD, State of Idaho —

Boundary County

Beaver Lake (North) Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD, State of Idaho —

Bog Creek Fen Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD —

Cow Creek Meadows Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD —

Grass Creek Meadows Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD —

Perkins Lake Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD, private —

Robinson Lake Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD —

Sinclair Lake Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD —

Smith Creek Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD RNA

Three Ponds Kaniksu NF, Bonners Ferry RD RNA

Viability—Emphasis was given to peatlands most

likely to persist into the future, and sites that were

least vulnerable to adverse human influences. Important factors include size of peatland, habitat diversity, position in the watershed, and source of water

maintaining the peatland.

Defensibility—Higher value was given to peatlands having a high feasibility for protection through

special designations or appropriate management

practices. Sites already protected were also given high

values.

Scientific and Educational Value—Peatlands

having a demonstrated or potential value for research

or education were judged to be of greater importance

than sites with limited research or educational value.

Peatland Distribution ____________

In the Northern Rocky Mountains, peatlands

generally occur as small, discreet landscape features.

On National Forests in the Northern Rocky Mountains, 29 peatlands in Idaho, 24 peatlands in Montana,

three peatlands in northeastern Washington, and two

peatlands in northwestern Wyoming are described in

this report (table 2). Peatlands also occur on private

lands in the region, typically at lower elevations.

Several of these are protected by The Nature Conservancy, such as Montana’s Pine Butte Swamp Preserve

west of Choteau.

(con.)
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 5

Custer County

Blind Summit Fen Challis NF, Yankee Fork RD and Sawtooth NF, —

Sawtooth National Recreation Area

Iron Bog Challis NF, Lost River RD RNA

Sawtooth Valley Peatlands Sawtooth NF, Sawtooth National Recreation Area RNA

includes

Bull Moose Fen

Huckleberry Creek Fen

Mays Creek Fen

Fremont County

Big Springs–Henry’s Fork Targhee NF, Island Park RD pSIA

 Confluence

Kootenai County

Rose Lake Coeur D’Alene NF, State of Idaho, private —

Lemhi County

Birch Creek Fen Targhee NF, Dubois RD, State of Idaho, private TNC preserve

Valley County

Tule Lake Boise NF, Cascade RD —

Washington

Pend Oreille County

Deerhorn Creek Meadows Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Huff Lake Fen Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Sema Meadows Kaniksu NF, Priest Lake RD —

Montana

Beaverhead County

Leonard Creek Fen Beaverhead NF, Madison RD —

Skull Creek Fens Beaverhead NF, Wise River RD RNA

Flathead County

Bent Flat Fen Flathead NF, Spotted Bear RD —

Gregg Creek Fen Flathead NF, Tally Lake RD —

Mud Lake Flathead NF, Spotted Bear RD Wilderness

Sanko Creek (North) Flathead NF, Tally Lake RD —

Sanko Creek (South) Flathead NF, Tally Lake RD —

Sheppard Creek Fen Flathead NF, Tally Lake RD —

Trail Creek Fen Flathead NF, Spotted Bear RD —

Trout Lake Flathead NF, Spotted Bear RD —

Lake County

Lost Creek Fens Flathead NF, Swan Lake RD —

Porcupine Fen Flathead NF, Swan Lake RD —

Swan River Fen Flathead NF, Swan Lake RD RNA

Lewis & Clark County

Indian Meadows Helena NF, Lincoln RD RNA

Lincoln County

Bowen Creek Fen Flathead NF, Tally Lake RD —

Cody Lake Fen Kootenai NF, Fisher River RD —

Hawkins Pond Kootenai NF, Three Rivers RD —

Tepee Lake Kootenai NF, Libby RD —

Missoula County

Sheep Mountain Bog Lolo NF, Missoula RD RNA

Shoofly Meadows Lolo NF, Missoula RD RNA

Windfall Creek Fen Flathead NF, Swan Lake RD —

Powell County

Butcher Mountain Fens Flathead NF, Spotted Bear RD Wilderness

Ravalli County

Lost Trail Pass Fen Bitterroot NF, Sula RD pSIA

Rock Creek Wetland Bitterroot NF, Darby RD —

Wyoming

Park County

Sawtooth Fen-Palsa Shoshone NF

Swamp Lake Shoshone NF SIA

Table 2 (Con.)

Site location Special Designation
6 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Idaho and Northeastern Washington

Bursik (1990) recognized two major peatland settings in Idaho and northeastern Washington: valley

peatlands and subalpine peatlands. Valley peatlands

generally occur around lakes and ponds at relatively

low elevations in major river valleys from northern

Idaho to eastern Idaho. The biodiversity of Idaho’s

valley peatlands is high. Although wide-ranging across

the State, valley peatlands are very rare, and contain

some of the highest concentrations of rare species

found in Idaho. Valley peatlands are characterized

by numerous boreal species whose Idaho populations

are disjunct from the main portion of their range in

boreal regions of Canada.

Subalpine peatlands are more common throughout

Idaho and northeastern Washington. They generally

form along low-gradient, subalpine streams. Subalpine peatlands are characterized by plant species

common throughout the western cordillera.

Montana

In Montana, peatlands are concentrated in the

western one-third of the State. They are present in all

life zones, including foothills, intermontane valley

floors, montane and subalpine coniferous forests, and

alpine tundra. The most extensive, floristically diverse concentration of peatlands occurs on the valley

floor of the Swan Valley of northwestern Montana.

This watershed is characterized by a moist climate,

abundant surface water, generally calcareous substrate, and a post-glacial landscape featuring potholes and sidehill benches.

Northwestern Wyoming

Two peatlands from the Shoshone National Forest

of northwestern Wyoming are included in this report:

Swamp Lake and Sawtooth Peatbeds (the only palsa

documented from the contiguous United States)

(Collins and others 1984). Swamp Lake is a calcareous

peatland featuring a number of vascular plants

widely disjunct from their main ranges to the north

(Evert and others 1986). Peatlands from the central

Rocky Mountains have also been described in Wyoming

(Cooper and Andrus 1994) and Colorado (Cooper

1991, 1996).

Physical Setting ________________

Climate

The climate of the Northern Rocky Mountains is

influenced by both maritime and continental patterns.

The maritime influence producing relatively mild, wet

winters is most pronounced in northern Idaho and

northwestern Montana. Traveling south and east in

the region, the maritime influence decreases, and is

replaced by a climate more typical of inland areas.

The continental influence extends over most of the

region in the summer months, bringing with it warm,

dry weather and cool nights. Locally, temperature and

precipitation patterns are complicated by topography,

aspect, and elevation. Significant limitations to extensive peatland development apparently are the low humidities and prolonged dry periods characteristic of

the region’s summer months

Idaho—The climate of Idaho and extreme northeastern Washington has a strong maritime influence,

especially in northern portions of the State (Ross and

Savage 1967). This moderating effect decreases southward and eastward and is essentially absent from

southeastern Idaho. Northern Idaho is influenced by

prevailing westerly air masses from the Pacific Ocean

during the winter and spring. These air masses bring

prolonged, gentle rains, deep snow accumulation at

higher elevations, cloudiness and frequent fog, high

humidity, and winter temperatures 8 to 14 °C warmer

than continental areas at similar latitudes (Cooper

and others 1991). Data from the Priest River Experimental Forest in the Priest River Valley, best express

the climate of peatland-supporting valleys in northern Idaho. The average annual precipitation of the

Priest River Experimental Forest is 80 cm and the

average annual temperature is 6.8 °C. Subalpine peatland sites in the Selkirk Mountains (for example,

Smith Creek, Bog Creek, Grass Creek Meadows)

probably have much higher annual precipitation and

lower temperatures. Most of the precipitation occurs

as snow (November through March). July and August

are typically rather dry, generally averaging less than

2.5 cm precipitation per month (Ross and Savage

1967).

In central Idaho, the climate is moderated by a

maritime climate during winter and early spring.

Cloudy, wet weather is common. In late spring, the

maritime influence is replaced by a continental climate. Dry, warm days and cold nights are typical.

Precipitation occurs largely as intense but brief storms.

Prolonged periods of little or no rain are quite common.

Montana—Montana west of the Continental Divide

is strongly influenced by Pacific maritime air masses,

although the area receives less precipitation and has

cooler average temperatures than those of northern

Idaho. Weather data for Kalispell (elevation 904 m)

has a reported mean annual precipitation of 42 cm

and an average yearly temperature of 5.8 °C (NOAA

1993). Most precipitation between November and

March falls as snow. The wettest month of the year is

June (6 cm), and the driest is July (3 cm) (NOAA

1993). Winters are cool and cloudy with occasional
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 7

arctic fronts that drop temperatures well below –18 °C.

Midsummer drought is common, and an important

factor limiting the growth of peat-forming mosses

(Crum 1988). Areas north and west of Kalispell have

a similar climate, but precipitation and temperatures

more closely resemble that of northern Idaho. Areas

south of Kalispell are increasingly drier year-round.

East of the Continental Divide in Montana, the

climate is quite different. The Pacific maritime influence is no longer prevalent. Rather, drier and cooler

continental air masses tend to dominate. Winters are

more severe and not as cloudy. Some areas experience

more winds; chinook winds may lead to increased

drying of exposed sites. Weather data for the town of

Divide (1,648 m), near Skull Creek Meadows in southwestern Montana, report a mean annual precipitation

of 32 cm and an average yearly temperature of 5.9 °C

(NOAA 1993).

Northwestern Wyoming—The Sawtooth Peatbeds

site in northwestern Wyoming occurs in the subalpine zone of the Beartooth Mountains, at an elevation

of 2,950 m. The site is characterized by long, cold

winters and short, cool summers. At the Peatbeds site,

wind is an important factor as it removes snow from

the surface of the peatland (Collins and others 1984).

Geology

In the Northern Rocky Mountains, peatlands and

other organic soil deposits occur in depressions associated with glacial till, glacial outwash, alluvial basins,

or floodplain landforms. The frequency of occurrence

and the size of peatlands vary across the State due to

climate and the distribution of these landforms in

which peatlands can form.

Idaho and Northeastern Washington—Prominent rock types in northern Idaho include granites of

the Kaniksu Batholith and low-grade metamorphic

Precambrian belt metasediments (Cooper and others

1991; Rabe and others 1986). Cordilleran ice sheets

covered much of the Panhandle during the Pleistocene. The Selkirk Mountains were influenced more by

recent late-Pleistocene and possibly Holocene alpine

glaciation, as is the case with subalpine peatlands

elsewhere in Idaho (Rabe and others 1986). Most

northern Idaho peatlands occur in association with

glacially influenced topographic features, such as

cirques, kettles, scours, and outwash channels. Others, such as Kaniksu Marsh, occur in abandoned

meander channels of rivers. The lack of calcareous

sedimentary bedrock has produced peatlands mostly

dominated by sphagnum mosses, rather than the

brown mosses typical of peatlands in calcareous

areas underlain by limestone. Vascular plant composition is also influenced by this difference.

Montana—Parent materials and formations are

quite variable across the Northern Rocky Mountains

in Montana. In the northwestern part of the State,

the bedrock is predominantly meta-sedimentary rocks

of the Proterozoic Era Belt supergroup. Major rock

types are quartzite, siltite, argillite, and localized

areas of limestone (USDA Forest Service 1995). During mountain building of the Cenozoic Era, block

faulting resulted in intermountain valleys. The valley

floors were first filled with deposits from eroded uplifted materials, and later with glacial tills and outwash during the Pleistocene Epoch 7,000 to 10,000

years ago (Alt and Hyndman 1986; USDA Forest

Service 1983).

The mountains forming the Rocky Mountain Front

and Sawtooth Range west of Great Falls are primarily

limestones and sandstones. This bedrock supports

peatlands dominated by brown mosses rather than

sphagnum mosses, and a number of vascular plants

associated with calcium-rich substrates.

The Bitterroot Range south of Missoula is comprised

mostly of glaciated metamorphic rocks. Further

south, granite from the eastern edge of the Idaho

Batholith predominates. The Sapphire Range to the

east is mainly Proterozoic sedimentary rocks with

some granitic intrusions. The Sapphire Range and

Bitterroot Valley floor north of Hamilton were never

glaciated, however, glacial tills and outwash dominate the valley fill south of Darby. From there south to

Lost Trail Pass, volcanic rock (rhyolite) dominates as

the main parent material (Alt and Hyndman 1986).

Peatlands are uncommon in the southwest portion

of the State. The peatlands of Skull Creek Meadows

occur in the West Pioneer Range where parent materials are comprised of glacial drift, colluvium and

residuum of metamorphosed sediments of the Precambrian Belt supergroup. Rock types of this sedimentary group are comprised of undifferentiated

quartzite, siltite, argillite, carbonate, and sandstone.

The west face of the Tobacco Root Mountains is comprised of basic to acidic metamorphic rocks. These

are mostly undifferentiated gneiss, schist, amphibolite, granulite, marble, phyllite, and quartzite. Distinct metamorphic minerals such as kyanite, staurolite, sillimanite, and garnet are present locally.

Terrestrial Vegetation

The Northern Rocky Mountains lie within the

western temperate coniferous forest ecosystem

(Daubenmire 1969). Environmental gradients such as

slope, aspect, precipitation, and elevation have important influences on the distribution of vegetation.

Habeck (1987) defined several broad forest zones for

this region: dry conifer woodlands dominated by Pinus

ponderosa (ponderosa pine) and Pinus flexilis (limber
8 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

pine), and montane, inland forests of Pseudotsuga

menziesii (Douglas-fir), Larix occidentalis (western

larch), Thuja plicata (western redcedar), Tsuga

heterophylla (western hemlock), Abies grandis (grand

fir), Pinus monticola (western white pine), and hybrids of P. engelmannii x P. glauca. These forest types

occur at low to moderate elevations. At higher elevations are subalpine and timberline forest of Pinus

contorta (lodgepole pine), Abies lasiocarpa (subalpine

fir), Picea engelmannii (Engelmann spruce), Pinus

albicaulis (whitebark pine), Tsuga mertensiana (mountain hemlock), and Larix lyallii (subalpine larch).

Detailed vegetation descriptions are provided in a

number of forest habitat type studies published for

portions of the Northern Rocky Mountains including

northern Idaho (Cooper and others 1991), central

Idaho (Steele and others 1981), eastern Idaho and

western Wyoming (Steele and others 1983), and

Montana (Pfister and others 1977).

Peatland Types _________________

A useful distinction can be made between two major

types of peatland: fen and bog. The difference between the two is primarily based on the source of

incoming water and nutrients (table 3). Continued

peat accumulation such that the peatland surface

becomes raised above the influence of the local water

table leads to ombrotrophic “food from the sky” bog

conditions. In the Northern Rocky Mountains, however, succession does not progress to this extent apart

from hummocky bog microsites, and various types of

fens are the major peatland type present in the region.

Fens develop on flat or gently sloping terrain and are

concave or slightly raised above their surroundings

(fig. 2a,b,c). Fens are minerotrophic, receiving nutrients from water that has percolated through mineral

soil and bedrock, or which has run off from uplands

into a surface source such as a creek before entering

the fen. In reality, a gradient from nutrient-poor (bog

and poor fen) to mesotrophic (sometimes termed intermediate fen) to relatively nutrient-rich peatland (rich

fen) exists, sometimes within a single peatland complex.

Table 3—General characteristics of fens and bogs (after Davis and Anderson 1991).

Characteristic Fens Bogs

Geographic distribution Worldwide Mainly boreal

Abundance Numerous Less numerous

Surface topography Flat or concave Convex (raised)

Peat depth Shallow to deep Deep

pH Acidic to alkaline Very acidic

Nutrient source Ground water and precipitation Precipitation

Productivity Low to high Low

Decomposition Relatively high to moderate Low

Floristic diversity Low to high Low

 a

 b

c

 d

Figure 2—Major peatland types in the Northern Rocky Mountains and their water and

nutrient sources: (a) Basin or lake-fill peatland,

(b) Flow-through or slope peatland, (c) Patterned fen, a type of flow-through peatland,

(d) bog (although essentially absent from the

Northern Rocky Mountains, shown to illustrate a major difference between peatland

types).
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 9

Fens of the Northern Rocky Mountains may be

classified into three major types: poor fens, rich fens,

and extremely rich fens. Distinctions exist between

the three types with regard to water quality and

vegetation composition. Ombrotrophic bogs are discussed briefly, although this extremely acidic, nutrient poor type of peatland is of incidental occurrence in

the region.

Poor fens tend toward bog-like conditions and are

codominated by bryophytes (especially sphagnum

mosses) and a relatively small number of vascular

species (notably members of the Cyperaceae and

Ericaceae). In Minnesota, poor fens were defined as

having a pH range of 4.2 to 5.8, and a calcium concentration of 2 to 10 mg/l (Glaser 1987).

Rich fens are dominated by a diverse mix of sedges,

other grasslike species, shrubs, and true mosses

(especially brown mosses, many genera of which are

in the Amblystegiaceae). Rich fens are less acidic

and have a greater concentration of calcium (10 to

30 mg/l) than poor fens (Glaser 1987).

Extremely rich fens have a very high pH (>7) and

high calcium concentration (>30 mg/l) (Glaser 1987),

and a characteristic species assemblage of species

tolerant of highly calcareous conditions (calciphiles).

In the Northern Rocky Mountains, extremely rich fens

support more rare plant species than any other type

of peatlands. Marl may comprise a large percentage

of the substrate. Extremely rich fens are generally

found near ground water discharge zones.

Because peatlands occur along an environmental

continuum of water and nutrient conditions, the term

intermediate fen is sometimes used to identify

peatlands with characteristics intermediate between

poor fens and rich fens. However, given their

floristic and chemical similarities with poor fens,

readily evident compositional differences between

the two are absent, and for simplicity the terms poor

fen, rich fen, and extremely rich fen may be used to

adequately describe peatlands of the region.

Ombrotrophic or true bogs have a raised or convex

surface (fig. 2d) and receive water and mineral nutrients from precipitation only. The received water is

held above the underlying water table primarily by the

low hydraulic conductivity of the peat mass. Capillary

upward movement of water accounts for only a small

part of the raised water table. Bog development is

favored in areas with a climate having an excess of

precipitation over evapotranspiration (Ingram 1983).

Bogs are characterized by a dominance of sphagnum

mosses. Vascular plant species tolerant of extremely

acidic, nutrient poor bog conditions are relatively few

in number. Fens are often identified as “bogs” by

laypersons and ecologists alike, particularly when

they occur on floating mats. Floating mats are

minerotrophic and are more accurately classified as

fens than as true bogs. Horton and others (1993)

suggested adopting the terms sphagnum-rich (as in

bogs and poor fens) and sphagnum-poor (rich and

extremely rich fens) to replace the traditional, but

often misapplied terms of bog and fen.

Several types of wetlands are sometimes confused

with peatlands. Marshes are wetlands on mineral

soil (although a large amount of decomposed organic

matter may be present) with standing water for all or

part of the year. In contrast to peatlands, marshes are

well-aerated and rich in minerals. Common plant

species of marshes include Typha latifolia (common

cattail), Phalaris arundinacea (Reed canarygrass),

and various coarse sedges, such as Carex utriculata

and C. atherodes. Sedge meadows occur in shallow

basins on mineral soil and are drier (for at least part

of the year) than peatlands. Seasonal drying of the

soil encourages microbial decomposition of plant remains, limiting organic matter accumulations. In

northwestern Montana, the most common dominant

of sedge meadows is Carex lasiocarpa (slender sedge),

which is also common in peatlands.

Poor Fens

Apart from areas underlain by limestone, most

peatlands in the Northern Rocky Mountains are best

characterized as poor fens. Unlike bogs, these peatlands

are in contact with minerally enriched ground water

or receive surface runoff, and water pH is less acidic.

In general, peatlands of the region may be considered poor fens if they have a nearly continuous ground

cover of sphagnum mosses. Poor fens are usually flat,

acidic, and saturated to the surface or with shallow

standing water. Vascular plants are present as scattered individuals rather than as a dense cover. Typical

species include Carex limosa (mud sedge), C. lasiocarpa,

Dulichium arundinaceum (Dulichium), Potentilla

palustris (purple cinquefoil), Vaccinium oxycoccos

(small cranberry) (Idaho only), and Lycopus uniflorus

(northern bugleweed). Characteristic mosses include

sphagnum mosses, particularly S. subsecundum,

S. fuscum, and S. angustifolium, and brown mosses

such as Calliergon stramineum and Aulacomnium

palustre.

In Idaho, most of the poor fens have a nearly continuous ground layer of sphagnum mosses. Dominance is

shared between bryophyte (moss and liverwort) and

vascular species. High-elevation examples include

Bog Creek Fen, Grass Creek Meadows, Cow Creek

Meadows, and Smith Creek. Low-elevation peatlands

with large areas of poor fens include Armstrong Meadows, Kaniksu Marsh, and Rose Lake.

In Montana, poor fens occur on noncalcareous bedrock such as the Belt series argillites and granites of

the Idaho Batholith. Shoofly Meadows (Lolo National
10 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Forest) near Missoula supports extensive poor fens

along several drainages. Mary’s Frog Pond (Lolo National Forest) features this type of fen in a basin

setting.

Rich and Extremely Rich Fens

Floristically, rich fens (Vitt and Slack 1975) are the

most diverse of the peatland types in the Northern

Rocky Mountains. Geologically, rich fens are restricted

to areas underlain by limestone. The water in rich fens

ranges from only slightly acidic to alkaline, and is

often distinctly calcareous (Chadde and Shelly 1995;

Mantas 1993). Calcareous fen is sometimes used synonymously with rich fen. Deposits of marl (precipitated calcium carbonate) are typical of extremely rich

fens. Most peatlands of Montana’s Swan River Valley

and the Glacier National Park area are best classified

as rich fens. Rich fens occur throughout northern

Idaho, generally as part of larger peatland complexes

that also include poor and intermediate fens. Birch

Creek Fen on the Targhee National Forest (Lemhi

County) is perhaps the best rich fen example known

from Idaho (Moseley 1992).

Rich fens are dominated by dense stands of sedges,

spike rushes, and other grasslike plants. Typical species include Carex lasiocarpa, C. limosa, C. livida (pale

sedge), C. flava, C. interior (inland sedge), Eleocharis

tenuis (slender spike-rush), E. rostellata (beaked spikerush), Juncus alpinus (northern rush), J. balticus

(Baltic rush), Eriophorum viridicarinatum (greenkeeled cotton-grass), and E. chamissonis (chamisso’s

cotton-grass). Shrubs such as Betula glandulosa (bog

birch) and Salix candida (hoary willow) are often

present as scattered, stunted clumps. The ground

surface is covered by true mosses, mostly within the

brown moss family. Commonly encountered bryophytes

include Aulacomnium palustre, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Campylium stellatum, and Limprichtia

revolvens. Scorpidium scorpioides is sometimes found

in wet depressions or hollows in fens with a high marl

content. An uncommon moss, Meesia triquetra, is

found only in calcium-rich fens. Sphagnum mosses

are conspicuously absent or occur as widely scattered,

small hummocks. In the rich fens of northwestern

Montana, only two species of sphagnum occur with

any regularity: Sphagnum fuscum and S. warnstorfii.

In extremely rich fens such as Bent Flat and Trail

Creek Fens (Flathead National Forest), sphagnum

mosses are only present as widely scattered small

hummocks.

In northern Idaho, dominant species of low-elevation (valley) rich fens include sedges such as Carex lasiocarpa, C. utriculata (beaked sedge), and C. chordorrhiza

(rope-root sedge); other grasslike species include Typha

latifolia, Calamagrostis canadensis (bluepoint

reedgrass), and Scirpus microcarpus (small-flowered

bulrush). Typical shrubs include Spiraea douglasii,

Betula glandulosa, and Salix geyeriana.

High-elevation (subalpine) rich fens in Idaho are

typically characterized by Carex scopulorum (Rocky

Mountain sedge), C. aquatilis, Calamagrostis canadensis, Deschampsia cespitosa, Betula glandulosa,

and Salix commutata (undergreen willow). Brown

mosses, including Aulacomnium palustre and Calliergon stramineum, are sometimes common, but under

dense stands of sedges and other herbaceous plants,

mosses are sometimes sparse.

Ombrotrophic Bogs

While nearly all peatlands of the Northern Rocky

Mountains are best considered fens (Windell and others 1986), scattered microsites are present that could

be considered ombrotrophic bogs. These sites are

composed of hummocks formed by sphagnum mosses

such as Sphagnum fuscum or S. angustifolium. Often

the base of a shrub or a downed log supports the moss.

The best examples of peatlands with bog-like microsites

occur in far northern Idaho, which on average receive

more summer precipitation than other areas of the

region. Lack of summer precipitation is a major factor

limiting the development of bogs (Crum 1988). This

appears to be the case in the Northern Rocky Mountains where, due to summer drought and extremely

low humidity, growth of sphagnum above the water

table is limited, and poor fens rather than bogs are

the likely end point of peatland succession on noncalcareous sites.

In northern Idaho, Chase Lake features pronounced

sphagnum hummocks covering small areas. Similar

hummocks exist at Huff Lake Fen, Armstrong Meadows, and Mosquito Bay Fen over old stumps. The

apparently ombrotrophic microsites are dominated

by Sphagnum fuscum, S. magellanicum, S. centrale,

S. angustifolium, and Polytrichum strictum. In the

summer, the topmost surface of the hummocks tends

to dry, limiting their ability to expand upward and

outward as in cooler, more humid climates.

Peatland Formation______________

Three major processes account for the development

of most types of peatlands: lake-filling, flow-through

succession, and paludification (fig. 2). Peatlands in

the Northern Rocky Mountains can develop from both

aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, although the former

setting (for example, glacial basins) is much more

common than the latter.

Lake-fill peatlands are associated with closedbasins.

Lake-filling is sometimes termed terrestrialization,

the process by which a peatland spreads across a lake.

Flow-through or slope peatlands develop at sites having
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 11

an inflowing and outflowing water source, such as an

open-ended basin, near a spring, or along a stream.

Paludification, or swamp-formation, can occur at the

margins of either type of peatland, and is the expansion of peatlands due to a gradual rise in water table

as the accumulation of peat increasingly impedes

drainage (Crum 1988).

Lake-Fill or Basin Peatlands

Lake-fill or basin peatlands occur in depressions

such as lakes and kettleholes that formed as glaciers

retreated leaving ice blocks buried in the glacial drift

(fig. 3; color plates 1, 2, 9, 10). These blocks subsequently melted to form the depressions. Lakes sometime have a narrow peatland zone on their margin, but

wave action may limit peat accumulations. Ponds and

kettleholes, however, being smaller and often protected from high winds by the surrounding forest, are

more conducive to peatland development. Deep

kettleholes often have a central open water area surrounded by an encroaching mat of plant roots and

peat. The process of terrestrialization occurs in these

settings as the peat edge expands inward toward the

center of the basin. Adjacent to the open water is a

floating mat. Nonquaking portions of the mat closest

to the outer edge of the basin where the peat mass

extends downward to bottom sediments are termed

anchored or grounded. Basins are sometimes entirely covered by an anchored or floating organic mat

as at Leonard Creek Fen on the Beaverhead-Deerlodge

National Forest in southwestern Montana. However,

some shallow basin sites may support sedge communities better termed sedge meadows rather than

fens, given their tendency to dry in summer. This

seasonal drying limits peat accumulation.

Figure 3—Lake-fill or basin peatland.

Figure 4—Flow-through or slope peatland.

Flow-Through or Slope Peatlands

Flow-through peatlands are best developed along

streams and on gentle slopes and benches (fig. 4; color

plates 3, 4). A continuous inflow of ground and surface

water is needed to maintain this type of peatland

(Moore and Bellamy 1974). Initially, sediments and

plant remains accumulate near the water source and

a marshy vegetation develops. Over time, enough peat

may accumulate to impede water flow, which is then

diverted around the peat onto new areas. Expansion of

the peatland on these new areas may then occur.

Well-developed rich fens most commonly occur on

flow-through sites in areas of calcium-rich, limestone

bedrock. The constant inflow and outflow of water

supplies minerals and removes humic acids from the

peat. This is important in maintaining habitats suitable for a number of plant species, especially those restricted to calcium-influenced peatlands (calciphiles).

Examples include the vascular plants Orchis rotundifolia and Carex livida, and the brown moss Scorpidium scorpioides.

Patterned Fens

Patterned or ribbedfens (aapamires) are a unique

type of peatland characterized by a series of raised,

linear hummocks oriented perpendicularly to the

slope of the peatland (fig. 5; color plates 5 to 7). These

ridges, or strings, are separated from one another by

linear pools of water known by their Swedish name

flarks.

Patterned fens are most extensive in boreal and

subarctic regions of northern North America,

Scandinavia, and Siberia. In North America, patterned fens occur from Alaska across much of central

Canada to the Atlantic Ocean. In the contiguous

United States, the most extensive patterned fens

occur in Maine, Michigan, and Minnesota. The southernmost occurrence of this type of peatland appears to

be in south-central Wisconsin at 43°21' north latitude

(Grittinger 1970). Thompson (1983) observed that the

southern limit of patterned fens is related to temperature and evapotranspiration isoclines. Their northern

limit is south of the continuous permafrost of the far

north, following mainly temperature isoclines.
12 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Figure 5—Generalized profile of a patterned

fen (after Crum 1988).

A number of hypotheses have been proposed for

the formation of patterned fens (Sorenson 1986).

These generally fall into one of the following three

groups (Moore and Bellamy 1974): (a) biological processes, (b) ice and frost effects, and (c) the effects of

gravity. Based on analysis of core samples from a

number of patterned fens, the evidence suggests that

the following sequence is likely (Foster and others

1983):

1. Impeded drainage initiates peat accumulation.

2. Changes in hydrologic conditions and differing

rates of peat accumulation by hummock and hollow

species leads to the formation of linear patterns.

3. Pools enlarge and coalesce as underlying peats

decay.

The presence of several patterned fens in the Northern Rocky Mountains of the United States are significant as isolated occurrences at the southern limit of

this peatland type. Well-developed examples include

Bent Flat Fen in northwestern Montana (Flathead

National Forest) and Skull Creek Meadows in southwestern Montana (Beaverhead-Deerlodge National

Forest). The two peatlands are very different; the Bent

Flat site is a marly, extremely rich fen (Shapley 1993),

while the Skull Creek peatland is a poor fen (Elliott

1992; for descriptions see appendix B). Portions of

Pine Butte Fen along the Rocky Mountain Front in

Montana are patterned (Lesica 1986; McAllister 1990).

In Idaho, Packer Meadows features a slightly patterned peatland.

Paludification

In northern regions where peatlands are extensive,

as in Canada and Alaska, paludification (color plate 8)

is the predominant method of peatland formation in

contrast to the terrestrialization of ponds and lakes

(Neiland 1971; Noble and others 1984). Paludification

is the expansion of peatlands resulting from a rise in

the water table caused by peat accumulation (Crum

1988). Except for the uppermost layer, peat has a very

low permeability. Water is held tightly within the

peat mass or runs off along the outside margins.

Paludification is favored by a cool and wet climate

conducive to the growth of peat-forming mosses onto

formerly upland sites. In the Northern Rocky Mountains, paludification is best observed adjacent to

closed basin peatlands where peat accumulations in

the basin create wetter conditions at the outer edge of

the peatland. Paludification is also common near seeps.

These conditions are favorable to the growth of sphagnum and other mosses which creep upslope into the

adjacent forest. Although little studied in the Northern Rocky Mountains (Murray 1995), paludification is

well-documented in boreal regions (Neiland 1971;

Noble and others 1984), and based on peat corings, a

number of studies have reported the remains of a

forest layer occurring below the surface layer of sphagnum peat (Crum 1988).

Peatland Soils __________________

Peat soils are unique in that they are largely or

entirely composed of plant remains and other organic

matter in various stages of decomposition. Mineral

soil is lacking or a minor component of peat. As such,

peatlands are autogenic or “self-creating,” with the

plants themselves, especially the peat-forming mosses,

largely influencing the course of succession on a particular peatland site.

