Through Evaluation

Promoting Environmental Results

United States Environmental Office of Policy December 2011

Protection Agency (1807T) EPA-100-R-11-008

Partnership for Clean 

Fuels and Vehicles: 

Evaluation of the Design 

and Implementation of 

the Lead Campaign

Final Report
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report, Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles: Evaluation of the Design and Implementation of the 

Lead Campaign, was developed for the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (US EPA) Office 

of Policy under Contract EP-W-10-002 between EPA and Industrial Economics, Inc. (IEc) of Cambridge, 

Massachusetts. The evaluation team included IEc and Ross & Associates Environmental Consulting, Ltd. 

(Ross & Associates) of Seattle, Washington. The evaluation team (also referred to as the “evaluators” 

throughout this report) consisted of Anna Williams, Athena Bertolino, and Megan Parker from Ross & 

Associates, and Andrew Schwarz from IEc. 

Angela Bandemehr and Teresa Kuklinski of US EPA’s Office of International and Tribal Affairs provided 

critical assistance and background information on the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles 

throughout the course of this study. John Heffelfinger, Carl Koch, and Britta Johnson of US EPA’s Office 

of Policy Evaluation Support Division provided technical support and advice for the evaluation. A 

broader Evaluation Advisory Group, consisting of representatives from the US EPA Office of 

International and Tribal Affairs and the US EPA Office of Air and Radiation also provided feedback on the 

evaluation plan and interim reports. 

This report was developed under the Program Evaluation Competition, sponsored annually by US EPA’s 

Office of Policy. Program Evaluation is one of the performance management tools US EPA uses to assure 

itself, the public, and other interested stakeholders that US EPA programs are protecting human health 

and the environment effectively and efficiently. The information obtained through program evaluations 

can shed light on whether US EPA programs are meeting their goals and objectives, provide the 

evidence and road map needed to replicate successes, and identify those aspects of US EPA programs 

needing improvement. To access copies of this or other US EPA program evaluations, please visit US

EPA’s Evaluation Support Division’s website at http://www.epa.gov/evaluate.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary...............................................................................................................................ES-1

Chapter 1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................1

Evaluation Purpose and Audience...................................................................................................... 1

Related Evaluations and Studies ........................................................................................................ 2

Regarding Other Efforts to Phase out Lead From Fuel....................................................................... 3

Regarding the Scope of PCFV’s Work to Phase Out Lead................................................................... 4

Chapter 2. Methods................................................................................................................................5

Chapter 3. A Brief History of Lead In Fuel ............................................................................................11

Chapter 4. PCFV Overview....................................................................................................................18

Chapter 5. Findings on PCFV Lead Campaign Startup and Design .......................................................24

1. Preceding Developments.............................................................................................................. 24

2. A Timely Opportunity with Support from Senior Leadership....................................................... 29

3. Clear, Measureable, and Ambitious-yet-Achievable Goal............................................................ 29

4. Strong Partnership Design and Design Process that Fosters Ownership and Trust ..................... 32

Chapter 6. Findings on Lead Campaign Implementation .....................................................................34

1. Multi-Faceted Implementation Strategy Covers Key Issues and Engages Key Stakeholders....... 34

2. Partners Bring Expertise and Commitment through Complementary Roles................................ 38

3. Modest PCFV Resource Investments Build Awareness and Capacity........................................... 40

4. Partners Address Challenges and Learn through Experience....................................................... 41

Chapter 7. Relevance of Findings on Lead Campaign to Other Voluntary Partnerships......................44

1. Core Lead Campaign Strengths Could Also Serve Other Partnerships......................................... 44

2. When a Voluntary Partnership Model Might be Suitable in Other Contexts............................... 45

3. Emerging Partnership Design Principles that are Consistent with PCFV...................................... 46

Chapter 8. Conclusions.........................................................................................................................50

Appendix A. Bibliography........................................................................................................................51

Appendix B. The Global Benefits of Phasing Out Leaded Fuel: Executive Summary ..............................58

Appendix C. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles 

(PCFV): Executive Summary................................................................................................60

Appendix D. Example Interview Guide....................................................................................................64

Appendix E. PCFV Governance Rules......................................................................................................67

Appendix F. List of PCFV Partners...........................................................................................................72

Appendix G. PCFV Lead Campaign National and Regional Activities through 2009 ...............................75
ACRONYMS

BLL Blood lead level

CARB California Air Resources Board

GDP Gross domestic product

ICCT International Council for Clean Transportation

IPIECA International Petroleum Industry Environment and Conservation Association 

MECA Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association

NGO Non-governmental organization

NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council

PCFV Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles

TEL Tetraethyl lead

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

US AID United States Agency for International Development

US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
 

Page ES-1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 2002, the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (hereafter referred to as PCFV or the Partnership) 

was launched at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa. 

This voluntary, global, public-private partnership promotes the reduction of air pollution from vehicles in 

developing and transitional countries through three campaigns: (1) the Lead Campaign, aimed at 

eliminating lead in fuel; (2) the Sulfur Campaign, aimed at reducing levels of sulfur in diesel and gasoline; 

and (3) the Clean Vehicles Campaign, aimed at promoting the adoption of cleaner vehicle technologies. 

FIGURE ES 1. GLOBAL STATUS OF LEAD PHASE OUT AS OF 2002

Since 2002, nearly all of the 100-plus countries using leaded fuel at that time have since eliminated lead 

from their fuel supplies. PCFV’s Lead Campaign is considered by many to have catalyzed the phase out 

of leaded fuel in many of these countries over the past nine years, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, 

where phase out rapidly and completely occurred between 2002 and January 1, 2006. The six countries 

that have yet to eliminate lead from fuel are expected to do so within the next few years. 

 

FIGURE ES 2. GLOBAL STATUS OF LEAD PHASE OUT AS OF JANUARY 2011

Source: PCFV Clearing House

Source: PCFV Clearing House
 

Page ES-2

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), one of the founding partners of the PCFV,

initiated this third-party evaluation to identify and examine lessons from the PCFV’s Lead Campaign that 

may be transferable to other existing or future international partnerships. The evaluation focused on 

the Lead Campaign’s startup and design, implementation, and overarching lessons that could inform 

other partnership efforts. The evaluation did not identify the benefits of eliminating lead from fuel or 

the role (influence) of PCFV in the elimination of leaded fuel, as these have been studied previously. 

With the intent of building on past efforts, and in light of PCFV’s strong reputation, this evaluation 

assumes as a starting point that the Lead Campaign has been effective. The evaluation methods 

consisted of a qualitative analysis of information on PCFV, results of 41 formal interviews, and review of 

literature on voluntary partnerships.

FINDINGS 

PCFV LEAD CAMPAIGN STARTUP AND DESIGN 

The evaluators sought to understand whether the Partnership’s launch and design phase ultimately 

contributed to the Lead Campaign’s effectiveness. The evaluators found that four factors supported a 

strong start and successful implementation of the Campaign later on: (1) preceding developments; (2) a 

timely opportunity with support from senior leaders; (3) a clear, measurable, and ambitious-yetachievable goal; and (4) strong partnership design and design process that fosters ownership and trust. 

1. Preceding Developments

Several developments transpired prior to the conception of PCFV, including strong evidence of lead’s 

public health impacts, decades of experience showing the feasibility and affordability of eliminating lead 

from fuel, a scenario where most stakeholders had much to gain and little to lose from making the 

switch to unleaded fuel, commitment to facilitate change by a group of experts from core stakeholder 

groups, and the momentum begun in 2001 for moving to unleaded fuel in Sub-Saharan Africa. 

2. A Timely Opportunity with Support from Senior Leaders 

The 2002 WSSD in Johannesburg provided an opportunity to launch an initiative to eliminate lead worldwide. Most of the ad-hoc group that had informally joined forces the prior year decided to pursue a 

partnership using the WSSD as the “launching pad” with public support from high-level political leaders. 

3. A Clear, Measurable, and Ambitious-yet-Achievable Goal 

The Lead Campaign’s clear goal of eliminating lead from fuel helped to focus the Partnership’s efforts 

and enable clear map-based progress tracking that had a strong “peer pressure” side benefit when 

countries would see others making more rapid progress. In 2005, when it became clear that SubSaharan African countries would phase out lead by January 2006, the partners chose a strategy of 
 

Page ES-3

targeting 2008 for global phase out of leaded fuel to spur rapid phase out, knowing that this target date 

may be unrealistic for countries facing substantial barriers to change.1,2

 

4. Strong Partnership Design and Design Process Fosters Ownership and Trust 

PCFV’s basic design features are fairly standard,3 consisting of a mission statement, goals and objectives, 

requirements for participation, an advisory body, a secretariat function, and ad-hoc efforts to address 

particular issues. It is the details, such as a consensus-based decision process, use of the Chatham 

House Rules at meetings, and establishment of a neutral (or “honest broker”) Clearing House, as well as 

the investment in building agreement on these features that bolstered partnership rapport and sense of 

joint ownership, mutual trust, and respect amongst the partners. Lasting relationships built during the 

design phase have translated into only rarely needing to call upon the formal governance rules. 

LEAD CAMPAIGN IMPLEMENTATION

Lead Campaign implementation has combined strong features, summarized here as: (1) multi-faceted 

implementation strategy covers key issues and engages key stakeholders; (2) partners bring expertise 

and commitment through complementary roles; (3) modest yet focused resource investments build 

awareness and capacity; and (4) partners address challenges and learn through experience.

1. Multi-Faceted Implementation Strategy Covers Key Issues and Engages Key Stakeholders

The Partnership’s implementation strategy, which evolved over time, provides insight into how a 

voluntary partnership can facilitate change that benefits both public and private interests. The multilevel strategy combined national and regional awareness-raising regarding public health impacts from 

leaded fuel; utilization of maps to apply peer pressure to countries that had yet to make the change; 

engagement with key advocates and leaders at the regional and national levels; capacity building within 

government, industry, and civil society; deference to national partners’ leadership; and advocacy. Over 

time, the strategy covered all the key “fronts” and involved all key stakeholder groups. 

2. Partners Bring Expertise and Commitment through Complementary Roles 

A core group of global partners has contributed significant leadership and commitment since the 

Campaign’s inception. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has played a fundamental 

and critical role. As part of the United Nations, UNEP provides political credibility and offers political 

connections at high levels. The UNEP staff team has served in the invaluable Clearing House capacity as 

a neutral coordinator, information provider, and funds manager. US EPA has been one of the 

Partnership’s largest and most consistent financial contributors, but beyond its financial support, US EPA 

has provided international credibility, staff assistance, and technical support. Finally, the Partnership 

 1 IPIECA. “Partnerships in the Oil and Gas Industry: The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles.” 2006. 2 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles 

(PCFV). 2010, 7-8. http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/leadphaseoutreport.pdf. 3 Other partnerships and international stakeholder initiatives that are similarly structured include the UNEP Global Mercury Partnership, the 

Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, the Stop TB Partnership, and the Forest Stewardship Council. 
 

Page ES-4

could not be effective without its regional and national partners, who have served as the on-the-ground 

leaders and implementers.

3. Modest yet Focused Resource Investments Build Awareness and Capacity

The Partnership’s cumulative funding since 2002 has totaled approximately US $11.4 million, of which 

the Lead Campaign’s costs have been approximately US $6 million.4

 Costs in terms of Partnership 

management and implementation and in terms of on-the-ground implementation have been relatively 

low. The public health benefit and economic savings significantly outweigh the cost of lead elimination 

by orders of magnitude, with the cost to consumers at the pump translating to only $0.01-0.02 per liter, 

and in some cases less.

5

 

4. Partners Address Challenges and Learn Through Experience

The partners have encountered several challenges, which, while slowing down decisions or actions in 

some cases and resulting in debates on strategy and scope, do not appear to have stalled the 

Campaign’s momentum. The Partners have been able to navigate challenges and continue progress, 

even if this has meant making tough decisions involving tradeoffs. When asked what they would do 

differently if they were to design the Lead Campaign over again today, some interviewees had no 

suggestions for improvement, whereas others offered ideas such as identifying regional partners and 

examples earlier on and trying to recruit more private sector partner involvement. Those who have 

been deeply involved from the beginning said that, even if they would do things differently today, they 

view the Campaign’s “learning by doing” as invaluable, strengthening the Partnership on the whole.

RELEVANCE OF FINDINGS ON THE LEAD CAMPAIGN TO OTHER VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIPS 

Findings on the relevance of the Lead Campaign’s design and implementation to other voluntary 

partnerships are divided into three areas: (1) core Lead Campaign strengths could also serve other 

partnerships; (2) when a voluntary partnership model might be suitable in other contexts; and (3)

emerging partnership design principles that are consistent with PCFV.

1. Core Lead Campaign Strengths Could Also Serve Other Partnerships

Several core strengths have supported the Lead Campaign’s effectiveness. These strengths would also 

serve other international partnership efforts. They include: 

• Preceding developments that support a strong start and can help to quickly build momentum;

• Strong design and design process that engendered joint ownership and trust; 

 4 Includes contributions received by PCFV by October 2011, including UNEP in-kind support and contributions to PCFV for its work on the Global 

Fuel Economy Initiative. Source: UNEP PCFV Clearing House 5 Several studies have demonstrated a positive net benefit to economies that eliminate lead from fuel. See, for example, the Tsai-Hatfield 2010 

report. Previous reports utilized by PCFV during the Lead Campaign included a 1996 study on health benefits of the lead phase-out in Thailand 

demonstrating dramatic decreases in BLLs after lead phase out and a monetary value of health benefits to be US $280 million, while the costs of 

the phase-out were US $8 million. See: UNEP. “Benefits of Lead Phase-out.” 
 

Page ES-5

EXHIBIT ES-1. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN WEIGHING WHETHER TO PURSUE A 

VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIP

› Is there a clear need or problem that requires involvement of multiple parties and perspectives 

to be successfully addressed, and a defined role that a partnership could perform to address 

the need or problem?

› Is there a set of individuals and organizations with the right expertise, authority, credibility, and 

influence that are willing to commit to starting and productively participating in a partnership?

› Would key stakeholders individually and collectively gain by participating through aligning 

agendas and combining resources to magnify the rewards and spread the risks?

› Has demonstrable progress on the issue in question already occurred (or could it occur 

relatively quickly), and could a partnership accelerate progress beyond what would occur 

otherwise?

› Is there is commonly accepted evidence behind the need for action to address the challenge? 

› Is there powerful, organized opposition to the objectives of the partnership that could prevent a 

partnership from succeeding?

› Are there sufficient resources for partnership launch? Can reasonable certainty be provided 

that funding requirements can be met for the duration of the partnership?

• Strategic, multi-level, multi-angle implementation supported through a neutral secretariat; and

• Exceptional people and enduring relationships. 

2. When a Voluntary Partnership Model Might be Suitable in Other Contexts

Determining whether to choose a voluntary partnership approach to catalyze or cause a particular 

change is a strategic decision. Issue-specific considerations, such as which parties are needed to solve 

particular problems or the number of entities from a particular sector needed for sufficient coverage to 

address a problem, can guide whether to pursue a voluntary partnership approach. These decisions are 

best considered within the context of the underlying dynamics of the issue and an analysis of available 

options.

It also appears that there are general conditions, which if applicable, can signify that a voluntary 

partnership approach may help to achieve or leverage meaningful change. These conditions, listed 

below as a set of questions, are likely to be or applicable to many situations. In some instances only a 

few conditions may be in place, while others would need to be established through the efforts of the 

partnership itself. Thus, similar to the issue-specific considerations, a strategic analysis is needed to 

determine if a voluntary partnership is the most productive approach.
 

Page ES-6

3. Emerging Partnership Design Principles that are Consistent with PCFV

Once a decision is made to pursue a voluntary partnership approach, several issue-specific factors can 

inform design, implementation, and ultimately effectiveness. Considering these factors early on can 

help to maximize a partnership’s potential to influence change and avoid uncertainty, misunderstanding, 

and a lack of progress. The evaluators identified a set of emerging voluntary partnership design 

principles that are consistent with the Lead Campaign and PCFV more broadly. These principles, shown 

below, are elaborated upon in Chapter 7 of this report. 

PCFV and the Lead Campaign evolved over time and as such learned by doing rather than starting with a 

comprehensive partnership design template. The process of learning and adaptation, coupled with the 

exceptional suite of people involved, have contributed as much to the Lead Campaign’s strengths as has 

the design itself. Several preceding developments also assisted, if not “empowered,” the Lead 

Campaign from the beginning. The evaluators believe that the potent combination of preceding 

developments, sound design, strong implementation strategy, and exceptional partners have made the 

Lead Campaign an extraordinary example in the realm of voluntary partnerships.

Pursuing a voluntary partnership approach, even when the conditions are particularly well suited to that 

approach and the partnership is well designed and implemented, does not guarantee success. It is the 

opinion of the evaluators that the considerations and principles identified in this evaluation can 

nonetheless increase the chances that governments, non-governmental organizations, civil society, and 

business interests can effectively work together for the common good. 

 

EXHIBIT ES-2. EMERGING PARTNERSHIP DESIGN PRINCIPLES

› Develop clear goals 

› Build a strong core membership

› Thoughtfully design the partnership and utilize this process to 

engender buy-in and trust

› Make clear the power and authority of each partner

› Maximize voluntary and comprehensive participation

› Ensure neutral management

› Secure commitments for funding sufficient to launch the partnership, 

while also identifying long-term funding opportunities

› Build in the ability to adapt and course correct

› Empower sustained change in the field

› Guarantee transparency and accountability
Page 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

In 2002, the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (hereafter referred to as PCFV or the Partnership) 

was launched at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa. 

This voluntary global partnership promotes the reduction of air pollution from vehicles in developing 

and transitional countries through three campaigns: (1) the Lead Campaign, aimed at eliminating lead in 

gasoline; (2) the Sulfur6 Campaign, aimed at reducing levels of sulfur in diesel and gasoline; and (3) the 

Clean Vehicles Campaign, aimed at promoting the adoption of cleaner vehicle technologies. 

Since 2002, nearly all of the 100-plus countries using leaded fuel have since switched and are considered 

to be “unleaded.” PCFV’s Lead Campaign is considered by many to have catalyzed the phase out of 

leaded fuel in many of these countries over the past nine years, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, 

where phase out rapidly and completely occurred between 2002 and January 1, 2006. The six countries 

that have yet to eliminate lead are expected to do so within the next few years.

Perceptions that the Lead Campaign has contributed substantially to the phase out of lead from fuel in 

Sub-Saharan Africa were supported by the findings of a 2010 evaluation of PCFV conducted by David and 

Hazel Todd,

7 commissioned by the independent evaluation office of the United Nations Environment 

Programme (UNEP). This evaluation summarizes the findings from the 2010 evaluation (hereafter 

referred to as the UNEP evaluation) in the discussion of past studies and their relationship to this 

evaluation. 

EVALUATION PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE

The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) initiated this evaluation to identify and examine 

insights from the PCFV’s Lead Campaign that may be transferable to other existing or future 

international partnerships focused on environmental, health, and technological outcomes. The 

evaluation focused on the Lead Campaign’s startup and design, implementation, and insights that could 

inform other partnership efforts. This evaluation did not focus on identifying the benefits of eliminating 

lead from fuel or the role (influence) of PCFV in the elimination of leaded fuel, as these topics have been 

studied previously. To be clear, this evaluation did not involve an analysis of the relationship between 

PCFV’s Lead Campaign activities and when (and why) countries across the globe have eliminated lead 

from fuel. This report contains a brief discussion of previous evaluations and reports and how they 

relate to this evaluation.

The primary audiences for this evaluation are the US EPA managers and staff who oversee and 

implement PCFV and other international programs. UNEP is also interested in the outcomes of this 

evaluation, as may be additional PCFV partners and entities engaged in other partnership efforts.

 6 This report uses the US spelling of this word. 7 David and Hazel Todd are with the consultant firm International Development, Environment and Disasters.
Page 2

EXHIBIT 1. 2010 TSAI-HATFIELD STUDY ON 

THE GLOBAL BENEFITS OF PHASING OUT 

LEADED FUEL

Note: This 2011 US EPA evaluation refers to, but 

does not critique or take a position on Tsai and 

Hatfield’s 2010 evaluation findings. 

In April 2010, Dr. Thomas Hatfield, Chair of 

California State University, Northridge, Department 

of Environmental and Occupational Health and his 

student Peter L. Tsai produced a study, 

commissioned by UNEP, on the global benefits of 

phasing out leaded fuel. The report analyzed 

direct effects (health impacts due to urban air 

pollution) and the indirect effects (e.g., 

socioeconomic effects of reduced IQs) of lead in 

fuel and reviewed all existing studies and 

combined them into one global impact model. The 

study found that the phase out of lead in fuel is 

expected to annually prevent:

› Close to 1.1 million deaths;

› Loss of 322 million IQ points;

› Close to 60 million crime cases;

› Economic loss of US $2.4 trillion per year 

(4% of global GDP)

The study was peer reviewed and the final report

was published in December 2011.

The executive summary from this study is 

provided in Appendix B. 

Peter L. Tsai and Thomas H. Hatfield. “Global Benefits 

From the Phaseout of Leaded Fuel.” Journal of 

Environmental Health. 74: 8-14. 2011.

RELATED EVALUATIONS AND STUDIES 

PCFV has been the subject of at least one past evaluation and several reports and studies (see the 

resources in Appendix A denoted by two green dots (••) for a more complete list). This evaluation 

summarizes the findings of two recent analyses –

a 2010 research study on the global benefits of 

phasing out leaded fuel and the 2010 UNEP 

evaluation of the PCFV’s role in phasing out lead 

in Sub-Saharan Africa – because they are 

significant and they provide important context for 

this evaluation. Based on these past analyses and 

also anecdotal information provided in other past 

reports and through interviews conducted for this 

evaluation, the evaluators assume that the phase 

out of lead has had significant public and 

economic benefits and also that PCFV has been a 

major contributor to this phase out in SubSaharan Africa. The evaluators do not make 

assumptions about PCFV’s role and influence in 

other regions, as this has not been thoroughly 

studied in past evaluations; however, the 

evaluators do make note in a few places in this 

evaluation of interviewee examples and stories 

from other regions where PCFV was active. 

A 2010 study conducted by Peter Tsai and Thomas 

Hatfield of California State University (hereafter 

referred to as the Tsai-Hatfield study) assessed 

the global benefits of phasing out leaded fuel in 

terms of deaths prevented, IQ points saved, crime 

cases avoided, and economic savings. This study, 

which has since been published,

8 found that 

among other benefits, over one million deaths are 

avoided each year and over US $2 trillion (or 4% of 

global GDP) is saved by eliminating lead from 

fuel.

9

 Here are a few statistics that put the TsaiHatfield study’s findings on lead into perspective:

In 2008, malaria caused nearly one million deaths, 

mostly among African children.10 The number of 

 8 While the Tsai and Hatfield study has been published, US EPA did not review the document for technical accuracy and does not take a position 

on the methodology of the study or endorse its findings. See: Peter L. Tsai and Thomas H. Hatfield. “Global Benefits From the Phaseout of 

Leaded Fuel.” Journal of Environmental Health. 74: 8-14. 2011. 9 Peter L. Tsai and Thomas H. Hatfield. The Global Benefits of Phasing Out Leaded Fuel. California State University, Northridge. 2010. 10 World Health Organization. “Malaria.” Fact Sheet. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/
Page 3

people who died of AIDS-related deaths in 2009 was 1.8 million and of these, 1.3 million were in SubSaharan Africa.11 Finally, tobacco causes nearly six million deaths globally each year.12 (For more details 

from this study, see Exhibit 1 and Appendix B).

Separately, in 2009, UNEP’s Evaluation Office commissioned an independent evaluation to assess the 

impacts of the Lead Campaign in Sub-Saharan Africa and, in general, to learn lessons from the PCFV 

public-private partnership model. This evaluation, titled Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP 

Based Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (hereafter referred to as the UNEP evaluation), was 

published in 2010. The UNEP evaluation found that, as a very conservative estimate, in the absence of 

PCFV it would have taken ten years rather than five to achieve the elimination of lead from fuel in SubSaharan Africa. It further found that the role of PCFV contributed in several ways to the phase out. 

Exhibit 2 provides a summary of the UNEP evaluation’s key findings, and the executive summary from 

this evaluation is provided in Appendix C. 

PCFV and the Lead Campaign have also been described in other reports including the 2009 European 

Union Monitoring Report: Cleaner Transport for Better Urban Air Quality and Reduced Global Emissions, 

the 2008 UNEP Global Mercury Partnership Review of Global Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships,

13 and 

IPIECA’s 2006 Partnerships in the Oil and Gas Industry: The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles case 

study.14 The European Union report details European Union funding for the PCFV as well as an 

evaluation of the PCFV program related to the relevance and quality of design, efficiency of 

implementation and effectiveness to date, impact prospects, potential sustainability, and key 

observations and recommendations through 2009. The UNEP report discusses key implementation 

issues in global multi-stakeholder partnerships based on a review of four partnerships, including PCFV. 

The IPIECA case study summarizes the Partnership development, challenges, and lessons learned 

through 2006. 

REGARDING OTHER EFFORTS TO PHASE OUT LEAD FROM FUEL

It is important to note that before and since PCFV launched the Lead Campaign, other parties were also 

advocating for the phase out of leaded fuel in developing and transitional countries. In some cases, 

other efforts worked in conjunction with the Partnership, and in other cases they worked independently 

but complemented each others’ work. The evaluators did not research other efforts to eliminate lead, 

though were made aware of a few such efforts during the interviews. On the whole, interviewees 

described their awareness of and impressions of PCFV’s role in the phase out of lead from fuel, and they 

viewed the Lead Campaign to be a strong and successful partnership, even when they were aware of 

other simultaneous efforts to phase out lead. 

 11 US Agency for International Development. “HIV/AIDS: Frequently Asked Questions.” 

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/News/aidsfaq.html#deaths

12 World Health Organization. “Tobacco.” Fact Sheet. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/index.html# 13 Available: http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/UGMP/INF%207.pdf. 14 Available: http://www.ipieca.org/sites/default/files/publications/partnerships.pdf
Page 4

REGARDING THE SCOPE OF PCFV’S WORK TO PHASE OUT LEAD

As of 2009, the Lead Campaign had supported activities in 77 developing and transitional countries 

around the world. Some developing countries, including most located in Latin America, had phased out 

lead prior to PCFV’s engagement in that region.15 

 15 Numerous interviewees, including UNEP PCFV Clearing House staff, described this history to us during the evaluation. 

EXHIBIT 2. 2010 UNEP REPORT: OUTCOME AND INFLUENCE EVALUATION OF THE UNEPBASED PARTNERSHIP FOR CLEAN FUELS AND VEHICLES

Note: This 2011 US EPA evaluation refers to, but does not critique or take a position on UNEP’s 2010 evaluation 

methodology or findings. 

The following is excerpted from the summary report from the 2010 UNEP evaluation. See Appendix C for the 

complete UNEP report executive summary.

Key Findings

Although it is not possible to attribute the phase out of leaded fuel to the support provided at these three levels 

by UNEP, or indeed to the PCFV as an institution, it is clear that the phase out would not have been achieved in 

anywhere near the same timescale without them. The contribution of UNEP operated on different levels: 

› As a high level advocate to Governments, influencing support in the right places; 

› As a channel to resources within the Partnership, some of whom were attracted to join because of the 

reputation of UNEP; and 

› As a facilitator and supporter of activities at various levels, but particularly at the country level.

Evaluation of the role of the PCFV in the phase out of leaded petrol in Sub Saharan Africa shows several key 

aspects, which contributed to its success. These included:

› Intervention design well-focused on its objectives

› Comprehensive composition of the Partnership

› Ability to support multi-level processes

› Approach tailored to available finance

› High quality management and staff

Areas which were not fully successful and which would warrant additional consideration in any future 

Partnerships include:

› Need to maximize awareness of established best practice from an early stage

› Develop and implement agreed systems of compliance monitoring and, where feasible, sanctions for 

non-compliance

The summary report from the UNEP evaluation can be found here: 

www.unep.org/Transport/PCFV/PDF/leadEvaluation_summaryreport.pdf.

 
Page 5

CHAPTER 2. METHODS

EVALUATION SCOPE AND ASSUMPTIONS

US EPA initiated this evaluation to understand what can be learned from the PCFV Lead Campaign to 

inform other international partnerships in light of the perception that PCFV is an especially effective 

partnership and that the Lead Campaign in particular has been highly successful. US EPA requested that 

this evaluation focus on building upon, rather than repeating, past evaluations and studies of PCFV, 

including the 2010 UNEP evaluation (see discussion on pages 2-3), and that it focus on evaluating what 

can be learned from the Lead Campaign’s design and implementation rather than on its influence or 

outcomes. The intended primary recipients and users of the evaluation’s findings would be US EPA 

senior managers, although presumably the findings would also be of interest to additional PCFV partners

and entities engaged in other partnership efforts. It was thought that these recipients would use this 

evaluation to inform current and future work in the arena of international partnerships. Further, US EPA 

did not envision that this evaluation would identify recommendations, either in the context of PCFV 

design or operations or in the context of US EPA’s other international partnership work, though the 

results of this evaluation could inform both of these. 

In light of this direction, the evaluators determined that this evaluation would not assess PCFV’s role and 

influence in the phase out of lead and therefore this is not an “outcome” or “summative” evaluation, 

which would involve identifying PCFV’s results and influence; nor is this a “process” evaluation in the 

traditional sense that such evaluations typically are accountability focused, aimed at determining

whether an intervention has been implemented as intended. Instead, this evaluation falls within the 

framework of “utilization-focused” evaluation. A “utilization-focused evaluation” – a term coined by 

evaluation expert Michael Quinn Patton in his 1997 book by this name – focuses on tailoring evaluation 

designs to the needs and interests of particular users and uses.16 

As described by Patton, utilization-focused evaluation is highly personal and situational. It does not 

advocate any particular evaluation content, model, method, theory, or even use. Rather, it is a process 

for helping primary intended users select the most appropriate content, model, methods, theory, and 

uses for their particular situation.17 These utilization-focused principles guided the methods used for 

this evaluation. 

EVALUATION DESIGN

The evaluation is designed to answer a set of evaluation questions. The discussion below summarizes 

the process of identifying the evaluation questions and methods used to answer them while considering 

the intended users and uses described above. 

 16 The fourth edition of this book was published in 2008. See: http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book229324 17 Michael Quinn Patton. “Utilization-Focused Evaluation Checklist.” 2002. http://web.idrc.ca/uploads/userS/10905198311Utilization_Focused_Evaluation.pdf
Page 6

IDENTIFYING EVALUATION QUESTIONS

The first step in the evaluation was to refine the initial evaluation questions that had been submitted as 

a part of the proposal from the US EPA Office of International and Tribal Affairs to be funded as part of 

the US EPA Office of Policy’s annual Program Evaluation Competition. Once this evaluation was selected 

for funding (note that both US EPA Offices provided funding for this evaluation) the questions were 

refined first within US EPA, including close collaboration with the Office of Air and Radiation, and then in 

consultation with the evaluation contractors from Industrial Economics and Ross & Associates (hereafter 

referred to as the “evaluators” or “evaluation team”). The final questions, intended to elicit an 

understanding of what can be learned from the Lead Campaign’s design and implementation to inform 

international partnerships more broadly, were as follows: 

Topic I: PCFV Startup and Design 

1. What drivers led to the Partnership’s formation? 

2. What are the Partnership goals for the Lead Campaign? 

3. What were the US EPA and other partners’ reasons for participating in 

the Partnership’s Lead Campaign?