Accumulation of peat occurs under year-long or seasonally saturated conditions where the rate of organic

matter deposition is greater than the rate of microbial

decomposition. As commonly used, the term “peat” is

more a generic term than one based on specific properties. However, peat is a type of organic soil having a

high organic matter (OM) content (by weight). Various

sources report a range of minimum OM content for

peat soils (depending in part on measurement techniques), from as low as 20 to 75 percent. The latter

figure seems to be a more characteristic minimum for

peat (Crum 1988; Gore 1983). Other terms used to

describe the characteristics and components of peat

are muck (highly decomposed peat containing mineral soil), gyttia (a Swedish term for fine lake bottom

sediments), and tephra (layers of volcanic ash buried

in the peat profile).
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 13

Peat soils can be classified as to the degree of OM

decomposition. The H (humification) scale developed by Von Post and Granlund (1926) is a measure of

the degree of decomposition, and is useful in peat

classification in the field. The scale is based on the

color of water squeezed from the peat, and the proportion and character of the organic material remaining

after squeezing (Gore 1983). For example, if water

squeezed from peat is relatively colorless, and a high

degree of intact fibers remain, the peat is considered

highly undercomposed and given a low rating (on a

scale from 1 to 10). Conversely, if the water is very

turbid (black or brown) and what little is left of the

organic material after squeezing has no plant structure and is the consistency of porridge, the peat is

considered highly decomposed, thus given a high H

scale rating. More complex chemical procedures are

available to determine degree of decomposition (Bahson

1968; Overbeck and Schneider 1940; Schnitzer and

Kahn 1972; Von Naucke 1976).

Classification of Peatland Soils

An accumulation of peat, if deep enough, is classified as the soil order Histosol, or organic soil. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (1994), depths of peat required for

classification as an organic soil vary depending on the

composition of the underlying material. For example,

a Histosol may be any depth if overlying bedrock,

gravels, or cobbles, but must be at least 40 cm deep if

overlying a mineral soil. Several peatlands cored in

the Swan, South Fork of the Flathead, and lower Clark

Fork river valleys in Montana had peat depths from

2 to 5.9 m (Chatters 1994a,b; Mantas 1993). In Idaho,

Hager Lake Fen peat depths ranged from 2.6 to 11.4 m;

Huff Lake peat accumulations were up to 10.8 m deep

(Moseley and others 1992).

Histosols may be classified into three suborders,

Fibrists, Saprists, or Hemists, based on additional

factors including volume of moss fibers, bulk density,

and length of time the soil is saturated each year.

Fibrists are the least decomposed and generally are at

least three-fourths (by volume) fibers after rubbing

and rinsing with water (USDA Soil Conservation

Service 1994). On the H scale, values would be low

(approximately 1 to 4). Saprists have the most highly

decomposed organic materials, the highest bulk density, and the smallest amount of plant fibers after

rubbing. Water color after squeezing is dark gray to

black (H scale rating 8 to 10). Generally, the fiber

content is less than one-sixth after rubbing. Hemists

are intermediate between Saprists and Fibrists.

The next lower level of soil classification, great

group, has three classes that characterize peatlands in

the Northern Rocky Mountains. They are Borofibrists,

Borosaprists, or Borohemists (boro refers to cold mean

annual soil temperatures less than 8 °C). The great

groups are further subdivided into several subgroups.

In-depth study and formal classification of peatland soils have not been extensive in the Northern

Rocky Mountains. The majority of Histosols from several peatlands in the Swan River Valley of Montana

were Typic Borosaprists (Mantas 1993). Other subgroups found were Limnic Borosaprists, Limnic

Borohemists, Limnic Borofibrists, Hydric Borohemists,

and Hydric Borofibrists. In southwestern Montana,

soils of the patterned fens at Skull Creek Meadows

were similar. In the raised, linear hummocks

(strings), Hydric Borohemists and Sapric Borohemists

were typical. Low-lying hollows (flarks) were typically

Sapric and Typic Borohemists (Svoboda 1996, personal communication).

Peat Profiles

A useful distinction of the peat profile is between

the acrotelm and the catotelm (Ingram 1978). The

acrotelm is the surface layer of peat. It contains the

actively growing mosses and roots of vascular plants,

and is more water permeable than the underlying

catotelm, or the subsurface accumulation of peat.

Water movement is very slow; in fact, the hydraulic

conductivity of highly decomposed peat is lower than

finely textured clay soils (Boelter 1965).

Peatland Water Chemistry

Rabe and others (1990) and Bursik (1990) measured

water chemistry parameters in peatlands throughout

Idaho and portions of northwestern Montana. Water

pH was typically circumneutral; pH values ranged

from 5.9 to slightly greater than 8.0. Water hardness

varied from extremely soft water (30 mg/l calcium

carbonate) to hard water (110 mg/l calcium carbonate)

in an extremely rich fen in Montana. Calcium ion

(Ca2

+) concentrations ranged from 0.5 to 43 mg/l;

magnesium ion (Mg2

+) concentrations ranged from

0.1 to 11.0 mg/l. These values are within the ranges

reported for peatlands elsewhere in North America

(Bursik 1990).

Chadde and Shelly (1995) recorded pH for a number

of rich fens on the Flathead National Forest, reporting

a range of pH values from 6.8 to 8.4. Mantas (1993)

found a similar pH range in several fens of the Swan

Valley (6.5 to 8.1), and also noted that pH values rose

during rain events, and dropped (becoming more acidic)

when in-flow decreased. This was probably due to

higher amounts of cations being flushed into the

peatlands when flow was high. Also, pH was significantly higher in sites where limestone occurred in

bedrock of the same watershed (Mantas 1993). In
14 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

addition, these sites were tested for cation content,

including Potassium (K+), Sodium (Na+), Ca2

+

, and

Mg2

+. As expected, peatlands with the highest levels

of these cations had the highest pH values.

Peatland Components ___________

The term peatland encompasses all wetlands occurring on peat. Peatlands can be subdivided based on

how they formed and on their water source and nutrient status (see Peatland Formation section). Peatlands can also be described based on their component

parts. The presence or absence of these components is

determined by the site’s landform and hydrologic

characteristics, vegetation, and water chemistry

(Glaser 1987). The following features provide a common language for describing peatlands and are useful

in evaluating their conservation significance (see

Peatland Conservation section):

• Floating mat

• Carr

• Moat

• Paludified forest

• Lake/pond

• Stream

• Beaver activity

• Palsa

Floating Mats

Floating mats are a classic feature of basin or lakefill peatlands (color plates 9, 10). Roots and rhizomes

of living plants and accumulated leaf litter intertwine

to form a mat that floats on water or overlies very

unstable muck below. The vegetation of floating mats

is variable and can be typical of that associated with

poor, intermediate, or rich fens. In Idaho, floating

mats are largely restricted to valley peatlands containing ponds or lakes. Their absence from subalpine

peatlands may be the greatest contributing factor

to floristic differences with valley peatlands (Bursik

1990).

Floating mats are ecologically stable communities

because of their ability to adjust to fluctuating water

levels. Vertical movement of floating mats of as

much as 0.75 m annually has been reported by some

researchers (Crum 1988). On floating mats, plant roots

remain in constant contact with water while avoiding

inundation like fixed or anchored mats. Changes in

the composition of floating mat communities are

generally a function of trophic status changes, especially as influenced by nutrient inputs. This makes

floating mats useful monitoring sites to ascertain the

effects of human activities affecting nutrient runoff

into peatlands (Bursik and Moseley 1992a). In Idaho,

extensive sphagnum-dominated floating mats occur

at Bottle Lake, Perkins Lake, Huff Lake, Three Ponds,

Hager Lake, and Kaniksu Marsh (all on the Idaho

Panhandle National Forests).

In Montana, floating mat examples occur at Lost

Trail Pass (Bitterroot National Forest), Tepee Lake

(Kootenai National Forest), Trout Lake (Flathead

National Forest), and Leonard Creek Fen (BeaverheadDeerlodge National Forest). At some sites, floating

mats have formed on partially submerged logs in

lakes and ponds. Good examples of these pioneer mats

are at Robinson Lake and Beaver Lake (North) in

Idaho, and at Mary’s Frog Pond in Montana. Monitoring vegetation composition changes can shed light on

the mode and rate of mat expansion and causal environmental factors.

Carr

Carrs are shrub-dominated fens and occur within

portions of most Northern Rocky Mountain peatlands

(color plate 11). Common shrubs of carrs include:

Spiraea douglasii, Alnus incana, Betula glandulosa, and several willows, including Salix bebbiana,

S. drummondiana, S. candida, and S. geyeriana. In

northern Idaho, many carrs are dominated by dense

monocultures of Spiraea douglasii. Betula pumila, a

rare species in Idaho, is prominent in carrs of the

Moyie River and Kootenai River valleys. In northwestern Montana, Betula glandulosa and Alnus incana are

major carr species.

In basin peatlands, carrs are best developed in the

lagg or moat-like ring sometimes found on the outer

margin of the peatland. The moat is a zone of water

accumulating because inflowing water is impeded by

the peat mass and flows around the peat. Water

draining from the surface of the peat mass also contributes to the moat. Water accumulates in the moat

and may partially or completely ring the peatland.

Carrs are well developed at many flow-through

peatlands. Water in the moat and at slope or flowthrough peatlands is well-aerated, nutrient-enriched,

and conducive to robust shrub growth relative to the

oxygen- and nutrient-poor peat mass in central portions of the peatland (color plate 12). Water drawdowns or water table fluctuations that drain and

increase aeration of the peat surface and oxidation of

the uppermost peat may increase shrub establishment and carr formation. Pine Butte Fen in Montana

supports extensive carr habitats (Lesica 1986).

Paludified Forest

As peat accumulates in a lake basin, the water level

tends to rise and “flood” adjacent uplands, a process

known as paludification. These paludified uplands are

subsequently colonized by sphagnum mosses and other

peatland species. In Idaho, paludified forests are
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 15

associated most closely with valley peatlands whose

lake basins are almost entirely filled with peat. These

sites include Armstrong Meadows, Mosquito Bay Fen,

and Upper Priest Lake Fen on the Idaho Panhandle

National Forests. In Montana, Shoofly Meadows has

extensive areas of paludified forest.

Cool, moist climatic conditions are conducive to

paludification; while hotter, drier climates favor afforestation of paludified areas. In some areas of North

America, paludification precedes the formation of poor

fen and bog habitats (Crum 1988). In the Northern

Rocky Mountains, it is unknown how paludification

fits into broad peatland successional trends due to the

prolonged summer droughts that characterize this

region. Murray (1995) reported that growth and production of sphagnum mosses at Shoofly Meadows

(near Missoula) was limited by full sunlight compared

to growth rates of artificially shaded plants.

Paludification is best developed adjacent to sphagnumrich peatlands (poor fens) because sphagnum mosses

are the major species involved in this process. Where

paludification occurs, a sequence of moist coniferous

forest to forested sphagnum fen to open sphagnum fen

may occur. As paludification proceeds, higher water

tables kill existing trees. As mossy hummocks grow in

height, trees may again establish on hummock tops

but are likely to be stunted. This is in contrast to

original site conditions that were usually moist but

were dominated by conifers typical of the area. Intermediate stages (forested sphagnum fen) are dominated by an overstory of various conifers, including

Pinus contorta, P. monticola, Abies grandis, A. lasiocarpa, Picea engelmannii, Thuja plicata, and Tsuga

heterophylla, growing with sphagnum moss such as

S. centrale, Vaccinium oxycoccos (in northern Idaho),

and other fen species in the understory.

Lakes and Ponds

Periodic water level fluctuations can affect the successional dynamics of pond and lake peatlands by

flooding fixed mats, depositing sediments and nutrients during high water, or by drying floating mats

during low water periods. Open water attracts birds

and mammals that may disperse the propagules of

peatland plants or that may influence physical conditions of the site, as in the case of beavers. Acidic waters

of poor-intermediate fens or alkaline waters of rich

fens are also habitat for numerous invertebrate species having an affinity for a particular water chemistry

(Rabe and others 1986).

Open bodies of water are associated with many

basin peatlands. In Idaho, Hager Lake, Huff Lake,

Three Ponds, and Potholes are peatlands associated

with ponds (waterbodies less than 8 ha) (Rabe and

Chadde 1994), while Mosquito Bay Fen on Priest

Lake is a lake peatland (waterbodies more than 8 ha).

In Montana, examples of peatlands associated with

ponds and lakes include Tepee Lake (Kootenai National Forest), Mud Lake and Trout Lake (Flathead

National Forest), and Mary’s Frog Pond (Lolo National Forest).

Aquatic vegetation (that is rooted in bottom sediments or floating) adds to the diversity of peatlands

associated with ponds and lakes. More than 15 percent of the valley peatland flora of Idaho consists of

aquatic species, while a similar percentage are species

most commonly found growing submersed (Bursik

and Henderson 1995). Common aquatic species include Nuphar polysepalum, Potamogeton amplifolius

(large-leaved pendweed), P. gramineus (grass-leaved

pendweed), P. natans (floating-leaved pendweed),

Najas flexilis (wavy water-nymph), and Lemna minor

(duck weed).

Stream

Several stream types described by Rabe and others

(1994) are found in Northern Rocky Mountain

peatlands, including spring streams with very short

runs (for example, Kaniksu Marsh, Upper Priest Lake

Fen, and Mosquito Bay Fen), spring streams with long

reaches (Potholes), and meandering glide streams in

broad valleys (Packer Meadows, Deerhorn Creek Meadows, and Dubius Creek Fen). Streams host an array of

invertebrate species and may contain populations of

rainbow, cutthroat, and eastern brook trout (Rabe

and Savage 1977).

Beaver Activity

Beavers exert a significant influence on many

peatlands, especially those having inlets and outlets

allowing for beaver migration. Periodic beaver activity

creates and maintains a mosaic of successional stages

within a wetland complex and contributes to the

habitat and floristic diversity of Northern Rocky

Mountain peatlands (Bursik and Henderson 1995).

Beaver activity is responsible for the initial formation of fen habitats at Bottle Lake and Potholes in

northern Idaho. Beaver damming at Packer Meadows,

Beaver Lake (North), Kaniksu Marsh, and Dubius

Creek Fen is responsible for the formation of large

ponds or the periodic expansion of ponds into lakes.

During inactivity, the dams break and large mudflats

are colonized by a host of pioneer marsh and fen

species. Over time, perennial, rhizomatous sedges,

such as Carex lasiocarpa and Carex utriculata, colonize these mudflats. If water levels rise, the rhizomatous mats can form floating mats that allow for colonization by fen species requiring stable water levels.

This pioneer mat formation has been observed over

the past 10 years at Lee Lake in northern Idaho.
16 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Wholesale changes brought on by beavers in Idaho

peatlands were illustrated by Rabe and Savage (1977)

at Bottle Lake Research Natural Area. Aerial photographs of Bottle Lake from 1932 and 1956 bear little

resemblance to each other. Apparently 1932 was

near the end of a long period without beavers at

Bottle Lake. In 1932, the central doughnut-shaped,

sphagnum-dominated mat was surrounded by a sedgedominated fen with scattered trees. The mat rested on

the basin bottom allowing the growth of Thuja plicata,

Tsuga heterophylla, and other conifers. The lake within

the mat supported emergent and submergent aquatic

plants such as Nuphar spp. By 1956, beaver damming

had flooded the sedge fen surrounding the floating

mat, replacing it with aquatic plant communities and

killing the scattered trees. The doughnut-shaped mat

once again had become a buoyant island, conifers that

had established during low water were dead, and the

lake within the mat had become too deep to support

species of Nuphar, conditions similar to those found at

present.

Palsa

A palsa is a peat mound covering a permanently

frozen (permafrost) core of peat and silt (Crum 1988).

The overlying peat acts as an insulating blanket over

the frozen core. Although common in the zone of

discontinuous permafrost in the southern portion of

the arctic tundra, in the contiguous United States the

only documented occurrence is at a subalpine site

(Sawtooth Peatbeds, Shoshone National Forest) in the

Beartooth Mountains of northwestern Wyoming

(Collins and others 1984). This occurrence is the

southernmost palsa known in North America.

The palsa covers approximately 8 ha and is raised

1 to 2 m above the surrounding sedge-dominated fen.

The surface of the palsa is practically devoid of vegetation apart from scattered clumps of Deschampsia

cespitosa and plants of Rumex paucifolius (mountain

sorrel). Permafrost is present 38 to 46 cm below the

surface (Pierce 1961).

Peatland Vegetation And Flora ____

Vascular Flora

The vascular plant diversity associated with

peatlands in the Northern Rocky Mountains is high,

especially considering the small percentage of the

regional landscape that is occupied by these habitats

(color plates 13 through 25). The peatland vascular

flora reported herein consists of 356 species, representing 164 genera and 62 families (appendix A).

Six pteridophyte families (as represented by 11 genera

and 20 species), two gymnosperm families (6 genera,

8 species), and 54 angiosperm families (148 genera,

328 species) were documented during the course of

the peatland inventories in this region (Bursik 1990;

Bursik and Henderson 1995; Chadde and Shelly 1995;

Mantas 1993). Of note is the diversity of families and

genera included in the regional peatland flora. Richness at these higher taxonomic levels further emphasizes the significance of these peatlands in contributing to the overall biological diversity in the Northern

Rocky Mountains.

Idaho—Bursik (1990) distinguished two types of

peatlands in Idaho, valley and subalpine peatlands.

He found 327 vascular plant species occurring at both

valley or subalpine sites, with 205 species occurring in

the valley peatlands (see appendix A for a complete list

of species). Subsequent study has revealed the presence of 291 vascular and 20 bryophyte species in the

valley peatland flora of Idaho (Bursik and Henderson

1995).

Peatlands of the Sawtooth Valley are subalpine in

elevation but intermediate in plant species composition. Boreal species found in the Sawtooth Valley peatlands include Carex livida, C. buxbaumii, Eleocharis

pauciflora, Drosera intermedia (intermediate sundew),

Epilobium palustre (swamp willow-herb), Scirpus

cespitosus (tufted bulrush), Carex aquatilis, and

Swertia perennis. Many of these are community dominants. Western cordilleran species include Gentiana

calycosa (mountain bog gentian), Carex cusickii

(cusick’s sedge), C. luzulina (wood rush sedge),

Lonicera caerulea (sweet-berry honeysuckle), Senecio

cymbalarioides (few-leaved groundsel), and Vaccinium

occidentale (western huckleberry).

Montana—The valley peatland vascular flora in

Montana consists of 174 species, representing 105

genera in 44 families (Chadde and Shelly 1995; Mantas

1993). As such, approximately 37 percent of the 118

families and 16 percent of the 658 genera reported to

occur in Montana (Dorn 1984) are associated with

these habitats. In limestone areas of northwestern

Montana (Kootenai and Flathead National Forests),

rich fens are typical. Characteristic shrubs are Betula

glandulosa, Alnus incana (mountain alder), Potentilla fruticosa, Rhamnus alnifolia (alder buckthorn),

Salix bebbiana, S. candida, and S. drummondiana

(drummond willow). Important sedges include: Carex

lasiocarpa, C. limosa, C. interior, C. livida, C. utriculata, C. flava, and C. buxbaumii. Other common grass

and grasslike species include: Eleocharis rostellata (in

extremely rich fens), E. tenuis, Eriophorum viridicarinatum, E. chamissonis, Dulichium arundinaceum,

Calamagrostis canadensis, and Scirpus acutus. Picea

engelmannii is common on the outer margins of many

peatlands as well as on drier hummock tops.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 17

In the poor and intermediate fens of west-central

and southwestern Montana (Lolo and BeaverheadDeerlodge National Forests), Carex lasiocarpa is

replaced by other sedges and rushes, including

Carex aquatilis, C. limosa, C. utriculata, C. vesicaria,

C. canescens (gray sedge), C. buxbaumii, and Eleocharis

pauciflora. Typical grasses are Calamagrostis

canadensis and Deschampsia cespitosa. Betula glandulosa is uncommon; other shrubs including several

ericaceous species are typical: Kalmia microphylla

(small-leaved laurel), Ledum groenlandica (bog laurel), and Vaccinium occidentale.

Typical peatland forbs include: Menyanthes trifoliata

(buckbean), typically found in pools between hummocks and in the moat around many peatlands, Potentilla palustris, Drosera rotundifolia (roundleaf sundew), Mentha arvensis (field mint), Utricularia vulgaris

(common bladderwort), Zigadenus elegans, Epilobium palustre (swamp willow-herb), Galium triflorum

(bedstraw), Parnassia palustris (northern grass-ofparnassus), and Viola nephrophylla (bog violet). The

calcareous rich fens of northwestern Montana provide

habitat for a number of orchids (see Rare Flora). Ferns

and fern allies include: Equisetum arvense (field horsetail), E. fluviatile (water horsetail), and E. variegatum

(varigated horsetail). Botrychium multifidum and B.

virginianum are occasionally encountered moonworts.

Bryophyte Flora

Idaho—Many of Idaho’s fens are sphagnum-rich

peatlands; major species include: Sphagnum centrale,

S. magellanicum, S. subsecundum, and S. teres (Andrus

and Layser 1976; Bursik and Henderson 1995). Important brown mosses of Idaho peatlands include:

Aulacomnium palustre, Calliergon stramineum,

Calliergonella cuspidata, Pleurozium schreberi,

Polytrichum strictum, and Tomentypnum nitens.

Montana—The rich fens of northwestern Montana

can be characterized as sphagnum-poor peatlands. Only

two species of sphagnum were consistently encountered in rich fens: Sphagnum fuscum and S. warnstorfii.

Brown moss species indicative of calcium-rich conditions were prominent, forming a nearly continuous

ground cover in many fens. Important species included:

Aulacomnium palustre, Bryum pseudotriquetrum,

Calliergon stramineum, Limprichtia revolvens,

Philonotis fontana, Pohlia nutans, Scorpidium

scorpioides, and Tomentypnum nitens. Meesia triquetra, an uncommon calciphile (Montagnes 1990), was

present, although sparse, in several rich fens.

In west-central and southwestern Montana, typical

poor fen mosses include various sphagnum mosses

(Sphagnum angustifolium, S. fimbriatum, S. magellanicum, S. russowii, S. squarrosum, S. subsecundum,

and S. teres) and brown mosses such as Aulacomnium

palustre, Calliergon cordifolium, C. stramineum,

Drepanocladus aduncus, Hypnum pratense, and

Polytrichum strictum.

Classification of Plant Community Types

Classifications based on vegetation provide land

managers with a means to effectively identify, manage, and conserve important habitats (Ferguson and

others 1989). They have been uniformly developed

and widely applied in the forested ecosystems of the

Northern Rocky Mountains (Cooper and others 1991;

Pfister and others 1977; Steele and others 1981, 1983)

and more recently for wetlands and riparian communities (Hansen and others 1995; Winward and

Padgett 1989). Regional wetland community classifications that include some peatland habitats exist

for portions of Idaho (Mutz and Queiroz 1983; Tuhy

1981; Tuhy and Jensen 1982; Youngblood and others

1985), and northwestern Wyoming (Chadde and others

1988; Mattson 1984). However, these studies failed to

consider one of the most important components of

peatlands—the structure and composition of bryophyte communities. Many mosses are useful indicators of the environment within peatlands and provide

the best indication of water chemistry, height above

water table, and amount of shade (Gignac and Vitt

1990). The presence of sphagnum mosses is especially

important due to their control and influence on the

peatland environment. For example, the degree of

acidity of water in a peatland is in part due to the

release of hydrogen ions by sphagnum (Crum 1988).

Table 4 is a list of plant community types that

identifies communities found within Northern Rocky

Mountain peatlands. Many of the listed types also

occur in other types of wetlands, and on mineral as

well as on organic or peat soils. Peatland classifications appear to be most useful if they are based on a

combination of hydrology, water chemistry and nutrient status, and floristics (Glaser 1987). Wetland classifications from the Western United States are based

largely on vascular plant floristics, ignoring bryophytes and physical features. Notable exceptions are

studies by Vitt and others (1975) in Alberta, Cooper

and Andrus (1994) in Wyoming, and Cooper (1996) in

Colorado. Peatland communities of alpine areas have

been little studied, but see Cooper and Lesica (1992).

Tree-Dominated Types—Four forested wetland

types, Picea engelmannii/Carex disperma (softleaved sedge), Picea engelmannii/Equisetum arvense,

Pinus contorta/Vaccinium occidentale, and Picea

engelmannii/Lysichitum americanum (skunk cabbage),

sometime occur adjacent to open peatlands. Although

wet, these types are found on both organic and mineral

soils. They are briefly described because of their close

association with many peatlands. More information

on their composition is provided by Hansen and

others (1995). In northern Idaho, Cooper and others
18 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

(1991) described several wet forest types within the

Abies lasiocarpa and Thuja plicata series of habitat

types. A Picea glauca community occurs at Swamp

Lake Fen in Wyoming. Associated undergrowth species

include Linnaea borealis, Equisetum arvense, Carex

utriculata, and Calamagrostis canadensis.

Picea engelmannii/Carex disperma community

type—occurs in east-central and southeastern Idaho

and is similar to the Picea engelmannii/Equisetum

arvense community type (Steele and others 1981,

1983). The undergrowth is carpeted by Carex disperma. Scattered shrubs are present and include

Ribes lacustre (swamp currant) and Rubus parviflorus

(thimbleberry). Common herbaceous species include

Calamagrostis canadensis, Actaea rubra (baneberry),

Arnica cordifolia (heartleaf arnica), Galium triflorum,

Pyrola secunda (one-sided wintergreen), Senecio triangularis (arrowleaf groundsel), Thalictrum occidentalis (western meadowrue), and Equisetum arvense.

Common mosses include Aulacomnium palustre and

Amblystegium juratzkanum (Steele 1974).

Picea engelmannii/Equisetum arvense community

type—occurs at low to mid-elevations in central

Montana (where sometimes locally common) and less

commonly in western portions of the State (Pfister and

others 1977). The type is also present in northwestern

Wyoming and eastern Idaho (Steele and others 1981,

1983). The tree canopy is primarily Picea engelmannii,

with smaller coverages of Abies lasiocarpa or Pinus

contorta. In addition to Equisetum arvense, common

undergrowth species include Lonicera involucrata,

Salix drummondiana, Calamagrostis canadensis,

Carex utriculata, Smilacina stellata (starry solomonplume), Streptopus amplexifolius (twisted stalk), and

Senecio triangularis.

Picea engelmannii/Lysichitum americanum community type—uncommon in low elevation valleys in

northwestern Montana. When present, this type usually occurs on the outer margin of an open peatland or

in the surrounding wet forest. The water table is near

the ground surface most of the year and surface water

is often present in depressions. Soils may have a large

Table 4—Peatland community types of the Northern Rocky Mountains.

Community type Common name

Tree-dominated types

Picea engelmannii/Carex disperma Engelmann spruce/soft-leaved sedge

Picea engelmannii/Equisetum arvense Engelmann spruce/field horsetail

Picea engelmannii/Lysichitum americanum Engelmann spruce/soft-leaved sedge

Picea glauca White spruce (mostly in Wyoming)

Pinus contorta/Vaccinium occidentale Lodgepole pine/western huckleberry

Shrub-dominated types

Betula glandulosa/Carex lasiocarpa Bog birch/slender sedge

Kalmia microphylla/Carex scopulorum Small-leaved laurel/holm’s rocky mountain sedge

Salix candida/Carex lasiocarpa Hoary willow/slender sedge

Salix drummondiana Drummond willow

Salix planifolia/Carex aquatilis Planeleaf willow/water sedge

Salix wolfii/Carex aquatilis Wolf’s willow/water sedge

Spiraea douglasii Douglas’ spiraea

Vaccinium occidentale Western huckleberry

Herbaceous types

Calamagrostis canadensis Bluejoint reedgrass

Carex aquatilis Water sedge

Carex buxbaumii Buxbaum’s sedge

Carex lasiocarpa Slender sedge

Carex limosa Mud sedge

Carex scopulorum Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge

Carex simulata Short-beaked sedge

Carex utriculata Beaked sedge

Eleocharis pauciflora Few-flowered spike-rush

Eleocharis rostellata Beaked spike-rush

Eleocharis tenuis Slender spike-rush

Scirpus cespitosus Tufted bulrush
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 19

4

Carex utriculata was erroneously referred to as Carex

rostrata in earlier taxonomic and ecological studies. True

Carex rostrata is apparently very rare in the Northern

Rocky Mountains, being found more commonly in boreal

North America. To minimize confusion, references of other

researchers to Carex rostrata have been changed to Carex

utriculata. See Griffiths (1989) for a more complete

discussion of these taxa.

percentage of organic matter. Associated species may

include Cornus stolonifera (red-osier dogwood), Alnus

incana, Betula occidentalis (water birch), Cinna

latifolia (drooping woodreed), and Athyrium filixfemina (ladyfera) (Hansen and others 1995).

Pinus contorta/Vaccinium occidentale community

type—uncommon and found in noncalcareous

peatlands in west-central Montana and central Idaho

(Pierce and Johnson 1986; Tuhy 1981; Tuhy and Jensen

1982). The type usually occurs near the outer margins

of peatlands or near the outer edge of a peatland pond.

Soils are typically saturated and have a high organic

matter content. This community type is characterized

by a discontinuous stand of Pinus contorta with a layer

of low shrubs underneath. Pinus contorta appears to

be regenerating in this community, as evidenced by

small saplings, but there are also many standing dead

trees keeping the stands relatively open in appearance. Vaccinium occidentale is the dominant shrub,

but several other shrubs are prominent, including

Ledum glandulosum, Lonicera caerulea, Potentilla

fruticosa, and Betula glandulosa. Calamagrostis

canadensis is usually present. Sphagnum mosses are

typically common.

Shrub-Dominated Types—Betula glandulosa/

Carex lasiocarpa community type—common in low to

mid-elevation peatlands in west-central and northwestern Montana and northern Idaho and occurs on

organic soils. The peat is saturated year-round, apart

from the higher hummock tops that tend to dry in

midsummer. It is characterized by a shrub stratum

0.5 to 2 m tall, dominated by Betula glandulosa, and a

shrub canopy averaging about 25 percent cover.

Salix candida, a low-growing willow up to 1 m tall, is

frequently present at low coverages. The height of the

shrubs appeared to be influenced largely by the

degree of substrate aeration; taller shrubs occurred on

peatland margins and areas of higher ground subject

to seasonal drawdowns of the water table. The shortest shrubs were associated with perennially saturated

substrates.

Carex lasiocarpa was the predominant vascular

undergrowth species, reflecting its abundance and

wide distribution within the study area. Eleocharis

tenuis dominated the undergrowth of several sites

and Menyanthes trifoliata was a common forb. Cypripedium passerinum was confined to this type and the

adjacent forested Picea engelmannii/Equisetum plant

association. Other sensitive or special concern species

occurring in this community type were Eriophorum

viridicarinatum, Drosera rotundifolia, and Epipactis

gigantea (giant hellebovine). A nearly continuous surface layer of mosses was present and common species

included Tomentypnum nitens, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Campylium stellatum, and Limprichtia revolvens.

Sphagnum fuscum and S. warnstorfii were the only

sphagnum mosses present in this type.

This community type is similar to the Betula glandulosa/Carex utriculata4

 type described by Hansen

and others (1995) for western Montana. However,

most communities sampled by the authors lacked the

Carex utriculata undergrowth or had small amounts

only. In Montana, Carex utriculata is more indicative

of mineral soils or scarcely developed peatlands.

Kalmia microphylla/Carex aquatilis community

type—an uncommon peatland community of poor fens

at mid-elevations in western Montana; soils are wet,

acidic Histosols. Associated species include Vaccinium

occidentale, Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex

nigricans, Deschampsia cespitosa, Aster foliaceus (leafy

aster), and Ligusticum tenuifolium (slender-leaved

licorice-root). A higher elevation (upper subalpine)

variant of this type was described by Hansen and

others (1995) in which Carex aquatilis is replaced by

Carex scopulorum.

Salix candida/Carex lasiocarpa community type—

an uncommon type in western Montana. This type was

classified as the Salix candida/C. utriculata type by

Hansen and others (1995), but communities occurring

on peat have a predominance of C. lasiocarpa rather

than C. utriculata. Its composition is similar to the

Betula glandulosa/C. lasiocarpa type described previously. Prominent species include Potentilla fruticosa,

Carex aquatilis, Carex limosa, Scirpus acutus, and

Menyanthes trifoliata.

Salix drummondiana community type—a minor type

of northwestern Montana on organic or wet mineral

soils (Hansen and others 1995). A dense growth of tall

willows is typical. Associated species include

Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex aquatilis, C. utriculata, C. vesicaria, Saxifraga arguta (brook saxifrage),

and Equisetum fluviatile.