4. How was the Partnership structured (e.g., governance, oversight, funding 

mechanisms) to meet the Lead Campaign’s goals? 

Topic II: PCFV Implementation 

5. What roles have US EPA and other partners played in the Lead 

Campaign? 

6. How has the Partnership worked to engage partners in meeting the Lead 

Campaign’s goals?

7. How has the Partnership Lead Campaign implementation varied by 

region and partner type? 

8. What roles have funding and other resource investments played in 

implementation of the Lead Campaign?

9. What other features of the Partnership have enhanced implementation 

or accomplishment of the Lead Campaign’s goals?

Topic III: PCFV Learning and Improvement 

10. What obstacles did the Partnership encounter and how has the 

Partnership worked to address those obstacles to ensure effective 

implementation of the Lead Campaign? 

11. How has the Partnership assessed and reported out on the Lead 

Campaign’s progress? (e.g., annual summaries, mapping)?

12. What other evaluations or assessments have been previously conducted 

on the Partnership’s Lead Campaign design, implementation, and 

results? 
Page 7

Topic IV: PCFV Key Lessons and Insights 

13. What additional insight does this evaluation provide on the Partnership’s 

design and implementation of the Lead Campaign? 

14. What can US EPA and others learn from the design and implementation 

of the Lead Campaign to inform their engagement in existing and future 

international partnerships?

INFORMATION COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS APPROACH

The evaluation questions, coupled with the utilization-focused evaluation intent, necessitated a 

qualitative analysis based on stakeholder and expert opinion, informed by available information and 

literature on both PCFV and multi-stakeholder international partnerships more broadly. Most of the 

research focused on PCFV and the Lead Campaign itself on the premise that the evaluation resources 

would be best devoted in this area. A smaller amount of evaluation resources were devoted to 

collecting and reviewing information on international partnership trends and best practices. The 

general steps taken to collect and analyze the information, as well as the types of information used are 

described below. 

PCFV Lead Campaign Literature Review

The evaluation team reviewed relevant US EPA strategic reports and guidance, excerpts and documents 

from the PCFV website, reports, fact sheets, media communications, past evaluations, and other 

material provided by US EPA and UNEP, which sent a substantial amount of background information to 

the evaluators for this evaluation. The literature review informed the next steps, namely the 

stakeholder interviews and subsequent additional literature review on multi-stakeholder partnerships. 

The literature review was conducted while the evaluators worked with US EPA to refine the evaluation 

questions and conducted initial scoping calls, described below.

 

Evaluation Scoping Calls 

The evaluators conducted several initial scoping calls with US EPA staff and UNEP staff to gain input on 

the evaluation approach, potential interviewees, and other resources that could inform the evaluation. 

These scoping calls provided, among other things, the basis for a draft list of evaluation interviewees.

Interviews

Interviews with PCFV partners and other experts familiar with PCFV served as the primary source of 

information collected for this evaluation and the basis for many of this report’s findings. The evaluators 

designed the interviews to gain perspectives from a wide range of Lead Campaign participants covering 

both the Lead Campaign’s geographical scope and a variety of partners representing US EPA, UNEP, the 

PCFV Clearing House, industry, NGOs, other national governments, and international organizations. The 

evaluators aimed to maximize the number of interviews considering sectoral and regional 

representation and the history of the Lead Campaign. For instance, the Lead Campaign was very active 
Page 8

in Sub-Saharan Africa and, by contrast, not active in Latin America;18 therefore the evaluators conducted 

relatively more interviews with individuals in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Interviews were conducted by phone with the exception of the interviews with UNEP PCFV Clearing 

House staff and Kenyan officials, which were conducted in person in Nairobi, Kenya. 

The evaluation team conducted interviews with 41 individuals representing US EPA, UNEP, the PCFV 

Clearing House, industry, NGOs, other national governments, and international organizations. 

Interviewees were selected on the basis of their involvement with and knowledge of PCFV and the Lead 

Campaign. The evaluation team attempted to interview a range of parties from different sectors, 

partners, and geographic locations as broken down in the following table: 

TABLE 1. INTERVIEWEE CATEGORIZATION

Category Global Sub-Saharan 

Africa

Asia & the 

Pacific

Central & 

Eastern Europe 

& Central Asia

Latin America 

& the 

Caribbean

Middle East, 

North Africa & 

West Asia

US EPA 4 1 0 1 0 0

UNEP 5 0 1 1 2 1

Government* 3 4 1 1 0 1

Industry 2 3 1 1 0 0

NGO 3 0 1 2 1 1

Total (41)** 17 8 4 6 3 3

*Includes two government-funded international organizations and one foreign government that has contributed financially to 

PCFV and has not been the recipient of PCFV assistance.

** Does not include the initial evaluation scoping calls.

The evaluators created interview guides based on the sectors of interviewees (NGO, Industry, 

International Organization, and Government) with specific guides for US EPA, UNEP, and other 

government officials. These guides tailored the overall evaluation questions to focus on the role of the 

interviewees based on their experience with PCFV. Appendix D. provides an example interview guide. 

The evaluators provided the specific guide to interviewees prior to the interview, which was then 

conducted based on these questions to inform the overall evaluation questions.

The interviews conducted remained confidential and internal to the evaluators. They were not 

distributed or included in the evaluation report, except with explicit permission to use attributed quotes 

from the respective interviewees. The evaluators passed on anonymous feedback offered by 

interviewees to both the UNEP PCFV Clearing House and US EPA, noting that these suggestions fell 

outside of the scope of this evaluation and that the evaluators did not try to determine the 

appropriateness or feasibility of any of the suggestions offered during the interviews. This report 

 18 Latin American countries had already eliminated leaded fuel by the time the Lead Campaign was fully launched. PCFV is currently active in 

Latin America, but the focus there is on the Sulfur and Clean Vehicles Campaigns. The evaluators did conduct three interviews (two with UNEP 

staff and one with a representative of the Clearing House’s regional partner, the Mario Molina Center) to gain their input for this evaluation, 

but did not pursue government representative interviews because, according to those most familiar with the Lead Campaign, the government 

officials in Latin America would not have specific insights to offer on the Lead Campaign as they were not involved in it. 
Page 9

includes several quotes from the interviews in highlight boxes; sources of the quotes are not included to 

support agreed-upon confidentiality.

Partnership Literature Review

The evaluation team conducted a limited scope literature review on multi-stakeholder and voluntary 

partnership principles and best practices to augment the lessons learned from the interviews and initial 

literature review on the PCFV and the Lead Campaign. This review focused on other assessments 

(reports, articles, etc.) that have been completed on multi-stakeholder, public-private partnerships, 

typically at the international level. This research informed the overarching findings of this report, 

particularly those described in Chapter 7.

Analysis of Collected Information

The evaluation team focused the first phase of analysis on the information provided through the 

interviews. The team examined the ideas and opinions from the interviews and considered them from 

multiple perspectives to determine if there was variation in responses by interviewee geographic 

location, sector, role, etc., understanding that the number of interviewees was limited in any one region 

or category. The evaluators found that the responses were quite consistent; interviewees consistently 

had the same ideas surrounding the Partnership’s strengths, regardless of the length of engagement in 

the Partnership or type of engagement, for example, as a funder or recipient of technical support. Some 

interviewees were less familiar with the Partnership outside of the direct interactions they had when 

receiving assistance, but in these cases their feedback was still consistent regarding what features of the 

Partnership stood out. The evaluators noted where there were differences in opinion and also kept 

track of suggestions on what the interviewees would do differently if they were to design PCFV 

themselves today knowing what they know now. 

The evaluators summarized the (consistent) themes from what they heard through the interviews and 

reflected upon them in light of the 2010 UNEP evaluation and other reports that discussed PCFV. From 

this reflection of the interview findings against the backdrop of previous assessments, they again found 

consistency in the views of the Partnership’s design and implementation features. The interviews from 

this evaluation though, as intended, elicited additional ideas and feedback not present in past 

assessments. 

The evaluation team handled feedback provided through the interviews on potential PCFV 

improvements in two ways. First, thematic feedback (i.e., from more than a few interviewees) on areas 

where the Partnership could have benefited from some alternative design features fits within the scope 

of this evaluation, and the evaluators have included such feedback in the findings of this report. Notably 

there were few thematic findings in this area, first because several interviewees when asked could not 

identify things they would do differently in terms of design and implementation, and second, because 

there was agreement in the few areas where interviewees had suggestions in this area (e.g., providing 

regionally-specific examples at workshops where possible). The remainder of the suggestions heard 

were compiled, stripped of their attributions and any identifiable information, and provided to US EPA 
Page 10

and the Clearing House, noting that the evaluators were passing on the suggestions without considering 

their merit or feasibility. 

After synthesizing the results from the interviews and reflecting on how they related to past 

assessments of PCFV, the evaluation team conducted the additional review of literature on multistakeholder partnership trends and best practices. This was a limited-scale review. Even at the limited 

scale, however, the evaluators were quickly able to identify common themes in these areas, including a 

set of what appeared to be emerging themes amongst those who have studied these types of 

partnerships. The evaluators also noted that there still appears to be a wide range of interpretations on 

what multi-stakeholder (or public-private) partnerships are, as well as a variety of opinions on their 

credibility and effectiveness.19 On the whole the evaluators found from this review that the design and 

implementation strengths the evaluation team had already identified through the PCFV-specific analysis 

were supported by the literature. 

The final steps involved drafting the findings in a manner that responded to evaluation questions, 

identifying and then filling gaps in information, and vetting the findings for input on factual accuracy. 

Where any factual errors were identified (e.g., on the description of the Partnership’s process), the 

evaluators made corrections. 

Notably, the evaluators found that, even in light of what appeared to be an emerging set of best practice 

principles, there did not appear to be a strong sense in the field of how effective voluntary multistakeholder partnerships have been on the whole. There also appears to be a fair amount of skepticism 

about whether this approach is as transparent, trustworthy, and accountable to the public good as are, 

for example, binding intergovernmental agreements. This evaluation was not intended to address 

either of these issues; however, the evaluators recognize that they are important from the broader 

perspective on approaches to bringing about change and views on which approaches are both 

appropriate and effective.

 19 The term “partnership” has several definitions. For the purpose of this evaluation, the evaluators use the following definition from 

the United Nations Environment Programme: “Voluntary and collaborative relationships between various parties, both public and 

nonpublic, in which all participants agree to work together to achieve a common purpose or undertake a specific task and, as mutually 

agreed, to share risks and responsibilities, resources and benefits.”

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 60/215 “Toward Global Partnerships.” March 3, 2006. http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/500/50/PDF/N0550050.pdf?OpenElement
Page 11

CHAPTER 3. A BRIEF HISTORY OF LEAD IN FUEL 

Although PCFV was formally launched in 2002, the evaluators believe it is important for the reader to 

understand the reasons for the introduction of lead into automotive fuels during the twentieth century, 

the human health effects due to vehicle emission, and lead exposure in particular, and the global efforts 

to reduce vehicle emissions and remove lead from fuels during the decades leading up to the PCFV 

launch. This chapter provides a brief history of these important contextual factors which preceded the 

launch of the Partnership.

LEADED FUEL, AIR QUALITY, AND CATALYTIC CONVERTERS

In the 1920s lead became a popular additive to gasoline to increase the octane level for use in highcompression internal combustion engines. In turn, the increase in octane provided engines with 

increased power and efficiency. The lead additive, known as Tetraethyl lead (TEL), was initially 

controversial, and some experts expressed concern over its use for reasons including the known toxicity 

of lead, deaths of several workers during the process of manufacturing TEL, and lack of sound scientific 

evidence surrounding the risks of widespread, but low-level releases of TEL into the atmosphere via 

automobile tailpipes.

20 Nonetheless, TEL quickly became the universal octane enhancer.

In the 1940s and 1950s the population of urban cities was rapidly increasing in many parts of the world. 

At the same time, air quality concerns began to mount. In the US, Los Angeles’ first recognized episodes 

of smog occurred in 1943 when visibility was three blocks and people suffered from “smarting eyes, 

respiratory discomfort, nausea, and vomiting.”21 In 1947, the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors 

established the US's first air pollution control program by creating the Los Angeles County Air Pollution 

Control District. Other smog-related events, such as the “Killer Fog” that resulted in over 4,000 deaths 

in London, England, were occurring in large urban areas.

22 Studies were undertaken to analyze the 

sources of smog in Los Angeles, and in the 1950s automobile emissions, particularly ozone, were 

identified as a major source.23 By the late 1950s, experts acknowledged that the rapidly increasing 

number of vehicles – fueled by a lack of public transit, long distances between communities, a 

widespread freeway network and a relatively prosperous economy – was a major cause of the smog 

problem.24

In 1960, the US Congress passed the Federal Motor Vehicle Act of 1960, which required federal research 

to address air pollution from motor vehicles.25 Congress first enacted a federal Clean Air Act in 1963, 

with amendments by the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965 that allowed for direct federal 

regulation of air pollution. In 1970, the US Congress passed the Clean Air Act Amendments, this time 

 20Jamie Lincoln Kitman. “The Secret History of Lead.” The Nation. March 2000. http://www.thenation.com/article/secret-history-lead. 21California Air Resources Board (CARB). “Key Events in the History of Air Quality in California.”

http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/brochure/history.htm

22 Ibid. 23 South Coast Air Quality Management District. “The Southland's War on Smog: Fifty Years of Progress Toward Clean Air.” May 1997. 

http://www.aqmd.gov/news1/Archives/History/marchcov.html#The Arrival of Air Pollution 24 Ibid. 25 CARB, “Key Events in the History of Air Quality in California.” 
Page 12

EXHIBIT 3. CATALYTIC CONVERTERS – AN OVERVIEW 

Catalytic converters are devices used to convert toxic exhaust emissions from an internal combustion engine into 

non-toxic substances. A mechanical engineer invented the catalytic converter after reading the results of early 

studies of smog in Los Angeles and becoming concerned about the role of automobile exhaust in air pollution.

Catalytic converters are “poisoned” or inactivated when exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the 

working surfaces, encapsulating the catalyst so that it cannot contact and treat the exhaust. Lead (in the form of 

tetraethyl lead, or TEL) is a catalytic converter contaminant; therefore vehicles equipped with catalytic converters 

can only run on unleaded gasoline. Automobile manufacturers and fuel refineries introduced unleaded fuel 

primarily to provide a viable option for automobiles using catalytic converters.

Source: Chemical Heritage Foundation. “Eugene Houdry.” http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/chemistry-inhistory/themes/petrochemistry-and-synthetic-polymers/petrochemistry/houdry.aspx

requiring a “90 percent reduction in emissions from new automobiles by 1975.” In 1970, the US 

Congress also established the US EPA, “giving it broad responsibility for regulating motor vehicle 

pollution.”

26 

Catalytic converters, devices used to convert toxic exhaust emissions from an internal combustion 

engine into non-toxic substances, were first widely introduced in the US market in 1975 to comply with 

the new US EPA regulations geared toward curbing air pollution and protecting human health. Catalytic 

converters further improved air quality by reducing emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and 

hydrocarbons. Unleaded gasoline was introduced in 1974 to enable the use of catalytic converters 

because lead “poisons” or inactivates catalytic converters, rendering the converters useless in 

controlling emissions (see Exhibit 3). Thus, one key driver behind eliminating lead in gasoline was to 

provide a fuel that was compatible with catalytic converters. In addition, it was also found that use of 

unleaded gasoline resulted in dramatic reductions in ambient lead levels. The benefits of catalytic 

converters in improving air quality coincided with the growing evidence around the health impacts of 

lead exposure stemming from the automobile emissions. US EPA began to lower the limit on the amount 

of lead allowed in gasoline, continuing to lower the limit in the 1980s; by 1996 the phase out of lead 

from fuel in the US was completed with a ban on leaded gasoline for motor vehicles taking effect.

27

It is important to note that, both historically and today, when countries are considered to have 

eliminated lead from fuel, it does not mean that the TEL additive is not used as an additive for some 

applications. TEL is still used in one type of aviation fuel for piston-engine aircraft, and may still be used 

for some professional racing automobiles. 

INCREASING EVIDENCE OF PUBLIC HEALTH HAZARDS DUE TO LEAD EXPOSURE FROM AUTOMOBILES

While the US and other countries, beginning with Japan, were in the process of phasing out lead, an 

increasing number of studies found that lead exposure was causing public health impacts, including 

 26 US Environmental Protection Agency. “US EPA Mobile Source Emissions - Past, Present, and Future: Milestones.” 

http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/solutions/milestones.htm

27 Ibid.
Page 13

impaired mental development, reduced intelligence, and behavioral disorders in children, as well as high 

blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and cancer in adults.28 Several factors make children more 

susceptible to lead exposure than adults, and many experts viewed the neurodevelopmental effects of 

lead exposure to unborn and small children as the most significant public health hazard.29 Although 

human exposure to lead occurs through many pathways, the most significant came from the lead 

additives in gasoline, accounting for 90 percent of human lead accumulation.

30,31 The elimination of 

lead from fuel was found to be highly correlated to the decrease in blood lead levels in the US (see 

Figure 1).32

FIGURE 1. BLOOD LEAD LEVELS AND LEAD USED IN GASOLINE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1976-1980

Source: Annest et al, 1982

MANY COUNTRIES BEGIN TO ELIMINATE LEAD FROM FUEL

As the evidence of the detriments of lead mounted, other countries began to eliminate lead from fuel. 

As noted, Japan followed the US, phasing out lead in ten years.

33 Western European countries 

introduced unleaded fuel in the late 1980s and many were still in the process of phasing out lead at the 

 28 US EPA and US Agency for International Development. “Implementer's Guide to Phasing Out Lead In Gasoline.” Hager Bailey Services. March 

1999. http://nepis.epa.gov/EPA/html/DLwait.htm?url=/Adobe/PDF/400004HW.PDF 29 CARB, Stationary Source Division. Technical Support Document, “Proposed Identification of Inorganic Lead as a Toxic Air Contaminant, Part B, 

Health Assessment.” March 1997. [As cited in Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association (MECA). “The Case for Banning Lead in Gasoline.” 

January 2003.]

30 US EPA and US AID. “Implementers Guide to Phasing Out Lead in Gasoline.” March 1999. 31 MECA. “The Case for Banning Lead in Gasoline.” January 2003. See also, I.H. Billick, et. al. “Relation of Pediatric Blood Lead Levels to Lead in 

Gasoline,” Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 34. 1980, 213-217. [as cited in MECA. “The Case for Banning Lead in Gasoline.” January 

2003.]

32 There appear to have been multiple studies that found significant correlations, including the US Centers for Disease Control National Health 

and Nutrition Examination Studies (cited in MECA 2003, 11-12) and the 1996 EPA study “Lead in the Americas: A Call for Action”, cited in Exhibit 

3. See also, US Environmental Protection Agency. “Implementer’s Guide to Phasing Out Lead in Gasoline.” 1999.

33 Magda Lovei. “Phasing Out Lead From Gasoline: Worldwide Experiences and Policy Implications.” World Bank Technical Paper No. 397. 

1998.
Page 14

“By the time we had finished 

[with the phase out of lead 

from fuel in the US] it was 

much clearer how bad lead 

was. At the end of the 

process we looked at 

children’s health and were 

blown away by the science.”

— US EPA Interviewee 

“Lead was perfect: we had the 

science and the technology. 

From the car manufacturers it 

was clear that you didn’t really 

need the lead. It was a win-win 

situation. It was doing harm 

today right now and mainly to 

poor people.”

— US EPA Interviewee

turn of the century. By the early 2000s, all Central American

countries, China, Colombia, India, Vietnam, the Philippines, 

Thailand, and Taiwan no longer used leaded fuel.

34 

At the same time, leaded fuels were still used in over 100 countries, 

most of them developing nations, and some countries had increased 

the levels of lead in fuel.

35 Growth in urban populations and 

demands on urban transport in developing countries was (and still 

is) leading to increasingly poor air quality, especially in major cities. 

Air pollution was identified as causing millions of premature deaths 

worldwide.36

During the 1990s, an increasing number of international experts and 

organizations were helping to support the elimination of lead in 

developing and transitional countries where there was generally less knowledge about public health 

impacts associated with lead in fuel and options for eliminating lead in fuel. The World Bank, US EPA, 

International Petroleum Industry Environment and Conservation Association (IPIECA), and individuals 

like Michael P. Walsh,

37 John J. Mooney,38 and Dr. Liu Xian39 amassed substantial experience supporting 

countries including Mexico, China, India, Thailand, Vietnam, and many Central American countries to 

phase out lead. It was becoming increasingly clear that 

providing effective support, including awareness-raising, 

stakeholder engagement, and capacity building, had the 

potential to catalyze lead phase out in the rest of the world as 

well. 

Although over 100 countries had yet to phase out lead, as a 

region Sub-Saharan Africa had made the least progress, where 

only one country (Sudan) did not have lead in fuel (as they had 

never added it).

40 Attention began to turn to the remaining 

countries. The World Bank, for instance, launched the Clean Air 

for Sub-Saharan Africa Cities Programme in 1998, with lead 

phase out as one of the campaign’s priorities.41 

 34 MECA. “Case for Banning Lead in Gasoline.” January 2003.” 35 Ibid. 36 Tatyana P. Soubbotina and Katherine A. Sheram. Beyond Economic Growth: Meeting the Challenges of Global Development. World Bank 

Development Education Program. 2000, Chapter 10. http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/beyond/global/chapter10.html 37 Independent expert 38 Independent expert 39 Beijing Automotive Research Institute

40 Sudan had never added TEL into their fuel in the first place and, instead, supplied a low-octane fuel in the country. 41Patrick Bultynck and Chantal Reliquet. “1998-2002 Progress Report: Working Paper Number 10.” World Bank Clean Air Initiative in SubSaharan African Cities. January 2003. 
Page 15

“Before [Dakar] we 

hadn’t taken it seriously 

at all. [The people in 

my country] were not 

aware or were aware 

but did not see it as a 

problem.”

— Interviewee from 

Sub-Saharan Africa

ALTERNATIVE OCTANE ENHANCING ADDITIVES

The history of eliminating lead from fuel would be incomplete without some discussion of alternative 

octane-enhancing additives. In order to boost octane levels without TEL, refineries have options 

including refinery upgrades, changing fuel mixtures, or switching to other 

additives. Refineries in many countries have switched to unleaded 

without turning to alternative additives; those that have substituted TEL 

for another alternative have typically used one of the following octane 

boosters: MMT,

42 MTBE,43 ETBE,44 or ethanol. Some of these alternative 

additives have raised their own environmental and public health 

concerns, though most experts believe the problems or potential 

problems associated with them are modest compared to those 

surrounding TEL.

45 MMT, a manganese-based additive, is the most 

controversial, generating lawsuits and policy debates.46,47 MMT is, 

however, believed to be used much more sparsely than was TEL in past 

years. In general, the TEL-alternative additives are believed to be less 

harmful to air quality and human health than TEL.48 

MOMENTUM BUILDS AND THE PARTNERSHIP FOR CLEAN FUELS AND VEHICLES IS LAUNCHED

By the early 2000s, the individuals and organizations that had been separately working to eliminate the 

use of lead in fuels throughout the world began to see the advantages – such as more efficiently sharing 

and leveraging resources, knowledge, and influence – of working together. Recognizing that SubSaharan Africa still had 49 (approximately half) of the world’s “leaded” countries, several organizations 

and individuals joined forces to organize a meeting in 2001 for representatives from Sub-Saharan Africa 

to facilitate learning and hopefully catalyze phase out in that part of the world. The World Bank, 

together with US EPA, UNEP, and others, sponsored the meeting with financial support from IPIECA. 

There was wide representation at the Dakar, Senegal meeting by industry, governments, NGOs, and 

international organizations, bringing credence to the idea that lead needed to be phased out. The 

meeting was attended by representatives from 25 Sub-Saharan African nations which, by the end of the 

meeting, proclaimed their support for phasing out lead in fuel by 2005 in what has since been known as 

“The Declaration of Dakar” or “Dakar Declaration.”49

 42 Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl. 43 Methyl tertiary-butyl ether. 44 Ethyl tertiary-butyl ether. 45 In the case of MMT, concern amongst some is assuaged because it is believed to be sparsely used. 46 See: MECA, 2003, including, The Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning. “Don’t Repeat the Lead Gasoline Experiment.” 2002. 

www.globalleadnet.org; US EPA and US AID 1999; Walsh, M. 2007; The International Council on Clean Transportation, 2010. 47 Ibid. Also based on comments made during several interviews conducted for this evaluation. 48 Regarding MTBE, see: http://www.epa.gov/mtbe/water.htm; http://sd.water.usgs.gov/nawqa/vocns/mtbe_hh_summary.html; regarding 

ETBE, see: http://www.epa.gov/oust/oxygenat/oxyetbe.htm 49 “Declaration of Dakar.” Regional Conference on the Phasing-out of Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa. 2001. 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/pdf/DataDakarDecl.pdf
Page 16

“This [WSSD] Summit will be 

remembered not for the treaties, 

commitments, or eloquent declarations 

it produced, but for the first stirrings of 

a new way of governing the global 

commons, the beginnings of a shift 

from the stiff formal waltz of traditional 

diplomacy to the jazzier dance of 

improvisational solution oriented 

partnerships that may include nongovernment organizations, willing 

governments and other stakeholders.”

— Jonathan Lash, President, World 

Resources Institute, September 2002

Following the Dakar meeting, four sub-regional workshops were held in June 2002 at the UNEP 

headquarters in Nairobi to work on eliminating barriers to lead phase out and move implementation 

forward in Sub-Saharan Africa. 

At the same time, preparations were underway for the World Summit on Sustainable Development 

(WSSD) which was to take place in Johannesburg, South Africa in August and September that year.

50 At 

the time, attention was increasing around the option of pursuing voluntary public-private partnerships

to achieve international progress toward identified goals. Some saw this approach as a viable 

alternative to the approach of solving problems through binding international agreements, which can 

entail long-term negotiations to reach an agreement ultimately leading to varying degrees of success or 

failure. In the lead up to the 2002 WSSD, the US government was a prominent proponent for pursuing 

the launch of voluntary partnerships at the WSSD. 51 This approach also had its critics, as discussed 

below. 

In discussion with many of those that had been working to 

eliminate lead from fuel, the US government, IPIECA, 

UNEP, NGOs such as the Natural Resources Defense 

Council (NRDC), major petroleum producers, and several 

other parties developed a plan to launch a global 

voluntary partnership at the WSSD to support clean fuels 

and vehicles, including the worldwide elimination of lead 

from fuel. At the WSSD, the US EPA Administrator at the 

time, Christine Todd Whitman, along with UNEP Executive 

Director Klaus Töpfer and other environment ministers 

joined private sector and NGO leaders to announce the 

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles. PCFV was one of 

over 200 voluntary partnerships (also known as “Type II

Outcomes”) launched at the WSSD. Type II Outcomes 

represented public-private partnerships intended to 

support the implementation of Agenda 2152 without 

requiring formal diplomatic agreement. To many, the rise 

of the voluntary partnership approach was the most memorable outcome of the Summit.

The PCFV partners held their first meeting in November 2002 to establish the governance structure and 

plan future activities. Over the next year-plus, partners held discussions to determine how PCFV would 

be organized, the roles of partners, the goals and mission statement, and other governance rules. The 

 50 Around the same time, in December 2002, the third edition of World-Wide Fuel Charter (WWFC) included a key change for all gasoline fuel 

specification categories, calling for the elimination of lead in fuel worldwide to avoid potential health risks and damage to catalysts. 

Automakers and engine manufacturers around the world expressed support for efforts to end the use of lead in gasoline. See: Manufacturers. 

“Case for Banning.” 

51 Jens Martens. “Multistakeholder Partnerships – Future Models of Multilateralism?” Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. January 2007; Jonathan 

Freedland “Greens don't need the US.” The Guardian, 16 August 2002.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2002/aug/16/environment.usa

52 The 2002 WSSD was held 10 years after the 1992 UN Conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil which 

resulted in Agenda 21, a declaration outlining a global program of action on sustainable development.
Page 17

partners agreed on a mission statement and asked UNEP to set up a Clearing House (see PCFV 

Governance and Funding sections, below, and also Appendix E, PCFV Governance Rules) for the 

Partnership at UNEP’s Nairobi Headquarters. The Clearing House began work in February 2003.

53 The 

following chapter, PCFV Overview, provides more information about the Partnership’s design and 

operations. 

THE CURRENT CONTEXT FOR UNDERSTANDING THE PAST TEN YEARS OF PCFV 

The 2002 WSSD is viewed as a catalyst for a global shift to voluntary partnership approaches for

sustainable development.

54 The voluntary partnerships coming out of the 2002 WSSD also have had 

their share of skeptics and critics, including many developing countries, who, as articulated by former 

United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali in 2003, “looked with a degree of skepticism

‘jaundiced eye’ at these developments.”

55,56 As articulated in 2003 by Thandika Mkandawire, Director of 

the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, “These new relationships have attracted 

considerable attention and controversy.”

57

It is clear from past reports and interviews conducted for this evaluation that PCFV is viewed to be one 

of the most effective and successful voluntary partnerships not only emerging from the 2002 WSSD, but 

also in the context of the hundreds of partnerships in this arena. It is in this vein that those who know 

or have heard of PCFV – and the Lead Campaign in particular – are interested in learning more about 

PCFV and understanding whether there are lessons from PCFV’s design and implementation that could 

inform other voluntary partnerships and enhance the effectiveness of this approach. 

The timing of this evaluation coincides with preparations for the 2012 WSSD, also known as Rio + 20, 

and corresponding reflections on what has (and has not) been accomplished in the past two decades 

since the first WSSD in 1992. Interest in the effectiveness of voluntary partnership approaches is high, 

and there are many, widely varying, opinions about whether partnerships are, or can be, as effective as 

or more effective than other approaches to address international issues.

 53 United Nations Environment Programme. “Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles.” 54 See for example, the following excerpt from Vollmer, et. al 2009 “...But it was not until the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development 

that multi-stakeholder partnerships for sustainable development became a key focus of the international community. In particular, 

governments and the NGO community sought to engage the private sector more directly and more concretely at this summit.” Derek Vollmer, 

K Kathleen M McAllister, and Jacqueline Coté. “Clean Water and Sanitation for All: Global Water Challenge.” The National Academies 

International Chamber of Commerce, G Geneva published in Derek Vollmer and Rapporteur, Science and Technology for Sustainability Program; 

National Research Council, National Academies Press. 2009.

55 See, for example, Ann Zammit. “Development at Risk: Rethinking UN-Business Partnerships.” The South Centre and the United Nations 

Research Institute for Social Development. December 2003. 56 Ann Zammit. “Development at Risk: Rethinking UN-Business Partnerships.” The South Centre and the United Nations Research Institute for 

Social Development. December 2003., xiii.

57 Ibid., xi.
Page 18

CHAPTER 4. PCFV OVERVIEW

PCFV is a voluntary global initiative working to promote and support better air quality through the 

introduction of cleaner fuels and vehicles in developing and transitional countries. PCFV has three 

campaigns: (1) the Lead Campaign, aimed at eliminating lead in gasoline; (2) the Sulfur Campaign, aimed 

at reducing sulfur levels in diesel and gasoline; and (3) the Clean 

Vehicles Campaign, aimed at promoting the adoption of cleaner 

vehicle technologies. From its establishment, PCFV has involved 

partners from multiple sectors, and today, PCFV has more than 

100 partners, including governments, civil society organizations, 

private industry, and academic institutions (See Appendix F for a 

complete list of partners).