Salix planifolia/Carex aquatilis community type—

an uncommon type of central and southwestern

Montana. Soils are usually organic and acidic. Associated

species include Calamagrostis canadensis, C. scopulorum,

and Eleocharis pauciflora (Hansen and others 1995).

At high (alpine) elevations in southwestern Montana,

Carex scopulorum rather than C. aquatilis predominates the herbaceous layer (Cooper and Lesica 1992).
20 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Salix wolfii/Carex aquatilis community type—a

minor type of central and southwestern Montana and

central and eastern Idaho (Hansen and others 1995;

Tuhy 1981; Youngblood and others 1985). Betula

glandulosa and Lonicera utahensis (Utah honeysuckle)

are common associates. Herbaceous species below the

open shrub layer include Carex aquatilis, C. microptera

(small-winged sedge), C. vesicaria, and Deschampsia

cespitosa.

Spiraea douglasii (Douglas’ spirea) community

type—a minor type of northwestern Montana and

northern Idaho forming thickets or occurring on

peatland margins. Soils are sometimes organic, but

are often poorly developed alluvial soils (Hansen and

others 1995). Common associated species include

Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex utriculata, and

Potentilla palustris.

Vaccinium occidentale community type—this type

occurs primarily in eastern Idaho and northwestern

Wyoming (Mattson 1984). Soils are wet and acidic.

Common species are Calamagrostis canadensis and

Carex aquatilis.

Herbaceous Types—Calamagrostis canadensis

community type—this type is most common on wet

Mollisols having a high percentage of organic matter

(Hansen and others 1995). The type is included here

because of its common occurrence as part of many

peatland complexes, especially in marshy areas or on

peatland margins. Typical species of this type include

Calamagrostis canadensis, C. stricta, Carex utriculata, Geum macrophyllum (large-leaved avens), and

Senecio triangularis.

Carex aquatilis community type—a common type

throughout the Northern Rocky Mountains (Chadde

and others 1988; Hansen and others 1995; Youngblood

and others 1985). Shrubs are typically absent apart

from trace amounts of Salix spp. and Potentilla

fruticosa. Herbaceous associates include Carex

buxbaumii, C. lasiocarpa, C. lanuginosa, Potentilla

palustris, and Equisetum arvense. In northern Idaho,

this type often occurs on mineral alluvial soils at

subalpine elevations.

Carex buxbaumii community type—this is a minor

peatland type, and can occur on either mineral or peat

substrates. In the Sawtooth Valley, this community occurs on sedge peat (Tuhy 1981). It occupies

sites similar to those classified as Carex aquatilis and

C. lasiocarpa types. On peat soils, C. buxbaumii is

dominant with a low cover of other sedges such as

C. muricata, C. aquatilis, C. oederi (green sedge), and

C. utriculata.

Carex lasiocarpa community type—this open fen

community type is a major component of the region’s

peatlands, and is especially prominent in northwestern

Montana, northern Utah, and southeastern Idaho

(Padgett and others 1989). Shrubs are absent apart

from low-growing individuals, and stands are visually

characterized by a monoculture of Carex lasiocarpa.

Overall species diversity is low. Menyanthes trifoliata

is common. Sensitive or special-concern species occurring in this type were Carex livida, Eriophorum

viridicarinatum, Drosera anglica, D. rotundifolia, and

Epipactis gigantea. Moss coverage varies widely from

nearly absent to essentially continuous. Predominant

brown mosses are Campylium stellatum, Limprichtia

revolvens, Aulacomnium palustre, Tomentypnum

nitens, and Bryum pseudotriquetrum. Sphagnum

mosses are prominent in some sites. Low moss coverages were associated with shallow basin fens that had

seasonally fluctuating water tables. These sites may

be better classified as sedge meadows. The best developed moss layers were associated with flow-through

peatlands having relatively stable, constant water

movement through them.

Carex limosa community type—a minor type of

western Montana, Idaho, and northwestern Wyoming

(Hansen and others 1995; Mattson 1984; Padgett and

others 1989). The type occurs as small patches in wet

depressions in peatlands or in the moat surrounding

the peat mass.

Carex scopulorum community type—a fairly common type on organic soils at mid- to alpine elevations

in the region. Associated species include Calamagrostis canadensis, Deschampsia cespitosa, Juncus

mertensianus, Phleum alpinum (timothy), Caltha

leptosepala (elkslip), Dodecatheon jeffreyi (shooting

star), and Ligusticum tenuifolium (Cooper and Lesica

1992; Hansen and others 1995).

Carex simulata (short-beaked sedge) community

type—an uncommon type found mostly in peatlands

of central and southern Idaho and northwestern

Wyoming (Chadde and others 1988; Mattson 1984;

Youngblood and others 1985). Dense, rhizomatous

monocultures of Carex simulata characterize this

community type (Tuhy and Jensen 1982).

Carex utriculata community type—the Carex utriculata community is common throughout the Northern Rocky Mountains and Intermountain Region

(Hansen and others 1995; Padgett and others 1989;

Tuhy and Jensen 1982; Youngblood and others 1985).

The type is especially common as an early colonizer of

wet mineral soils, but can persist on sedge peats.

Although Carex utriculata is strongly rhizomatous,

producing near monocultures, small amounts of

other species may be present.

Eleocharis pauciflora community type—a common

type of acidic, organic soils of peatlands throughout

the region (Hansen and others 1995; Mattson 1984;
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 21

Mutz and Queiroz 1983; Padgett and others 1989).

Associated species are varied but include Carex aquatilis, Pedicularis groenlandica, Spiranthes romanzoffiana, and Scirpus acutus. Sphagnum mosses are

common. In northern Idaho, Drosera intermedia is

most common in this community type.

Eleocharis rostellata community type—an uncommon type of wet, marly peatlands such as Bent Flat

Fen in northwestern Montana. The species is also

locally common at Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone

National Park (Chadde and others 1988). Associated

species include Scirpus acutus, Menyanthes trifoliata,

Carex utriculata, Viola nephrophylla, and Triglochin

maritimum (seaside arrow-grass).

Eleocharis tenuis community type—a type encountered in northwestern Montana, often occurring in

close proximity to the Betula glandulosa/Carex

lasiocarpa type in rich fens of Montana’s Swan River

Valley. In Idaho Eleocharis tenuis is rare (Bursik and

Moseley 1995). Common associates include Carex interior, C. flava, C. cusickii, and Menyanthes trifoliata.

Brown mosses such as Tomentypnum nitens,

Aulacomnium palustre, and Bryum pseudotriquetrum are common.

Scirpus cespitosus community type—this type is

limited in Idaho, occurring only in the Sawtooth Valley

(Tuhy 1981). Where found, Scirpus cespitosus may

form hummocky stands to the near exclusion of other

species. Eleocharis pauciflora and Carex livida are

common associates.

Rare Vascular Flora

Of the 356 vascular plant species associated with

peatlands in the Northern Rocky Mountains, 48 (approximately 13 percent) are designated as species of

special conservation concern in Idaho or Montana by

State natural heritage programs. In addition, the

Northern Region of the U.S. Forest Service has designated 30 of these 48 rare taxa as “sensitive” (USDA

Forest Service 1991, 1994) (table 5). This designation

confers protection to them during the planning and

implementation of resource management activities

on National Forest lands. As compared to other habitats, the disproportionately large number of rare species of vascular plants associated with peatlands in

the Northern Rocky Mountains further underscores

the importance of these habitats with respect to the

biological diversity of the region.

These species, although uncommon in the Northern

Rocky Mountains, are generally common when their

entire worldwide range is considered. Apart from

Maianthemum dilatatum (a Pacific coastal species,

disjunct in northern Idaho), most of these species

have circumboreal distributions (Lorrain 1988).

Idaho—Thirty-five vascular species in the peatland flora are considered rare in Idaho, amounting to

12 percent of the State’s rare flora (Idaho Native Plant

Society 1996) (table 5). Five species were undocumented in Idaho prior to recent peatland inventories:

Carex chordorrhiza, Eleocharis tenuis, Eriophorum

viridicarinatum, Iris versicolor (blue flag), and Rubus

pubescens (dew berry) (Bursik and Henderson 1995).

Three species are known from only a single known

site in the State: Andromeda polifolia (bog rosemary),

Iris versicolor, and Maianthemum dilatatum (bead

ruby).

Montana—Twenty-one species of vascular plants

typically associated with peatlands are currently considered rare in Montana (Heidel 1996) (table 5). Of

these, 15 are sensitive species as designated by the

Northern Region of the Forest Service (USDA Forest

Service 1994). All of the rare species are boreal or

north-temperate in distribution, disjunct or peripheral in Montana from more continuous ranges in the

north. Species known from National Forests in Montana include Carex chordorrhiza, C. livida, C.

paupercula, Drosera anglica, D. linearis (linear-leaved

sundew), Dryopteris cristata (crested shield-fern),

Eleocharis rostellata, Eriophorum viridicarinatum,

Liparis loeselii, Lycopodium inundatum, Scheuchzeria

palustris (podgrass), and Scirpus cespitosus. The rarest of these are Drosera linearis (three occurrences in

Montana), Liparis loeselii (five occurrences, first collected in Montana in 1990 [Shelly and Mantas 1993]),

and Lycopodium inundatum (two confirmed occurrences [Shelly and Mantas 1993]).

Of special interest are four rare species, (Cypripedium calceolus (yellow lady’s-slipper), C. passerinum,

Orchis rotundifolia, and Viola renifolia (kidney-leaved

violet) that, while not restricted to peatlands in Montana, are typically found in the semi-shaded ecotones

between open fens and adjacent forests. Cypripedium

passerinum, Drosera linearis, Eleocharis rostellata,

Liparis loeselii, Orchis rotundifolia, and Scirpus

cespitosus are largely confined to rich fens and marly

wetlands in portions of northwest Montana where

limestone bedrock is prevalent.

The poor fens in Montana, which are typically less

floristically diverse than the rich fens, also contain far

fewer rare species. Carex paupercula, Drosera anglica,

Eriophorum viridicarinatum, Scheuchzeria palustris

and Viola renifolia were characteristically the only

rare vascular plants found in association with the

poorer peatlands.

Six additional rare plant species occur in peatlands

or in marly wetlands of western Montana; however,

none of these are included in this report. They are as

follows: Scirpus hudsonianus (Glacier National Park,

two occurrences, from northern Idaho), Utricularia

intermedia (one occurrence on private land in the
22 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Table 5—Rare vascular plant species known from peatlands in Idaho and Montana. USDA Forest Service (Northern Region):

S = sensitive (USDA Forest Service, June 1994); States in which the sensitive designation applies are shown in

parentheses. Global rank: G1 = critically imperiled globally because of extreme rarity; G2 = imperiled globally

because of rarity; G3 = either very rare and local throughout its range or found locally in a restricted range; G4 =

apparently secure globally; G5 = demonstrably secure globally. State rank: S1 = critically imperiled in State,

extremely rare; S2 = imperiled in State, rare; S3 = uncommon in State, not necessarily imperiled. NP = not known

in State; NT = present but not tracked by natural heritage program in State. Idaho Native Plant Society (INPS)

Categories (INPS 1996): 1 = Priority 1, State endangered; 2 = Priority 2, State threatened; S = Sensitive; M = Monitor;

R = Review; N = No INPS rank for Federal candidates. Species names followed by an asterisk are illustrated.

USDA FS

Species Northern Region Global rank Idaho rank INPS rank Montana rank

Andromeda polifolia — G5 S1 1 NP

Aster junciformis — G5 S1 R NT

Betula pumila S (ID) G5 S2 S NP

Carex buxbaumii S (ID) G5 S3 S NT

Carex chordorrhiza S (ID, MT) G5 S2 1 S1

Carex comosa* S (ID) G5 S1 1 S1

Carex flava — G5 S3 M NT

Carex leptalea S (ID) G5 S1 S NT

Carex livida S (ID, MT) G5 S2 S S2

Carex paupercula S (ID, MT) G5 S2 2 S2

Cicuta bulbifera S (ID) G5 S2 S NT

Cypripedium calceolus* S (ID, MT) G5 S1 1 S2, S3

Cypripedium passerinum* S (MT) G4, G5 NP — S2

Drosera anglica — G5 NT — S2

Drosera intermedia S (ID) G5 S1 1 NP

Drosera linearis * S (MT) G4 NP — S1

Dryopteris cristata S(ID, MT, WA) G5 S2 S S2

Eleocharis rostellata — G5 NT — S2

Eleocharis tenuis — G5 S1 2 NT

Epilobium palustre S (ID) G5 S3 M NT

Epipactis gigantea* S (ID, MT) G4 S3 1 S2

Eriophorum viridicarinatum S (ID, MT) G5 S1 1 NT

Gaultheria hispidula S (ID, WA) G5 S1 2 NP

Hypericum majus S (ID) G5 S1 2 NT

Iris versicolor — G5 S1 R NT

Liparis loeselii * S (MT) G5 NP — S1

Lomatogonium rotatum — G5 S1 1 S1

Ludwigia polycarpa — G4 S1 1 NP

Lycopodium inundatum* S (ID, MT) G5 S2 1 S1

Lycopodium sitchense S (ID) G5 S2 S NT

Maianthemum dilatatum — G5 S2 1 NP

Muhlenbergia racemosa — G5 S1 1 NT

Orchis rotundifolia* S (MT) G5 NP — S2, S3

Petasites sagittatus — G4 S3 M NT

Picea glauca — G5 S1 2 NT

Rhynchospora alba* S (ID) G5 S2 1 NP

Salix candida — G5 S2 2 NT

Salix pedicellaris * S (ID) G5 S1 2 NP

Scheuchzeria palustris* S (ID, MT) G5 S2 2 S1

Scirpus cespitosus * — G5 NT — S1

Scirpus hudsonianus S (ID) G5 S1 1 S1

Scirpus subterminalis S (ID, MT) G4, G5 S3 S S1

Trientalis arctica S (ID) G5 S3 S NP

Vaccinium oxycoccos* S (ID) G5 S2 2 NP

Viola renifolia S (MT) G5 NP — S2
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 23

Photographs of the Different Types of Peatland Environments ____________

Color plate 1—Shallow basin peatland. Carex

lasiocarpa and Carex buxbaumii are dominant

species of the open fen (foreground); Salix

bebbiana forms a carr community on the outer

edge of the basin. This site intergrades to a

marsh subject to periodic drying of the surface

peat. Mosses are sparse. Lost Creek Fens,

Flathead National Forest, Montana. Photo by

Steve Chadde.

Color plate 2—Deep basin peatland. A peat mat

surrounds the open water. Sphagnum

angustifolium, and Sphagnum teres are common

peat mosses. Vascular species include Carex

lasiocarpa, Carex flava, Carex interior, and

Eriophorum chamissonis. Trout Lake, Flathead

National Forest, Montana. Photo by Steve Shelly.

Color plate 3—Flow-through or slope peatland.

Dominant vascular species include Betula

glandulosa, Carex lasiocarpa, Carex utriculata,

and Eleocharis tenuis. Brown mosses such as

Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Limprichtia revolvens,

and Tomenthypnum nitens form a nearly continuous surface cover. Porcupine Fen, Flathead National Forest, Montana. Photo by Steve Chadde.

Color plate 4—Flow-through or slope peatland.

Shrubs are sparse; dominant herbaceous species are Carex lasiocarpa, Carex limosa, and

Carex utriculata. Brown mosses carpet the ground

surface. Sanko Creek Fen (North), Flathead National Forest, Montana. Photo by Steve Shelly.
24 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Color plate 5—Patterned rich fen. Dominant

species of raised strings include Eleocharis

rostellata, Eleocharis tenuis, and Carex

buxbaumii. Menyanthes trifoliata is common in

the water-filled flarks. Bent Flat Fen, Flathead

National Forest, Montana. Photo by Steve

Shelly.

Color plate 6—Patterned rich fen with flark

(center) and strings (left and right). Potentilla

fruticosa and Eleocharis tenuis are common

atop the strings; Scirpus acutus and Eleocharis

tenuis are common in the flarks. The substrate is

a mush-like mixture of marl and peat. Bent Flat

Fen, Flathead National Forest, Montana. Photo

by Steve Chadde.

Color plate 7—Patterned poor fen. Prominent

vascular species include Deschampsia cespitosa,

Carex aquatilis, Eleocharis pauciflora, and Carex

limosa. Mosses include Sphagnum angustifolium,

Sphagnum subsecundum, Aulacomnium palustre,

Calliergon stramineum, and Drepanocladus

aduncus. Skull Creek Meadows, BeaverheadDeerlodge National Forest, Montana. Photo by

Steve Chadde.

Color plate 8—Paludification. Expansion of a

peatland into the surrounding subalpine forest of

Pinus contorta. This process occurs as peat accumulates and leads to a gradual rise in the local water

table. Scirpus cespitosus is a major herbaceous

species. Huckleberry Creek Fen, Sawtooth National

Forest, Idaho. Photo by Robert Moseley.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 25

Color plate 9—Deep basin peatland. Aerial

view of a floating mat surrounding a small lake

in a basin setting. Hager Lake, Kaniksu National Forest, Idaho. Photo by Steve Spence.

Color plate 10—Deep basin peatland. Peatland

pond supporting aquatic plants (Nuphar

polysepalum, right) and a floating organic mat

dominated by Carex lasiocarpa (left). Scirpus

acutus, an emergent species, occurs along the

margin of the mat. Hager Lake, Kaniksu National

Forest, Idaho. Photo by Robert Moseley.

Color plate 11—Carr. A peatland dominated by

shrubs, in this case by Betula glandulosa. Porcupine Fen, Flathead National Forest, Montana. Photo

by Steve Shelly.

Color plate 12—Flow-through or slope

peatland. Water upwelling through peat deposit. Plum Creek Fen, Swan River Valley,

Montana. Photo by Steve Shelly.
26 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Photographs of Common and Rare Peatland Plants _____________________

Color plate 13—Carex livida (Wahl.) Willd. (Pale sedge),

Cyperaceae (Sedge Family). A circumboreal sedge that is

rare in western Montana. This species is largely confined to

minerotrophic (rich) fen habitats. Photo by Maria Mantas.

Color plate 14—Cypripedium calceolus L. (Small yellow lady’sslipper), Orchidaceae (Orchid Family). A sparsely occurring,

circumboreal orchid species that is often associated with rich

fens, calcareous wetlands, moist forests, and seepage areas in

western Montana and northern Idaho. It is typically encountered in the semishaded ecotonal margins around peatlands.

Photo by Steve Wirt.

Color plate 15—Cypripedium passerinum Richardson

(Sparrow’s-egg lady’s-slipper), Orchidaceae (Orchid Family). An orchid species that is more frequent in Canada. This

species is confined to ecotones of peatlands and moist

seepage areas, often in areas of calcareous bedrock. The

only sites in the Western United States occur in northwestern Montana. Photo by Maria Mantas.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 27

Color plate 16—Orchis rotundifolia Banks (Round-leaved orchis), Orchidaceae (Orchid Family). An orchid species of Northern North America, with peripheral locations in Montana and

Wyoming in the Western United States. This species often

occurs with Cypripedium passerinum and is found along mossy

streambanks, peatland margins, and in moist forests, usually in

areas of limestone bedrock. Photo by Maria Mantas.

Color plate 17—Drosera linearis Goldie (Linear-leaved sundew), Droseraceae (Sundew Family). A carnivorous plant

found primarily in boreal regions of Canada, but occurring

peripherally, and rarely, in northwestern Montana. This species

occurs in fens and on peat mats around ponds and lakes, often

in association with sphagnum moss. Photo by Maria Mantas.

Color plate 18—Epipactis gigantea Dougl. Ex Hook. (Giant

helleborine), Orchidaceae (Orchid Family). A wide-ranging, but

sparsely occurring, orchid species in Western North America.

The habitat includes rich fens, streambanks, lake margins, and

thermal springs. Photo by Maria Mantas.

Color plate 19—Liparis loesellii (L.) Rich. (Fen-orchid),

Orchidaceae (Orchid Family). An orchid species that is rare in

the Western United States. In Montana, it is known only from a

few rich fens. Sphagnum warnstorfii is the maroon-colored peat

moss. Photo by Steve Chadde.
28 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Color plate 20—Lycopodium inundatum L. (Northern bog clubmoss), Lycopodiaceae (Clubmoss

Family). A circumboreal species, known in the

Western United States from only a few locations in

Montana. It occurs in basin fens and on floating

peat mats adjacent to ponds. Drosera anglica is

also present in this photograph. Photo by Maria

Mantas.

Color plate 21—Tomenthypnum nitens. A hummock-forming brown moss of rich fens. This photo

shows the characteristic golden color of this species. Photo by Steve Chadde.

Color plate 22—Rhynchospora alba (L.) Vahl. (Beakrush), Cyperaceae (Sedge Family). A circumboreal species occurring peripherally in sphagnum moss peatlands

in northern Idaho. Photo by Robert Moseley.

Color plate 23—Scheuchzeria palustris L. (Podgrass), Scheuchzeriaceae (Scheuchzeria Family).

A circumboreal species occurring peripherally in

western Montana. It is found in rich fens and on peat

mats near ponds. Photo by Maria Mantas.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 29

Color plate 25—Menyanthes trifoliata L. (Bog buck bean),

Menyanthaceae (Buck-bean Family). A wide-ranging species

that occurs in wetlands and peatlands, including flarks in

patterned fens. In the Rocky Mountains it occurs south to

Colorado. Photo by Maria Mantas.

Color plate 24—Vaccinum oxycoccos L. (Small cranberry), Ericaceae (Heath Family). A circumboreal

species that is peripheral in northern Idaho. It is

confined to poor fens. Photo by Robert Moseley.

Swan Valley), Carex tenuiflora (Glacier National Park),

Gentianopsis macounii (fringed gentian) and Salix

serissima (autumn willow) (Front Range), Gentianopsis

simplex (hiker’s gentian) (three occurrences in

Montana).

Wyoming—Swamp Lake Peatland contains a

large number of vascular plants considered rare in the

State, including two species known only from this

location in the continental United States: Arctostaphylos rubra and Salix myrtillifolia (blueberry willow). Other disjunct boreal species occur at the site:

Primula egalikensis (primrose), Scirpus pumilus (bulrush), Carex livida, C. scirpoidea var. scirpiformis, C.

microglochin, C. limosa, Kobresia simpliciuscula,

Eriophorum viridicarinatum, and Orchis rotundifolia.

Peatlands as Historical

Archives _______________________

Aside from having a unique biota, peatlands also

provide an important historical perspective through

the plant fossils and volcanic ash preserved in their

peat deposits (Heidel 1995). In the Northern Rocky

Mountains, a number of peatlands have had core

samples taken and analyzed. In northern Idaho,

Hager Lake has been the subject of four paleoecological studies (Hansen 1939; Mack and others

1978; Moseley and others 1992; Rumely 1956). Hansen

(1939) described the general stratigraphy of the peat

deposits and reported the presence of several volcanic

ash layers. Based on pollen remains in the peat, he

inferred a post-glacial forest initially dominated by

species of cool-moist climates, then changing to species

of warm-dry conditions, and more recently returning

to a predominance of species adapted to a cool and dry

climate. Rumely (1956) confirmed the post-glacial forest

history reconstructed by Hansen, and noted the importance of periodic, stand-replacing fire. Mack and

others (1978) subdivided the warm-dry and the current

cool-moist climatic periods into two distinct phases.

Other peatlands cored in the Northern Rocky Mountains include Lost Trail Pass peatland on the IdahoMontana border (Mehringer and others 1977a,b),

Mary’s Frog Pond (Karsian 1995) and Sheep Mountain Bog (Hemphill 1983) on the Lolo National Forest, Smeads Bench on the Kootenai National Forest

(Chatters 1994a). For the most part, these studies

were focused on a reconstruction of post-glacial vegetation and climate of the surrounding region. For

example, the Lost Trail Pass study examined Holocene

vegetation changes and volcanic ash chronology for

this part of the Bitterroot Mountains.

From analysis of core samples, a post-glacial record

of regional and on-site vegetation can be reconstructed
30 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

600 year history of Hager Lake Fen represented in

the cores was early in this century. This coincides

with settlement by the first Europeans in the Hager

Lake area (Rumely 1956). It appears that repeated

ditching from about 1920 until 1988 kept water levels

in Hager Lake Fen lower than the previous 300 years.

Conversely, surface waters became increasingly

minerotrophic following logging and land clearing

prior to 1952, but cessation and recovery from these

disturbances, in combination with low water levels,

caused subsequent oligotrophication during the last

40 years. Many land managers consider these small,

isolated peatlands to be relatively immune to the

effects of management practices occurring on adjacent

terrain. These data suggest that this may not be the

case and that these sites are closely linked to external,

landscape-level processes (Bursik and Moseley 1992b).

Peatland Fauna _________________

Invertebrates

The open water environments found at many

peatlands are important habitat for numerous invertebrate and vertebrate animal species (see appendix C

for a profile of invertebrates associated with peatlands). In many ponds and standing water areas

associated with peatlands, dense masses of submerged vegetation are present and provide habitat for

numerous invertebrate species. The importance of

submerged plants as invertebrate habitat has long

been recognized (Crowder and Cooper 1972; Dvorak

1978; Fairchild 1981; Johnson and Crowley 1980;

Krecker 1939; Krull 1970; Porter 1977; Smith 1972).

This complex matrix affects invertebrate communities by providing refuge for prey, periphyton for grazers and herbivores, hunting perches for substratedependent predators, and access to the entire water

column by substrate-preferring organisms (Rabe and

Gibson 1984).

Several detailed studies of macroinvertebrate fauna

associated with peatland and wetland sites in the

northern Rockies have been conducted by: Rabe and

others (1986, 1990), Rabe and Chadde (1995), and

Rabe and Savage (1977). These references are a good

source of additional information. Many of these studies concentrated specifically on peatlands and wetlands contained within the Forest Service Research

Natural Areas (RNA) system. Each of these sites is

unique with respect to the particular complement of

peatland and aquatic features and associated diversity of macroinvertebrates. Potholes RNA and

Kaniksu Marsh RNA in northern Idaho are among the

peatland ponds containing the greatest variety of

peatland components. These sites together with Hager

Lake and Bottle Lake supported the highest species

richness of peatland macroinvertebrates. In Bottle

using pollen and plant macrofossils preserved in the

peat (Barber 1993). Peat deposits enable ecologists to

address questions about landscape and community

development and evolution in the context of centuries

or millennia rather than over only several field seasons as is often the case (Schoonmaker and Foster

1991). Whether a given ecosystem is stable and relatively unchanging, or whether it is dynamic and undergoing frequent and rapid changes can be determined

by analyzing peat deposits. Models for community

development and landscape evolution supported from

studies of the peatland archives can provide more

enlightened and long-term management strategies,

not only for the peatlands, but for Rocky Mountain

ecosystems as a whole (Bursik and Moseley 1992c).

Based on peat core analyses, the origin of a peatland’s vegetation can be inferred. Important factors

influencing the type of vegetation may be the age of

the peatland (Bursik 1990), water chemistry, hydrology, and the chance arrival of plant propagules that

initially colonize the site. Latitudinal and elevational

differences, the variety of prevailing climatic regimes,

and the physical nature of the peat deposits are also

likely important in determining vegetation patterns

and development.

Only one paleoecological study was recently undertaken in the Northern Rocky Mountains to reconstruct

the on-site vegetational development of a peatland

itself, in contrast to inferring the vegetation composition of the surrounding landscape. The study, comparable to studies by Watts and Winter (1966) and

Miller and Futyma (1987), was undertaken in 1992

at Hager Lake, ID (Bursik and others 1994; Moseley

and others 1992). Vegetation research conducted in

the fen during the early 1950’s (Rumely 1956) was

redone 40 years later (Bursik and Moseley 1992b).

They found significant changes in surface water chemistry, floristic composition, and the spatial arrangement of community types. For example, 14 vascular

plant species had become extirpated from the site

during the intervening four decades, including four

rare species. Nine species had immigrated to the site.

It was hypothesized that these changes resulted from

adjacent land management practices, including

ditching and timber harvest (Bursik and Moseley

1992b). Another explanation, however, could have

been that these were normal fluxes inherent in a

dynamic ecosystem.

To test which of these two scenarios was correct, a

paleoecological study was undertaken to address the

question of longer-term change. The goal was to ascertain whether or not ecological changes documented

between 1952 and 1992 are within the range of presettlement variability or are a consequence of recent

human disturbances. Results indicated that

vegetationally, the most dynamic time during the
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 31

Lake, the extensive floating mat surrounded by a deep

pool on one side and a shallow moat on the other

probably accounts for high levels of macroinvertebrate

diversity (Rabe and Savage 1977).

Vertebrates

The northern bog lemming (Synaptomys borealis)

typically inhabits sphagnum bogs and fens, but is also

occasionally found in other habitats including mossy

forests, wet subalpine meadows, and alpine tundra.

The species is boreal in distribution, occurring in

North America from near treeline in the north, south

to Washington, Idaho, Montana, Minnesota, and

New England.

The northern bog lemming is a small, grayish brown,

vole-like microtine, related to the true arctic lemmings (Lemmus). Nine poorly differentiated subspecies are currently recognized. The northern bog lemming has a total length of 118 to 140 mm including its

very short tail (19 to 27 mm) (Banfield 1974; Hall

1981). The combination of a tail less than 28 mm and

a longitudinal groove in the upper incisors distinguish

the northern bog lemming from all other mice found

in the Northern Rocky Mountains (Reichel and

Beckstrom 1994).

A few relict populations occur in the lower 48 States;

the subspecies chapmani occurs in Montana, Idaho,

and northeast Washington (Hall 1981). Bog lemmings

are known from four locations in Idaho and eight in

Washington, all within 80 km of the Canadian border

(Groves and Yensen 1989). The reasons for the disjunct nature of the populations may include: (1) the

localized nature of its habitat and (2) the patchy

distribution of a boreal species that was more widely

distributed during the Pleistocene.

The U.S. Forest Service, Northern Region lists the

northern bog lemming as sensitive. It is listed as a

species of special concern by the Idaho Conservation

Data Center and Montana Natural Heritage Program

(Idaho Conservation Data Center 1994; Reichel and

Beckstrom 1994).

Prior to 1992, evidence of bog lemmings in Montana

included: six locations on the west side of Glacier

National Park and Shoofly Meadows in the Rattlesnake drainage north of Missoula. In 1992 and 1993,

10 new populations of northern bog lemmings were

discovered in western Montana (Reichel and Beckstrom

1994).

In Montana, elevation of the sites supporting northern bog lemming ranged from 1,360 to 1,800 m. At

eight of ten sites where northern bog lemmings were

caught during 1992 to 1993, the habitats were characterized by thick mats of sphagnum moss. One site

had a thick moss layer of Tomentypnum nitens rather

than sphagnum. Thick moss mats appear to be the

most reliable indicator of a potential site.

All occupied northern bog lemming sites were relatively open. Several occupied sites had an open overstory of Abies lasiocarpa or Picea engelmannii, others

were without a tree component. Shrubs were present

on all sites, however, in most areas the moss habitat

areas were without shrubs on at least part of the patch.

Betula glandulosa and Salix spp. (typically less than

1.5 m tall) were present at all sites. Graminoid cover

ranged from 40 to 90 percent. Eleocharis pauciflora

was dominant at one site; dominant sedge species at

other sites included Carex aquatilis, C. arcta, C. buxbaumii, C. canescens, C. lasiocarpa, C. utriculata, and

C. vesicaria.

The grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), a Federally listed

Threatened Species, and the woodland caribou

(Rangifer tarandus), an Endangered species, are

known to utilize subalpine peatlands of the Selkirk

Mountains. Grizzly bears have also been sighted at

valley peatland locations in the Priest River Valley. In

Montana, grizzly bear scat was observed in Swan

Valley peatlands by several of the authors during the

course of inventories and forage in Pine Butte Swamp

along the Rocky Mountain Front.

Peatland Conservation ___________

The biological significance of peatland habitats in

the Northern Rocky Mountains, and the sensitivity of

these habitats to environmental conditions requires

conservation approaches that ensure protection for

these important sites.

Integrity of peatland ecosystems is inherently tied

to hydrologic conditions. Although fairly small in size,

peatlands are sustained by water and nutrient resources derived from much larger portions of the

surrounding landscapes. Under naturally occurring

hydrologic regimes, peatlands are relatively stable

ecosystems. However, resiliency, or the ability to recover from disturbance, is low in peatlands. Recovery

from major disruptions to water or nutrient flows or

to the removal of vegetation may require centuries.