58 

The Partnership focuses its work in developing and transitional 

countries, divided into five regions: Sub-Saharan Africa; Asia and 

the Pacific; Central/Eastern Europe and Central Asia; Middle 

East, North Africa and West Asia; and Latin America and the 

Caribbean. Through 2009, the Partnership supported lead 

activities in 77 countries (through regional, sub-regional, and national work). See Appendix G for 

detailed information on PCFV Lead Campaign activities in these countries, the regions, and sub-regions.

As articulated in the Partnership’s Mission Statement, the Partnership’s mission is to: 

• Help developing countries to develop action plans to complete the global elimination of leaded 

gasoline and start to phase down sulfur in diesel and gasoline fuels, concurrent with adopting 

cleaner vehicle requirements;

• Support the development and adoption of cleaner fuel standards and cleaner vehicle 

requirements by providing a platform for exchange of experiences and successful practices in 

developed and developing countries as well as technical assistance;

• Develop public outreach materials, educational programmes, and awareness campaigns; adapt 

economic and planning tools for clean fuels and vehicles analyses in local settings; and support 

the development of enforcement and compliance programmes, with an initial focus on fuel 

adulteration; and

• Foster key partnerships between government, industry, NGOs, and other interested parties 

within a country and between countries to facilitate the implementation of cleaner fuel and 

vehicle commitments.59

 58 UNEP. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV). 2010. 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/leadphaseoutreport.pdf.. 59 UNEP. “Governance Rules.” 2003, http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/GovcRules.pdf.

“We came to it fairly organically 

– not so much set on a 

partnership as thinking about 

what we could do to transfer 

what we knew from the 

developed world to apply it to 

the developing context.” 

— NGO Partner Interviewee
Page 19

GOVERNANCE

The Partnership’s governance structure includes membership requirements, an Advisory Group, a 

centralized Clearing House, expectations around Partnership meetings and decisions, and use of 

Chatham House Rules. Each of these is briefly explained here, and the complete Governance Rules are 

provided in Appendix E. 

MEMBERSHIP

The Partnership is open to any government, international organization, industry organization, NGO, or 

academic institution that supports the Mission Statement of the Partnership. Organizations may join 

as full partners, and individuals with relevant expertise may join as associate partners. Associate 

partners have all the same rights and responsibilities as partners except for voting privileges. 

Membership applications are subject to Advisory Group review; objections by the Advisory Group to

membership applications are forwarded to the Partnership (no such objections have occurred to 

date). The same rules of procedure are necessary to suspend membership. No fees are required and 

each partner has equal representation. Once parties join (i.e., their application for membership has 

been accepted by the Advisory Group) there are no formal requirements for particular actions from 

partners except for those partners who choose to participate in the Advisory Group. In part due to 

this membership flexibility, the role of PCFV’s partners has varied from partner to partner, region to 

region, and year to year. 

ADVISORY GROUP

The Advisory Group, consisting of individuals that represent the Partnership’s diverse membership, 

directs much of PCFV’s strategic position. The Advisory Group prepares the Partnership’s annual budget 

and work plan and the annual financial and progress reports, reviews and approves new memberships, 

serves as public spokesperson for the Partnership, establishes agendas for the Partnership’s annual 

meetings, and advises the Clearing House when needed.60 

PARTNERSHIP MEETINGS

PCFV holds annual Global Partnership Meetings to inform members of current and past PCFV work;

approve the budget, work plan, and financial and progress reports; share information and experiences 

between partners; and continue the momentum of the PCFV’s work.61 Partners are not required to 

attend the annual meetings. 

CLEARING HOUSE ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES 

As described in the Partnership’s Governance Rules, UNEP serves as the Clearing House for PCFV. The 

Clearing House is responsible for day-to-day coordination of the Partnership’s activities, communication 

 60 UNEP. “Governance Rules.” 2003, http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/GovcRules.pdf. 61 Ibid..
Page 20

and outreach, management of the PCFV website, coordination of logistics for Partnership events such as 

the annual workshops, information gathering, and other supporting tasks.

62 The UNEP Clearing House 

also manages PCFV funds. PCFV donors (funders) typically provide funds to the Clearing House which 

then, with guidance from the partners, redistributes them in the form of contracts for implementation, 

workshop expenses and participant travel, and other costs associated with implementing the 

Partnership. The Clearing House acts essentially as the financial “consolidator,” accepting resources 

from partners and then either using them for Clearing House support or dispersing them out to 

countries or other entities, often leveraging several donors at once. UNEP provides in-kind financial 

support for Clearing House staff and office costs. 

TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF PCFV LEAD CAMPAIGN NATIONAL AND REGIONAL ACTIVITIES, 2002-2009

Activity Total

Lead Small Scale Funding Agreements/Memoranda of 

Understanding (2004-2009)

32

National lead activities (2002-2009) 39

Countries supported for national activities 30

Countries supported in regional and sub-regional lead 

activities (2002-2009)

67

Total number of countries supported in lead activities 

(whether at national, sub regional & regional level) 77

Source: PCFV Clearing House

The Clearing House also takes the lead in the implementation of the work program as approved by the 

Partners through initiating national projects and then often being joined by Partners. As of 2009, the 

Clearing House had undertaken regional and national activities in 77 countries (see Table 2 and 

Appendix G, which provides more details on these activities.) On a tactical level these activities included 

the following: 

 Developing public awareness raising materials and supporting various campaigns to inform 

consumers about the health and environmental impacts associated with lead emissions; 

 Providing technical assistance on issues such as the use of additives, appropriate octane levels, 

and impacts on vehicle fleets; 

 Publishing documents to provide guidance on technical issues;

 Administering the PCFV website which serves as a global clearing house of information related 

to the Partnership’s campaigns;

 Distributing partner funding in the form of contracts for on-the-ground work (generally, donors 

provide funding to UNEP who awards and administers the contracts);

 Identifying and working with leaders (individuals and organizations) on local, regional, and 

national scales to implement actions in support of the Campaign goals;

 Producing locally relevant communication and outreach materials;

 Organizing annual partner workshops to discuss progress and impediments toward the goals of 

the three campaigns;

 Organizing regional and local workshops to disseminate information and raise awareness;

 62 Ibid., 7.
Page 21

 Recruiting in-country advocates and implementers; and

 Coordinating and helping to staff the ad-hoc working groups.

This list of activities does not, however, convey the breadth and depth of UNEP’s Clearing House role, 

which has grown to include serving as a source of extensive technical expertise and core strategic 

leadership.

Table 3 provides a more strategic “lens” on how the Lead Campaign works, in this case in the form of a 

summary from 2009 which details the Campaign’s strategy for promoting the elimination of lead in the 

13 countries that still used leaded fuel at that time. Exhibit 7 in Chapter 6 provides an additional 

perspective on the Campaign’s implementation, in this case from the perspective of the work that PCFV 

did to support lead phase out in Kenya. Appendix G details a complete list of PCFV Lead Campaign 

regional and national activities through 2009. 

CHATHAM HOUSE RULES 

Partners are required to adhere to Chatham House Rules. This means that participants are free to use 

the information or opinions disclosed to them during Partnership meetings and working group 

meetings, subject to two conditions: (1) neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speakers, nor 

that of any other participant at that meeting may be revealed; and (2) it may not be divulged that the 

information was received at that meeting.

AD-HOC WORKING GROUPS AND OTHER AD-HOC EFFORTS

The Partnership establishes ad-hoc working groups when doing so will support progress toward the 

mission. Previous or current working groups include the Valve Seat Recession Working Group, Octane 

Working Group, Vehicles Working Group, and Sulfur Working Group. Other ad-hoc efforts have included 

co-developing a Toolkit for Clean Fleet Strategy Development63 with PCFV partner TNT64; as previously 

mentioned, writing reports to address specific issues of concern (e.g., Recommended Practices for the 

Decommissioning, Dismantling and Disposal of Lead alkyl Compound)

65; producing educational videos; 

and, more recently, developing a Clean Fuels and Vehicles Database.66

 63 Available: http://www.unep.org/tnt-unep/toolkit/ 64 This global transport company was formerly known as Thomas Nationwide Transport. See www.tnt.com for more information. 65 This publication and other PCFV publications are available at: http://hqweb.unep.org/transport/pcfv/publications/publications.asp 66 PCFV’s videos and clean fuels database are available at: http://hqweb.unep.org/transport/pcfv/resources/resources.asp.
Page 22

TABLE 3. GLOBAL LEADED GASOLINE PHASE-OUT – DRAFT 2009 PCFV STRATEGY FOR REMAINING LEADED COUNTRIES*

STRATAEGY & PLANNED INITIATIVES

1 • Using refineries organization to fast-track the unleaded options.

• Continue engaging both nationally and at a sub-regional level. [X] are slotted to participate in the 

upcoming regional and sub-regional meeting early 2010.

• Funding available for [X] refinery upgrade and government commitment has been made.

2 • [X] invited to the regional meeting.

• Pursuing an agreement with [X] for a national level activity that will address the issue more holistically as 

part of a transport Emission Reduction Strategy and hence garner more government attention.

3 • Continue dialogue with the [X] Ministry of Environment contact.

• Continue seeking contacts within the relevant Ministries.

• Invite [X] country to regional meetings.

• Consider engaging partners to strengthen case for action.

• Seek local partner(s) to drive and coordinate national clean fuels and vehicle objectives.

4 • [X] scheduled to host the regional meeting as well as attend the sub-regional workshop.

• Finalize the national sensitization program.

5 • Propose funding for policy development and refineries option assessment including cost of sending an 

expert to look at options and advise on ‘perceived’ bottlenecks.

• Support national workshop at [X] ministerial policy level to track delivery of commitment 

• Send and facilitate an expert to review temporary solutions prior to refinery modernization.

6 • Identify a Partner to engage and support [X] national government directly.

• Consider possibility of partnering with a high level UN agency active in the area e.g. [X].

• Hold workshop when the security situation improves.

7 • Commission a fuel quality study. 

• Sign strategic agreement with [X] Regional office for issue to be handled under their protocol.

8 • Propose to fund a transport study that would perhaps be more useful to government.

• Include fuel quality component to study.

• Work closely with [X] Regional Office and “piggy back” on their air quality programs and forums such as 

government forums on air quality, etc.

9 • Support the legislation for the banning of lead in [X] as it has been established that the actual fuel on the 

ground in the country is unleaded. 

10 • Establish strategic partnership to dialogue and provide facilitation.

11 • [X] country will be included in the sub-regional cooperation and coordination framework and mechanism 

for cleaner fuels and vehicles in region.

• A letter asking ministers to reconsider their import arrangements will be sent in February.

12 • Support ongoing national working group in [X] and to launch national awareness campaign to publicize 

end 2009 phase-out 

• [X] on track to phase out lead in Dec ’09 /Jan 2010.

13 • Include in the sub-regional cooperation and coordination framework and mechanism for cleaner fuels and 

vehicles in [X] region.

• Follow up letters from [X] sent to Ministers of Environment, Energy and Health following discussions.

Note: Identifiable information has been removed.

Source: PCFV Clearing House
Page 23

EXHIBIT 4. PCFV CONTRIBUTORS

(Listed in order of size of cumulative financial contribution 

since 2002)

› US Government (US EPA & US Agency for 

International Development) 

› UNEP 

› European Union

› GEF (funding has not gone to the Lead 

Campaign)

› Government of The Netherlands 

› FIA Foundation 

› TNT (formerly known as Thomas Nationwide 

Transport)

› ExxonMobil 

› International Petroleum Industry Environmental 

Conservation Association (IPIECA) 

› Government of Canada 

› Asian Clean Fuels Association (ACFA) 

› Afton Chemicals 

› American Petroleum Institute 

Includes contribution received by PCFV by May 2011. (Does not 

include pledges and projects under development) Source: 

UNEP

More information on many of these donors can be found at: 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/Donors/donors.asp 

FUNDING

Where possible, partners voluntarily provide funds. The Partnership’s cumulative funding since 2002 

has totaled approximately US $11.4 million, of which the Lead Campaign’s costs have been roughly US 

$6 million.67 Partners’ contributions have also included in-kind support such as staff time and travel

which are not included in the PCFV funding totals, but have played an important role in the outcomes 

achieved by the Partnership. UNEP, the US government, and the European Union have been the 

Partnership’s biggest financial contributors to date. To provide funds to UNEP, “donor partners” 

established their own funding mechanisms that allowed them to track and guide funding in cooperation 

with UNEP to meet the needs of the Partnership while aligning actions with the priorities of their 

governments. Exhibit 4 lists all of PCFV’s contributors since 2002.

PCFV partners, as well as others involved in lead phase out, have also invested both time and money on 

PCFV implementation at the regional, national, and local levels.

Several conditions that supported the Lead 

Campaign’s effectiveness were in place 

prior to its launch in 2002. These existing 

conditions enabled the Campaign to make 

progress soon after its launch. Notably, in 

addition to the Partnership funding 

described above, substantial investments 

(on the order of billions of USD) had been 

made decades earlier by the automobile 

industry to develop automobiles that could 

effectively use catalytic converters, which 

necessitated the use of unleaded gasoline 

in such vehicles. These investments were 

made largely in response to mandates to 

reduce air pollution from vehicles, not 

specifically to eliminate lead. Substantial 

investments were also made over the 

decades to understand and communicate 

the link between lead and public health. 

These existing conditions, referred to in 

this evaluation as “preceding 

developments,” are discussed in greater 

detail in Chapter 5.

 67 Includes contributions received by PCFV by November 2011, including UNEP in-kind support and contributions to PCFV for its work on the 

Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Source: UNEP PCFV Clearing House.
Page 24

“There was a universal agreement between 

policy makers, the vehicle industry, and fuels 

industry that lead was a bad guy. Lead had 

outlived its usefulness. There had been a 

debate for some years about how banning of 

lead was a constraint for trade; by the year 

2000 all those fights were over. There was a 

consensus that lead was toxic and you can 

get it out of fuels relatively inexpensively. 

There were a lot of people especially, but not 

only, in Africa who were being poisoned 

unnecessarily. You had all the stakeholders 

agreeing on that....It wasn’t vague or elusive; 

couldn’t be covered by generalities.” 

— Industry Partner Interviewee 

CHAPTER 5. FINDINGS ON PCFV LEAD CAMPAIGN

STARTUP AND DESIGN 

The evaluators sought to understand what can be learned from the startup and design of PCFV and the 

Lead Campaign, and whether this early phase led to the Lead Campaign’s effectiveness later on. The 

evaluation team found that the following factors supported both a strong start and successful 

implementation of the Campaign: (1) preceding developments; (2) a timely opportunity with support 

from senior leaders; (3) a clear, measurable, and ambitious-yet-achievable goal; and (4) strong 

partnership design and design process that fosters ownership and trust. 

1. PRECEDING DEVELOPMENTS 

Several conditions that ultimately supported the Lead Campaign’s effectiveness were in place prior to 

the conception and development of PCFV. These included strong evidence of public health impacts of 

lead in gasoline, decades of experience showing the feasibility and affordability of making the change to 

unleaded fuel in developed countries, a scenario where most stakeholders had much to gain and little to 

lose from the change, commitment to facilitate change by a group of experts representing core 

stakeholder groups, and existing momentum for change in the developing world as evidenced by the 

commitment to phase out lead made by Sub-Saharan African nations in 2001. A brief history of the 

events leading up to the launch of PCFV in 2002 is provided in Chapter 3.

STRONG EVIDENCE OF PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACTS, 

RAPID REDUCTIONS IN BLOOD LEAD LEVELS POST 

PHASE OUT

Prior to the launch of the Partnership strong 

evidence existed of the link of lead exposure to 

dramatic public health impacts, particularly amongst 

children, as well as evidence showing drops in blood 

lead levels after removing lead in fuel in the US and 

a few other countries (see examples in Figure 1 on 

page p. 13 and figure 2). Over the course of the 

years following PCFV’s launch, UNEP collected 

additional pre-lead phase out data in additional 

countries, supporting the evidence base for other 

regions. Several developing country interviewees

described how, prior to the involvement of PCFV, 

they were not aware of how lead exposure from fuel 

was affecting their populations. Some had heard 

anecdotal stories and a few had examples of refinery 

employees falling ill with chronic illnesses – with 
Page 25

lead as a suspected culprit – but they had not seen the “hard” evidence. 

The Partnership was, in many instances, providing the first evidence to many developing countries of

the relationship between leaded fuel, blood lead levels, and troubling public health impacts, particularly 

to children. Workshops conveyed evidence from the earliest studies, conducted in the US, on these 

connections as well as from subsequent studies from other countries, such as a 2002 study on health 

benefits after the implementation of the unleaded gas policy in Thailand that showed blood lead levels 

in traffic police officers decreased dramatically from 28.14 micrograms per deciliter in 1993 to 5.58 

micrograms per deciliter in 2000.68 The study also calculated the monetary value of health benefits 

resulting from reductions in IQ loss on lifetime learning in children, and in hypertension, heart disease, 

stroke, and premature mortality in adults. Benefits were calculated to be US $280 million, while the 

costs of the phase out were US $8 million.

69 

Conveying this information to decision makers in those countries still using leaded fuel proved a 

powerful driver for change. Both government and industry partners interviewed explained that they 

knew as soon as they saw the public health evidence that they had to make the change happen in their 

countries; doing nothing in light of this information was not an option. They then needed the capacity 

and resources to make it happen; in the absence of these, any support that PCFV could provide (in a 

constructive, non-threatening way) was welcomed. 

FIGURE 2. BLOOD LEAD LEVELS AND LEAD IN FUEL IN HUNGARY, 1985 (PRE-PHASE OUT) AND 1995 (POST PHASE-OUT)

Source: PCFV Clearing House, Summary of Blood Lead Levels Pre and Post70

 68 Chulalongkom University and Pollution Control Department (PCD). The Study on “Unleaded Gasoline Policy: Health Benefits for School 

Children and Traffic Policemen in Bangkok Metropolitan Administration”. 2002. in Asian Development Bank and Clean Air Initiative for Asian 

Cities Center. “Country synthesis report on urban air quality management: Thailand.” December 2006.

69Asian Development Bank and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center. “Country synthesis report on urban air quality management: 

Thailand.” December 2006.

70 UNEP Summary of Blood Lead Levels Pre and Post; Magda Lovei. Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline in Central and Eastern Europe: 

Health Issues, Feasibility, and Policies. World Bank. June 1997

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0

5

10

15

20

25

1985

1995

1985

1995

Lead contents in gasoline (g/l) Blood Lead Level (μg/dl)

Petrol: Blood:

1985: 0.7 grams/ liter 1985: 22 ug/dl

1995: 0.15 grams/ liter 1995: 6 ug/dl

 
Page 26

DECADES OF EXPERIENCE DEMONSTRATING FEASIBILITY AND AFFORDABILITY OF PHASE OUT

At initial workshops and meetings, the UNEP PCFV Clearing House, often with assistance from other 

partners, provided information to new partners on the technical feasibility and affordability of switching 

to unleaded fuel. Long-term costs to consumers varied depending on a variety of factors, but were 

generally low – less than $0.03 per liter of gasoline (see Exhibit 5). The public and automobile 

manufacturers did not incur costs unless they chose to outfit their vehicles with catalytic converters; 

however, PCFV repeatedly had to work to dispel the misconception that leaded fuel would harm older 

vehicle fleets through valve seat recession. Information about the feasibility of eliminating lead from 

fuel, coupled with successful phase out examples from other developing countries including China, 

India, Vietnam, Thailand, and El Salvador,

71 helped to convince many countries that they could make this 

change happen. (See Exhibit 6 for an explanation on how lead phase out works).

 71 MECA. “Case for Banning Lead in Gasoline.” January 2003.” 

EXHIBIT 5. THE COST OF LEAD PHASE OUT 

Petroleum refineries bear most of the cost of lead elimination. Modern, conversion refineries can substitute 

lead at a considerably lower cost than less advanced skimming refineries, due to a wider choice of technical 

alternatives available in modern refineries to increase gasoline octane without lead. Complex refineries with 

conversion capacity tend to have lower lead removal costs than do technically less-advanced refineries with 

limited process options. Refinery modernization, therefore, generally facilitates the phase out of lead. Studies 

conducted in the 1990s indicated that the cost of lead removal is generally in the range of US $0.01-$0.03/liter 

of gasoline depending on the factors outlined above. Today, estimated costs of eliminating leaded gasoline 

range widely from less than US $0.001 per liter to $0.02 per liter, noting that associated refinery upgrade cost 

often pays for itself in a short period through increases in productivity and efficiency after the lead additive is no 

longer used.

The cost of refinery adjustment is also influenced by several other factors, including: 

› the initial lead concentration in gasoline;

› limits on other gasoline properties (e.g., volatility, aromatics, and benzene); 

› the processing capabilities of the refinery; 

› planned refinery modernization or modification to meet evolving product demands;

› octane requirements of the vehicle fleet; and

› the price of octane-enhancing gasoline additives. 

Each refinery has a unique technical structure and set of alternatives to replace lead, and the costs of required 

investments and technical measures necessary to support the phase out of lead are case-by-case.

In all cases, the cost of lead phase out within a country is greatly outweighed by the benefits. 

Sources: “Removal of Lead from Gasoline.” Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. World Bank Group. July 1998, 91-95.; “Removal of Lead 

from Gasoline: Technical Considerations.” Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. World Bank Group. July 1998, 240-244.; Magda Lovei, 

“Phasing Out Lead From Gasoline: Worldwide Experiences and Policy Implications.” World Bank Technical Paper No. 397. World Bank, 1998. ; D. 

Hirshfield and J. Kolb. “Phasing out Lead from Gasoline: Feasibility and Costs.” Implementing the Environmental Action Programme for Central and 

Eastern Europe. World Bank, Environment Department, Washington, D.C. 1995.
Page 27

EXHIBIT 6. HOW DOES LEAD PHASE OUT WORK? 

Once countries determine that they want to phase out lead, the following are important considerations:

› Does the country import leaded fuel, refine leaded fuel, or both?

› In what timeline does the country want to achieve the phase out of lead?

For countries whose only source of leaded fuel is by import:

The process for eliminating leaded fuel in a country who imports it is relatively simple. The country can switch to 

unleaded fuel relatively quickly by choosing to stop importing leaded fuel and instead obtain only unleaded fuel. 

Some countries were able to complete this process in only a few weeks, enabled by the lower price and greater 

availability of unleaded fuel on the market (which became increasingly available as more countries went 

unleaded). Before the unleaded fuel is added into the storage and distribution systems of the importing country, 

they must “flush” the infrastructure of the leaded fuel to ensure that only unleaded fuel is dispensed. Once this 

has been completed, the country can begin to provide its population with unleaded fuel. 

For countries who refine leaded fuel:

Many refining countries have successfully completed the transition to unleaded fuels, though the makeup of the 

refinery or refineries can determine the speed and process with which the country completes this process. Some 

refineries are able to complete this process quickly by “importing cleaner feedstock, adjusting octane standards, 

or making minor modification of refinery equipment.” There are also cases where transitioning refineries can 

take longer due to necessary upgrades to equipment. 

Petroleum refineries can be categorized into two groups: skimming refineries and conversion refineries. 

Skimming refineries are relatively simple, comprising crude distillation, treating, upgrading, and blending. 

Conversion refineries are relatively complex, comprising crude distillation, treating, upgrading, conversion, and 

blending. The level of effort to transition a refinery can depend on the type of refinery. There is a wider choice 

of technical alternatives available in modern, complex refineries to increase gasoline octane without lead. These 

factors can influence the technical implications, cost, and timeline for eliminating lead from fuel.

There are immediate, medium-term, and long-term strategies for eliminating lead in countries that refine fuel:

Immediate: Lead additions ceased: existing lead levels drop rapidly over several months until unleaded 

conversion is achieved.

Medium-term: Segregated distribution system is arranged from existing system or new parallel system 

constructed. Phase out takes place over several (less than 5) years.

Long-term: Segregated distribution system is arranged from existing system or new parallel system is 

constructed. Unleaded gasoline is introduced at selected sites and is gradually introduced countrywide as newer 

catalyst-equipped vehicles are introduced. Phase out takes place over 5 to10 years

Each of these strategies has pros and cons and can be greatly influenced based on if the country imports or 

refines fuel (and if it refines fuel, what type of refineries it has). 

Sources: IPIECA, Getting the Lead Out: Downstream strategies and resources for phasing out leaded gasoline. Fuels and Vehicles Working Group 

Report Series: Volume II Available: http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/Pub-IPIECA-LeadOut.pdf; “Removal of Lead from Gasoline.” Pollution 

Prevention and Abatement Handbook. World Bank Group. July 1998, 91-95.; “Removal of Lead from Gasoline: Technical Considerations.” Pollution 

Prevention and Abatement Handbook. World Bank Group. July 1998, 240-244.; Magda Lovei, “Phasing Out Lead From Gasoline: Worldwide Experiences 

and Policy Implications.” World Bank Technical Paper No. 397. World Bank, 1998.; D. Hirshfield and J. Kolb. “Phasing out Lead from Gasoline: Feasibility 

and Costs.” Implementing the Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe. World Bank, Environment Department, Washington, D.C. 

1995.
Page 28

“There was a growing frustration with the 

inability to create international agreement of 

nations that could be implemented and 

enforced on meaningful environmental issues. 

We were increasingly feeling like we needed 

a different model for how to make progress in 

international issues, and that waiting for the 

entire global community of nations to agree 

on something was not effective, and even if 

they did agree, it did not mean that it would be 

implemented on the ground. 

We would work on this discrete issue in 

countries where the host country would 

actually want to solve the problem, and we 

would help them to solve it. 

The partnership model made sense because 

it brings together a group of like minded 

institutions and people that want to solve the 

discrete problem... If you agree with the goals 

of the partnership, you can be a partner.”

— NGO Partner Interviewee

A WIN-WIN SCENARIO WITH FEW “LOSERS” 

Eliminating lead was a “win-win” scenario for nearly 

all stakeholders, offering clear benefits and no 

significant financial costs to refineries, government 

agencies, NGOs, gasoline station owners, or the 

general public. There is currently one remaining 

manufacturer of the TEL additive, United-Kingdombased Innospec72 (formerly Octel), which has not 

involved itself in PCFV.

COMMITMENT TO FACILITATE CHANGE BY 

EXPERTS REPRESENTING CORE STAKEHOLDER 

GROUPS

As discussed in the introductory chapter, by 2002, a 

group of motivated and committed experts from 

business (including ExxonMobil), government

(including the US government), international 

organizations (including the United Nations and the 

World Bank), and international NGOs (including 

NRDC and IPIECA) discussed how they could work 

together to collectively facilitate lead phase out in 

the developing world. This group had a powerful 

combination of expertise, motivation, sectoral and

organizational composition, and global reach. 

PRIOR MOMENTUM

Prior to PCFV’s formal launch in 2002, the effort to 

phase out lead in Sub-Saharan Africa was already off to a strong start. As discussed in the Introduction, 

the ad-hoc group of experts described above convened a meeting in June 2001 in Dakar, Senegal. The 

subject of the meeting, attended by over 100 delegates from Sub-Saharan Africa, was eliminating lead in 

this part of the world. The outcome of this meeting, a commitment to phase out lead in Africa by 2005 

(a.k.a. the Dakar Declaration),

73 was a major milestone in the growing global campaign. Within months 

following the Dakar Declaration, the US EPA, World Bank, IPIECA, and UNEP sponsored five sub-regional 

meetings, which were convened to move from the intent of phase out to the actual work needed to 

make phase out happen. 

 72 See: http://www.innospecinc.com/octane-additives.html 73 “Declaration of Dakar.” 
Page 29

2. A TIMELY OPPORTUNITY WITH SUPPORT FROM SENIOR LEADERSHIP

The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg provided a timely 

opportunity to launch a formal initiative to eliminate lead worldwide. As discussed in the Introduction, 

over 200 voluntary partnerships were launched at the WSSD as a supplementary means of supporting 

the implementation of Agenda 2174 (though this approach was also criticized by some as a way for 

governments to avoid taking responsibility for action). Most of the ad-hoc groups that had informally 

joined forces the prior year decided to pursue a voluntary partnership using the WSSD as the “launching 

pad” with public support from high-level political leadership, including US EPA’s Administrator.

75

The new partnership would aim to globally eliminate lead in gasoline and phase down sulfur in diesel 

and gasoline, while concurrently adopting cleaner vehicle technologies. UNEP, with the support of its 

Executive Director Klaus Töpfer, volunteered to serve as a neutral PCFV Clearing House to provide 

information, coordination, and secretariat support. Rob de Jong, Head of Urban Environment in UNEP, 

was asked to start building the Clearing House and coordinate PCFV from UNEP. 

3. CLEAR, MEASUREABLE, AND AMBITIOUS-YET-ACHIEVABLE GOAL

The Lead Campaign’s clear goal of eliminating lead from fuel helped to frame the Partnership’s intent 

from the beginning and setting target dates for achieving this goal allowed for progress tracking. In 

2005, when it became clear that Sub-Saharan African countries would meet their commitment to phase 

out lead by the end of that year, the partners chose a strategy of targeting 2008 for global phase out of 

leaded fuel to spur rapid progress.

76,77 The 2008 target date was ambitious. It sent a message that rapid 

phase out was desirable and feasible, with the intent of driving faster phase out than a longer term 

target date may have produced, even if this meant that the partners understood that some countries 

would not meet this date. (Interviewees also reflected on this type of strategic decision around 

identifying goals and target dates in relation to the Sulfur Campaign.) 

Progress on the Lead Campaign was also easily measureable as countries were classified as leaded, dual 

(leaded and unleaded), or unleaded, supporting easy tracking. Simple and easy-to-visualize tracking had 

a strong co-benefit of applying peer pressure to countries that had not yet made the change when they 

would see neighboring countries making more rapid progress in the status maps that the Clearing House 

presented at meetings, produced in publications, and posted on the PCFV website. Several interviewees 

described how the global and regional maps of countries that had eliminated lead (see example maps 

from Sub-Saharan Africa in Figure 3 and globally in Figure 4) had the effect of providing an incentive for

those countries to take action so as not to fall behind their peers or be the last in their region to 

 74 Agenda 21 is the global action plan for sustainable development agreed at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio 

de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. 75 Following the Dakar meeting in 2001, the World Bank remained engaged in efforts to eliminate fuel in parallel to PCFV, including sponsoring 

assistance to Ethiopia, Mauritania, Mali, and Tanzania to develop lead phase out action plans. Source: Bultynck and Reliquet, 2003. 76 IPIECA. “Partnerships in the Oil and Gas Industry: The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles.” 2006. 77 United Nations Environment Programme. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV). 

2010, 7-8. http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/leadphaseoutreport.pdf.
Page 30

eliminate lead. Country-by-country status matrices discussed at Partnership meetings had a similar 

effect.

FIGURE 3: MAP OF PROGRESS OF LEAD PHASE OUT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Source: PCFV Clearing House

Note: These maps only show lead phase out in Sub-Saharan Africa; northern Africa is part of a different PCFV region.

June 2001

 

 

Leaded

Leaded and unleaded

Unleaded

September 2002

September 2004 September 2005 January 2006

(A sub-regional agreement (PCFV was launched)

reached to phase out leaded

gasoline by January 1, 2006)

September 2003
Page 31

FIGURE 4: GLOBAL LEAD PHASE OUT PROGRESS BETWEEN 2002 AND 2011

Source: PCFV Clearing House. Note: The Lead Campaign has not been active in all developing or transitional countries. 