Rates of peat accumulation have been estimated to be

approximately 2 cm per century in boreal and temperate climates (Crum 1988), but this figure likely varies

widely and is also influenced by inflows of sediment.

Land-use activities that directly impact peatlands

(such as peat mining, draining) and indirect impacts

such as upslope timber harvest or road construction

can cause changes to peatland biodiversity because

many species are sensitive to minor changes in water

chemistry and hydrology (Bursik and Moseley 1992a,b;

Damman and French 1987; Glaser 1987; Vitt and

Slack 1975).

Fortunately many protection measures are already

in place or are available for conserving peatlands on

National Forests. Following is a discussion of threats
32 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

to maintaining peatland integrity, current management guidelines, protection through special designations, monitoring, and research needs and public

education.

Threats

The two most critical factors affecting the abundance and distribution of peatland species in the

Northern Rocky Mountains appear to be water levels

and the nutrient concentration of incoming water.

Natural factors such as wildfire, drought, and beaver

activity bring periodic changes in these two factors

and consequent shifts in location and abundance of

peatland species. The abrupt, large-scale, and often

irreversible nature of changes in hydrology and nutrient concentrations that result directly or indirectly

from human activities, however, may be beyond the

tolerance level of resident populations.

Direct impacts that may threaten the integrity of

peatland ecosystems and associated plant and animal

populations include ditching and drainage, peat mining, livestock grazing, water flow regulation, and invasion by exotic plant species. Several peatlands in

Idaho and Montana have been significantly altered by

major ditching, filling, and development. Although

National Forest peatlands are not subject to development, some of these sites have been altered by ditching

and drainage. Studies of Hager Lake Fen in Idaho

have documented significant vegetation changes and

loss of species diversity over a 40 year period, attributed in part to hydrologic changes resulting from

ditching (Bursik and Moseley 1992a). During this

40 year period, 14 plant species disappeared from the

site, including four rare species.

Little peat mining has taken place in the Northern

Rocky Mountains, although limited local peat operations are known to occur in Idaho and Montana. This

type of habitat destruction may be increasing, however, as private landowners and mining companies

become increasingly interested in exploiting peat.

Although not a significant threat to most peatlands,

livestock grazing takes place within and around some

of the peatlands on National Forests in Idaho and

Montana. Livestock grazing directly impacts vegetation through removal and trampling, and may result

in soil compaction, and altered local hydrologic conditions. Indirect impacts associated with grazing may

include altered water chemistry.

Artificial regulation of water levels around lakes

and water flows associated with streams is another

potential threat. Peatlands around lakes with regulated water levels could be threatened with a loss of

species dependent on naturally fluctuating water regimes. Naturally occurring water regulators in

peatland systems include beaver. The erratic dam

building and flooding activities associated with beaver

is critical to the maintenance of habitat diversity,

which allows numerous species adapted to various

seral stages to survive. Removing beaver from

peatlands may have negative impacts on the overall

functioning of the ecosystem. Long-term static water

levels can lead to the gradual depauperization of the

flora in peatlands (Crum 1988).

Management activities on landscapes that have

peatlands imbedded within them can potentially

threaten system integrity, if they adversely alter hydrologic regimes and nutrient regimes. Hydrologic conditions of individual peatlands result from their placement within an overall drainage system. Since most

peatlands in Idaho and Montana are flow-through

systems, water is obtained from the lands higher up in

the drainage. Certain off-site management activities,

such as timber harvest, road building, and livestock

grazing that alter hydrologic and nutrient regimes

may adversely impact peatlands. The degree of impact

of these activities on peatlands is the result of many

factors including the extent and intensity of land management activity or disturbance, and the particular

physiographic features of the drainage. Off-site management activities need to be planned so that hydrologic and nutrient conditions remain within the range

of natural variability. Additional threats to peatlands

may arise from point source water pollution.

Invasion by exotic plant species is apparent in some

peatlands. Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea)

is a commonly observed exotic species in peatlands,

and is able to aggressively spread by rhizomes. Canada

thistle (Cirsium arvense) may also invade peatlands

following disturbances such as wheel ruts or fire.

Management of Peatlands on National

Forests

Conservation of peatland habitats on National Forests is accomplished in several ways. A combination of

State and Federal laws, agency policy, and management standards and guidelines set forth in forest

plans collectively provide conservation mechanisms

for many peatlands. Additional protection mechanisms include application of special designations

to the most significant sites (discussed in the next

section).

The presence of sensitive plant and animal species

in peatlands affords protection through policy and

guidelines aimed at maintaining viable populations

of these species. The Clean Water Act and State

water quality standards help prevent the occurrence

of activities or pollution that could result in altered

water chemistry and nutrient regimes in peatlands.

Peatlands fall under various categories of management direction in forest plans within Montana and

Idaho. Generally, peatlands meet the criteria of jurisdictional wetlands that often fall within a riparian

management area in the forest plans. Management
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 33

standards and guidelines in these management areas

usually emphasize nonmanipulative management,

although some timber harvest, grazing, and road building may still be permitted. Special use permits for such

activities as peat harvesting are not issued in these

areas.

Although existing management direction, policy,

and laws provide a framework for conserving these

highly significant peatlands, additional protection

could be provided through development of more specific management strategies. In particular, a better

articulation of how off-site management practices influence peatland hydrology and water chemistry would

be beneficial.

Site Protection Through Special Area

Designations

A common conservation approach to protecting

highly significant biological sites on National Forests

is through the employment of special designations

such as Research Natural Areas (Forest Service Manual

4063) and Special Interest Botanical Areas (Forest

Service Manual 2072). These designations allow for

recognition of exceptional biological features, such as

areas of significant biological diversity with rare biota,

or high quality examples of representative ecosystem

types. Research Natural Areas have the following

objectives: (1) preserve and maintain biological diversity, (2) form a network of reference areas containing

a wide range of ecological conditions in the United

States, (3) monitoring baseline conditions for determining the effects of management practices on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and (4) educational purposes (Federal Committee on Ecological Reserves 1977).

The Special Interest Botanical Area is a recreation

designation with the goal of acknowledging and highlighting a special area of the National Forest (Shevok

1988). The unique botanical features of an area are

protected, yet access and interpretation of these

features for the public may also be considered.

Designation of special areas is accompanied by development of site specific management and monitoring direction to ensure maintenance of a site’s ecological integrity. Botanical Areas and Research Natural

Areas typically disallow manipulative management

activities such as timber harvest and cattle grazing.

Additional benefits of designation include recognition

of an area by the broader scientific and ecological

community, resulting in focused points for interdisciplinary ecological study.

Of the sites included within this report (table 2), ten

are presently within established or proposed Research

Natural Areas, and five are within candidate or proposed Special Interest Botanical Areas. Two Montana

sites occur within designated Wilderness.

Site Evaluation and Ranking

It is important to evaluate the site’s physical and

biological features when considering the significance

of a peatland site for inclusion in a special area

designation. Rankings for each peatland was, therefore, summarized (table 6). This information is useful

for determining which sites are most biologically significant and which areas should and can be protected

through special area designation.

Idaho—Several peatlands stand out as having the

greatest ecological diversity in terms of the number of

peatland components: Potholes and Kaniksu Marsh.

Rose Lake and Mosquito Bay Fen are also notable.

These sites are among the most floristically diverse

peatlands in Idaho, each containing more than 100

plant species (Bursik and Henderson 1995). With the

exception of Rose Lake, these sites also contain the

densest concentrations of rare plant populations.

Seven sites had very high significance ranking

scores (table 6). Four of these sites lie within established Research Natural Areas (Bottle Lake, Kaniksu

Marsh, Potholes, Smith Creek), and Three Ponds

Research Natural Area. Two additional highly significant sites, Armstrong Meadows and Upper Priest

Lake Fen, occur within the Upper Priest Scenic Area

of the Kaniksu National Forest. This group of peatlands

represent most of the ecological and floristic diversity

known in northern Idaho peatlands. Several features,

however, are not well represented, including bog

microsites, paludified forest, and Typha latifolia/

Carex lasiocarpa communities found on floating mats.

The remaining Idaho sites had moderate scores.

Three peatlands are within established Research

Natural Areas (Iron Bog, Sawtooth Valley, and Three

Ponds). Several sites partially on private land are

part of Nature Conservancy preserves (Birch Creek

Fen and Hager Lake Fen). The remaining sites are not

within formally designated special protection areas.

Bursik and Moseley (1995) discussed additional conservation measures for peatlands of northern Idaho.

Montana—Three sites examined by the authors

had very high scores: Shoofly Meadows (Lolo National

Forest), Swan River Fen (Flathead National Forest),

and Bent Flat Fen (Flathead National Forest) (table 6).

Shoofly Meadows is a proposed Research Natural

Area. Swan River Fen lies within the established

Swan River Research Natural Area. Bent Flat Fen is

not within any special designation area, but Botanical Area may be appropriate given the uniqueness of

this habitat and its associated rare plant populations.

Six additional sites had moderate rankings, with

five occurring on the Flathead National Forest. Butcher

Mountain Fens and Mud Lake lie within the Bob

Marshall Wilderness. Lost Creek Fen and Porcupine

Fen are candidate Botanical Areas. Trail Creek Fen
34 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Table 6—Summary of conservation significance rankings. Sites are listed for each State by their scoring; the highest ranked sites are listed first. The

two Wyoming sites, Sawtooth Fen and Swamp Lake, were not ranked by the authors. RNA = Research Natural Area. TNC = The Nature

Conservancy.

Scientific

and

Representa- Defensi- educational

Site tiveness Quality Rarity Diversity Viability bility value Total Comments

Idaho

Armstrong Meadows 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 21 Upper Priest

 Scenic Area

Kaniksu Marsh 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 21 RNA

Bottle Lake 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 20 RNA

Packer Meadows 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 20

Potholes 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 20 RNA

Smith Creek 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 20 RNA

Upper Priest Lake Fen 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 20 Upper Priest

 Scenic Area

Birch Creek Fen 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 19 TNC preserve

 (part)

Dubius Creek Fen 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 19

Hager Lake Fen 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 19 Conservation

 Easement (part)

Bog Creek Fen 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 18

Cow Creek Meadows 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 18 Grazed

Grass Creek Meadows 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 18 Grazed

Perkins Lake 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 18

Three Ponds 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 18 RNA

Rose Lake 3 2 2 3 3 1 3 17 Mostly private

Sinclair Lake 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 17

Tule Lake 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 17

Beaver Lake (North) 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 16

Iron Bog 3 2 1 2 3 2 3 16 RNA

Lost Lake 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 16

Mosquito Bay Fen 3 2 3 3 2 1 2 16 Mostly private

Sawtooth Valley 3 2 1 2 3 3 2 16 RNA

 Peatlands

Lamb Creek Meadows 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 15

Robinson Lake 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 15

Bismark Meadows 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14

Big Springs-Henry’s Fork 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 14

 Confluence

Blind Summit Fen 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 14

Hoodoo Lake 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 12 Grazed

Washington

Deerhorn Creek Meadows 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 19

Huff Lake Fen 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 19

Sema Meadows 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 18

Montana

Indian Meadows 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 21 RNA

Shoofly Meadows 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 21 RNA

Swan River Fen 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 21 Established RNA

Bent Flat Fen 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 20 Candidate

 botanical area

Lost Creek Fens 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 19 Candidate

 botanical area

Trail Creek Fen 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 19

Mud Lake 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 19 Within wilderness

Skull Creek Fens 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 19 RNA

Butcher Mountain Fens 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 18 Within wilderness

Porcupine Fen 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 18

Sheep Mountain Bog 2 3 3 2 2 2 3 17 RNA

Rock Creek Wetland 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 16 Candidate

 botanical area

(con.)
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 35

Tepee Lake 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 16 Candidate

 botanical area

Bowen Creek Fen 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 16

Trout Lake 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 15

Gregg Creek Fen 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 15

Leonard Creek Fen 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 15

Lost Trail Pass Fen 3 2 3 1 1 1 3 14

Windfall Creek Fen 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14

Cody Lake Fen 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14

Sanko Creek (South) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14

Sanko Creek (North) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14

Hawkins Pond 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 12

Sheppard Creek Fen 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 11

Table 6 (Con.)

Scientific

and

Representa- Defensi- educational

Site tiveness Quality Rarity Diversity Viability bility value Total Comments

is not within any special designation area. The

final site, Skull Creek Fens (Beaverhead-Deerlodge

National Forest) is within the Skull-Odell Research

Natural Area.

Research and Monitoring

Needs _________________________

Conservation of peatlands is dependent on an understanding of the distribution, composition, and function of these ecosystems. Although the inventory efforts summarized in this report provide a foundation

for understanding the ecology of Northern Rocky

Mountain peatlands, additional research and monitoring is needed to more fully examine the functioning

of peatlands within broader landscapes. It is important to understand the consequences of landscape

management practices on these biologically significant ecosystems.

Inventory

Inventories of peatlands on National Forests in

Idaho and Montana have resulted in a fairly complete

understanding of their distribution, occurrence, and

composition. However, there remain unsurveyed areas

and it is likely that other significant peatland sites

will be discovered.

Biotic inventory in Northern Rocky Mountain

peatlands has focused primarily on the vascular

flora (Bursik 1990; Bursik and Henderson 1995)

and, to a lesser extent, on bryophytes (Bursik and

Henderson 1995; Chadde and Shelly 1995), and aquatic

invertebrates (Rabe and Savage 1977; Rabe and others 1986, 1990). Further inventory work is needed on

terrestrial vertebrate and invertebrate fauna, fungi,

and bryophytes of peatlands.

Classification

Classification is often considered the first step in

understanding the nature and dynamics of habitats

in order to properly manage them. During initial

studies of the region’s peatlands, the authors attempted

to discern repeating patterns of vegetation that could

be used in a classification of habitats, similar to other

wetland classifications in the region (Hansen and

others 1995; Mutz and Queiroz 1983; Tuhy 1981). This

habitat classification could then be used as a basis of

peatland ecosystem conservation efforts (Bursik and

Moseley 1992c). Following the collection of a large

amount of community-level data, it is evident that

standard classification methods have serious shortcomings when applied to peatlands. Preliminary unpublished results yield a large number of community

types occurring in the field as patches of extremely

small size in a complex mosaic of vegetation. Mapping and subsequent management of these types

within a single peatland is impracticable in most

cases. Others have also concluded that peatland classifications based solely on vegetation dominance are of

limited value except in a localized context (Crum 1988;

Gore 1983).

Future efforts should be directed toward refining

descriptions and classifications of entire peatlands in

terms of a combination of physical features, hydrology,

water chemistry, and floristics (Glaser 1987). The
36 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

both of vascular and nonvascular plant species. This

would lead to refinement of peatland community

classifications and a better understanding of rare

plant distribution within the study area. Autecological studies of individual species, especially those dominating peatlands or of rare species, are needed. The

role of peatlands in reconstructing vegetational history of the surrounding landscape has been demonstrated in portions of the region, but geographic gaps

remain.

Other areas of research interest include peatland

habitat values and uses for wildlife, the importance of

peatlands for vertebrates and invertebrates, plant

dispersal mechanisms via wildlife, gradients responsible for plant distribution with peatlands, population

genetics of rare peatland species, the history of

paludified forests in the region, and the role of beaver

in successional dynamics within peatlands.

Hager Lake Fen is one of the best-studied Northern

Rocky Mountain peatlands. It has been the subject of

several paleoecological studies, some of which are still

in progress (Hansen 1939; Mack and others 1978).

Rumely (1956) carried out a detailed vegetation study

of Hager Lake Fen, which has been used to ascertain

40 year vegetation and floristic changes at the site

(Bursik and Moseley 1992a). The report of Karg

(1973) was used to detect floristic and vegetation

changes at Huff Lake Fen (Bursik and Moseley 1992b).

Education

Public education is an important component of efforts to conserve significant biological resources such

as peatlands. It is important that educational materials are developed on peatlands in order to maintain

their integrity. This material should describe the impact of peatlands on local and regional hydrologic

processes (for example, their role in water storage

and flood control), their value as habitat for numerous unique and unusual organisms, as archives of

post-glacial landscape history, and where they cover

large areas as in Canada, their role as carbon sinks

in relation to global warming.

Glossary _______________________

The glossary includes terms that are in bold italics

in the text. Other words describing peatlands are

included because of their use in international peatland

research studies and to encourage a standardized

language to describe peatlands. The glossary was

adapted from Crum (1988), Glaser (1987), Gore (1983),

and Sorenson (1986).

Aapamire (Finnish)—A patterned peatland developed on a slight slope, with ridges of peat (strings)

alternating with hollows or pools (flarks); also known

as string bog or string fen.

widely accepted peatland classification that recognizes bog, poor fen, rich fen, and extremely rich fen is

sufficient for most purposes in the region and has the

advantage of being relatively easy to apply in the field.

Monitoring

The establishment of long-term studies, including

monitoring programs have been recommended for a

variety of ecological systems (Leopold 1962; Likens

1983). Carefully designed monitoring studies can

lead to a better understanding of the magnitude and

direction of change in dynamic landscapes and alter

human activities and management paradigms appropriately (Mueggler 1992; Noss 1990). Recent reanalysis of early studies on peatlands in northern

Idaho have revealed a significant level of change in

these systems that is likely attributed directly or

indirectly to human activities (Bursik and Moseley

1992a; Bursik and others 1994).

It is important that monitoring be carefully designed with specific objectives that address critical

management and information questions at the system, community, and population levels. Permanent

monitoring plots have been established in seven northern Idaho peatlands to determine changes of water

chemistry and vegetation over time (Bursik and

Moseley 1992a,b; Bursik and others 1994; Moseley

and others 1994). Monitoring surface water quality

and invertebrate populations in several National Forest peatlands has been conducted for many years

(Moseley and others 1994; Rabe and Chadde 1994;

Rabe and Savage 1977; Rabe and others 1986). Monitoring studies should be initiated at additional Northern Rocky Mountain peatlands.

Routine vegetation and water chemistry monitoring is recommended for peatlands where management activities such as grazing or timber harvest

occur within or immediately adjacent to site boundaries. Determination of effects on the flora or vegetation should result in alteration of the management

activity accordingly or avoidance of that management

option in or near peatlands in the future.

Research

Gorham (1994) suggested a number of research

topics for peatlands in Canada. Many are applicable to

peatlands of the Northern Rocky Mountains. A standardized classification of peatlands based on landscape features, hydrology and water chemistry, and

vegetation would be useful in describing peatlands.

Such a multifaceted classification would provide a

useful tool for predicting or modeling a site’s potential as rare plant habitat. Hydrologic studies are

needed to protect and maintain peatland integrity,

and have direct bearing on how lands adjacent to

peatlands may be best managed without degrading

peatlands. Additional floristic inventories are needed
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 37

Accumulation—Growth of organic matter in an

ecosystem as a result of the difference between

gross primary productivity and total community

respiration.

Acidophile—A plant adapted to acidic environments. Plants adapted to habitats with dilute acid

waters.

Acrotelm—The uppermost horizon in a peat profile

consisting of relatively porous and undecomposed

peat. The concept is largely based on the work of

Soviet hydrologists, who divide a peat deposit

into two layers (acrotelm and catotelm) with contrasting physical and biological properties (Ingram

1978, 1983). The acrotelm or active layer is responsible for most water transmission through a peatland on account of its high hydraulic conductivity. It

can also be defined as the zone of maximum water

table fluctuations and oxygen penetration from the

atmosphere.

Anastomosis—A network of interconnecting channels in a peatland.

Apron—An extensive downslope fen developed

where the laggs on either side of a domed bog join.

Ash content—The percentage of mineral solids

remaining after a peat sample is burned.

Autogenic—Self-perpetuating communities where

the course of succession is directed by the properties

of the plants themselves. In poor fens and bogs,

sphagnum mosses are especially important in controlling succession.

Bog—An ombrotrophic peatland, that is, one deriving

water and nutrients only from the atmosphere.

Bogs are highly acid and nutrient-poor and dominated by sphagnum mosses and ericaceous shrubs

(and eventually, in much of North America, by

black spruce). Bogs occur on peat elevated above the

regional water table. Different types of bogs have

been defined, some of which are actually fens:

Basin bog—Occupying the basin of a pond or

lake; a lake-fill bog.

Blanket bog—Covering irregular terrain, developed in oceanic areas with cool temperatures

and persistently high humidity.

Continental bog—An inland raised bog, less elevated and less convex than in oceanic regions.

Domed bog—Raised above ground level by a

marked convexity, often with a concentric or

eccentric pattern of ridges and depressions

and/ or pools.

Flat bog—A fen developed under the influence of

ground water and lacking the convexity of a

bog.

Marly bog—A rich, highly calcareous fen.

Plateau raised bog—A relatively flat-topped,

oceanic bog raised well above the level of the

regional water table.

Quaking bog—A floating mat, often marginal

to a lake or pond, floating on water or on

unconsolidated peat and yielding underfoot.

Raised bog—Any ombrotrophic peatland but often used to describe oceanic bogs distinctly

elevated above the regional water table. Inland (or continental) bogs are also raised but

are only slightly elevated.

Slope bog—Bog on sloping terrain but not covering topographic irregularities as typical of

more extensive blanket bogs; also known as a

hanging bog.

String bog (aapamire)—String bogs are typically

fens, but bog conditions may occur on welldeveloped ridges of peat.

Transition bog—A poor fen with vegetation intermediate between a fen and a bog.

Boreal region—A circumpolar forest region in the

northern hemisphere that is generally dominated

by conifer tree species. The boreal forest extends

north to the treeless tundra and south to the

mixed conifer or deciduous forests or temperate

grasslands.

Boundary layer—See Grenzhorizon.

Brown moss—A true moss, as opposed to a “white

moss” (peat moss).

Brown-moss peat—Organic sediments primarily

composed of the brown mosses or Amblystegiaceae;

typical genera in Northern Rocky Mountain

peatlands include Calliergon, Campylium, Cratoneuron, Drepanocladus, and Limprichtia.

Bryophyte—Mosses and liverworts.

Bulk density—The weight per volume or mass of

peat, including both organic and mineral content.

Bulk density increases with decomposition.

Capillary water—Water occupying small pore

spaces of the soil and moving in response to evaporation by means of cohesion of water molecules

and adhesion to soil surfaces.

Carr—A peatland dominated by broad-leaved shrubs

or trees.

Cation exchange capacity—Ability of a soil to adsorb or exchange positively charged ions on colloidal

surfaces.

Catotelm—The lower horizon of a peat profile consisting of decomposed peat. Hydraulic conductivity

through the catotelm is very low. See Acrotelm.

Collapse scar—A fen-like depression surrounded by

a peat ridge, resulting from the melting of the ice

core of a palsa or peat plateau.

Cupola—The uppermost portion of a raised bog.
38 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Drunken forest—A stand of black spruce in subarctic regions of discontinuous permafrost, generally on peat plateaus where the ice core melts.

This causes trees to lean or fall because of the

unstable peat.

Dystrophic—Refers to the dark, extremely oligotrophic water in bogs resulting from the release of

humic acids from vegetation.

Eccentric peatland—A raised bog having a surface

that slopes mostly in one direction.

Ericad—A member of the Ericaceae, or heath family.

Eutrophic—Rich in available nutrient ions. Eutrophic

lakes are often highly productive owing to an abundance of phosphate and nitrate. Oxygen may be

deficient due to an overpopulation of plankton.

False bottom—A muddy suspension of undecayed

organic matter in peatland lakes and ponds. When

exposed at the surface, mat-forming sedges typically colonize the material.

Fen—A type of peatland that receives significant

inputs of water and dissolved solids from a mineral

source, such as runoff from mineral soil or ground

water discharge. A fen is therefore considered to be

geogenous and its vegetation minerotrophic. Fens

are generally characterized by (1) surface waters

with a pH above 4.2 and calcium concentration

higher than 2 mg/l, (2) a higher diversity of species,

and (3) landform patterns that are usually lower

than the surrounding uplands.

Extremely rich fen–A type of fen with a very high

pH (>7) and calcium concentration (>20 to

30 mg/l) and a characteristic assemblage of

plant species.

Rich fen–A type of fen that has a slightly

higher range in pH and calcium concentration

(>10 mg/l) than poor fens. The division between poor, rich, and extremely rich fens is not

sharp but consists of a continuous range in

variation.

Poor fen–A type of fen that contains at least one

minerotrophic indicator species and weakly

geogenous surface waters (in contrast to bogs).

Originally described in Sweden as having a

pH range of 3.8 to 5.7. Calcium concentration

is 2 to 10 mg/l.

Fiber Content—The percentage of peat remaining

after sieving under a gentle stream of water, indicating the degree of decomposition. The rubbed

fiber content provides a more meaningful index,

and represents the percentage of organic matter

remaining after rubbing 8 to 10 times between

thumb and fingers.

Fibric peat—Scarcely decomposed peat consisting

mainly of sphagnum moss; see Humification scale.

Flark—A water-filled depression or pool that is elongated perpendicularly to the slope. Flarks usually

have distinctive species assemblages in contrast

to adjacent raised strings (see Strangmoor).

Floating mat—See quaking bog under bog.

Geogenous—Water supplied from a mineral source

(ground water or surface runoff).

Grenzhorizon (German)—The boundary layer of

peat marking a change some 2,500 years ago toward

cool, moist climates favorable to an increase in peat

accumulation.

Grounded mat—Peat accumulation in a lake-fill

basin extending from the bottom of the basin to its

surface (also termed anchored mat). The grounded

mat is joined at a hinge line to the floating mat.

Gyttia (Swedish)—Organic matter deposited as

grayish to blackish bottom mud.

Heath—Vegetation on well-drained mineral soil

dominated by ericaceous shrubs. The word is also

used to designate a shrubby member of the Ericaceae (or heath) family.

Hemic peat—Peat of intermediate decomposition;

see Humification (H) scale.

Hinge line—Boundary between a floating fen and a

grounded mat.

Hochmoor (German)—A raised bog with ombrotrophic waters.

Hollow—Wet depressions or pools between the hummocks on the peatland surface.

Humic substances—Products of the incomplete decomposition of cellulose and lignin, consisting of

humic and fulvic acids in addition to a remnant

called cumin (fraction that is not dissolved on

treatment with dilute alkali).

Humification—A measure of peat decomposition

determined by measuring the concentration of

humic materials extracted from a peat sample.

Humification (H) scale—An indication of the degree of decomposition of peat from fibrous (lightcolored, scarcely decomposed sphagnum peat) to

hemic (partly decomposed peat derived from reedsedge vegetation) to sapric (dark, well-decomposed

peat primarily derived from bottom sediments

and sedge vegetation).

Hummock—A mound of sphagnum or other moss

sometimes providing anchorage for trees, shrubs,

herbaceous species, and mosses and lichens requiring drier conditions than those found at the base

of the hummock.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 39

Hydraulic conductivity—The rate at which water

moves through soil.

Kettlehole—A depression caused by melting of an ice

block surrounded or covered over by till on glacial

retreat. Lakes, ponds, and basin peatlands occupy

such depressions.

Lagg (Swedish)—The outer margin of a peatland

that receives runoff directly from mineral uplands

or the adjacent peat mass; occupied by standing or

sometimes moving water (as a moat).

Layering—The development of roots on the lower

branches of trees where the branches come into

contact with a wet moss substrate.

Marl—A deposit of calcium carbonate resulting from

biotically induced changes in the carbonatebicarbonate balance in freshwater basins. Marl

also results from evaporation or abrupt temperature changes causing the escape of carbon dioxide

from soluble calcium bicarbonate and the formation of insoluble calcium carbonate.

Marsh—A grassy wetland developed on mineral soil in

areas with standing water at least part of the year.

Marshes are well-aerated and rich in minerals

and store little or no peat.

Mesotrophic—With a mineral content intermediate

between oligotrophic and eutrophic.

Mineral soil water limit—The demarcation between

minerotrophic and ombrotrophic conditions, that

is, between fens and bogs.

Minerotrophic—Receiving nutrients from ground

water and, therefore, rich in minerals as compared

to an ombrotrophic situation (deriving minerals

only from the atmosphere). Plants that require

waters that have been enriched by runoff or ground

water derived from mineral soil.

Mire—General term for any type of peatland.

Mire complex—A term used to describe a peatland

that contains areas of both bog and fen.

Moor—A peatland, any area of peat accumulation,

whether minerotrophic or ombrotrophic. In England,

the term refers to an upland vegetation consisting

of ericaceous shrubs (such as heather).

Moss—Bog (rarely used as such in North American

literature); also a bryophyte of the class Bryopsida,

or true mosses, sometimes referred to as brown

mosses in contrast to the Sphagnopsida (peat

mosses). Brown mosses are abundant in rich fens.

Muck—Dark, well-decomposed peat high in ash content, largely derived from fen vegetation.

Mud bottom—Wet low areas of peatlands having

exposed muddy peat amid scattered plants.

Muskeg—An expanse of acid peatland bearing black

spruce and an undergrowth of ericaceous shrubs

and a ground cover of sphagnum mosses. In

Canada, the term is commonly used synonymously

with any type of peatland.

Oligotrophic—Poor in nutrients and therefore low

in productivity.

Ombrotrophic—“Food from the sky;” bog ecosystems

that receive nutrients only from the atmosphere.

Paleoecology—The study of past climates and vegetation based on an analysis of pollen, spores, and

macrofossil remains deposited in sediments, including peat.

Palsa (Finnish)—A peat-covered mound covering a

permafrosted core.

Paludification—Swamping, becoming wet by flooding, especially applied to the expansion of peatlands

owing to a gradual rise in water table as peat

accumulation impedes drainage. A term first used

to describe the growth of peat over forest soils.

Paludification has since been used to describe the

growth of peat over any upland soil.

Patterned fen—A minerotrophic peatland containing networks of pools (flarks) and ridges (strings)

oriented perpendicular to the slope; see strangmoor.

Peat—Organic matter (the dead remains of plants)

deposited under water-soaked conditions as a result of incomplete decomposition. Primary, secondary, and tertiary peat deposits correspond to aquatic,

sedge, and sphagnum peat, and reflect the degree of

water retention and ground water influence.

Peatland—Any waterlogged area containing an accumulation of peat 30 cm or more thick. Any type

of peat-covered terrain, including fens, bogs, and

muskegs.

Quaking mat—See quaking bog (floating mat) under

bog.

Rand—The sloped area between the lagg and a raised

bog.

Recurrence surface—A zone of abrupt change in

the peat from dark and well decomposed to lightcolored and fibrous, marking a change to cooler and

moister conditions favorable to the development of

bog vegetation and deposition of sphagnum peat.

Reduction zone—The anaerobic layers of peat where

organic material accumulates owing to incomplete

decomposition.

Reed-sedge peat—Hemic peat composed of reeds,

sedges, and grasses in the early (fen) stages of

peatland succession.
40 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Regeneration complex—An aggregation of hummocks and hollows on the bog surface, with bog

growth achieved by the successive formations of

hummocks on hollows and hollows on hummocks.

Ribbed fen—See Aapamire, patterned fen.

Sapric peat—Very decomposed peat; see Humification (H) Scale.

Sedge meadow—A sedge-dominated wetland similar to a fen but developed on mineral soil and less

water-soaked during part of the season.

Soligenous—Peatlands that receive water and nutrients from the surrounding soils.

Sphagnol—A lignin-like component of the cell walls

of sphagnum moss.

Sphagnum—The peat mosses; the sole genus of

mosses within the class Sphagnopsida. Sphagnum

mosses differ from other mosses in the way their

branches are arranged on the plant. Branches are

clustered along the stem into groups called fascicles. Each fascicle has two or more spreading

branches and one or more pendant or hanging

branches. Young branches are usually crowded at

the end of the stem into a head or capitulum.

Sphagnum lawn—Poor fen; a flat, wet, acid peatland,

under the influence of ground water, transitional to

a bog.

Sporotrichosis—A disease caused by Sporothrix

schenckii, contracted by handling horticultural

peat. The disease causes skin eruptions and eventually moves to vital organs through the lymphatic

system.

Strangmoor (German)—Refers to an individual patterned fen and differs slightly from the similar term

aapamoor, which refers to a broader, more regional

vegetation unit.

String—A peat ridge oriented perpendicularly to the

slope in a patterned fen. See Flark, Patterned Fen,

and Aapamire. Strings are the elevated and betterdrained portions of a patterned fen.