Some countries and regions (e.g., Latin America) had phased out lead from fuel prior to or independent of PCFV..

January 2011
Page 32

“The existence of formal partner 

selection procedures and related 

partnership governance and 

management rules helps to provide 

public assurance even if they may 

rarely need to be used in practice. 

Investing time for this at the early 

stages helps to avoid potential conflict 

that could emerge later in their 

absence.” 

— UNEP Review of Global Multistakeholder Partnerships (2008) 

4. STRONG PARTNERSHIP DESIGN AND DESIGN PROCESS THAT FOSTERS

OWNERSHIP AND TRUST

PCFV’s basic design features are fairly standard, consisting of a mission statement, goals and objectives, 

basic requirements for participation, an advisory body, a secretariat function, and working groups as 

needed (see Chapter 4 PCFV Overview for additional explanation).

78 It is the details of these features, 

such as a consensus-based decision process, use of the Chatham House Rules at meetings, and 

establishment of a neutral “honest broker” Clearing House, as well as the investment in building 

agreement on these features that bolstered partnership rapport and sense of joint ownership, mutual 

trust, and respect amongst the partners. Strong relationships were built during the design phase, and 

since that time the partners have rarely needed to call upon the formal governance rules because of the 

strength of the rapport established during the first few years. Prior reports (EU 2009 and UNEP 2008) 

also have identified the PCFV’s governance structure as engendering a sense of ownership and security 

among the partners.79

Open membership also likely had the result of attracting partners who may have been interested in 

joining simply to stay informed about Partnership decisions and activities, though over time the strength

and success of the Partnership may have in fact built trust and united all partners, including some 

perhaps unconventional or initially skeptical ones, to 

engage actively toward a compelling common goal. 

Notably, certain features of the design, such as not 

requiring a financial contribution or not putting limits on 

the number of members, had caused concern amongst 

some partners that members would not be truly 

committed to the Campaign’s goals or that, given the 

consensus decision process, too many members from a 

particular sector could sway decision making toward a 

particular agenda; however according to interviewees 

these potential issues have not materialized. Similarly, 

concern that too many members could be unmanageable 

have not played out, which one interviewee speculated 

was because some members have not remained active 

after their initial involvement, keeping the number of 

engaged members to a manageable amount.

 78 Other partnerships and international stakeholder initiatives that are similarly structured include the UNEP Global Mercury Partnership, the 

Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, the Stop TB Partnership, and the Forest Stewardship Council. 79 In a 2009 report entitled “Cleaner Transport for Better Urban Air Quality and Reduced Global Emissions,” the European Union described the 

governance structure of PCFV as ensuring ownership of actions and results by local stakeholders, in part due to all PCFV partners jointly making 

decisions. A 2008 UNEP review of global multi-stakeholder partnerships also found that the mere existence of governance and management 

rules has provided a sense of security amongst the partners even if there has not been occasion to call upon or enforce these rules in practices. 

(UNEP Sources: European Union. Monitoring Report: Cleaner Transport for Better Urban Air Quality and Reduced Global Emissions. 2009; United 

Nations Environment Programme Global Mercury Partnership. Review of Global Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships. 2008. 

http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/UGMP/INF%207.pdf.)
Page 33

Finally, the Partnership decided to not include official verification of unleaded status or a “penalty” for 

false claims of phase out on the premise that doing so would counter the partners’ trust-base and likely

discourage partnership participation from the outset. Instead, partner governments provide the 

Clearing House with a formal letter stating they are unleaded when this has occurred, and the 

Partnership seeks independent sources of information as additional confirmation that a country is leadfree. Industry partners have provided PCFV access to data from a commercially available database,

which has supported claims of current status. The Clearing House has also conducted some limited 

sampling and testing of blood lead levels that have further substantiated lead-free statements; however, 

these data do not constitute a comprehensive representative indication of fuel lead levels in any given

country.

80,81,82 Informal peer pressure has also motivated countries to complete phase out on the 

ground and maintain a respectable position in the Partnership.

 

 80 John Walsh. “UN PCFV Fuel Sampling & Testing Program: April 2010 Update.” UNEP PCFV 8th Global Partnership Meeting. PowerPoint. 

http://www.unep.org/transport/PCFV/PDF/8GPM_MichaelwalshFuelSampling.pdf

81 These countries included: Hungary, Kenya, Ghana, and Indonesia. See: United Nations Environment Programme. “Summary of BLL Pre & Post 

Leaded Gasoline Phase Out.” PowerPoint.; United Nations Environment Programme. “Benefits of Lead Phase-out.” 82 Unknown Author. “UN PCFV – Fuel Samples & Lead Data: Draft Proposal.” 
Page 34

FIGURE 5: EXAMPLE PCFV OUTREACH 

MATERIAL

Source: United Nations Environment 

Programme. Target 2008: Global 

Elimination of Leaded Petrol: A Report of 

the Partnership for Clean Fuels and 

Vehicles (PCFV). 

FIGURE 6: EXAMPLE PCFV OUTREACH 

MATERIAL

Source: United Nations Environment 

Programme. Target 2008: Global 

Elimination of Leaded Petrol: A Report of 

The Partnership For Clean Fuels And 

Vehicles (PCFV). 

CHAPTER 6. FINDINGS ON LEAD CAMPAIGN 

IMPLEMENTATION 

Similar to the Lead Campaign’s startup and design, 

implementation of the Lead Campaign had a combination of 

features which likely contributed to the Campaign’s 

effectiveness. These features, and lessons thereof, are divided 

into four topic areas:

1. Multi-faceted implementation strategy covers key 

issues and engages key stakeholders;

2. Partners bring expertise and commitment through 

complementary roles; 

3. Modest yet focused PCFV resource investments build 

awareness and capacity; and

4. Partners address challenges and learn through 

experience

1. MULTI-FACETED IMPLEMENTATION 

STRATEGY COVERS KEY ISSUES AND 

ENGAGES KEY STAKEHOLDERS

The Partnership’s implementation strategy provides insight 

into how a voluntary partnership can facilitate widespread 

change that benefits both public and private interests. The 

strategy has involved a combination of multi-faceted 

awareness, education, and technical capacity building efforts 

with government, industry, and civil society; deference to 

national partners’ leadership; and behind-the-scenes support 

and advocacy. The UNEP 2010 evaluation included a graphic 

that depicts a high-level theory of change for the Lead 

Campaign, which is included below as Figure 7 to provide a 

visual explanation of how the Partnership operated at the 

national level (noting that the UNEP report focused on the 

role of UNEP within the Partnership). This theory of change 

depicts a logical progression from Partnership activities to 

phase out, and may be helpful for gaining a conceptual 

understanding of the Partnership’s national level 

implementation approach. It does not capture how the 

Partnership worked more broadly across regions and globally. 

The diagram includes components such as passing national 
Page 35

legislation, requiring the importation of automobiles designed to run on unleaded fuel, and fuel 

monitoring that may not have occurred in each country. Further, as noted by some interviewees who 

were most familiar with PCFV’s history and development, Partnership activities and phase out 

implementation often occurred in a more evolutionary manner and not in the same way or order in each 

country, therefore this theory of change depicts a more linear and premeditated process than typically 

occurred in practice. This diagram is nonetheless included in order to help provide a visual description 

of how the Lead Campaign was intended to work. 

FIGURE 7: PCFV THEORY OF CHANGE (UNEP 2010): 

HOW THE PARTNERSHIP WAS IMPLEMENTED ON THE NATIONAL LEVEL

OUTCOMES IMPACT 

DRIVERS

INTERMEDIATE 

STATES

Effective 

(UN) 

coordination 

on unleaded 

fuel

Monitoring of lead in 

petrol

Public 

awareness 

Raised

Vehicle industry 

supports phase out

Leaded fuel 

uneconomical for 

industry 

Oil industry supports 

unleaded

Oil Industry 

awareness 

raised

Government 

awareness 

raised

Government 

supports phase out

Active public support 

for actions to phase 

out leaded

Continued effective 

(UN) coordination on 

unleaded fuel

Only unleaded 

vehicles imported

National action 

plan to phase out 

lead 

Leaded 

petrol 

phased 

out 

Standards for fuel 

set 

Legislation 

enacted 

IMPROVED

HEALTH,

social and 

economic 

benefits
Page 36

“We work at many levels: We often 

work at the ministerial level to achieve 

high-level mandate for these issues, 

but implement at the local level. So, 

for example in Africa, we got 

agreement from all the African 

ministers, had national level 

workshops with all stakeholders to 

develop action plans, and then 

initiated on-the-ground activities: 

public outreach, training for gas 

station attendants, blood lead testing, 

etc.” 

— Metcalfe, et al., 2008.

“We try to have early 

successes to build the 

interest of the partners.” 

— Metcalfe, et al., 2008

Building on the findings from the 2010 UNEP evaluation,

83 this current evaluation has identified the 

following key aspects of the Lead Campaign’s implementation strategy: 

Raise Awareness in a Neutral, Educational Manner at the Regional Level

The Partnership invited key stakeholders from many countries to regional workshops in a low pressure

manner, assuming no further commitment or formal joining 

of the Partnership. The workshops involved explaining the 

evidence connecting leaded fuel to public health impacts, 

including the neurodevelopmental effects of lead exposure 

to unborn children and small children, and the fact that the 

most significant source of exposure came from the lead 

additives in gasoline. For some stakeholders, the 

workshops served as the critical “eye opener” about the 

public health impacts from lead exposure and feasibility of 

eliminating lead from fuel, and this new information was 

powerful enough to quickly lead to lead phase out 

commitments, particularly when coupled with the other 

information provided at the workshops as described below. 

For a detailed list of Lead Campaign workshops and other 

national and regional activities through 2009, see Appendix 

G. 

Some country stakeholders are reported to have requested 

additional, region-specific or country-specific evidence of blood lead levels, saying that this additional 

information would make a stronger case for their own country to commit to phase out. In other words, 

showing the evidence on blood lead level drops in the US and perhaps one or two other countries did 

not create the strongest possible case. As the Campaign progressed from year to year, the Partnership 

was able to collect pre- and post- phase out blood lead level data in several countries, and then share 

this information at Partnership meetings and workshops, creating an even more compelling case that 

the use of leaded fuel was highly correlated with blood lead levels. 

Demonstrate Feasibility, Show Trends, and Utilize Peer Pressure 

The Partnership used early successes to demonstrate results to other 

(often neighboring) countries that had yet to commit to phase out or 

had yet to implement phase out after committing to do so. As the years 

went by, the Partnership would report out on how more countries had 

completed the phase out process. (See Figure 6 above as an example of 

this). This demonstration of trends supported not only a sense of understanding that phase out was 

feasible, but also added powerful peer pressure cited by a few interviewees as a reason why they took 

 

83 Information collected for this evaluation concurs with the description of the Campaign’s implementation strategy from the UNEP 2010

report; however this report describes the key aspects of the implementation strategy somewhat differently.
Page 37

action on eliminating lead when they did because, for example, they did not want to be embarrassed by 

not making the change when their peers had. In one case, an interviewee described how his country did 

not want to be the last in the region to go unleaded, and that this motivated quicker phase out 

implementation. 

Develop National Action Plans, Provide Both Top-Down and Bottom Up Advocacy and Support at the 

National Level, and Initiate Implementation Projects

Although there has been ad-hoc variation in the implementation approach from country to country, the 

Partnership has generally approached country implementation in three ways: national action planning

involving all sectors (e.g., national and local governments, civil society, industry) to build consensus 

between all that play a role, targeted top-down leadership, and bottom-up advocacy and support. At 

the country level, the Partnership identified senior political advocates and helped these advocates to 

provide leadership amongst the critical decision makers. At the same time, the Partnership would 

support civil society through public education and outreach efforts to rally “bottom up” support and 

contracts tailored to the needs of each country (see Kenya example in Exhibit 7). If needed, the 

Partnership could also provide technical assistance to refineries or other parties that lacked the capacity 

or expertise needed to implement phase out effectively. Appendix G details Lead Campaign national 

and regional activities through 2009 by country, region, and year. As of 2009, the Lead Campaign had

supported 77 countries in lead-related activities (whether at the national, sub-regional, or regional 

level).84

Provide Small, Nimble Contracts

The Clearing House intentionally kept contract funds to developing and transitional countries small 

(often $35,000 or less) to encourage rapid implementation and avoid the additional paperwork that 

larger contracts often involve.

85 The Partnership’s available funds have also been modest to begin with. 

The Clearing House also developed its own contract-making process within UNEP, which helped contract

management and delivery to be nimble and relatively rapid-paced.

Support the Partners on their Own Terms

The Partnership focused on enabling and empowering national partners to voluntarily initiate and 

implement the phase out on their own terms by listening to and respecting each country’s interests and 

process. The Partnership trusted in the voluntary process and the ability of country partners to work 

through political challenges or implementation delays themselves. This approach may have taken 

longer than, for example, elevating disagreements or using political pressure from senior leaders such as 

the UNEP Executive Director to intervene, which has happened on rare occasion, but it provided for 

stronger voluntary action and ownership. This is not to say that the Clearing House or Partnership more 

broadly did not exercise behind-the-scenes advocacy, as they did take that approach; however they 

 84 United Nations Environment Programme. “PCFV Lead Campaign National and Regional Activities.” 2002-2009. 85 Rob de Jong personal communication, May 2011; UNEP. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and 

Vehicles (PCFV). 2010, 33. 
Page 38

“This partnership has 

benefited from having 

great people there from 

the beginning... The 

structure was good but 

the people were 

better.” 

— US EPA Interviewee

chose to minimize senior interventions that would undermine partnership relationships and the spirit of 

mutual respect.

Keep Momentum and Pressure at the Global Level

On the global level, the Partnership worked to keep the scope of the Campaign focused solely on the 

goal of eliminating lead from fuel (see also, discussion on challenges below), fostered relationships and 

built momentum through annual in-person partnership meetings, undertook ad-hoc efforts and 

development of reports on particular topics, and provided ongoing information on Partnership activities 

and progress through the Clearing House’s website, newsletter, and written brochures.

2. PARTNERS BRING EXPERTISE AND 

COMMITMENT THROUGH COMPLEMENTARY 

ROLES

To truly gain insight from PCFV and the Lead Campaign in particular, it 

is important to understand the distinct roles and contributions of the 

individual and organizational partners.

EXHIBIT 7. PCFV ACTIVITIES PROMOTING LEAD PHASE OUT IN KENYA

Beginning in 2004, PCFV, through funds provided by the US EPA, worked with Kenya. Partnership support 

of national-level activities in Kenya focused on three areas: 

› Environmental Training of Petrol attendants in Kenya: Organized with the Petroleum Institute of East 

Africa, PCFV provided training to sessions to 346 attendants in Kenya’s four largest cities.

› Public Awareness Campaign: The Clearing House facilitated a public awareness campaign focused on 

the benefits of using unleaded fuel on radio, television, and newspapers. This campaign was 

coordinated with the National Environment Management Authority and a multi-stakeholder task team.

› Testing of Blood Lead Levels in Nairobi: The Clearing House conducted testing of blood lead levels in 

Nairobi, Kenya and its surroundings and compared the results with levels in rural areas. The study 

demonstrated elevated blood lead levels above the WHO action level of 10 micrograms per deciliter in 

25% of those sampled, with most in Nairobi.

Sources: United Nations Environment Programme. “PCFV Lead Campaign National and Regional Activities.” 2002-2009.; Todd, David 

and Hazel Todd. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV). 2010. Available at: 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/leadphaseoutreport.pdf.
Page 39

“Beyond funding EPA has 

been a very good partner; very 

helpful in terms of helping with 

publications, translations, 

regional contacts, 

brainstorming, attending 

workshops, etc. They have 

added credibility.”