Swamp—A forested wetland, flooded during part of

the year or with moving ground water, well aerated,

rich in minerals, and storing little or no peat.

Swamps may be forested with deciduous or coniferous trees. Conifer swamps developed on peat are

sometimes termed treed fens.

Tephra—Layers of volcanic ash found in peat profiles.

Terrestrialization—The process by which a peatland spreads out over a lake.

Vernal pool—A water-filled depression resulting

from snowmelt.

Water table—The top of the zone of saturation where

all the pore spaces are filled with water (in contrast

to the aerated upper zone of peat or mineral soil).

Water track—A small, shallow channel for runoff

water across the peatland surface.

White-moss peat—Peat that is primarily composed

of sphagnum moss.

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44 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Appendix A: Vascular and Nonvascular Plant Species of Peatlands in Idaho

and Western Montana ______________________________________________

Vascular plant nomenclature follows Hitchcock and Cronquist (1973). Common names are those developed by

the Northern Region, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service 1992). Moss nomenclature follows Anderson and others (1990), except for Sphagnum, which follows

Anderson (1990).

Pteridophytes

Isoetaceae

Isoetes lacustris L. Lake quillwort

Lycopodiaceae

Lycopodium annotinum L. Stiff clubmoss

Lycopodium clavatum L. Running-pine

Lycopodium inundatum L. Bog clubmoss

Lycopodium obscurum L. Groundpine

Equisetaceae

Equisetum arvense L. Field horsetail

Equisetum fluviatile L. Water horsetail

Equisetum laevigatum A. Br. Smooth scouring-rush

Equisetum palustre L. Marsh horsetail

Equisetum sylvaticum L. Wood horsetail

Equisetum variegatum Schleich. Variegated horsetail

Ophioglossaceae

Botrychium multifidum (Gmel.) Ruprecht Leathery grape-fern

Botrychium virginianum (L.) Swartz. Virginia grape-fern

Ophioglossum vulgatum L. Adder’s-tongue

Dry Opteridaceae

Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth ex Mertens Ladyfern

Dryopteris carthusiana (Vill.) H.P. Fuchs Mountain wood-fern

Dryopteris cristata (L.) Gray Crested shield-fern

Gymnocarpium dryopteris (L.) Newm. Oak-fern

Dennstaedtiaceae

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Brackenfern

Gymnosperms

Cupressaceae

Juniperus communis L. Common juniper

Thuja plicata Donn. Western redcedar

Pinaceae

Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes Grand fir

Abies lasiocarpa (Hook) Nutt. Subalpine fir

Picea engelmannii Parry Engelmann spruce

Pinus contorta Dougl. Lodgepole pine

Pinus monticola Dougl. Western white pine

Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. Western hemlock

Angiosperms

Alismataceae

Alisma gramineum Gmel. Narrowleaf waterplantain

Alisma plantago-aquatica L. American waterplantain

Sagittaria cuneata Sheld. Arumleaf arrowhead

Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Wapato
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 45

Apiaceae

Angelica arguta Nutt. Sharptooth angelica

Angelica pinnata S. Wats. Pinnate-leaved angelica

Cicuta bulbifera L. Bulb-bearing water-hemlock

Cicuta douglasii (DC.) Coult. & Rose Douglas water-hemlock

Ligusticum canbyi Coult. & Rose Canby’s licorice-root

Ligusticum tenuifolium Wats. Slender-leaved licorice-root

Ligusticum verticillatum (Geyer) C. & R. Verticillate licorice-root

Osmorhiza chilensis H. & A. Mountain sweet-cicely

Sanicula marilandica L. Black snake-root

Sium suave Walt. Hemlock water-parsnip

Araceae

Lysichitum americanum Hulten & St. John Skunk cabbage

Asteraceae

Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Britt. Common pearly-everlasting

Antennaria microphylla Rydb. Rosy pussy-toes

Antennaria pulcherrima (Hook.) Greene Showy pussy-toes

Arnica amplexicaulis Nutt. Clasping arnica

Arnica latifolia Bong. Orange arnica

Arnica cordifolia Hook. Heart-leaf arnica

Aster eatonii (Gray) Howell Eaton’s aster

Aster foliaceus Lindl. Leafy aster

Aster junciformis Rydb. Rush aster

Aster laevis L. Smooth aster

Aster modestus Lindl. Few-flowered aster

Bidens cernua L. Nodding beggar-ticks

Bidens vulgata Greene Tall bur-marigold

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Canada thistle

Cirsium scariosum Nutt. Elk thistle

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Tenore Bull thistle

Crepis runcinata (James) T. & G. Meadow hawksbeard

Erigeron peregrinus (Pursh) Greene Subalpine daisy

Helianthella uniflora (Nutt.) T. & G. One-flowered helianthella

Hieracium albiflorum Hook. White-flowered hawkweed

Petasites sagittatus (Banks) Gray Arrowleaf coltsfoot

Senecio cymbalarioides Buelk Few-leaved groundsel

Senecio hydrophilus Nutt. Alkali-marsh butterweed

Senecio indecorus Greene Rayless mountain butterweed

Senecio pseudaureus Rydb. Streambank groundsel

Senecio triangularis Hook. Arrowleaf groundsel

Solidago canadensis L. Canada goldenrod

Sonchus arvensis L. Field milk-thistle

Tanacetum vulgare L. Common tansy

Taraxacum officinale Weber Common dandelion

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens aurella Rydb. Orange balsam

Betulaceae

Alnus incana (L.) Moench Mountain alder

Alnus sinuata (Regel) Rydb. Sitka alder

Betula glandulosa Michx. Bog birch

Betula occidentalis Hook. Water birch

Betula papyrifera Marsh. Paper birch

Betula pumila L. Bog birch
46 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Boraginaceae

Mertensia paniculata (Ait.) G. Don. Panicle bluebells

Myosotis laxa Lehm. Small-flowered forget-me-not

Brassicaceae

Cardamine oligosperma Nutt. Few-seeded bittercress

Rorripa islandica (Oed.) Borbas Marsh yellowcress

Rorripa sinuata (Nutt.) Hitchc. Spreading yellowcress

Campanulaceae

Lobelia kalmii L. Kalm’s lobelia

Caryophyllaceae

Stellaria calycantha (Ledeb.) Bong. American starwort

Stellaria longifolia Muhl. Longleaved starwort

Ceratophyllaceae

Ceratophyllum demersum L. Hornwort

Callitrichaceae

Callitriche hermaphroditica L. Autumnal water-starwort

Callitriche verna L. Spring water-starwort

Cornaceae

Cornus canadensis L. Bunchberry

Cornus stolonifera Michx. Red-osier dogwood

Caprifoliaceae

Linnaea borealis L. Twinflower

Lonicera caernlea L. Sweet-berry honeysuckle

Lonicera involucrata (Rich.) Banks Twin-berry

Lonicera utahensis Wats. Utah honeysuckle

Cyperaceae

Carex aquatilis Wahl. Water sedge

Carex arcta Boott Northern clustered sedge

Carex atherodes Spreng. Awned sedge

Carex aurea Nutt. Golden sedge

Carex bebbii Olney Bebb’s sedge

Carex brunnescens (Pers.) Poir. Brownish sedge

Carex buxbaumii Wahl. Buxbaum’s sedge

Carex canescens L. Gray sedge

Carex capillaris L. Hair sedge

Carex chordorrhiza Ehrh. Rope-root sedge

Carex comosa Boott Bristly sedge

Carex crawfordii Fern. Crawford’s sedge

Carex cusickii Mack. Cusick’s sedge

Carex diandra Schrank Lesser-panicled sedge

Carex disperma Dew. Soft-leaved sedge

Carex flava L. Yellow sedge

Carex dioica L. Yellow-bog sedge

Carex interior Bailey Inland sedge

Carex lacustris Willd. Lake sedge

Carex lanuginosa Michx. Woolly sedge

Carex lasiocarpa Ehrh. Slender sedge

Carex lenticularis Michx. Lentil-fruited sedge

Carex leptalea Wahl. Bristle-stalked sedge

Carex limosa L. Mud sedge

Carex livida (Wahl.) Willd. Pale sedge

Carex luzulina Olney Woodrush sedge

Carex microptera Mack. Small-winged sedge
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 47

Carex muricata L. Muricate sedge

Carex nebraskensis Dewey Nebraska sedge

Carex norvegica Retz. Scandinavian sedge

Carex oederi Retz. Green sedge

Carex paupercula Michx. Poor sedge

Carex scopulorum Holm Holm’s Rocky Mountain sedge

Carex simulata Mack. Short-beaked sedge

Carex stipata Muhl. Sawbeak sedge

Carex utriculata Boott Beaked sedge

Carex vesicaria L. Inflated sedge

Dulichium arundinaceum (L.) Britt. Dulichium

Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R. & S. Needle spike-rush

Eleocharis ovata (Roth.) R. & S. Ovoid spike-rush

Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. & S. Common spikesedge

Eleocharis pauciflora (Lightf.) Link Few-flowered spike-rush

Eleocharis rostellata Torr. Beaked spike-rush

Eleocharis tenuis (Willd.) Schultes Slender spike-rush

Eriophorum chamissonis C.A. Meyer Chamisso’s cotton-grass

Eriophorum gracile Koch Slender cotton-grass

Eriophorum polystachion L. Many-spiked cotton-grass

Eriophorum viridicarinatum (Engelm.) Fern. Green-keeled cotton-grass

Rhynchospora alba (L.) Vahl. White beakrush

Scirpus acutus Muhl. Hardstem bulrush

Scirpus cespitosus L. Tufted bulrush

Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Knuth Wool-grass

Scirpus fluviatilis (Torr.) A. Gray River bulrush

Scirpus hudsonianus (Michx.) Fern. Hudson bulrush

Scirpus microcarpus Presl Small-flowered bulrush

Scirpus pumilus Wats. Bulrush

Scirpus subterminalis Torr. Water clubrush

Droseraceae

Drosera anglica Huds. Great sundew

Drosera intermedia Hayne Intermediate sundew

Drosera linearis Goldie Linear-leaved sundew

Drosera rotundifolia L. Roundleaf sundew

Elaeagnaceae

Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt. Canada buffaloberry

Ericaceae

Andromeda polifolia L. Bog-rosemary

Gaultheria hispidula (L.) Muhl. Creeping snowberry

Gaultheria humifusa (Grah.) Rydb. Alpine wintergreen

Gaultheria ovatifolia Gray Slender wintergreen

Kalmia microphylla (Hook.) Heller Small-leaved laurel

Ledum glandulosum Oeder Labrador-tea

Ledum groenlandica Oeder Bog laurel

Menziesia ferruginea Smith Menziesia

Pyrola asarifolia Michx. Pink wintergreen

Pyrola secunda L. One-sided wintergreen

Pyrola uniflora L. Woodnymph

Vaccinium caespitosum Michx. Dwarf huckleberry

Vaccinium globulare Rydb. Globe huckleberry

Vaccinium membranaceum Dougl. Big huckleberry

Vaccinium myrtillus L. Dwarf bilberry

Vaccinium occidentale Gray Western huckleberry

Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Small cranberry
48 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Fabaceae

Trifolium repens L. White clover

Vicia americana Muhl. American vetch

Gentianaceae

Gentiana affinis Griseb. Pleated gentian

Gentiana calycosa Griseb. Mountain bog gentian

Gentiana detonsa Rottb. Smaller fringed gentian

Gentiana simplex Gray Hiker’s gentian

Swertia perennis L. Swertia

Grossulariaceae

Ribes lacustre (Pers.) Poir. Swamp currant

Hippuridaceae

Hippuris vulgaris L. Common mare’s-tail

Hydrocharitaceae

Elodea canadensis Rich. in Michx. Canada waterweed

Elodea nuttallii (Planch.) St. John Nuttall’s waterweed

Vallisneria americana L. Tapegrass

Hypericaceae

Hypericum formosum H.B.K. Western St. John’s-wort

Hypericum majus (Gray) Britt. St. John’s-wort

Hypericum perforatum L. Common St. John’s-wort

Iridaceae

Iris versicolor L. Blue flag

Sisyrinchium angustifolium Mill. Blue-eyed grass

Juncaceae

Juncus acuminatus Michx. Tapertip rush

Juncus alpinus Vall. Northern rush

Juncus balticus Willd. Baltic rush

Juncus brachyphyllus Wieg. Short-leaved rush

Juncus effusus L. Soft rush

Juncus ensifolius Wikst. Dagger-leaf rush

Juncus filiformis L. Thread rush

Juncus nevadensis Wats. Nevada rush

Juncus nodosus L. Tuberous rush

Juncus tenuis Willd. Slender rush

Juncus tweedyi Rydb. Tweedy’s rush

Juncus vaseyi Engelm. Vasey’s rush

Juncaginaceae

Triglochin maritimum L. Seaside arrow-grass

Triglochin palustre L. Marsh arrow-grass

Lamiaceae

Lycopus americanus Muhl. Cut-leaved water horehound

Lycopus uniflorus Michx. Northern bugleweed

Mentha arvensis L. Field mint

Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal

Scutellaria galericulata L. Marsh skullcap

Scutellaria laterifolia L. Mad-dog skullcap

Lentibulariaceae

Utricularia gibba L. Bladderwort

Utricularia intermedia Hayne Mountain bladderwort

Utricularia minor L. Lesser bladderwort

Utricularia vulgaris L. Common bladderwort
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 49

Liliaceae

Allium schoenoprasum L. Chives

Disporum trachycarpum (Wats.) Benth. & Hook. Wartberry fairy-bell

Maianthemum dilatatum (How.) Nels. & Macbr. Beadruby

Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. Starry Solomon-plume

Streptopus amplexifolius (L.) DC. Twisted-stalk

Tofieldia glutinosa (Michx.) Pers. Sticky tofieldia

Zigadenus elegans Pursh Glaucous zigadenus

Lemnaceae

Lemna minor L. Water duckweed

Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid. Great duckweed

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria L. Purple loosestrife

Menyanthaceae

Menyanthes trifoliata L. Buckbean

Najadaceae

Najas flexilis (Willd.) Rost. & Schmidt Wavy water-nymph

Nymphaeaceae

Brasenia schreberi Gmel. Water-shield

Nuphar polysepalum Engelm. Spatter-dock

Nuphar variegatum Engelm. Yellow water-lily

Nymphaea odorata Ait. Fragrant water-lily

Onagraceae

Epilobium alpinum L. Alpine willow-herb

Epilobium angustifolium L. Fireweed

Epilobium glaberrimum Barbey Smooth willow-herb

Epilobium glandulosum Lehm. Common willow-herb

Epilobium palustre L. Swamp willow-herb

Epilobium watsonii Barbey Watson’s willow-herb

Ludwigia polycarpa Short & Peter. Many-fruit false-loosestrife

Orchidaceae

Corallorhiza trifida Chat. Yellow coral-root

Cypripedium calceolus var. parviflorum (Salis.) Fern. Small yellow lady’s-slipper

Cypripedium passerinum Richards. Sparrow’s-egg lady’s-slipper

Epipactis gigantea Dougl. Giant helleborine

Habenaria dilatata (Pursh) Hook. White orchis

Habenaria hyperborea (L.) R. Br. Northern green bog-orchid

Habenaria orbiculata (Pursh) Torr. Round-leaved rein-orchid

Habenaria saccata Greene Slender bog-orchid

Liparis loeselii (L.) L.C. Rich Fen orchid

Listera cordata (L.) R. Br. Heart-leaf twayblade

Orchis rotundifolia Banks. Round-leaved orchis

Spiranthes romanzoffiana Cham. Hooded ladies-tresses

Plantaginaceae

Plantago major L. Common plantain

Poaceae

Agrostis alba L. Redtop

Agrostis tenuis Sibth. Colonial bentgrass

Agrostis exarata Trin. Spike bentgrass

Agrostis scabra Willd. Tickle-grass

Agrostis thurberiana Hitchc. Thurber bentgrass

Alopecurus aequalis Sobol. Short-awn foxtail
50 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Bromus ciliatus L. Fringed brome

Bromus inermis Leys. Smooth brome

Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. Bluejoint reedgrass

Calamagrostis stricta (Timm) Koeler Narrow-spiked reedgrass

Cinna latifolia (Trevir.) Griseb. Drooping woodreed

Dactylis glomerata L. Orchard-grass

Danthonia californica Boland. California oatgrass

Danthonia intermedia Vasey Timber oatgrass

Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv. Tufted hairgrass

Elymus trachycaulus (Link) Gould ex Skinners Bearded wheatgrass

Glyceria borealis (Nash) Batch. Northern mannagrass

Glyceria grandis Wats. American mannagrass

Glyceria striata (Lam.) Hitchc. Fowl mannagrass

Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv. Sweetgrass

Muhlenbergia glomerata (Willd.) Trin. Marsh muhly

Muhlenbergia richardsonis (Trin.) Rydb. Mat muhly

Panicum acuminatum (Swartz.) Muhl. Panic-grass

Phalaris arundinacea L. Reed canarygrass

Phleum pratense L. Common timothy

Poa palustris L. Fowl bluegrass

Poa pratensis L. Kentucky bluegrass

Puccinellia pauciflora (Presl) Munz Weak alkaligrass

Sphenopholis obtusata (Michx.) Scribn. Slender wedgegrass

Trisetum canescens Buckl. Tall trisetum

Trisetum cernuum Trin. Nodding trisetum

Zizania aquatica L. Indian rice

Polygonaceae

Polygonum amphibium L. Water smartweed

Polygonum coccineum Muhl. Water smartweed

Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. Waterpepper

Rumex maritimus L. Golden dock

Rumex occidentalis S. Wats. Western dock

Rumex paucifolius Nutt. Mountain sorrel

Potamogetonaceae

Potamogeton amplifolius Tuckerman Large-leaved pondweed

Potamogeton berchtoldii Fieb. Baby pondweed

Potamogeton crispus L. Curly pondweed

Potamogeton epihydrus Raf. Ribbon-leaf pondweed

Potamogeton foliosus Raf. Leafy pondweed

Potamogeton gramineus L. Grass-leaved pondweed

Potamogeton natans L. Floating-leaved pondweed

Potamogeton richardsonii (Bennett) Rydb. Richardson’s pondweed

Potamogeton robbinsii Oakes Robbins’ pondweed

Potamogeton zosteriformis Schum. Flatstem pondweed

Primulaceae

Dodecatheon jjeffreyi Van Hoatte Jeffrey’s shooting star

Dodecatheon pulchellum (Raf.) Merrill Few-flowered shooting star

Lysimachia ciliata L. Fringed loosestrife

Lysimachia thyrsiflora L. Tufted loosestrife

Trientalis arctica Fisch. Northern starflower

Ranunculaceae

Anemone parviflora Michx. Small-flowered anemone

Caltha leptosepala DC. Elk slip marsh marigold

Ranunculus flammula L. Creeping buttercup

Ranunculus gmelinii DC. Small yellow water-buttercup

Ranunculus pensylvanicus L. Pennsylvania buttercup
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 51

Rhamnaceae

Rhamnus alnifolia L. ‘Her. Alder buckthorn

Rhamnus purshiana DC. Cascara

Rosaceae

Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. Western serviceberry

Crataegus douglasii Lindl. Black hawthorn

Fragaria vesca L. Woods strawberry

Fragaria virginiana Duchesne Virginia strawberry

Geum macrophyllum Willd. Large-leaved avens

Geum rivale L. Water avens

Potentilla fruticosa L. Shrubby cinquefoil

Potentilla norvegica L. Norwegian cinquefoil

Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop Purple cinquefoil

Rosa acicularis Lindl. Prickly rose

Rubus parviforus Nutt. Thimbleberry

Rubus pedatus J.E. Smith Raspberry

Rubus pubescens Raf. Dewberry

Spiraea densiflora Nutt. Subalpine spiraea

Spiraea douglasii Hook. Douglas’ spiraea

Rubiaceae

Galium boreale L. Northern bedstraw

Galium trifidum L. Small bedstraw

Galium triflorum Michx. Sweetscented bedstraw

Salicaceae

Populus tremuloides Michx. Quaking aspen

Populus trichocarpa T. & G. Black cottonwood

Salix bebbiana Sarg. Bebb’s willow

Salix candida Fluegge Hoary willow

Salix commutata Bebb Undergreen willow

Salix drummondiana Barratt Drummond willow

Salix farriae Ball Farr’s willow

Salix geyeriana Anderss. Geyer willow

Salix myrtillifolia Anderss. Blueberry willow

Salix pedicellaris Pursh Bog willow

Salix planifolia Pursh Planeleaf willow

Salix rigida Muhl. Diamond willow

Salix scouleriana Barratt Scouler willow

Salix serissima (Bailey) Fern. Autumn willow

Salix sitchensis Sanson Sitka willow

Salix wolfii Bebb Wolf’s willow

Santalaceae

Comandra livida Richards Northern bastard toad-flax

Saxifragaceae

Mitella breweri A. Gray Brewer’s mitrewort

Mitella nuda L. Bare-stemmed mitrewort

Parnassia fimbriata Konig Fringed grass-of-parnassus

Parnassia palustris L. Northern grass-of-parnassus

Saxifraga arguta D. Don Brook saxifrage

Tiarella trifoliata L. Trefoil foamflower

Scheuchzeriaceae

Scheuchzeria palustris L. Pod grass
52 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Scrophulariaceae

Castilleja miniata Dougl. Scarlet paintbrush

Melampyrum lineare Desr. Narrow-leaved cow-wheat

Mimulus guttatus DC. Common monkey-flower

Mimulus moschatus Dougl. Musk-flower

Mimulus primuloides Benth. Primrose monkey-flower

Pedicularis bracteosa Benth. Bracted lousewort

Pedicularis groenlandica Retz. Elephant’s head

Verbascum thapsus L. Common mullein

Veronica americana Schwein. American speedwell

Veronica scutellata L. Marsh speedwell

Sparganiaceae

Sparganium emersum Rehmann Simplestem bur-reed

Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. Broadfruited bur-reed

Sparganium minimum Fries. Small bur-reed

Typhaceae

Typha latifolia L. Common cattail

Valerianaceae

Valeriana dioica L. Northern valerian

Valeriana sitchensis Bong. Sitka valerian

Violaceae

Viola glabella Nutt. Pioneer violet

Viola macloskeyi Lloyd Small white violet

Viola nephrophylla Greene Northern bog violet

Viola palustris L. Marsh violet

Viola renifolia Gray Kidney-leaved violet

Mosses

Aulacomnium palustre (Hedw.) Schwgr.

Bryum caespiticium Hedw.

Bryum pallescens Schleich.

Bryum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) Gaertn.

Bryum weigelii Spreng.

Calliergon cordifolium (Hedw.) Kindb.

Calliergon giganteum (Schimp.) Kindb.

Calliergon stramineum (Brid.) Kindb.

Calliergonella cuspidata (Hedw.) Loeske

Campylium stellatum (Hedw.) C. Jens.

Climacium dendroides (Hedw.) Web. & Mohr

Cinclidium stygium Sw. in Schrad.

Conardia compacta (C. Mull.) Robins.

Cratoneuron filicinum (Hedw.) Spruce

Dicranum undulatum Brid.

Drepanocladus aduncus var. polycarpus (Bland. ex Voit) G. Roth

Drepanocladus capillifolius (Warnst.) Warnst.

Fissidens adianthoides Hedw.

Fontinalis neomexicana Sull. & Lesq.

Hamatocaulis vernicosus (Mitt.) Hedenäs

Helodium blandowii (Web. & Mohr.) Warnst.

Hypnum lindbergii Mitt.

Hypnum pratense (Rabenh.) W. Koch ex Spruce

Leptobryum pyriforme (Hedw.) Wils.

Limprichtia revolvens (Sw.) Warnst.

Meesia triquetra (Richt.) Angstr.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 53

Palustriella commutata (Brid.) Ochyra

Palustriella decipiens (De Not.) Ochyra

Philonotis fontana (Hedw.) Brid.

Philonotis fontana var. caespitosa (Jur.) Schimp.

Philonotis fontana var. pumila (Turn.) Brid.

Plagiomnium venustum (Mitt.) T. Kop.

Platydictya jungermanioides (Brid.) Crum

Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt.

Pohlia longicolla (Hedw.) Lindb.

Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb.

Pohlia wahlenbergii (Web. & Mohr) Andrews

Polytrichum commune Hedw.

Polytrichum formosum Hedw.

Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw.

Polytrichum strictum Brid.

Rhizomnium magnifolium (Horik.) T. Kop.

Rhizomnium pseudopunctatum (Bruch & Schimp.) T. Kop.

Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus (Hedw.) Warnst.

Scorpidium scorpioides (Hedw.) Limpr.

Sphagnum angustifolium (C. Jens. ex. Russ.) C. Jens.

Sphagnum capillifolium (Ehrh.) Hedw.

Sphagnum centrale C. Jens.

Sphagnum compactum DC ex Lam. & DC

Sphagnum contortum Schultz

Sphagnum fimbriatum Wils. ex Wils. & J.D. Hook.

Sphagnum fuscum (Schimp.) Klinggr.

Sphagnum girgensohnii Russ.

Sphagnum magellanicum Brid.

Sphagnum mendocinum Sull. & Lesq.

Sphagnum platyphyllum (Lindb.) Sull.

Sphagnum rubellum Wils.

Sphagnum riparium Angstr.

Sphagnum russowii Warnst.

Sphagnum squarrosum Crome

Sphagnum subobesum Warnst.

Sphagnum subsecundum Nees in Strum

Sphagnum teres (Schimp.) Angstr.

Sphagnum warnstorfii Russ.

Thuidium recognitum (Hedw.) Lindb.

Tomentypnum nitens (Hedw.) Loeske

Warnstorfia exannulata (Schimp. in BSG) Loeske

Warnstorfia fluitans (Hedw.) Loeske
54 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Appendix B: Peatland Site Descriptions_______________________________

Descriptions of 58 peatlands occurring on National Forests in Idaho, northeastern Washington, western

Montana, and northwestern Wyoming are included here. While not an exhaustive list, all of the described sites,

apart from the two sites in Wyoming, were personally visited by one or more of the authors and are representative

of the variety of peatlands present in the Northern Rocky Mountains.

Idaho__________________________

Bonner County

Armstrong Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Armstrong Meadows is on the west

side of the thoroughfare (the connecting channel between Upper Priest Lake and Priest Lake) in the

Selkirk Mountains of northern Idaho. Armstrong

Meadows is a rich fen dominated by Spiraea douglasii,

Alnus incana, Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex utriculata, C. vesicaria, C. aquatilis, C. lasiocarpa, C.

buxbaumii, and C. cusickii. Smaller areas of poor fens

are also present, dominated by Sphagnum centrale, S.

teres, Aulacomnium palustre, Carex lasiocarpa, C.

cusickii, Eriophorum chamissonis, E. gracile,

Menyanthes trifoliata, Betula glandulosa, and Salix

pedicellaris. Margins of the meadow are a carr characterized by Spiraea douglasii, Alnus incana, and other

shrubs. Paludified forest is present south of the sphagnum moss-dominated portions of Armstrong Meadows. Trees of Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, and

Pinus monticola are covered at their base by hummocks of Sphagnum centrale. Between the hummocks

are pools of water with Scirpus microcarpus, Equisetum sylvaticum, E. fluviatile, Calamagrostis

canadensis, Senecio triangularis, Glyceria grandis,

Carex brunnescens, and C. leptalea. Vaccinium

globulare, Linnaea borealis, Cornus canadensis, Rubus pedatus, and Aralia nudicaulis are common on the

hummocks.

Significance—Nearly 100 vascular and bryophyte

plant species occur at Armstrong Meadows, making it

one of the most floristically diverse peatlands in Idaho.

Ten major habitat features identified for Northern

Rocky Mountain peatlands are found at Armstrong

Meadows. Populations of ten rare plant species occur

at Armstrong Meadows: Dryopteris cristata, Carex

leptalea, C. paupercula, C. buxbaumii, Gaultheria

hispidula, Vaccinium oxycoccos, Trientalis arctica,

Salix pedicellaris, Epilobium palustre, and Botrychium

lanceolatum.

Conservation—Bursik and Moseley (1995) recommended establishing Armstrong Meadows as a Botanical Area in recognition of the site’s unique flora

and plant communities. Armstrong Meadows is one of

a handful of northern Idaho peatlands with interpretive potential. It would provide a peatland experience

in a wild setting, even though it is easy to access after

a short hike with little elevation gain.

Bismark Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District

(plus private ownership).

Description—Bismark Meadows is 5 km west of

Priest Lake, in the Selkirk Mountains of northern

Idaho. Bismark Meadows contains a mosaic of fen

communities along Reeder Creek, a low-gradient,

meandering stream. The most extensive peatland type

is a shrub carr dominated variously by Spiraea

douglasii, Alnus incana, Betula glandulosa, Salix

geyeriana, and S. bebbiana. Interspersed among the

carr are sedge-dominated rich fens characterized by

Carex utriculata, C. lasiocarpa, C. vesicaria, C.

buxbaumii, C. cusickii, Juncus balticus, Petasites

sagittatus, and Phalaris arundinacea. Lycopodium

obscurum var. dendroidium grows in the wet forested

habitats around the Bismark Work Center. In the

northwestern lobe of Bismark Meadows along Reeder

Creek, rich fens dominated by Carex utriculata, Scirpus

microcarpus, Carex canescens, C. aquatilis, Potentilla

palustris, and Calamagrostis canadensis are present.

On the west side of Reeder Creek are scattered patches

of Sphagnum centrale and S. angustifolium growing

beneath shrubs and around the base of conifers in a

paludified forest.

Significance—Bismark Meadows is one of the few

valley peatlands in Idaho that formed along a low

gradient stream and not adjacent to a pond or lake. It

contains only pockets of peat, while much of the area

occurs on largely mineral substrate. Although it has

been heavily and directly impacted by human activities, the condition of the communities remains very

good and the scattered pockets of sphagnum mossdominated paludified forest may actually be rather

extensive to the west (unsurveyed). In spite of the

impacts, the area supports populations of seven rare

plants: Carex buxbaumii, C. leptalea, Dryopteris

cristata, Epilobium palustre, Gaultheria hispidula,

Lycopodium obscurum var. dendroidium, and

Trientalis arctica. There are also historical collections

of Vaccinium oxycoccos from Bismark Meadows. Although much of the site is drained and hayed or

grazed, eastern portions appear to be intact and may

support extensive poor fens.

Conservation—Bursik and Moseley (1995) recommended establishing Bismark Meadows as a Botanical
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 55

Area in recognition of its unique flora and plant communities. Public interpretation is not recommended.

Bismark Meadows is partially privately owned.

Bottle Lake

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Bottle Lake lies along the west side of

Priest Lake in the Selkirk Mountains of northern

Idaho, northwest of Bottle Bay and about 75 km north

of Priest River. Bottle Lake lies within Bottle Lake

Research Natural Area. Bottle Lake is a 6 ha sphagnum moss-dominated fen and lake. The open water of

Bottle Lake covers 0.8 ha. The open water is surrounded by a mat of vegetation ranging between 5 to

20 m wide. Beyond the mat is a swampy border of

standing and downed trees and various aquatic plants.

A meadow (0.4 ha) on the northwest side of the lake is

a wet fen during prolonged wet weather. The surrounding area is heavily forested with old-growth

Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, and Pinus

monticola.

Significance—Bottle Lake Research Natural Area

(RNA) contains an excellent example of a sphagnumdominated peatland. The rare fern, Blechnum spicant,

occurs on an upland site within the RNA.

Conservation—The site has been protected as a

Forest Service Research Natural Area.

Dubius Creek Fen

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Dubius Creek Fen is 27 km north of

Priest River, in the Selkirk Mountains of northern

Idaho. Dubius Creek Fen contains a diverse mosaic of

peatland communities. Shrub carrs dominated by

Spiraea douglasii, Betula glandulosa, Salix geyeriana,

S. pedicellaris, S. bebbiana, Rhamnus alnifolia, and

Alnus incana occur throughout the area. In some

portions of the carr, Sphagnum centrale is common.

Further west Spiraea douglasii covers a large area.

Wetter portions of the peatland are a poor fen dominated by Sphagnum subsecundum, Carex lasiocarpa,

C. utriculata, C. aquatilis, C. muricata, C. cusickii,

Agrostis scabra, Veronica scutellata, Potentilla

palustris, Lycopus uniflorus, Scutellaria galericulata,

and Scirpus microcarpus. Two rare species, Epilobium

palustre and Salix pedicellaris, are common in this

habitat.

A large arm of the fen extends to the north near

the divide between Dubius Creek and Moores Creek.

The north end of the northern lobe is covered by a rich

fen codominated by Carex lasiocarpa, C. chordorrhiza,

C. utriculata, and Potentilla palustris. Only a few scattered patches of poor fen (characterized by Sphagnum

subsecundum and Carex limosa) break up this extensive and uniform rich fen. Scheuchzeria palustris is

found in the poor fens.

Significance—Dubius Creek Fen contains one of the

most extensive rich fens dominated by Carex lasiocarpa

in northern Idaho. The codominance by C. chordorrhiza

is significant. The emergent rich fen community around

the ephemeral beaver pond is very diverse and unique.

Overall, seven habitat features of Panhandle peatlands

were identified at this site: poor fen, rich fen, shrub

carr, vegetated littoral zones, ponds, a stream, and

beaver activity. This is one of only a few low-elevation

valley peatlands in northern Idaho that has formed

along a stream and not adjacent to a lake. More than

60 plant species are known from Dubius Creek Fen.

Five species considered rare in Idaho are found in the

peatland: Carex chordorrhiza, Epilobium palustre,

Hypericum majus, Scheuchzeria palustris, and Salix

pedicellaris.

Conservation—Bursik and Moseley (1995) recommended establishing Dubius Creek Fen as a Botanical

Area in recognition of its unique flora and plant communities. Dubius Creek Fen would be a suitable site

for public interpretation about peatland communities

in northern Idaho. Due to the extensive nature of the

peatlands, trails could easily be placed to avoid adverse impacts to the site.

Hager Lake Fen

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District

(plus private ownership, including a Nature Conservancy conservation easement).

Description—Hager Lake is a 2 ha pond located 6 km

west of Priest Lake in the Selkirk Mountains of northern Idaho. The basin of Hager Lake is enclosed and

underlain by ice-contact fluvial gravels. It is a seepage

pond with no apparent inlet or outlet. The depression

likely formed as a result of an ice block melting near

the terminus of the glacier that occupied this portion

of the Priest River Valley; a depression commonly

referred to as a “glacial kettle.” The origin of the basin

dates between 11,500 and 12,000 years ago based on

the presence of Glacier Peak tephra near the base of

peat cores extracted in 1992 (Bursik and others 1994).

Several distinct plant communities are found at

Hager Lake Fen. The most extensive is a shrub carr

dominated by a dense stand of Spiraea douglasii. This

shrub carr covers most of the fen north of Hager Lake,

except for the northeastern corner, which was cleared

and reditched in 1988. This area was harvested for hay

in 1994. The Spiraea douglasii shrub carr also occurs

in a band around Hager Lake. Lodgepole pine (Pinus

contorta) and western white pine (Pinus monticola)

trees are scattered throughout the shrub carr. The

middle of the fen basin north of Hager Lake is covered

by a rich fen codominated by Carex lasiocarpa and

Spiraea douglasii. A floating mat (1 ha) encroaches on

the south side of the lake. The floating mat is a poor fen

community dominated by Sphagnum angustifolium,

S. subsecundum, and S. centrale. Common vascular

species include Vaccinium oxycoccos, Scheuchzeria

palustris, Carex limosa, Kalmia microphylla, and
56 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Lycopus uniflorus. Coring done on the floating mat

indicates that it dates from about 6,700 years ago

based on the presence of Mount Mazama tephra near

the top of lake sediments below the mat (Peter

Mehringer, unpublished data on file at Washington

State University, Pullman) . Between the floating mat

and the S. douglasii shrub carr to the south is a fixed

mat zone. The fixed mat also occurs around the east,

west, and north lake margins. The fixed mat is characterized by poor fen vegetation codominated by Sphagnum subsecundum, C. lasiocarpa, and Dulichium

arundinaceum. Two rare species are found in this

community: Lycopodium inundatum and Hypericum

majus. A narrow, shallow littoral zone is found on the

east, west, and north lake margins. It is characterized

by Nuphar polysepalum, Brasenia schreberi, Potamogeton natans, Scirpus acutus, and the rare S. subterminalis.

Significance—Hager Lake Fen supports 75 vascular

and bryophyte plant species, including five considered

rare in Idaho: Scirpus subterminalis, Trientalis arctica,

Vaccinium oxycoccos, Scheuchzeria palustris, and

Hypericum majus. Four other rare species were previously documented from Hager Lake and are now

believed extirpated: Epilobium palustre, Dryopteris

cristata, Carex leptalea, and Lycopodium obscurum

var. dendroidium. Hager Lake contains one of the

more extensive floating mats in Idaho and the poor fen

community growing on the mat is exceptional.

Hoodoo Lake

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Hoodoo Lake is 16 km southeast of the

town of Priest River in northern Idaho. Hoodoo Lake

is a very shallow drainage lake (80 ha) that completely

dried in 1994. The lake bottom mud was still saturated, but was largely unvegetated in July 1994. The

lake is surrounded by an emergent rich fen dominated

by Scirpus acutus, Typha latifolia, Eleocharis palustris,

Glyceria borealis, Juncus spp., Carex lasiocarpa, Potentilla palustris, and the very rare (but locally prominent at Hoodoo Lake) Carex comosa, which is known

from only one other site in Idaho. Drier fen areas

around the emergent rich fen are also rich fen communities characterized by Carex lasiocarpa, C. utriculata, C. oederi, Calamagrostis stricta, Agrostis scabra,

and Potentilla palustris. Scattered plants of Hypericum majus are found in these rich fen habitats. The

rich fen grades into a mesic marsh meadow with

scattered Spiraea douglasii, Alnus incana, and Salix

bebbiana shrubs with Agrostis stolonifera, Phalaris

arundinacea, Danthonia intermedia, Poa palustris,

Glyceria striata, Prunella vulgaris, Cirsium vulgare,

and C. arvense being prominent herbaceous species.

All of the communities at Hoodoo Lake were heavily

grazed in 1994.

Significance—The floristic diversity of this site is moderate (approximately 50 species have been identified).

Hoodoo Lake supports one of only two known populations of Carex comosa in Idaho. It is prominent with

Scirpus acutus, Carex lasiocarpa, and Eleocharis

palustris in the emergent fen surrounding the lake.

Only one other rare species, Hypericum majus is

found at Hoodoo Lake. The rich fen communities tend

toward marsh conditions. They are similar to the rich

fen communities found elsewhere in northern Idaho,

particularly those at Walsh Lake, north of Sandpoint.

These types of fen communities are more common in

low-elevation valley peatlands elsewhere in Idaho.

Carex oederi is prominent in the drier fen habitats at

Hoodoo Lake. It is sparse in northern Idaho, though it

is common in valley peatlands in Fremont County in

extreme east central Idaho. Five of the 12 critical

habitat features of northern Idaho peatlands were

identified at Hoodoo Lake: rich fen, shrub carr, vegetated littoral zone, a lake, and a stream (Bursik and

Moseley 1995).

Kaniksu Marsh

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Kaniksu Marsh is on the west side of

the lower Priest River in northern Idaho. The wetland

is within Kaniksu Marsh Research Natural Area and

consists of an undisturbed, 36 ha crescent-shaped

marsh and wet meadow, and adjacent forested slopes.

Open water, less than 2 m deep, with submergent

aquatic plants surrounds an island of floating rich to

poor fen. The central portion of the marsh ranges from

shallow water to saturated soil and is dominated by

Carex lasiocarpa with a few areas of poor fen dominated by Sphagnum centrale and S. magellanicum.

The pond surrounding the floating mat is well vegetated with Potamogeton natans and Brasenia

schreberi. To the west, extensive shrub carr and a rich

sedge fen is dominant along a spring stream. Further

west, a wet Picea-Tsuga forest with some paludified

areas is present. The old-growth and second-growth

forests surrounding the peatland are composed of

Pinus ponderosa, P. monticola, Larix occidentalis,

Abies grandis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Tsuga

heterophylla, Thuja plicata, Picea engelmannii, and

Pinus contorta.

Significance—The low-elevation wetlands in the

Research Natural Area support a diversity of vegetation types. At least five rare plant species are present:

Eriophorum viridicarinatum, Gaultheria hispidula,

Lycopodium inundatum, Trientalis arctica, and

Vaccinium oxycoccos.

Lamb Creek Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District

(plus private ownership).

Description—Lamb Creek Meadows is 1.5 km west

of Priest Lake in the Selkirk Mountains of northern

Idaho. The south end of Lamb Creek Meadows is a rich
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 57

sedge-dominated fen characterized by Carex

lasiocarpa, C. lanuginosa, C. utriculata, C. buxbaumii,

C. cusickii, Eriophorum gracile, E. chamissonis, and a

few patches of Typha latifolia. The entire fen was

covered with shallow standing water in June 1991.

The perimeter of the fen is ditched, and the margins of

the ditch are covered by a dense monoculture of Spiraea douglasii. Several slightly raised areas are found

within the fen otherwise dominated by sedges. The

raised areas are covered with shrub carr dominated by

Spirea douglasii, Betula glandulosa, Salix geyeriana,

and Alnus incana. The northwestern portion of Lamb

Creek Meadows is ditched and is seasonally cut for

hay. On the northeastern end (headwaters of Reynolds

Creek) rich sedge-dominated fen similar to that found

on the south end is interspersed with shrub carr

similar to that found on the south end. Trientalis

arctica, Carex buxbaumii, Hypericum majus, and

Epilobium palustre are rare plants found in this area.

A series of beaver ponds form the headwaters of

Reynolds Creek, which enters Priest Lake on the

south side of Kalispell Bay. The ponds are shallow and

well vegetated. Potamogeton gramineus, P. berchtoldii,

Utricularia vulgaris, Eleocharis acicularis, and

Sparganium fluctuans are common.

Significance—A limited inventory has revealed the

presence of more than 35 vascular species in Lamb

Creek Meadows. Four Idaho rare species are found in

Lamb Creek Meadows: Trientalis arctica, Hypericum

majus, Epilobium palustre, and Carex buxbaumii.

Lamb Creek Meadows contain six of the habitat features identified in northern Idaho peatlands: rich fen,

shrub carr, small ponds, vegetated littoral zones, a

stream, and beaver activity (Bursik and Moseley 1995).

Lost Lake

Kaniksu National Forest, Sandpoint Ranger District.

Description—Lost Lake is 3 km due east of Garfield

Bay and 1.5 km north of Mineral Point on the south

side of the Pend Oreille peninsula south and west of

Lake Pend Oreille. Lost Lake is a seepage lake nearly

30 acres, with no apparent inlet or outlet. Beavers

have been active at this site in the past, but they were

not active in 1994 and much of the lake was dried up

during this dry year. The lake appears to be shallow

throughout, entirely lacking a limnetic zone (greater

than 2 m deep). Aquatic plants growing in the lake

include Myriophyllum sibericum, Nuphar polysepalum, Potamogeton natans, P. amplifolius, P. gramineus, P. berchtoldii, Callitriche heterophylla, Najas

flexilis, Scirpus acutus, Utricularia minor, Lemna

minor, and the rare Scirpus subterminalis.

Marginal floating mat communities are mostly poor

fens characterized by Typha latifolia, Carex lasiocarpa,

Dulichium arundinaceum, Potentilla palustris, Equisetum fluviatile, and at least three bryophytes: Sphagnum teres, Aulacomnium palustre, and Calliergon

stramineum. The fixed portions of the mat are hummocky with trees of Thuja plicata and Tsuga

heterophylla, and the shrubs Alnus incana, Cornus

stolonifera, Rhamnus alnifolia, and Spiraea douglasii

occupying sphagnum moss-covered hummocks. Carex

lasiocarpa, D. arundinaceum, P. palustris, Phalaris

arundinacea, Bidens cernua, Menyanthes trifoliata,

Scutellaria galericulata, Mentha arvensis, Lycopus

uniflorus, Carex cusickii, C. retrorsa, and Eriophorum

gracile are dominant in the wet, moss-covered depressions in between. Epilobium palustre and Cicuta

bulbifera are rare species found scattered throughout

the mat. The rare Dryopteris cristata is found on the

tree and shrub-covered sphagnum moss hummocks.

Some portions of the fixed and floating mats are rich

fens dominated by Typha latifolia, Scirpus acutus,

and various species of Carex .

Significance—Lost Lake is somewhat similar to the

rest of the peatlands in the vicinity of Lake Pend

Oreille. Lost Lake is unique in having abundant poor

fen on floating and fixed mats in addition to rich fens.

The floating rich fens are very interesting and diverse.

They contain many species typically associated with

marsh habitats (for example, Typha latifolia and

Scirpus acutus) along with species nearly restricted to

peatlands (for example, Carex lasiocarpa, Dulichium

arundinaceum, Potentilla palustris, and Drosera

rotundifolia). This type of rich fen occurs at only very

scattered sites north of Lake Pend Oreille and the

Pend Oreille River.

Lost Lake contains populations of four rare plants:

Scirpus subterminalis, Epilobium palustre, Dryopteris

cristata, and Cicuta bulbifera. Seven of 12 habitat

features of northern Idaho peatlands were identified

at Lost Lake: poor fen, rich fen, floating mat, vegetated

littoral zones, shrub carr, a lake, and beaver activity

(Bursik and Moseley 1995).

Mosquito Bay Fen

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District

(plus private ownership).

Description—Mosquito Bay Fen is at the north end

of Priest Lake on the west side of Mosquito Bay. A

diversity of peatland habitats are present. A rich fen

dominated by Carex lasiocarpa, C. chordorrhiza, and

C. muricata covers as much as one-third of the open

fen area. A wet, emergent rich fen dominated by Carex

livida, Rhynchospora alba, and Equisetum fluviatile

covers about one-fourth of the open fen. The remainder

of the open area is covered by poor fen characterized by

the above species and Sphagnum spp., Potentilla

palustris, Kalmia microphylla, Vaccinium oxycoccos,

and Andromeda polifolia. Poor fen habitats are smaller

and localized, usually in the form of slightly raised

hummocks surrounded by poor or rich fen. Scattered

patches of Pinus contorta clearly mark some of the

poor fen habitats at the fen. Extensive rich fen shrub
58 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

carr communities ring the graminoid and bryophytedominated central portions of the fen. They are dominated primarily by Spiraea douglasii and Betula

glandulosa, Rhamnus alnifolia, Alnus incana, and

other shrubs. Paludified forest habitats surround most

of the graminoid- and shrub-dominated fen habitats.

They are characterized by Abies lasiocarpa, Picea

engelmannii, Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, Pinus

contorta, and P. monticola. The undergrowth of the

paludified forests is dominated by Sphagnum

angustifolium, S. centrale, Scirpus microcarpus, Calamagrostis canadensis, Dulichium arundinaceum, Carex

brunnescens, and Spiraea douglasii. There are sphagnum moss hummocks growing over old stumps in

the paludified forest. The hummocks reach more

than 1 m in height above the surrounding substrate.

Significance—One hundred forty-one species (11 bryophyte and 130 vascular) are known from Mosquito Bay

Fen. This is the single most floristically diverse

peatland in Idaho. It also supports the most exceptional paludified forest habitat in the state. Present

are populations of 20 rare plant species:

Andromeda polifolia (only population known in Idaho),

Aster junciformis, Carex buxbaumii, C. chordorrhiza,

C. leptalea, C. livida, C. paupercula, Geocaulon lividum,

Epilobium palustre, Eriophorum viridicarinatum,

Gaultheria hispidula, Hypericum majus, Iris versicolor (only site in Idaho or the Pacific Northwest),

Lycopodium obscurum var. dendroidium, Lycopodium

inundatum, Rhynchospora alba, Salix pedicellaris,

Scheuchzeria palustris, Trientalis arctica, and

Vaccinium oxycoccos.

Conservation—This site is one of the most significant of the 45 high-priority peatlands in northern

Idaho identified by Bursik and Moseley (1995). The

small portion that is administered by the Forest Service should be considered for Research Natural Area

or Botanical Area designation.

Packer Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Packer Meadows is 11 km west of Priest

Lake in the Idaho Panhandle. Packer Meadows contains a unique mosaic of fen communities along a lowgradient meandering stretch of Packer Creek. Within

the mosaic are patterned peatlands on slight slopes.

The raised strings run perpendicular to the slope and

are covered with Sphagnum spp., Betula glandulosa,

Pedicularis groenlandica, Carex utriculata, Salix

pedicellaris, and Equisetum fluviatile. The shallowly

inundated flarks are dominated by C. utriculata, C.

cusickii, C. leptalea, and C. aquatilis. Other small

areas of nearly level substrate are poor fen dominated

by Sphagnum spp., Carex limosa, Drosera rotundifolia,

Eriophorum polystachion, and other poor fen species.

Areas of poor fen are hummocky with Sphagnum

centrale hummocks occurring beneath Betula

glandulosa, Picea engelmannii, and Abies lasiocarpa.

Trientalis arctica occurs on these hummocks. Sedgedominated rich fen covers a majority of Packer Meadows. These areas appear more mesic with shallow,

firm peat. They are dominated by Calamagrostis

canadensis, Carex utriculata, Senecio triangularis,

C. aquatilis, and C. scopulorum. Periodic beaver activity on Packer Creek on the south end of Packer Meadows leads to the formation of a several-hectare shallow

lake, but no lake was present in 1991. The East Fork

of Packer Creek Fen is characterized by sloped poor

fen communities that are subirrigated. The slopes

are as great as 7 percent. They are covered with

Sphagnum spp., Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex

scopulorum, Eriophorum polystachion, C. leptalea,

and Eriophorum chamissonis. These sloped fens are

interspersed between areas of Picea engelmannii and

Abies lasiocarpa paludified forest where deep hummocks of Sphagnum centrale cover the base of the

trees.

Significance—Because of its elevation, Packer Meadows is somewhat intermediate floristically between

subalpine and valley peatlands, containing numerous

boreal species that are restricted to valley peatlands

and many cordilleran species characteristic of subalpine peatlands (Bursik 1990). Elevationally (3,360 ft),

it is the highest known site with paludified forest

habitat in northern Idaho. The poor fen communities

in the East Fork Fens are similar to those found at

Smith Creek Research Natural Area, Cow Creek Meadows, and Grass Creek Meadows at higher elevations in

the northern Selkirk Range. Also unique is the stringflark patterned ground of the gradually sloped poor

fen in Packer Meadows.

Three rare species are known to occur at Packer

Meadows: Carex leptalea, Trientalis arctica, and Salix

pedicellaris.

Potholes

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Potholes is on the north side of Kalispell

Creek 1.5 km west of the Idaho/Washington border in

northern Idaho, approximately 60 km north-northwest of Priest River, ID. The peatland is within Potholes Research Natural Area. The site is an example of

a diverse wetland resulting from Pleistocene glaciation. Surrounding forests are dominated by Tsuga

heterophylla and other conifers. Elevations in the

Potholes Research Natural Area range from 828 to

960 m. The area contains a large upwelling cold

spring. Spring ponds drain into a stream that supplies

water for wet meadows, a fen, and several beaver

ponds. In places, low dams have been built by beaver.

The ponds are drained by three streams; two of these

unite on a lower bench supporting Alnus spp., meadows, marshes, and a sphagnum moss-dominated fen.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 59

A number of rare plant species are found in the area

including: Gaultheria hispidula, Vaccinium oxycoccos,

Epilobium palustre, Trientalis arctica, Salix

pedicellaris, Carex leptalea, and C. paupercula. Two

rare plant communities also occur in the Research

Natural Area: the Thuja plicata/Lysichitum

americanum habitat type and the Thuja plicata/

Equisetum arvense community type.

Upper Priest Lake Fen

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Upper Priest Lake Fen is at the southeast end of Upper Priest Lake in the Idaho Panhandle.

The fen covers about 25 ha. It contains a short spring

stream that emerges within the fen. The spring feeds

a small, shallow pond. Portions of the peatland communities are poor fen dominated by Carex lasiocarpa,

C. diandra, C. utriculata and various sphagnum mosses

(Sphagnum angustifolium, S. capillifolium, and S.

centrale). A unique shrub carr covers much of the nontreed peatland and is dominated by Betula pumila,

Spiraea douglasii, Salix pedicellaris, Kalmia

microphylla, and Vaccinium oxycoccos over a nearly

continuous mat of sphagnum mosses.

Paludified forest with Abies lasiocarpa, Tsuga

heterophylla, Thuja plicata, Picea engelmannii, and

Abies grandis surrounds the open fen. The undergrowth is characterized by Sphagnum angustifolium,

S. teres, S. centrale, S. magellanicum, Carex

brunnescens, Scirpus microcarpus, Athyrium filixfemina, Linnaea borealis, Vaccinium globulare,

Calamagrostis canadensis, and Cornus canadensis.

Significance—At least 60 vascular and bryophyte

plant species are known from Upper Priest Lake Fen.

Along with Mosquito Bay Fen, it contains the most

exceptional paludified habitat in Idaho. The shrub

carr is unique, unlike any other shrub carr in northern

Idaho. Rare plants at this site include: Carex leptalea,

Vaccinium oxycoccos, Gaultheria hispidula, Salix

pedicellaris, and Trientalis arctica.

Boundary County

Beaver Lake (North)

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger District (plus State of Idaho).

Description—Beaver Lake is in northern Idaho along

the west slope of the Cabinet Mountains, 6 km south

of Naples and 20 km south of Bonners Ferry. Beaver

Lake (North) is a small pond that sits nearly on the

crest of a west-east trending ridge. The pond was

formed by continental ice that flowed down the Purcell

Trench during the Pleistocene, scouring adjacent mountain slopes. The pond is the headwaters of Dyree

Creek, a small creek flowing southeast from the pond,

eventually to the Pack River. Most of the shoreline is

steep and has little littoral zone or wetland vegetation.

The eastern shore, however, has a narrow zone of

Carex flava along the edge of the lake and several

floating sphagnum mats, some of which contain Lycopodium inundatum. Carex lasiocarpa, Drosera

rotundifolia, and Potentilla palustris are common on

the sphagnum.

Significance—The biodiversity highlight of Beaver

Lake (North) is the small floating mats at the eastern

end of the pond, which contains the relatively rare

peatland species Lycopodium inundatum. Otherwise,

floristic diversity is low, due to the limited number of

habitats around this pond with a steep shoreline. A

small population of the rare sedge, Carex flava, occurs

on the shore near the mats.

Bog Creek Fen

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger

District.

Description—Bog Creek Fen lies along the United

States-Canadian border in the Selkirk Mountains of

extreme northern Idaho. Bog Creek is a slow-moving,

low gradient, meandering stream. Fen communities

have formed along the stream scattered between Abies

lasiocarpa-Picea engelmannii-Pinus contorta forest.

These are mostly fens dominated by sedges; sphagnum mosses are sparse. This is one of the few subalpine peatland sites supporting Carex lasiocarpa

(the species is typically restricted to valley peatlands).

Carex utriculata, C. aquatilis, C. scopulorum, C. lasiocarpa, and Eriophorum polystachion are prominent.

Significance—This site contains populations of Carex

flava, C. buxbaumii, C. paupercula, and Botrychium

minganense. Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) are also

known to use this drainage. This appears to be a

unique and valuable peatland site, which may represent an intermediary between the low elevation valley

peatlands dominated by boreal species and higher

subalpine peatlands dominated by numerous western

cordilleran species. It is one of few high-quality subalpine peatland sites known from northern Idaho.

Cow Creek Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger

District.

Description—Cow Creek Meadows are located along

Cow Creek in the extreme northern portion of the

Selkirk Mountains, 10 km south of the United StatesCanada border.

Cow Creek Meadows contain scattered open sphagnum-rich and sphagnum-poor fen habitats over a 5 km

stretch along the upper reaches of Cow Creek. Four

major wetland plant communities occur at Cow Creek

Meadows (Bursik 1993):

1. Sphagnum moss-dominated fens supporting the

rare species known from the site (Carex buxbaumii, C.

paupercula, C. leptalea, C. flava, Lycopodium inundatum, Trientalis arctica, and Scirpus hudsonianus)
60 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

2. Carex scopulorum fen

3. Carex vesicaria-C. utriculata fen

4. Deschampsia cespitosa-Danthonia intermediaCalamagrostis canadensis wet meadows

Pinus contorta, Abies lasiocarpa, and Picea

engelmannii moist to wet forests occur between the fen

communities. Much of the upper portion of the drainage was burned in the 1967 Trapper Peak fire.

Significance—Subalpine sphagnum moss-dominated

fen communities in Cow Creek Meadows are more rare

in extreme northern Idaho than in the major river

valleys of north-central Idaho (for example, the Lochsa

River drainage). They appear to be transitional in

floristic composition to valley peatland communities

based on the number of boreal species they contain.

One hundred and one plant species (11 bryophyte and

90 vascular) are known from the fens; seven are considered rare in the State: Carex buxbaumii, C. flava, C.

leptalea, C. paupercula, Lycopodium inundatum,

Scirpus hudsonianus, and Trientalis arctica.

The population of Scirpus hudsonianus is one of only

two found in the State. One of the few documented

Idaho populations of the northern bog lemming

(Synaptomys borealis) occurs in Cow Creek Meadows.

Grizzly bear and woodland caribou use of the area is

high.

Conservation—Cow Creek Meadows have been recommended for Botanical Area designation. The site

includes the reaches of Cow Creek supporting peatland habitats. The boundaries of the site were proposed by Bursik (1993) to extend from the bridge over

Cow Creek on Forest Service Road 2545 in the SE 1/4

section 4, T64N, R3W, to the uppermost meadows in

the extreme NE 1/4 section 13, T64N, R4W. The old

Cow Creek Road (Forest Service 655) serves as the

northern boundary, and an old, unnumbered logging

road that accessed the burned-over area south of the

creek serves as the southern boundary.

Grass Creek Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger

District.

Description—Grass Creek Meadows is along Grass

Creek in the Selkirk Mountains of northern Idaho.

Grass Creek drains northward into Canada and ultimately into the Kootenai River. Grass Creek contains

open fen habitats scattered along its upper reach. Fens

dominated by sphagnum mosses contain the rare

species known from the site. Other major communities

include:

1. Carex scopulorum fen

2. Carex vesicaria-C. utriculata fen

3. Deschampsia cespitosa-Danthonia intermediaCalamagrostis canadensis wet meadows

Significance—Subalpine sphagnum moss-dominated

fen communities as exist in Grass Creek Meadows are

more rare in extreme northern Idaho than in the major

river valleys of north-central Idaho. They are somewhat transitional in floristic composition to valley

peatland communities based on the number of boreal

species they contain. The fens contain several rare

plant populations, including: Carex paupercula,

Trientalis arctica, and Scirpus hudsonianus (one of

two populations known from Idaho). Grizzly bear and

woodland caribou use is high in the Grass Creek

Meadows.

Perkins Lake

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger District (plus private ownership).

Description—Perkins Lake is in the Purcell Mountains of northern Idaho, 3 km west of the IdahoMontana boundary. Perkins Lake contains a diversity

of fen communities along its northeastern shore and

on its western side (that is mostly privately owned).

Extensive floating mats ring the lake margins and

fixed mats extend into the fen area west of the lake.

The floating mats on the northeastern side of the lake

are unstable and are dominated by Betula pumila,

Alnus incana, and Spiraea douglasii. The undergrowth

is dominated by Carex lasiocarpa, Calamagrostis

canadensis, and various sphagnum and brown mosses

including Sphagnum angustifolium, S. centrale, S.

magellanicum, S. teres, Aulacomnium palustre,

Calliergon stramineum, and Polytrichum strictum.

The lake margins are dominated by Typha latifolia

and various sedges, including Carex lasiocarpa, C.

cusickii, and Dulichium arundinaceum. Shrub carr

also covers much of the fen west of the lake. It is

interspersed with Carex/sphagnum moss-dominated

poor fen communities, which extend at least 0.4 km

from the lake margin to the west.

Significance—Perkins Lake contains very unique

peatland plant communities unlike those found elsewhere in northern Idaho. The Betula pumila carr is

unusual in that it occurs on a floating mat. Most of the

fen communities are poor fens with a nearly solid mat

of sphagnum and brown mosses. Scattered areas are

poor fens while areas closer to the upland boundary

are rich fens with little moss cover and greater vascular plant coverage. The poor fens are very diverse with

shrub carr communities being interspersed with sedge/

graminoid-dominated areas with the two types grading freely into one another. Some scattered patches of

Pinus contorta and Pinus monticola give evidence of

historically dynamic water levels, possibly related to

beaver activity on the outlet. The lake contains some

of the highest diversity of aquatic plant species known

in the State. More than 100 vascular and bryophyte

plant species are known from Perkins Lake making it

one of the most floristically diverse peatlands in the
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 61

State. Present are populations of 13 rare plant species:

Aster junciformis, Betula pumila, Carex chordorrhiza,

C. comosa (one of only two populations in the State), C.

flava, C. leptalea, Cicuta bulbifera, Dryopteris cristata,

Epilobium palustre, Rhynchospora alba, Salix

pedicellaris, Scheuchzeria palustris, and Scirpus

subterminalis.

Conservation—Special designation is recommended

for this site due to its high biodiversity value.

Robinson Lake

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger

District.

Description—Robinson Lake is 3 km south of the

Canadian border just southeast of Eastport in the

Moyie River Valley of the Purcell Mountains. Robinson

Lake is in the pioneering stages of peatland development. The eastern lobe of the lake appears to be

growing through a lake-fill sequence with an accumulating island of lake sediment building in the middle of

the basin with slightly deeper moat areas adjacent to

uplands. The western lobe of the lake contains numerous small pioneer mat communities on floating and

partially emergent logs. This site offers a glimpse at

the initial stages of two different types of peatland

formation. The small mats contain several of the most

prominent of the peatland-dominating sedges in northern Idaho: Carex lasiocarpa, C. canescens, C. diandra,

and C. muricata; and a host of other species, including

Drosera rotundifolia, that are restricted to peatland

habitats in the area.

Significance—This site contains populations of two

species considered rare in Idaho: Cicuta bulbifera and

Hypericum majus. Robinson Lake represents the earliest stages of peatland development and is, therefore,

significant in providing an understanding of the process of peatland formation. Despite the fact that water

levels are regulated at the outlet (which may have

increased the size of the lake), the pioneering peatland communities are largely the product of natural

processes.

Conservation—Any special designations should protect the entire lake and a 200 m wide buffer into the

adjacent uplands, which rise rather steeply from the

edge of the lake. This should serve to protect the water

quality of the lake and allow for natural recruitment of

fallen trees into lake margins.

Sinclair Lake

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger

District.

Description—Sinclair Lake is in the Purcell Mountains of northern Idaho, 10 km south of Eastport, on

the United States-Canadian border. Floating mats supporting poor fen communities occur around Sinclair

Lake. The mat community is dominated by Sphagnum

angustifolium, S. subsecundum, Carex lasiocarpa, C.

muricata, C. limosa, Potentilla palustris, Drosera

anglica, D. rotundifolia, and Lycopus uniflorus. A C.

lasiocarpa fen extends over several hectares west of

the lake, ringed by a Spiraea douglasii shrub carr.

Littoral zones of the lake are characterized by Nuphar

variegatum, Brasenia schreberi, Potamogeton

gramineus, Dulichium arundinaceum, Carex

lasiocarpa, and scattered plants of Scirpus

subterminalis. The Spokane International Railroad

bed partially filled in the eastern side of the lake. A

fishing dock is on the north side of the lake near the

parking area.

Significance—Sinclair Lake contains representative

rich and poor fens and floating mats. Four rare plants

occur around the lake: Scirpus subterminalis,

Scheuchzeria palustris, Hypericum majus, and Aster

junciformis. Two species of sundew (Drosera anglica

and D. rotundifolia) are sympatric as are two species

of cottongrass (Eriophorum gracile and E. chamissonis).

This is one of few northern Idaho peatlands with spike

reedgrass (Calamagrostis stricta), which is more common in fens of east-central Idaho. The lake contains a

fair diversity of aquatic plants, including Nuphar

variegatum, the less common of north Idaho’s two

native yellow waterlilies.

Conservation—Any protective measures should include the lake and surrounding peatland communities

and upland areas north to the Forest Service property

boundary, and east to the Spokane International Railroad bed. Sinclair Lake has high interpretive potential. The present dock would be very useful, and a

wooden walkway could be constructed to access the

peatland.

Smith Creek

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger District.

Description—Smith Creek (within Smith Creek Research Natural Area) is along the crest of the Selkirk

Mountains in northern Idaho, 37 km northwest of

Bonners Ferry. An outstanding example of divide

crossing by glacial ice occurs in the Smith Creek

Research Natural Area, as evidenced by the glacial

trough that runs across the Selkirk Crest in an eastwest direction. Elevations in the Research Natural

Area range from 1,433 m at the lower boundary of the

Research Natural Area to 2,055 m on the summit of

Joe Peak.

The main features of the area are the outstanding

wetland communities of the valley bottom, including

undisturbed sphagnum moss-dominated peatlands and

associated ponds, and other wetland areas dominated

by Carex spp., Eriophorum polystachion, and Picea

engelmannii. The upland forest vegetation consists

largely of subalpine fir series forest associations. Of

special interest is the subalpine fir/white rhododendron (Rhododendron albiflorum) community type.
62 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Significance—The site contains outstanding peatland

communities; habitat for woodland caribou, an endangered species, and grizzly bear, a threatened species;

supports a population of the heather vole (Phenacomys

intermedius), considered rare in Idaho; and populations of five rare plants: Drosera intermedia, Trientalis

arctica, Ribes howellii, Lycopodium sitchense, and

Carex paupercula.

Additionally, Leptarrhena pyrolifolia occurs in the

Smith Creek Research Natural Area. This plant has a

limited distribution in Idaho, occurring only in the

wettest forest communities of extreme northern Idaho.

Unusual aquatic species occur in the area, including

the algae Ulothrixzonata, which occurs in unusually

high densities in the streams of the RNA, and an

uncommon Diptera, Palpomyia sp.

Three Ponds

Kaniksu National Forest, Bonners Ferry Ranger

District.

Description—Three Ponds (within Three Ponds Research Natural Area) is on the western edge of the

Purcell Trench near Bonners Ferry, ID. The Research

Natural Area is 7 km southwest of the Bonners Ferry

Ranger Station. Three Ponds is a small, heavilyglaciated basin containing three small ponds. Each

pond is shallow, between 1 to 2 ha, without fish, and

with the pond level controlled by beavers. Middle Pond

has a central mat dominated by Carex lasiocarpa and

sphagnum moss about 0.4 ha in area.

Significance—Undisturbed, high-production lakes,

especially at low- to mid-elevations are rare in Idaho.

Conservation—The site is within the Three Ponds

Research Natural Area.

Custer County

Blind Summit Fen

Challis National Forest, Yankee Fork Ranger District.

Sawtooth National Forest, Sawtooth National Recreation Area.

Description—The largest continuous expanse of peat

lies at the headwaters of Marsh and Valley Creeks, an

area known as Blind Summit. It gets this name because the hydrologic divide between the two creeks is

nearly imperceptible. This is an important divide,

however, not only because it separates the Middle

Fork from the main Salmon River drainage, but because it also is the boundary between the Sawtooth

National Recreation Area and the Challis National

Forest. The site is about 3 km long, 0.5 km wide, and

covers about 73 ha. Most of the area is covered by turfs

of Eleocharis pauciflora and Carex livida and to a

lesser extent by Scirpus caespitosus. A majority of the

turf is quaking mat. Grounded Carex simulata and

Salix wolfii/Carex utriculata communities cover small

areas. Deschampsia cespitosa and Pinus contorta/

Vaccinium occidentale community types occur at the

periphery.

The water that surfaces in the peatland probably

originates in the morainal and glacial outwash features southwest of the fen. The ground water flows

northeast through the glacial till until it hits impermeable bedrock and then surfaces. The quaking mat of

Blind Summit Fen is subirrigated by numerous springs

and parallels the granitic bedrock slopes at the northeastern edge.

Significance—Blind Summit Fen is a valley peatland

of high biological significance in Idaho.

Conservation—Cattle graze heavily on the periphery of the peatland, generally in upland areas with a

firm mineral substrate. A well-used dirt road follows

the northeast side of the fen and impinges on it in a few

places.

Sawtooth Valley Peatlands

Sawtooth National Forest, Sawtooth National Recreation Area.

Description—The Sawtooth Valley Peatlands is an

established Research Natural Area, with three units

as follows:

Bull Moose Fen—The site is between moraines of

Decker and Redfish Lake Creeks about 1.5 km north

of Huckleberry Creek Fen. There is an extensive area

containing a mosaic of Scirpus caespitosus and

Eleocharis pauciflora peatlands on moderate slopes. A

unique feature of this fen is the peat terrace that

occurs along the southern boundary. The terrace is 6

to 10 m higher than the adjacent part of the fen and is

the source of several spring-fed rivulets that cascade

down the face. Other wetland communities present

include Pinus contorta/Vaccinium occidentale, Carex

utriculata, Salix drummondii/Carex utriculata,

Betula glandulosa, Deschampsia cespitosa, and Carex

simulata community types.

Huckleberry Creek Fen—The site is between the

moraines of Hell Roaring and Decker Creeks. It lies

about 4 km north of Mays Creek Fen and 1.5 km south

of Bull Moose Fen. The fen has a high community

diversity occurring in a mosaic of types, replacing each

other over relatively short distances. Excellent examples of communities dominated by Scirpus

caespitosus, Carex livida, and Carex buxbaumii types

are present. Other types include Pinus contorta/

Vaccinium occidentale, Carex utriculata, Salix

drummondiana/Carex utriculata, Betula glandulosa,

Deschampsia cespitosa, and Carex simulata community types.

Mays Creek Fen—The site is between moraines

of Yellow Belly Lake and Hell Roaring Creek. The

Hell Roaring Creek road parallels the northern boundary, so access is convenient. Featured are a high

diversity of community types, replacing each other

over relatively short distances. Excellent and extensive examples of the rare Scirpus caespitosus and

Carex livida types and somewhat less of the Carex
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 63

buxbaumii type are present. Other types include Pinus

contorta/Vaccinium occidentale, Carex utriculata, and

Eleocharis pauciflora. The fen is largely undisturbed.

Significance—The three units of the Sawtooth Valley Peatlands Research Natural Area encompass the

full range of diversity found in the Sawtooth Valley

and Stanley Basin areas of central Idaho. These

peatlands occur in a relatively high intermontane

valley and have a mixture of boreal and cordilleran

floristic and community elements, which are unique

for Idaho.

Conservation—Some cattle grazing, recreational use,

and firewood cutting occur around the margins of

these sites, but a majority of each site is undisturbed

due to the unstable nature of the substrate. These

peatlands are within the established Sawtooth Valley

Peatlands Research Natural Area.

Iron Bog

Challis National Forest, Lost River Ranger District.

Description—Iron Bog is in the southeastern extent

of the Pioneer Mountains near the Custer County/

Butte County boundary, and is within the Iron Bog

Research Natural Area. The wetland is a poor fen

located within a relatively dry sagebrush-steppe ecosystem. The fen is at a relatively flat valley bottom

with steep slopes above. Elevation of the fen is 2,130

m. Hummocks in the fen support a variety of plants

including many species of Carex, Kalmia polifolia,

Ledum glandulosum, and Vaccinium occidentale.

Betula glandulosa, Salix spp., Alnus incana, and

Pinus contorta occur at the edge of the fen where the

sphagnum moss substrate is thicker. A band of Abies

lasiocarpa borders the fen on the southwest side. The

fen is formed on poorly drained alluvium deposited by

glaciers. Origin of the ponds is uncertain, but were

possibly formed by a glacial moraine or an old beaver

pond. A fault forms a drainage in the southwestern

part of the Research Natural Area that feeds the fen.

The northeast-facing slope above the fen is a mosaic

of Pseudotsuga menziesii and sagebrush/grass

communities.

Significance—The occurrence of this poor fen is

particularly unusual due to its location in a dry ecosystem at lower timberline. This site lies just north of the

Snake River Plain. The area contains a very complex

geology; this, and the hydrology of the fen have been

the focus of studies by scientists from the University of

Wisconsin–Milwaukee.

Conservation—Some timber cutting for poles and

firewood has occurred in the RNA. The area has been

impacted by grazing in the past, but was fenced in

1990 to exclude cattle. The site is an established

Research Natural Area.

Fremont County

Big Springs-Henrys Fork Confluence

Targhee National Forest, Island Park Ranger District.

Description—The site is downstream from the

confluence of Henry’s Lake outlet and Big Springs

outlet and includes land on both the north and south

sides of the Henry’s Fork River. An extensive springfed wetland complex is dominated by the Carex utriculata community type. The Carex nebraskensis, C.

aquatilis, C. praegracilis-C. aquatilis, C. simulata,

Eleocharis palustris, Juncus balticus, and Deschampsia

cespitosa community types are present in lesser

amounts. The Salix geyeriana/Carex utriculata community type is present along the Henrys Fork with the

low willow type Salix wolfii/Carex aquatilis away

from the channel. Pinus contorta with a mesic

graminoid undergrowth is present on portions of the

complex with slightly raised topography.

Significance—The large area and community diversity are significant. Three plant species of concern

occur within the site: Carex buxbaumii, Cicuta

bulbifera, and Epilobium palustre. The Carex

buxbaumii population may possibly be the largest in

the State. The Cicuta bulbifera population is the only

one in southern Idaho, disjunct by over 550 km fromthe

next nearest Idaho populations. The site should be

considered for designation as a Botanical Area.

Conservation—The site is within a popular recreation area. The reach of the Henrys Fork is a high use

area for floating, fishing, and picnicking. Impacts are

minimal and confined to minor amounts of trampling

at isolated spots along channel banks. It has been

recommended for Special Interest Area designation.

Kootenai County

Rose Lake

Coeur d’Alene National Forest, Fernan Ranger District; Idaho Department of Fish and Game; private.

Description—Rose Lake has extensive floating and

fixed mats along the lake margins covered by a mosaic

of: (1) sphagnum moss-dominated poor fens (the least

extensive community), (2) poor fen dominated by sphagnum mosses (Sphagnum angustifolium, S. centrale,

S. subsecundum, S. teres), Carex spp., and Spiraea

douglasii, (3) rich fen dominated by Typha latifolia,

Carex spp., Potentilla palustris, Eleocharis palustris,

and Equisetum fluviatile, and (4) rich and fen shrub

carrs characterized by Spiraea douglasii, Alnus incana,

Salix geyeriana, Pinus contorta, and Betula occidentalis

with and without sphagnum moss-covered substrate.

These fen communities grade freely into one another.

Abundant marsh vegetation dominated by Sparganium

emersum, Carex vesicaria, Phalaris arundinacea, and

Equisetum fluviatile are found on the northern margins

of Rose Lake and around much of Porters Lake, to the

west of Rose Lake, which is part of the Rose Lake

wetland complex. Shallow aquatic communities in the

lake are dominated by Nuphar polysepalum, Brasenia
64 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

schreberi, Ceratophyllum demersum, Myriophyllum

sibericum, Potamogeton natans, P. robbinsii, and Elodea canadensis. Deeper water areas (1.5 to 3.0 m) are

dominated by Potamogeton amplifolius, P. praelongus,

Elodea canadensis, and Myriophyllum sibericum.

Significance—Rose Lake contains the full range of

aquatic, marsh, and fen communities found in the

lower Coeur d’Alene River drainage. Ten of the 12

critical habitat features of Panhandle peatlands were

identified at Rose Lake: poor fen, rich fen, floating

mats, shrub carr, a lake, ponds, vegetated aquatic

areas, a stream, and beaver activity. While Rose Lake

contains only one rare plant population (Ludwigia

polycarpa), it is exceptionally diverse floristically with

more than 100 species having been identified from the

various wetland and aquatic habitats at the lake.

Conservation—Attempts were made to drain most

of the wetlands surrounding Rose Lake. Most of these

efforts failed, but the duration of successful draining

and the effects of vegetation clearing on the fen communities is unknown. All appear to have recovered

and site quality seems high. A number of summer and

permanent homes are found around the lake margins.

Because the Rose Lake wetland complex well represents the range of wetland and aquatic habitats found

in the lower Coeur d’Alene drainage, it has been

nominated as a Research Natural Area.

Lemhi County

Birch Creek Fen

Targhee National Forest, Dubois Ranger District;

Idaho Department of Fish and Game; U.S. Bureau of

Land Management, Lemhi Resource Area; private,

including a Nature Conservancy preserve.

Description—Birch Creek Fen is at the headwaters

of Birch Creek in the Birch Creek Valley, which is a

large intermontane valley bounded by the Beaverhead

Range on the east and Lemhi Range on the west. These

are arid, calcareous ranges with most of the runoff

sinking into alluvial fans along their base and surfacing in the fen. Birch Creek Fen is a collection of lowelevation, alkaline wetland communities occurring on

peat and mineral substrates. It is at the head of Birch

Creek, which emanates from at least 51 springs in the

site.

Significance—The site contains several rich fen features, including a diversity of communities and the

only known marl deposits in Idaho. Eight rare plant

species are known from Birch Creek Fen, including

Primula alcalina, a globally rare primrose species is

known on only four sites in Idaho.

Conservation—The fen has a long history of homesteading, livestock grazing, and recreational use, and

portions are seriously degraded. Because of the outstanding and unique aquatic and wetland communities,

however, considerable protection effort is being expended to recover and protect the site by the Bureau of

Land Management, Forest Service, and The Nature

Conservancy.

Valley County

Tule Lake

Boise National Forest, Cascade Ranger District.

Description—Tule Lake is a unique, isolated valley

peatland ecosystem adjacent to Warm Lake in Valley

County, ID. The lake is approximately 10 ha and is

surrounded by rich fen communities dominated by

Carex aquatilis, C. utriculata, and C lasiocarpa. Scattered raised sphagnum moss-dominated poor fen

microsites are found throughout. Small mats have

broken from the margins of the organic mat and float

freely in the lake. The floating mat around the lake

supports many species that are restricted to such

habitats at valley peatlands in Idaho. This includes

Drosera rotundifolia, Dulichium arundinaceum, Potentilla palustris, Carex lasiocarpa, Lycopus uniflorus,

and others. The presence of these species distinguish

the lower elevation valley peatlands floristically from

the higher elevation subalpine peatlands. This site

has typical and dominant subalpine peatland plant

species present on the fixed margins, perhaps indicating that the floristic differences may be attributable to

the presence or absence of a floating mat at a particular site. For this reason, Tule Lake is a fascinating and

valuable site. It is also one of the most isolated known

valley peatland sites in the State.

Significance—The site harbors several rare plant

populations including Scirpus subterminalis,

Rhynchospora alba, and Carex buxbaumii.

Conservation—The lake is specially managed as a

fly-fishing-only trophy trout lake. Fisherman traffic

has impacted portions of the organic mat, but the

impact is confined to the frequently used access trails.

The site has not been afforded any formal protection

Washington ____________________

Pend Oreille County

Deerhorn Creek Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Deerhorn Creek Meadows includes fen

communities and adjacent conifer and sphagnum mossdominated paludified margins along the low-gradient

margins of Deerhorn Creek, a tributary of the Priest

River. Several small beaver ponds are also found in

the meadows. Common vascular plants include Carex

aquatilis, C. cusickii, C. lasiocarpa, and C. utriculata.

Mosses present include Aulacomnium palustre, Calliergon stramineum, Polytrichum commune, Sphagnum
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 65

angustifolium, S. capillifolium, S. subobesum, and S.

warnstorfii (Bursik and Henderson 1995).

Significance—The area supports populations of several rare plants including Gaultheria hispidula,

Dryopteris cristata, Trientalis arctica, and others.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Timber harvesting activity has occurred in the surrounding upland forests within the drainage over the

last 50 years.

Huff Lake Fen

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Huff Lake Fen is 19 km northwest of

Nordman, ID, and less than 2 km west of the Idaho

border. The lake lies in a glacial kettle adjacent to

Granite Creek in the Priest River drainage at an

elevation of 950 m. A valley-type peatland is present

adjacent to the open water. Peat cores taken from the

site in 1992 revealed the presence of several ash

layers, including Mazama (about 6,700 years before

present) and Glacier Peak tephras (about 11,700 years

before present). Huff Lake is about 3 ha. Predominant

aquatic plants are Potamogeton natans and Nuphar

polysepalum. A narrow floating mat occurs around

much of the lake. Dominant mosses of the mat include

Sphagnum angustifolium, S. rubellum, S. centrale,

and S. subsecundum. Common vascular plant species

include Carex aquatilis, C. limosa, C. lanuginosa, and

Scheuchzeria palustris. Anchored mats on the outer

edge of the basin are dominated by Carex utriculata

and Spiraea douglasii. Swamp and carr habitats on

the north, east, and west edges of the lake support

trees of Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla, Pinus

contorta, and Picea engelmannii. The trees are typically growing atop sphagnum moss hummocks. Shrubs

occur on low-lying areas between the hummocks; major

species include Menziesia ferruginea, Vaccinium

globulare, V. membranaceum, Rhamnus alnifolia, and

Cornus stolonifera.

Significance—Huff Lake is an excellent example of a

valley peatland (Bursik 1990). Valley peatlands often

support a large number of boreal plant species whose

main range is far north in central and northern Canada.

Four Forest Service sensitive and State rare species

reported from Huff Lake by Karg (1973) were apparently absent in 1992 (Bursik and Moseley 1992b).

Other species had also decreased, while a number

increased in abundance. Bursik and Moseley surmised that changes to the hydrology of the site through

ditching and prolonged drought, and oligotrophication

of water in the basin (resulting from timber harvests

and fire in the basin) was responsible for the vegetation changes.

Conservation—Huff Lake receives a moderate

amount of use by anglers. This has resulted in trampling damage to shoreline communities (Bursik and

Moseley 1992b). No formal protective designation has

been applied to the site.

Sema Meadows

Kaniksu National Forest, Priest Lake Ranger District.

Description—Sema Meadows occurs along low-gradient lower reaches of Sema Creek in the Priest River

Valley of northeastern Washington. The site is poorly

inventoried botanically but supports fen communities

dominated by sedges and sphagnum mosses and probably also includes some paludified conifer swamp on

the forested margins. Much of the upland forest within

the drainage is mature to old growth western redcedarwestern hemlock forest.

Significance—The site harbors several rare plant

populations including Trientalis arctica, Dryopteris

cristata, and the particularly rare grass Muhlenbergia

glomerata.

Conservation—Sema Meadows is within the Grizzly

Bear Recovery area of the Priest Lake Ranger District,

but is afforded no special protection.

Montana _______________________

Beaverhead County

Leonard Creek Fen

Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Madison

Ranger District.

Description—Leonard Creek Fen is at the southern

end of the Tobacco Root Mountains of southwestern

Montana. The fen is at the head of a headwaters

tributary to Leonard Creek. The town of Ennis is 8 km

to the southeast. Leonard Creek Fen is a 1.6 ha basin

supporting a floating organic mat. Sphagnum

magellanicum is the primary peat-forming species,

and forms sphagnum moss lawns and small hummocks across the floating mat. Drepanocladus

capillifolius is present in wet depressions. Important

vascular plants include Eleocharis pauciflora in the

moss lawn and Carex canescens on hummocks. The

organic mat is bordered by an open water moat on the

outer edge of the basin. Menyanthes trifoliata, Nuphar

spp., Carex vesicaria, and Utricularia minor are common moat species. The basin, which has a seasonal

outlet into Leonard Creek, is surrounded by upland

Pinus contorta forest, with scattered Picea and Pinus

albicaulis. Spiraea betulifolia and Juniperus communis are common undergrowth species.

Significance—The site, although small, is an excellent example of organic mat development over a former

open water basin.

Conservation—Cattle grazing on the periphery of

the peatland is a concern. The site is not formally

protected.
66 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Skull Creek Meadows

Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Wise River

Ranger District.

Description—Skull Creek Meadows are in the West

Pioneer Mountains of southwestern Montana, 80 km

south of the town of Anaconda. Skull Creek Meadows

occupy a gently sloping basin at the headwaters of

Skull Creek, a tributary of the Wise River. The West

Pioneers are a granitic block of the Idaho Batholith.

The site is underlain by more recent glacial till. Two

fens are included within the site, separated by subalpine coniferous forest dominated by Pinus contorta.

The upper fen is at an elevation of 2,415 m; the lower

fen is at 2,400 m. The fens are patterned, with slightly

raised areas (strings) alternating with hollows (flarks),

oriented perpendicularly to the gentle slope. Dominant species of the fens include Deschampsia cespitosa,

Carex aquatilis, Eleocharis pauciflora, and C. limosa.

Various sphagnum mosses and other mosses form an

important bryophyte layer; major species include:

Sphagnum angustifolium, S. fimbriatum, S. russowii,

S. subsecundum, Aulacomnium palustre, Calliergon

cordifolium, C. stramineum, Bryum weigelii,

Drepanocladus aduncus, Palustriella commutata,

and Philonotis fontana.

Significance—Skull Creek Meadows feature an excellent, undisturbed example of a poor fen. The stringflark patterning is very unusual in peatlands of this

region.

Conservation—The entire peatland complex is within

the Skull-Odell Research Natural Area.

Flathead County

Bent Flat Fen

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Bent Flat Fen is in the Flathead Range

of northwestern Montana, 8 km east of Spotted Bear

Ranger Station (summer headquarters). The site is

within the Spotted Bear River drainage, which flows

into the South Fork of the Flathead River. Bent Flat is

an extremely rich (calcareous) patterned fen extending over 4 to 5 ha. Patterned fens are a type of peatland

more common in boreal latitudes to the north, but

uncommon in Montana. The fen features a series of

distinctive elongated hummocks (strings) and hollows

(flarks) oriented perpendicularly to the slope of the

drainage. Marl-like deposits underlie both the strings

and flarks, reflecting deposition of fine-textured calcareous silts and sands from the several inflowing

seeps and streams. The hummocks are 10 to 30 cm

above the adjoining hollows. The vegetation reflects

both the high water table and the calcium-rich substrate. Upper portions of the fen are dominated by

various spike rushes (Eleocharis pauciflora, E.

rostellata, E. tenuis) and Scirpus acutus. Carex

buxbaumii is also common. Potentilla fruticosa, Betula

glandulosa, and scattered, stunted Picea engelmannii

occur on hummocks and are more common on the

lower part of the fen. Tomentypnum nitens is a major

hummock-forming moss; other mosses present include Aulacomnium palustre, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Campylium stellatum, Limprichtia revolvens,

and Scorpidium scorpioides. Sphagnum mosses are

sparse. Spruce fringes the margin of the fen.

Significance—Bent Flat Fen is a unique, extremely

rich fen with well-developed patterning, extensive

marl deposits, and a large number of rare plants that

are restricted to calcareous habitats. These include:

Eleocharis rostellata, Carex livida, Cypripedium

calceolus, Cypripedium passerinum, Drosera anglica,

Scirpus caespitosus, and Eriophorum viridicarinatum.

Conservation—Protection measures to maintain

inflowing water quality is recommended. Given the

uniqueness of the site, special designation such as

Botanical Area is warranted.

Gregg Creek Fen

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Gregg Creek Fen is in the Salish Mountains of northwestern Montana. The site is drained by

Gregg Creek, a tributary of Good Creek and the

Stillwater River. Gregg Creek Fen features peatland

and wet forest and shrub communities within an

undisturbed portion of the Gregg Creek watershed.

Mosses present include Bryum pseudotriquetrum,

Campylium stellatum, Limprichtia revolvens, and

Sphagnum fuscum. A diverse shrub carr, dominated

by Potentilla fruticosa, Betula glandulosa, and Rhamnus alnifolia lies immediately upstream. The upper,

east end of the wetland is a wet Picea forest with an

undergrowth of Equisetum arvense and Senecio triangularis. Adjacent upland slopes are dominated by

mature spruce, Abies lasiocarpa, and scattered large,

fire-scarred Larix occidentalis.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Mud Lake

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Mud Lake is within the Bob Marshall

Wilderness of northwestern Montana, South Fork

Flathead River drainage. The site is about 22 km

south southeast of the Meadow Creek Trailhead, and

1.6 km northeast of the Salmon Forks Guard Station.

Trail 80 crosses the northwest corner of the fen surrounding the lake. Mud Lake features an extensive

peatland along its margin. The organic mat adjacent

to open water is floating; nearer the shore, the mat is

anchored to underlying sediments. The lake elevation

is 1,326 m. The fen is dominated by Carex lasiocarpa
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 67

and Salix candida. Minor associated species include C.

limosa, C. interior, and Menyanthes trifoliata. Betula

glandulosa occurs on the basin margin adjacent to the

surrounding forest of Abies lasiocarpa and Picea

engelmannii. Mosses have not been collected at this

site.

Conservation—Mud Lake is within the Bob Marshall

Wilderness.

Sanko Creek Fen (North)

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—North Sanko Creek Fen is in the Salish

Mountains of northwestern Montana, 24 km west of

the town of Whitefish. Sanko Creek is a tributary of

Logan Creek that flows into Tally Lake and the

Stillwater River. North Sanko Creek Fen features two

wetland areas. One is a small pond, 0.4 to 0.8 ha in size

and up to 3 to 4 m deep, and surrounded by a floating

to anchored organic mat and a wet meadow. The other

wetland is a north-south oriented fen about 2.4 ha in

extent. The fen is surrounded by moist Picea forest.

Larix occidentalis is common on adjacent uplands. The

fen has a series of broad, gently sloping terraces with

interspersed water tracks and upwelling pools of water. Prominent vascular plant species of the fen include

Betula glandulosa, Carex lasiocarpa, C. utriculata,

and C. limosa. Mosses include Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Calliergon giganteum, Campylium stellatum,

Limprichtia revolvens, Palustriella commutata, Sphagnum fuscum, and Tomentypnum nitens.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Sanko Creek Fen (South)

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—South Sanko Creek Fen is in the Salish

Mountains of northwestern Montana, 24 km west of

the town of Whitefish. The site is near a headwaters

tributary of Sanko Creek, a tributary of Logan Creek

and Stillwater River. South Sanko Creek Fen is a small

peatland covering 2 to 3 ha. The fen is oriented eastwest along the base of a slope. A number of seeps and

springs emerge from the toe of this slope and maintain

wet conditions in the peatland. Dominant species include Betula glandulosa, Salix candida, and Carex

lasiocarpa. Eriophorum chamissonis is common at the

western end. Mosses form a nearly continuous surface

layer and include Bryum pseudotriquetrum,

Campylium stellatum, Limprichtia revolvens, Hypnum

lindbergii, and Tomentypnum nitens.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Sheppard Creek Fen

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Sheppard Creek Fen is in the Salish

Mountains of northwestern Montana. The site is

34 km west of the town of Whitefish. Sheppard Creek

Fen is a 1 ha peatland maintained by springs on the

north edge of the fen. Forested lands surrounding the

fen are classified as the Abies lasiocarpa/Vaccinium

scopulorum habitat type. The present forest cover is

predominantly pole-sized Pinus contorta. Ledum

glandulosum is a common undergrowth species. The

margins of the fen are dominated by Picea with an

undergrowth of Equisetum sylvaticum. The peatland

has a nearly continuous coverage of hummock-forming sphagnum moss, including Sphagnum warnstorfii.

Important vascular plants include Betula glandulosa,

Salix drummondiana, and Carex utriculata. Brown

mosses include Aulacomnium palustre, Calliergon

stramineum, and Pohlia nutans.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Trail Creek Fen

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Trail Creek Fen is in the Flathead

Range of northwestern Montana. The site is within the

Spotted Bear River drainage, 13 km east of the southern end of Hungry Horse Reservoir (South Fork Flathead River). The nearest town is Hungry Horse, located 100 km to the north. Trail Creek Fen is on a

gently sloping bench 75 m above Spotted Bear River.

The site contains three abandoned beaver dams and

ponds and a well-developed peatland on the upper,

easternmost portion of the wetland. The former beaver ponds are dominated by Carex lasiocarpa, C.

utriculata, and Scirpus acutus. The margins between

the old ponds and adjacent conifer forest are peatlands

dominated by the moss Tomentypnum nitens and the

vascular plants Carex lasiocarpa, Eleocharis spp.,

Betula glandulosa, Salix candida, and scattered,

stunted Picea engelmannii. Other mosses include

Calliergon giganteum, Campylium stellatum, Hypnum

lindbergii, Sphagnum fuscum, and S. warnstorfii.

Significance—Trail Creek Fen is a relatively large,

highly calcareous peatland. Populations of the following rare plants are known from the site: Carex livida,

Cypripedium calceolus, C. passerinum, Orchis

rotundifolia, Drosera anglica, and Eriophorum

viridicarinatum.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Trout Lake

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Trout Lake is on the west side of the

Flathead Range of northwestern Montana near the

east shore of Hungry Horse Reservoir (South Fork

Flathead River). The site is about 40 km southeast of

the town of Hungry Horse. Trout Lake is a deep pond

surrounded by organic mat communities (floating and

anchored). A sedge meadow dominated by Carex
68 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

lasiocarpa lies southwest of the pond. Several species

of sphagnum moss (Sphagnum angustifolium, S.

squarossum, S. teres, and S. warnstorfii) form a nearly

continuous carpet adjacent to the pond. Other mosses

include Aulacomnium palustre and Calliergon

giganteum. Important vascular plants include Carex

lasiocarpa, C. flava, C. interior, and Eriophorum

chamissonis.

Significance—Trout Lake is an excellent example of

an organic mat surrounding a deep pond. Lycopodium

inundatum, Drosera anglica, and Scheuchzeria

palustris are known from the peat mat.

Conservation—The site is easily reached by car and

already supports a handicapped-accessible fishing

dock. Most of the organic mat, however, is undisturbed

by human use. The site is not formally protected.

Lake County

Lost Creek Fens

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Lost Creek Fens are in the northern

Swan Valley of northwestern Montana. The fens are

within the Spring Creek drainage that flows into

Swan Lake, 3 km to the north. Lost Creek Fens

contains two distinctly different types of fens separated by a patch of moist coniferous forest. The northern fen (elevation 960 m) is at the toe of a slope. An

upwelling spring supplies water to a thick accumulation of peat which gently slopes to the south. Major

species include Betula glandulosa, Carex lasiocarpa,

and Eleocharis tenuis. Tomentypnum nitens is a major

moss; other mosses include Bryum pseudotriquetrum,

Dicranum undulatum, Helodium blandowii, and

Philonotis fontana var. pumila. The southern fen

(elevation 945 m) has two shallow potholes filled with

peat and alluvium. The water table fluctuates seasonally; drawdown in the fall hastens peat decomposition

and minimizes peat accumulation. Carex lasiocarpa

and C. buxbaumii are dominant. Carex livida is fairly

common. A very wet marginal zone is lined with

Betula glandulosa, Potentilla fruticosa, and Rhamnus alnifolia. Wet Picea/Equisetum communities are

also present. Lysichitum americanum is a common

associate.

Significance—A number of rare plant species are

present: Epipactis gigantea, Carex livida, C.

paupercula, Cypripedium calceolus, C. passerinum,

Liparis loeselii, and Eriophorum viridicarinatum.

Conservation—The site has been proposed as a Forest Service Botanical Area.

Porcupine Fen

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Porcupine Fen is in the Swan Valley of

western Montana, 10 km south of the town of Swan

Lake. The fen is at the headwaters of a tributary of

Porcupine Creek, a tributary of the Swan River. Porcupine Fen is at the toe of a slope from which several

springs emerge. This constant supply of mineral-rich

water has favored the accumulation of organic matter.

The site supports a diverse flora, including a nearly

continuous surface layer of brown mosses (common

species include Aulacomnium palustre, Bryum

pseudotriquetrum, Limprichtia revolvens, and

Tomentypnum nitens). Important vascular plants include Betula glandulosa, Carex utriculata, C. interior,

and Eleocharis tenuis. The site is ringed by wet to

moist Picea forests, except on a portion of the west

margin, where a clearcut upslope of the fen extends

down nearly to the fen.

Significance—The site is an excellent example of a

flow-through fen. A number of rare plants occur:

Cypripedium calceolus, Epipactis gigantea, Liparis

loeselii, and Eriophorum viridicarinatum.

Conservation—Maintenance of inflowing water

quality is critical to the protection of this site. The

site is not formally protected.

Swan River Fen

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger

District.

Description—Swan River Fen is within the Swan

Valley of northwestern Montana, about 6 km south of

Swan Lake, and is within the Swan River Research

Natural Area. The site adjoins a reach of the Swan

River that flows north into Swan Lake. The fen is

found in the south-central portion of the Research

Natural Area, southwest of the Drumlin Island. Swan

River Fen is a significant peatland due to its unique

dome-like shape, deep peat deposits (3 to 4 m thick),

and its concentration of sensitive plant species. The

fen is maintained by several seeps that emerge from

the toeslope of the adjoining upland. The center of the

peat dome also has an upwelling spring. Water from

this feature radiates outward across the surface of the

peat mass. A moat (lagg) surrounds much of the peat

dome. Alnus spp. are common in the lagg. The sloping

sides of the peat dome (rand) support scattered Picea.

Atop the peat dome, common species include stunted

Betula glandulosa, Carex lasiocarpa, C. limosa, C.

utriculata, C. interior, Menyanthes trifoliata,

Eriophorum viridicarinatum, and Eleocharis tenuis.

Mosses include Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Campylium

stellatum, Meesia triquetra, Cratoneuron filicinum,

Calliergon giganteum, Hypnum pratense, Thuidium

recognitum, Limprichtia revolvens, Sphagnum fuscum,

S. warnstorfii, and Tomentypnum nitens.

Significance—The well-developed peat dome supporting a large number of rare plants is highly significant. Rare plants of the peatland include: Carex livida,
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 69

C. paupercula, Epipactis gigantea, Eriophorum

viridicarinatum, and Liparis loeselii.

Conservation—The peatland and surrounding forests are within the Swan River Research Natural

Area.

Lewis and Clark County

Indian Meadows

Helena National Forest, Lincoln Ranger District.

Description—Indian Meadows is adjacent to and

partially within the Scapegoat Wilderness of westcentral Montana. The site is 17 km northeast of the

town of Lincoln and encompasses the headwaters of

Indian Meadow Creek, a drainage within the Blackfoot

River watershed. Indian Meadows is a major feature of

the Indian Meadows Research Natural Area. Elevations of the Research Natural Area range from 1,692 to

2,034 m. The meadows occupy a glaciated bench bordered by low hills to the north and south. Depressions

on the bench support wetlands that include ponds,

floating organic mats and poor fens, sedge meadows,

and marsh communities. Major community types (c.t.)

include: Salix geyeriana/Carex utriculata c.t., Potentilla fruticosa/Deschampsia cespitosa c.t.,

Calamagrostis canadensis c.t., Carex lasiocarpa c.t.,

C. utriculata c.t., and the Eleocharis palustris c.t. Four

rare plant species are known from the fens: Carex

livida, Drosera linearis, D. rotundifolia, and Scirpus

subterminalis.

Significance—Indian Meadows is a pristine site with

meadow, fen, and marsh communities in excellent

ecological condition.

Conservation—The wetlands and surrounding forest are within the Indian Meadows Research Natural

Area.

Lincoln County

Bowen Creek Fen

Kootenai National Forest, Tally Lake Ranger District.

Description—Bowen Creek Fen is in the Salish Mountains of northwestern Montana, near the boundary

between the Flathead and Kootenai National Forests.

The site includes a small tributary of Bowen Creek

that flows into Good Creek and the Stillwater River.

Bowen Creek Fen is a subalpine zone peatland (mean

elevation 445 m) associated with a second-order stream.

Water enters the peatland from the east and flows

mostly across the surface of the peat toward the

southwest. Sphagnum moss is predominant over most

of the fen surface, and has formed hummocks 15 to 25

cm tall. The lowermost end of the wetland has an

active beaver pond and adjacent marsh. Betula

glandulosa and smaller amounts of Salix candida are

important shrubs. Carex lasiocarpa, C. utriculata,

and Potentilla palustris are common herbaceous

species. Mosses include: Bryum pseudotriquetrum,

Campylium stellatum, Drepanocladus uncinatus,

Meesia triquetra, Calliergon giganteum, Helodium

blandowii, Cratoneuron filicinum, Hypnum pratense,

and Sphagnum warnstorfii. Northern bog lemming

(Synaptomys borealis), a Northern Region sensitive

species, is known to occur in the fen. Viola renifolia,

also sensitive, occurs upstream along a small creek.

Abies lasiocarpa and Pinus contorta dominate the

slopes adjacent to the fen.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Cody Lake

Kootenai National Forest, Fisher River Ranger

District.

Description—Lower Cody Lake is in the Purcell

Mountains of northwestern Montana, 24 km southeast of the town of Libby. The series of three ponds are

drained by Cody Creek, a tributary of the Fisher River.

Cody Lake is the lowermost of three small ponds (0.4

to 0.8 ha) that occur near the headwaters of Cody

Creek. Cody Lake, 1,430 m, is the most significant

because it has a deep (up to 4 m) body of water fringed

by a thick organic mat. A diversity of peatland species

are present adjacent to the pond. Important shrubs

include: Betula glandulosa, Salix candida, and Kalmia

microphylla. Major graminoids include: Carex

lasiocarpa, Eleocharis spp., Carex utriculata, and C.

limosa. Menyanthes trifoliata is a common forb. Mosses

include: Tomentypnum nitens, Sphagnum warnstorfii,

Campylium stellatum, Calliergon giganteum, Bryum

pseudotriquetrum, Leptobryum pyriforme, Rhizomnium magnifolium, and Hamatocaulis vernicosus.

Scorpidium scorpioides, an indicator of calcium rich

environments, occurs adjacent to the pond. The

peatland is habitat for the Northern Region sensitive

species northern bog lemming (Synaptomys borealis).

Adjacent upland forests are dominated by Picea, Larix

occidentalis, and Pseudotsuga menziesii.

Significance—Cody Lake is an excellent example of

a deep pond surrounded by an encroaching organic

mat.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Tepee Lake

Kootenai National Forest, Libby Ranger District.

Description—Tepee Lake is 24 km south of Libby,

MT, within the Libby Creek watershed at the headwaters of an unnamed tributary to Cowell Creek. Tepee

Lake features a small, deep pond surrounded by floating and anchored organic deposits. The site is the only

known location on the Kootenai National Forest and in

Lincoln County for great sundew Drosera anglica, an

uncommon plant confined to peatland habitats. Dominant species of the organic mat include Carex

lasiocarpa, Dulichium arundinaceum, C. utriculata,

and C. limosa. Prominent mosses include species of

Sphagnum subsecundum, Tomentypnum nitens,
70 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

Aulacomnium palustre, Calliergon giganteum, and

Pohlia longicolla. Conifers line the margin of the pond

basin but nearby uplands have been largely cut-over.

Significance—A large organic mat (anchored and

floating) is present at Tepee Lake. The rare plants

Drosera anglica and Scheuchzeria palustris occur on

floating portions of the mat near the lake edge.

Conservation—Lands surrounding the lake are

managed for timber and only a narrow forested buffer

exists between the peatland and cut-over stands. The

site is not formally protected.

Missoula County

Mary’s Frog Pond

Lolo National Forest, Missoula Ranger District.

Description—Mary’s Frog Pond is a designated Forest Service Botanical Area in the Lolo Creek drainage

of west-central Montana, 32 km southwest of Missoula.

The site features a deep pond fringed by a mat of

floating and anchored peat. The pond margin is dominated by several species of sphagnum moss (Sphagnum angustifolium and S. mendocinum), Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex utriculata, Vaccinium

occidentale, and Ledum glandulosum. Drosera

rotundifolia is common on floating mats near the

pond edge.

Significance—Mary’s Frog Pond supports uncommon sphagnum moss-dominated poor fen communities and a large population of Drosera rotundifolia.

Sphagnum mendocinum, an uncommon moss, has

been identified from this site.

Conservation—The site is a designated Forest Service Botanical Area.

Sheep Mountain Bog

Lolo National Forest, Missoula Ranger District.

Description—Sheep Mountain Bog is 18 km northeast of Missoula in the West Twin Creek drainage of

the Rattlesnake Mountains of west-central Montana.

The site is within the Sheep Mountain Bog Research

Natural Area. Elevations of the Research Natural

Area range from 1,830 to 2,130 m. Sheep Mountain

Bog occupies a small cirque basin within the uppermontane and lower subalpine zones. Sheep Mountain

Bog (actually a poor fen) is a well-developed sphagnum

moss peatland covering 0.6 ha. The deep peat deposits

date back 11,500 years and contain pollen and spore

records valuable for reconstructing historical vegetation of the area (Hemphill 1983). Presently, sphagnum

moss forms a nearly continuous mat across the entire

fen. Several uncommon vascular plant species are

associated with the sphagnum moss mat. Mosses have

not been identified from this site.

Significance—Sheep Mountain Bog Research Natural Area contains a population of Carex paupercula,

listed as sensitive by the Northern Region, Forest

Service. Another sensitive species, the northern bog

lemming (Synaptomys borealis) may occur within the

Research Natural Area.

Conservation—The site lies within the Sheep Mountain Bog Research Natural Area, established in 1987.

Shoofly Meadows

Lolo National Forest, Missoula Ranger District.

Description—Shoofly Meadows is within the eastern Rattlesnake Mountains of west-central Montana,

about 30 km northeast of Missoula. It contains the

headwaters of the East Fork of Rattlesnake Creek

drainage. The site features a shallow, spring-fed pond

with numerous small islands. Dominant shrubs on the

islands and margins include Ledum glandulosum,

Kalmia microphylla, and Vaccinium occidentale. Major graminoids include Calamagrostis canadensis,

Carex aquatilis, C. buxbaumii, C. limosa, C. utriculata, and Eleocharis pauciflora. Common forbs are

Potamogeton gramineus, Potentilla palustris, and

Spiranthes romanzoffiana. A number of sphagnum

mosses are present: Sphagnum angustifolium, S.

riparium (rare in the contiguous United States), S.

russowii, S. squarossum, S. subsecundum, and S. teres.

Other mosses include Aulacomnium palustre, Pohlia

nutans, and Polytrichum strictum. Several peat-filled

drainages occur downstream from the upper marshwet meadow. Eleocharis pauciflora dominates much

of these areas. Drosera rotundifolia is locally common.

Significance—Shoofly Meadows is a large, undisturbed

complex of marshes, wet meadows, and poor fens.

Excellent research opportunities are afforded by the

site. The area is protected as a Research Natural Area.

Conservation—The wetlands and surrounding area

have been proposed as a Research Natural Area.

Windfall Creek Fen

Flathead National Forest, Swan Lake Ranger District.

Description—Windfall Creek Fen occupies a small,

shallow basin formed by glacial scouring. The center of

the basin is a sedge meadow dominated by a nearly

pure stand of Carex lasiocarpa, with smaller amounts

of C. buxbaumii and Dulichium arundinaceum. Margins of the basin support C. buxbaumii, C. interior, and

various brown mosses such as Aulacomnium palustre

and Bryum pseudotriquetrum. Notable is the presence

of Lycopodium inundatum and Drosera rotundifolia.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Powell County

Butcher Mountain Fens

Flathead National Forest, Spotted Bear Ranger District.

Description—Butcher Mountain Fens are in the Bob

Marshall Wilderness of northwestern Montana, within

the South Fork Flathead River drainage. The site is

1.5 km south of Big Prairie Guard Station on the west

side of the South Fork. Butcher Mountain Fens are a
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 71

pristine rich peatland complex located at the northeastern base of Butcher Mountain. The fens occur on

gently sloping terrain drained by Butcher Creek, which

flows through the site. Mean elevation of the site is

1,450 m. The entire surrounding area is underlain by

limestone. The open fens are bordered by moist Picea

engelmannii forest communities. The ecotone between

forest and open fen is dominated by various species of

Salix and Ledum glandulosum. The fen contains sphagnum and other mosses, plus numerous carices including Carex interior and C. livida. Mosses have not

been collected.

Conservation— Butcher Mountain Fens are in the

Bob Marshall Wilderness.

Ravalli County

Lost Trail Pass Fen

Bitterroot National Forest, Sula Ranger District.

Description—Lost Trail Pass Fen is in the Bitterroot

Mountains of western Montana near Lost Trail Pass,

just north of the Montana-Idaho Stateline. Elevation

of the site is 2,150 m. Lost Trail Pass Fen is a peatland

formed by organic matter infilling a small glacial

depression. Sphagnum fuscum predominates the

ground layer; other mosses include Calliergon

stramineum and Warnstorfia fluitans. Mimulus

primuloides is present, and a large population of the

uncommon Drosera anglica occurs on the sphagnum

moss hummocks. The peatland margins support a

Vaccinium occidentale community.

Conservation—The site is adjacent to the Lost Trail

Pass Ski Area and is subject to infilling from the

parking lot.The area has been proposed as a Botanical

Area.

Rock Creek Wetland

Bitterroot National Forest, Darby Ranger District.

Description—Rock Creek Wetland is on the western

edge of the Bitterroot Valley of west-central Montana.

The site is along Rock Creek, a tributary of the Bitterroot River, 1.5 km east of Lake Como, and 10 km

northwest of Darby. Rock Creek Wetland is on an

outwash fan near the mouth of Rock Creek Canyon.

The west end of the wetland features extensive shrub

carr communities on wet organic soil. The east end is

drier with less peat accumulation. The main water

source for the wetland appears to be a channel of Rock

Creek originating at the dam on Lake Como. Water

flows through the wetland in a number of small streams.

Betula glandulosa and scattered conifers (Picea

engelmannii, Pinus contorta) are dominant woody

species. Common undergrowth species include Carex

utriculata, C. interior, Calamagrostis canadensis, and

Bidens cernua. Peat-forming sphagnum mosses

(Sphagnum fuscum, S. magellanicum) dominate the

ground layer at the west end of the wetland. The brown

moss Aulacomnium palustre is also common.

Significance—The site is a unique occurrence of a

low-elevation valley peatland (400 ft) in an area largely

altered by agriculture and housing developments.

Two Northern Region sensitive plant species are known

from the site: Carex paupercula and Dryopteris cristata.

Meesia triquetra, an uncommon moss usually found in

calcareous peatlands, is also present.

Conservation—The site is not formally protected.

Wyoming ______________________

Park County

Sawtooth Peatbeds

Shoshone National Forest.

Description—Sawtooth Peatbeds is a subalpine fen

in the Beartooth Mountains of northwestern Wyoming at an elevation of 2,950 m. The site features a

palsa, an accumulation of peat overlying permafrost

(Collins and others 1984). The palsa is raised 1 m

above a surrounding fen and wet meadow dominated

by Carex scopulorum, C. aquatilis, and C. illota.

Deschampsia cespitosa occurs atop drier hummocks.

The permafrost layer occurs at a depth of about 40 cm

below the peat surface. The palsa surface is sparsely

vegetated; scattered clumps of Deschampsia cespitosa

and plants of Rumex paucifolius and Selaginella densa

are the predominant vascular plant species. Mosses

are present but have not been identified. Sphagnum

mosses are absent.

Significance—Sawtooth Peatbeds is the only known

occurrence of a palsa known from the 48 contiguous

states (palsas are typically found in tundra areas at

high latitudes).

Conservation—Cattle grazing has occurred at the

site. The site is not formally protected.

Swamp Lake

Shoshone National Forest, Clarks Fork Ranger

District.

Description—Swamp Lake is at the base of the

Cathedral Cliffs in the Absaroka Mountains of northwestern Wyoming, 3.2 km east of Crandall Ranger

Station. Swamp Lake features three peatland types

(Elliott 1997): a calcareous marl fen, a Picea glauca

peatland, and a sedge and shrub fen. Common species

of the marl fen are Carex microglochin, Kobresia

simpliuscula, and Scirpus pumilus. Undergrowth

species of the Picea glauca fen include Linnaea borealis, Equisetum arvense, Carex utriculata, and

Calamagrostis canadensis. Species of the sedge and

shrub fen include Carex utriculata, C. aquatilis, C.

simulata, Triglochin maritimum, Betula glandulosa,

and Potentilla fruticosa. The site also features
72 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

several species widely disjunct from their ranges in

boreal Canada. Rare mosses include Scorpidium

scorpioides and Cinclidium stygium, the latter species known only from two fens in the Western

United States, Swamp Lake and Pine Butte Fen in

Montana. Other mosses include Aulacomnium

palustre, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Campylium

stellatum, Calliergon cordifolium, Drepanocladus

aduncus, Hypnum revolutum, Palustriella

commutata, Tomentypnum nitens, and Warnstorfia

exannulata.

Significance—Swamp Lake supports populations of

a number of species widely disjunct from their main

ranges further north (Evert and others 1986). These

include Arctostaphylos rubra, Carex limosa, C. livida,

C. microglochin, C. scirpiformis, Orchis rotundifolia,

Kobresia simpliciuscula, Primula egalikensis, Salix

myrtillifolia var. myrtillifolia, and Scirpus pumilus.

Conservation—Human disturbance is evident at

this site (including logging in the immediate vicinity),

and measures are recommended to protect this unique

concentration of rare plants restricted to highly calcareous environments.
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 73

Appendix C: Invertebrates Associated with Peatlands in the Northern Rocky

Mountains _______________________________________________________

This summary of invertebrate fauna of peatlands

and similar habitats is arranged by taxonomic groups.

The information is intended to give the reader an idea

of the types of organisms that are associated with

aquatic portions of peatlands. It is not our intention to

provide a comprehensive, site-by-site description for

each area. Some of the discussion compares invertebrate species composition of wetland ponds (including

peatland ponds or marsh ponds). Refer to the references for more detailed information. This information

was provided by Dr. Fred Rabe, retired professor from

the University of Idaho, and Russell C. Biggham.

Phylum Porifera (sponges)

Freshwater sponges (Spongilla lacustris) were

abundant in Hoskins Lake (Kootenai National Forest;

Rabe and Chadde 1995). Clusters grew erect and

prostrate from submerged tree branches, rocks, and

dead leaf stems of Nuphar polysepalum . The sponge

is a filter feeder. No sponges were noted in the large

pond adjacent to Hoskins Lake. An isolated sponge

colony was observed in Bottle Lake Research Natural

Area (Kaniksu National Forest). Spongilla lacustris

is associated with clean environments. It has

disappeared in several lakes in north Idaho where

water quality has decreased.

Phylum Cnidaria (hydra)

Hydra are common in shallow areas of standing and

running water and uncommon in swift currents or

wave-swept shores (Thop and Covich 1991). They do

not occur on soft substrates and require debris as

an attachment site. These organisms feed on

microcrustaceans and often contain green

zoochlorellae-like freshwater sponges. They have a

low tolerance to water pollution.

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)

Most flatworm species in the Northern Rocky

Mountains are associated with spring-fed streams.

Two genera (Phagocata spp. and Polycelis coronata)

were identified in Huckleberry Creek in the Sawtooth

Valley Peatlands Research Natural Area of Idaho

(Moseley and others 1994). Polycelis coronata is

associated with small montane streams. It is collected

on the undersides of rocks and is not tolerant of poor

water quality.

Phylum Annelida (leeches and aquatic earthworms)

Leeches (Class Hirudinea) occurred in about the same

frequency in peatland ponds as marsh ponds. Up to

four different species were identified in some of the

marsh ponds compared to no more than one species in

peatland ponds except in Hoskins Pond (Kootenai

National Forest) where three species were noted

(Bractracobdella picta, Dina parva, Haemopsis

marmorata). This may have been due to the more

alkaline water at this site. Leech cocoons affixed to the

bottom side of the floating leaves of Nuphar

polysepalum are common at many wetland sites.

These cocoons contain several eggs that hatch 3 to 4

weeks after they are laid (Barnes 1980). The majority

of peatland ponds sampled to date contain no leeches.

Aquatic earthworms (Class Oligochaeta) were not

recorded because most of these worms occur in bottom

sediments that have not been sampled.

Phylum Mollusca (snails and clams)

Fingernail clams (Family Sphaeridae) were common

in the majority of wetland ponds (peatland and

marsh). They consisted of species of Sphaerium and

Pisidium. These ponds do not contain larger mussels

because the proper host fishes for the glochidia are not

present and the waters are poor in calcium (Pennak

1989).

Snails (Class Gastropoda) were observed as often in

peatland ponds as marsh ponds. However, there were

no more than two species at an individual peatland

site compared to a maximum of eight taxa in marsh

ponds. The majority of species and largest numbers of

individuals occurred in alkaline conditions. Marsh

ponds containing from 3 to 8 species of snails had

alkalinity readings (in terms of equivalent CaC03

) of

104 to 187 mg/l and alkaline pHs of 8.4 to 9.3. In

comparison, peatland ponds had alkalinity readings of

3 to 30 mg/l with pHs close to 7.0. No clams or snails

were found in samples from Iron Bog peatland

(alkalinity of 0 and pH 4.2).

The following gastropods were identified from

peatland ponds. All forms except Promentus are

classed as scrapers, feeding mostly on periphyton

scraped off the leaves of macrophytes in the water.

Promentus is a collector-gatherer: Ferrisia sp.,

Gyraulus parvis, Physa gyrina, Physella sp.,

Planorbella campanulata, P. trivolvis, Promentus

exacuous, and P. umbilicatellus.

Phylum Crustacea (scuds, clam shrimp,

microcrustaceans)

Scuds or freshwater shrimp (Hyallela azteca) were

common in shallow areas of all wetland ponds

sampled. Gammurus lacustrus, another amphipod
74 USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998

larger in size, is found only in more alkaline marsh

ponds. Freshwater shrimp are either omnivorous,

general scavengers, or detritus feeders (Pennak 1989).

Individuals occurring in aquatic vegetation may often

be observed browsing on the film of microscopic plants,

animals, and organic debris covering leaves, stems,

and other substrates. They are benthic and often rest

among vegetation (McCafferty 1983).

Clam shrimp (Order Conchostraca) were found early

in the spring at sites such as Hager Lake. The entire

body of a clam shrimp is enclosed within a bivalve

carapace so the organism looks like a small clam

(Pennak 1989). They are filter feeders and belong to

the class Eubranchiopoda together with the Suborder

Cladocera, which contains Daphnia.

Members of the Order Cladocera and Class Copepoda

are microcrustaceans comprising zooplankton found

in the water column. Cladocera were common in all

wetland ponds. The number of cladocera species on the

average were substantially greater in peatland ponds

than marsh ponds. A maximum of eight or nine species

were identified from individual peatland sites

compared to a maximum of five or six from marsh

ponds. Cladocerans are filter feeders.

There is a major difference between the distribution of

microcrustaceans in vegetated and nonvegetated sites

in a peatland (Rabe and Gibson 1984). Smaller species

less than 0.5 mm in length were much more abundant

than Daphnia at vegetated sites. Daphnia occurred

most frequently in deep water away from vegetation.

However, later in the season they are most common in

shallow sites. The shift to these locations coincides

with decreasing plant biomass in the shallow water

due to senescence and waterfowl foraging. In contrast,

small cladocerans show an opposite shift to deeper

water where macrophyte density is greater.

Peatland ponds dominated by Nuphar polysepalum

were sampled for cladocerans during midsummer

(Rabe and others 1990). Generally, the most common

species of open water areas were Daphnia and another

large cladoceran species, Holopedium, whereas small

species such as Ceriodaphnia, Polyphemus, and Alona

occurred mostly among the Nuphar plants.

In Iron Bog, Chydorus sphaericus was the only

cladoceran collected in the pond’s highly acidic waters

(pH 4.2).

A high degree of similarity existed between

crustacean species in peatland and marsh ponds. Lake

species were slightly different. Cladocerans found in

peatland ponds include: Acoperus harpae, Alona sp.,

Alonella sp., Camptocercus sp., Ceriodaphnia sp.,

Chydorus ovalis, Chydorus sp., Daphnia schodleri, D.

similis, Daphnia sp., Holopedium sp., Macrothricidae,

Pleuroxis sp., Polyphemus sp., Scapholeberis sp., Sida

sp., Simocephalus sp.

Class Copepoda is well represented in the

zooplankton. Larger calanoid copepods reaching

lengths of 34 mm inhabit mostly open water and were

infrequent amongst aquatic vegetation (Rabe and

others 1990). Smaller cyclipoid copepods were noted

mostly in the vicinity of large aquatic plants. This

same pattern was exhibited by cladocerans where the

larger individuals were concentrated outside the plant

mass apparently to avoid predation (Johnson and

others 1986).

Class Ostracoda (seed shrimp) are primarily benthic

crustaceans most commonly associated with aquatic

vegetation and silt bottoms occurring where there is

little current (McCafferty 1983). Some feed on algae

and decomposing vegetation (Barnes 1980).

Hydracarina (water mites) belong to the Class Acari

that also includes ticks. The most common water mites

in peatland ponds were red and are classified as higher

water mites. These parasitize immature insects in

the water such as damselflies and dragonflies

(McCafferty 1983). After considerable growth as a

parasite larvae the mite transforms to a nymph stage

and then to an adult. In these free-living stages it

becomes carnivorous or omnivorous.

Phylum Uniramia/Subphyllum Hexapoda (Class

Insecta)

Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies)

Mayfly taxa found in peatland ponds were: Baetis

hageni, Caenis lattipennis, Caenis sp., Callibaetis sp.,

Centroptilum sp., Cinygma integrum, Siphlonurus sp.

Mayflies occurred in 68 percent of the peatland ponds

sampled and averaged 1.7 species per site (Rabe and

Chadde 1995; Rabe and others 1990). Callibaetis sp.

was the most common taxon. They are widely

distributed, occurring in peatlands and in extreme

habitats including warm desert springs and sewage

treatment ponds (McCafferty 1983). Centroptilum sp.

and Baetis sp. were each found at one site. They belong

to the same family as Callibaetis but are much less

tolerant and live primarily in a lotic environment

(Merritt and Cummins 1984). Caenis sp. is typically a

pond dweller and is associated with silt bottoms or

dense, filamentous plant growths.

Order Trichoptera (caddisflies)

Caddisfly taxa found in peatland ponds include:

Banksiola crotchii, Chyranda sp., Desmona sp.,

Dicosmoecus sp., Glyphopsyche irrorata, Lenarchus

sp., Lepidostoma sp., Limnephilus sp., Mystacides sp.,

Ocetis sp., Oxyethira sp., Phryganea cinera,

Polycentropus sp., Psychoglypha sp., Synclita sp., and

Triaenodes sp. Caddisflies were found at 87 percent of
USDA Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-11. 1998 75

the sample sites and averaged 2.3 taxa per pond. The

most common taxa were Oxyethira, Polycentropus,

Banksiola and Phryganea. Oxyethira frequents submerged beds of aquatic plants where they feed on

filamentous algae by puncturing the cells and eating

the contents. Polycentropus is primarily a predator

adapted to warm lentic conditions and can survive

vernal conditions (Wiggins 1977). Banksiola feeds

largely on filamentous algae and constructs cases of

plant materials arranged spirally, often with some

ends trailing. Phryganea lives in a wide variety of

habitats. Larvae ingest dead and living plant and

animal materials (Wiggins 1977).

Order Odonata (dragonflies)

Dragonflies and damselflies occurred at 87 percent of

the sampled peatlands and averaged 3.2 species per

site. Dominant genera were Leucorrhinia, Aeshna,

and Enallagma. Leucorrhinia sprawls along the

bottom and climbs on vegetation (McCafferty 1983).

Other odonates that occurred in peatland ponds

include: Aeshna interrupta, Aeshna sp., Anax junius,

Cordulia sp., Enallagma boreale, Ischeura perparva,

Ischeura sp., Lestes disjunctus, Leucorrhinia

hudsonica, Libellula sp., Ludsonia sp., Somatochlora

sp., and Sympetrum obtusum.

Aeshna actively stalk their prey, which includes

invertebrates and small fish. They are sometimes

cannabalistic. The damselfly Enallagma is found in

both lentic and lotic environments. Johnson and

others (1986) and Coughlan and others (1985)

reported that older instars of Enallagma were

primarily responsible for regulating the growth rate of

the microcrustacean Daphnia schodleri. If access to

the water column is provided by aquatic plant growth,

damselflies, which are substrate dependent, become

“sit and wait” predators for prey species such as

Daphnia.

Order Diptera (flies)

Fly larvae were present in 94 percent of the peatland

ponds sampled and averaged 4.4 species per pond

(Rabe and Chadde 1995; Rabe and others 1986; Rabe

and others 1990). The family Chironomidae was the

dominant group. Dipteran taxa included: Aedes sp.,

Alluaudomyia sp., Anopheles sp., Bezzia sp., Chaoborus

sp., Chironomus sp., Chrysops sp., Corynoneura sp.,

Cricotopus sp., Microspectra sp., Palpomyia sp.,

Paradixa sp., Polypedilum sp., Prioncera sp.,

Procladius sp., Pseudodiamesa sp., Pseudolimnophilia

sp., and Simulium sp. This group is probably the most

widely adapted of all aquatic insects and are represented by herbivores, detritovores, and carnivores

(McCafferty 1983). Bezzia, the biting midges known as

“punkies” or “no-see-ums,” were collected at many

sites. Chaoborus or phantom midge is a planktonic

diptera living in deep ponds such as Hager Lake and

Bottle Lake. It preys on zooplankton and insects, such

as mosquitoes. Chaoborus may remain on the bottom

or burrow during daylight and move to more open

water locales at night or when light is reduced by snow

or ice cover (McCafferty 1983). Specialized air bladders function as hydrostatic organs and aid in this

vertical movement.

Order Coleoptera (beetles)

Beetle larvae and adults as a group were present in 94

percent of the ponds sampled and averaged 2.9 taxa

per pond. Taxa included: Acilius sp., Bidessus sp.,

Cleptelmis sp., Crenitis sp., Cyphon sp., Deronectes

sp., Derovatellus sp., Donacia sp., Dytiscus sp.,

Enochrus sp., Galerucella nymphaeae, Graphoderus

liberus, Gyrinis consobrinus, Haliplusdorsomaculatus,

H. gracilis, H. hoppingi, H. immaculata, H. insularis,

H. irnmaculicollis, H. salinarus, H. subguttalus,

Helophorus sp., Hydraena sp., Hydroporus sp.,

Hygrotus sp., Ilybius sp., Laccobius sp., Peltodytes sp.,

Rhantus sp., and Tropisternus lateralis.

 A large share of the taxa were predaceous water

beetles (Dytiscidae). Adults obtain air either by

breaking through the surface film or from bubbles

attached to aquatic plants (Usinger 1963). Eggs are

laid in wet places just out of water, or more commonly,

on or in plants under the water. The larvae, like the

adults, are predaceous and sometimes cannibalistic.

Order Heteroptera (true bugs)

True bugs were found in all peatland ponds sampled,

averaging 3.9 species at each site (Rabe and Chadde

1995; Rabe and others 1986; Rabe and others 1990).

The following Heteroptera taxa were identified from

peatland ponds: Buenoa confusa, Callocorixa audeni,

Gerris buenoi, G. incognitus, Gerris sp., Haliplus gracilis, H. immaculicollis, Haliplus sp., H. dorsomaculatus, Hesperocorixa atopodonta, H. laevigata,

H. michiganensis, Lethocerus amencanus, Limnoporus

notabilis, Mesovelia mulsanti, Microvelia pulchella,

Notonecta kirbyi, N. undulata, Ranatra fusca, Sigara

sp., and Trichocorixa sp. Mesovelia mulsanti (water

treader) was commonly associated with Nuphar

polysepalum. Even though they are green in color

suggesting plant feeding, Mesovelia are predatory on

surface insects and ostracods that they spear

(Lehmkuhl 1979).

During the course of sampling, three new State

records for Idaho were found in the order Heteroptera:

Buenoa confusa (Kaniksu Marsh), Hesperocorixa

atopodonata (Hager Lake), and H. michiganensis

(Hager Lake and Kaniksu Marsh) (Rabe and others

1986). The large numbers of H. michiganensis

constitute prey for Notonecta undulata at Kaniksu

Marsh.
Chadde, Steve W.; Shelly, J. Stephen; Bursik, Robert J.; Moseley, Robert K.; Evenden,

Angela G.; Mantas, Maria; Rabe, Fred; Heidel, Bonnie. 1998. Peatlands on National

Forests of the Northern Rocky Mountains: ecology and conservation. Gen. Tech. Rep.

RMRS-GTR-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky

Mountain Research Station. 75 p.

This overview of peatland ecology and conservation on National Forests in the Northern

Rocky Mountains describes physical components, vegetation, vascular and nonvascular

flora, and invertebrate fauna on peatlands. Detailed site descriptions for 58 peatlands in Idaho,

Montana, and northeastern Washington are included.

Keywords: wetlands, rare plants, fens, vascular flora, bryophytes, aquatic insects

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