— UNEP PCFV Interviewee

UNEP has clearly played a fundamental and critical role.86 As part of the United Nations, UNEP provides 

political credibility and offers political connections at high levels. The UNEP staff team has served in its 

Clearing House capacity as an “honest broker,” (e.g., neutral entity to facilitate dialogue), coordinator, 

information provider, and funds consolidator and manager. The Clearing House staff team has paid 

close attention to keeping the Clearing House’s position neutral, and feedback provided during 

interviews strongly suggests that they have succeeded in this task. 

At the same time, UNEP has been an active PCFV partner and 

strategic advocate in that capacity. All accounts indicate that 

UNEP has effectively balanced its potentially delicate dual roles. 

Many interviewees highlighted the commitment, skill, expertise, 

and dedication of the UNEP Clearing House team, noting in 

particular Rob de Jong’s leadership, tenacity, and strategic insight. 

Although interviewees offered some suggestions for changes in 

UNEP’s approach to managing the Partnership, the suggestions 

were modest and some had either already been acted upon or 

would involve expanding the scope of the Partnership or the Lead 

Campaign to, for instance, address alternative octane-enhancing 

additives or the decommissioning of former TEL facilities. (The evaluation team compiled and shared all

suggestions received during the interviews with the UNEP Clearing House and US EPA87.) 

A core group of partners (including IPIECA, MECA, United Nations Department of Economic and Social 

Affairs, NRDC, Mike Walsh, ExxonMobil, and Environmental and Energy Technology and Policy Institute)

has contributed a substantial amount of time and leadership since the Partnership’s formation. These 

core partners, along with UNEP and US EPA, have, as previously described, brought a strong 

combination of technical and policy expertise, sectoral and organizational representation, global reach,

and commitment. 

As an integral partner in the PCFV, the US EPA has reflected the Lead Campaign’s objectives in various 

internal goals of the US EPA, including in the organization’s 2006-2011 and 2011-2015 Strategic Plans, as 

well as its current international priorities to combat climate change by limiting air pollutants and to 

improve air quality. 88,89 US EPA has been one of the Partnership’s largest and most consistent financial 

contributors, but beyond its financial support, US EPA has also provided international credibility as a 

well respected environmental agency, staff assistance, and technical support. Interviewees consistently 

 86 The evaluators concur with the UNEP Evaluation finding that UNEP has served in three important capacities: as a high level advocate to 

governments; as a channel to resources within the Partnership; and as a facilitator and supporter of activities at various levels, particularly at 

the country level (see also Exhibit 2)—and we expand on Todd & Todd’s findings with additional information and interpretation of UNEP’s role 

and its importance.

87 The evaluators did not include information on who shared the suggestions in order to support interviewee confidentiality. 88 In the FY2006-2011 EPA Strategic Plan, PCFV is referenced as one of the activities that will support Goal 4: Healthy Communities and 

Ecosystems. One of the strategic targets for Objective 4.1.1: Reduce Chemical Risks is “By 2011, through work with international partners, 

eliminate the use of lead in gasoline in the remaining 35 countries that still use lead as an additive, affecting more than 700 million people.” 

Additionally, US EPA has continued to recognize the importance of international partnerships, as demonstrated in one of the cross-cutting 

fundamental strategies Strengthening State, Tribal, and International Partnerships in the FY2011-2015 EPA Strategic Plan. 89 http://www.epa.gov/international/topsix.html
Page 40

“We couldn’t afford to do this 

work. The US EPA provided 

training and lead monitoring 

before and after [the lead phase 

out]. But for that help we as a 

country would not have done 

anything. It was a big, big help 

and we are very grateful.”

— Industry Partner Interviewee

praised US EPA for commitment (beyond funding) to the Partnership, exemplified by a comment by one 

UNEP team member that US EPA is “the ideal partner.” 

Some interviewees offered some modest suggestions for adjustment of US EPA’s activities or emphasis 

(beyond funding), and the evaluators have shared these suggestions with US EPA. A few partners 

interviewed were not aware of US EPA’s role in the Partnership other than that US EPA was listed as a 

partner or had provided financial support for the PCFV to UNEP. Some US EPA staff view the fact that 

the Partnership was perceived as an international effort rather than a US-led effort as a strength of the 

Partnership and US EPA’s role in it. 

The Partnership could not have functioned or been influential without its regional and national partners, 

who have served as the on-the-ground advocates, leaders, and implementers that have made the real 

phase out commitments and then followed through with action. (See a complete list of PCFV partners in

Appendix F.) Even in the absence of the Partnership, these were the individuals that would have been in 

the position to take action to eliminate lead from fuel, and it is they that are ultimately responsible for 

the changes made in their countries.

3. MODEST YET FOCUSED PCFV RESOURCE INVESTMENTS BUILD 

AWARENESS AND CAPACITY

On the whole, the costs of eliminating lead both from the 

perspective of Partnership management and from the 

perspective of on-the-ground implementation, is inexpensive –

and the return on investment from economic and public benefit 

perspectives are significant. 

As described in the PCFV Funding section, the Partnership’s 

cumulative funding for all three campaigns since 2002 totaled 

approximately US $11.4 million as of November 2011, and the 

Lead Campaign’s budget comprised approximately $6 million of 

this total.90 Not all of PCFV’s indirect costs are included in this 

number, however, as many partners and in-country parties 

invested in travel, meeting space, technical support and other 

types of Partnership-involvement costs. It should be noted that 

this total does not include the industry and private sector costs associated with eliminating lead from 

gasoline, such as the infrastructure changes needed to convert refineries (see Exhibits 5 and 6). 

As described in Exhibit 5, the cost of lead phase out has varied based on multiple factors including the 

refinery upgrades needed, the initial lead concentrations, and octane requirements. The total cost to 

the consumer has generally been $0.01-0.02 per liter and in some cases less. The larger “investments” 

 90 Includes contribution received by PCFV by November 2011. (Does not include pledges and projects under development.) Source: PCFV

Clearing House
Page 41

by industry or government-run refineries have been around harmonization, decision making, and 

standard setting. Notably, a few partners described concern early in the Lead Campaign that eliminating 

lead from fuel would be prohibitively expensive; however, phase out subsequently occurred at a faster 

pace and lower cost than they had predicted.91 There is widespread agreement that eliminating lead is 

on the whole inexpensive when compared to other sector-wide changes of this nature such as reducing 

sulfur levels in fuel which often requires much higher capital investments in refinery upgrades when 

compared to the elimination of lead. 

4. PARTNERS ADDRESS CHALLENGES AND LEARN THROUGH 

EXPERIENCE

The partners have encountered several challenges over the years, which, while slowing down decisions 

or actions in some cases, and resulting in some debates on strategy and scope, do not appear to have 

hindered the momentum of the Partnership. The partners have been able to navigate challenges and 

keep making progress, even if this has meant making tough decisions involving tradeoffs. 

Challenges have included: 

• The voluntary nature of the work requiring extra time and patience (notably the voluntary 

nature of the work is also identified as a core Partnership strength);

• Unwillingness of key parties in some countries to believe that switching to unleaded fuel will not 

harm vehicles;

• The time it takes to reach complete agreement amongst the partners slowing down the process 

(but also strengthening the Partnership);

• Lack of regionally-relevant examples that are convincing to all key country partners;

• Lack of sufficient financial resources and institutional capacity to make the change;

• Pressures to increase the Campaign’s scope and take on related issues such as the risks 

associated with alternative (substitute) fuel additives; and

• Political upheaval.

The partners have faced challenges, and have responded where possible. In response to the largest 

obstacle in most countries – persistent concerns that eliminating lead would harm vehicle fleets (e.g., by 

increasing wear on valve seats in older vehicles) – the Partnership established an ad-hoc Valve Seat 

Recession Working Group, which developed a report and summary report on (the myths of) valve seat 

recession.92 In another case, in response to a need to safely dismantle, decontaminate, and dispose of 

the lead alkyl compound at distribution and storage facilities, the Partnership developed a report 

entitled, Recommended Practices for the Decommissioning, Dismantling and Disposal of Lead Alkyl 

Compound Facilities and Equipment.

93 In this case, the Partnership decided to address this issue 

 91 Based on interviews conducted for this evaluation. 92 The valve seat recession brochure is available here: http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/VSR-Brochure.pdf and the longer report is 

available here: http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/pdf/VSR-FinalDraft.pdf 93 The full and summary reports on decommissioning, dismantling, and disposal are available here: 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/publications/publications.asp
Page 42

through a report but not to increase the scope of the Lead Campaign by taking on responsibility for 

actual decommissioning, dismantling, and disposal.94 Debates within the partnership have arisen 

around other scope-related issues, such as whether PCFV should address the substitute additives95

which are known or believed to have public health impacts, though many experts believe they are not as 

profound as those from lead exposure. (See discussion on alternative octane enhancing additives in 

Chapter 3.) 

The Partnership also worked to identify strong regional partner organizations that could help to develop 

and implement regional strategies. This was easier in some regions, where potential partners were 

easier to find, than in other regions. For example, the Regional Environmental Center for Central and 

Eastern Europe was a strong regional partner that played an instrumental role in engaging with 

countries in the region to participate with PCFV and phase out lead. Still, some country interviewees

from other regions described how many workshops included presentations based on experiences in the 

US and/or Europe, and that these experiences were not viewed as being as context-appropriate or 

convincing as would be examples from their own region, or at least from countries with similar political 

or economic contexts.96

Other challenges have been more difficult for the Partnership to address themselves as they are driven 

and controlled by factors outside of the Partnership’s control. Illegal sales of TEL have been a 

challenge.97 In at least three of the remaining six “leaded” countries, there is extreme political upheaval. 

The Partnership has had to cancel workshops or in some instances could not get into the country. All six

countries have met with PCFV, conveyed interest in phasing out lead, and expressed openness to 

receiving Partnership support. The Partnership has a strategy for each of the six countries, and as of 

October 2011, it appears that all six will phase out lead entirely by 2013 if not sooner. 

HINDSIGHT: WHAT PARTNERS WOULD DO DIFFERENTLY TODAY

During the interviews, the evaluators asked the partners what they would do differently if they were to 

design the Lead Campaign over again today. Ideas offered in response to this question included:

• Identifying regional partners/advocates and examples earlier on (discussed previously); 

• Trying to recruit more private sector partner involvement;

• Requiring some kind of active involvement by each partner; 

• Focusing on TEL facility and equipment decommissioning;98

• Offering additional technical assistance; 

• Building in an “exit strategy” from the beginning (i.e., knowing when to consider the focused 

goals and role of the Partnership complete); and 

 94 One interviewee-partner expressed that the PCFV should take this on to consider its work on eliminating leaded fuel complete. 95 These include MMT, MTBE, and ETBE. 96 PCFV leadership acknowledges that it would have been ideal to establish regional leadership earlier on in the Partnership though also notes 

that it was unclear at the time who these regional partners would have been, and that once possible partners were identified, the Partnership 

engaged them. Source: Rob de Jong, email message to author, July 29, 2011. 97 See: http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2010/jun/30/octel-petrol-iraq-lead and http://www.sec.gov/news/press/2011/2011-21.htm 98 This would have required an increase in the scope of the Lead Campaign.
Page 43

“I can’t think of anything [I 

would suggest be done 

differently] because we 

didn’t deliberately do it in the 

first place... Things kept 

growing in a helpful way.” 

— US EPA Interviewee

• Working on vehicle standards99 at the same time as working to eliminate lead (and reduce sulfur 

levels).100 

The evaluation team does not “judge” the merit of these individual suggestions, and has passed them on 

as well as all other suggestions provided during the interviews to both US EPA and the Clearing House 

(after removing all attributions or information that could tie the 

opinions shared during the interviews to the person who 

provided them). Instead, the evaluators reflect on three 

overarching messages that came through the interviews in 

response to this question. 

First, even those who offered suggestions for changes did not 

suggest fundamental changes to the Campaign’s design or 

implementation. Their suggestions were around the margins of 

design and implementation, and their overarching comments 

reflected support, generally strong support, for the Lead 

Campaign overall. Second, a majority of interviewees could not 

think of how they would change the Campaign when asked this 

question. This alone is an important finding. Finally, those who have been deeply involved from the 

beginning said that, even if they would do things differently today (including making some of the 

changes in the list above), they think that the Campaign’s learning by doing has been invaluable, 

strengthening the Partnership overall. 

The challenges to lead phase out that remain today (and the Partnership’s efforts to achieve this goal 

globally) are centered on the last several countries that have yet to phase out lead completely; however, 

as already noted, all six of these countries are expected to complete phase out no later than 2013. 

Providing further confidence that Campaign’s goal is near is fact that Innospec, the only remaining 

manufacturer of TEL, said in its 2010 annual report that it “expects that it will cease all sales of TEL for us

in automotive gasoline” in 2012, mainly due to the declining market for purchase of TEL.

101

 99 For example, working to ensure that all vehicles sold be fitted with catalytic converters to realize a more complete suite of benefits from the 

elimination of lead. 

100 The evaluators passed on the suggestions offered by interviewees to both UNEP and US EPA, noting that these suggestions fell outside of the 

scope of this evaluation and that the evaluators did not try to determine the appropriateness or feasibility of any of the suggestions offered 

during the interviews.

101 Innospec Inc. “United States Securities and Exchange Commission Form 10-K: Annual Report Pursuant to Section 13 OR 15(d) of the 

Securities Exchange Act of 1934.” December 2010, 20. 

http://www.innospecinc.com/assets/_files/documents/apr_11/cm__1301911642_Form_10-K_2011.pdf
Page 44

“Without question it was 

the personalities involved 

[that supported the Lead

Campaign’s influence]... 

...One of those happy 

circumstances; history, 

commitment, and a sense 

of humor.”

— US EPA Interviewee

CHAPTER 7. RELEVANCE OF FINDINGS ON LEAD 

CAMPAIGN TO OTHER VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIPS

This chapter synthesizes the key findings that can be drawn from 

the design and implementation of PCFV and the Lead Campaign 

and explores how these findings may be applicable to other 

partnerships, topics, and contexts. This chapter then considers 

emerging principles surrounding voluntary, multi-stakeholder 

partnership design based on a literature scan102 and reflects on 

the design and implementation of PCFV and the Lead Campaign in 

relation to these principles. 

The evaluators find that the Lead Campaign’s design features are 

consistent with the emerging principles, noting that PCFV and the 

Lead Campaign evolved over time and as such learned by doing 

rather than starting with a partnership design template. The 

process of learning and adaptation coupled with the exceptional 

suite of people involved have contributed as much to the Lead 

Campaign’s strengths as has the design itself. The evaluators also note that several preceding 

developments assisted, if not “empowered,” the Lead Campaign from the beginning, helping to facilitate 

rapid implementation. After reviewing all of the information collected for this evaluation, including 

literature on the broader field of voluntary multi-stakeholder best practices, the evaluators believe 

that the potent combination of preceding developments, sound design, strong implementation 

strategy, and exceptional people have made the Lead Campaign an extraordinary example in the 

realm of voluntary partnerships. 

This chapter explores these findings through three topic areas:

1. Core Lead Campaign strengths could also serve other partnerships;

2. When a voluntary partnership model might be suitable in other contexts; and 

3. Emerging partnership design principles that are consistent with PCFV.

1. CORE LEAD CAMPAIGN STRENGTHS COULD ALSO SERVE OTHER 

PARTNERSHIPS

Several core strengths have supported the Lead Campaign’s effectiveness. These strengths, which have 

been described in greater detail in Chapters 5 and 6, would also serve other international partnership 

efforts. They include: 

 102 As discussed in Chapter 2, Methods, the evaluation team conducted a limited literature review; however, despite the modest effort put into 

this review, we found several common themes in the literature that we reviewed, providing some indication that a broader review would also 

result in the identification of similar themes.
Page 45

EXHIBIT 8. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER WHEN WEIGHING WHETHER TO PURSUE A 

VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIP

› Is there a clear need or problem that requires involvement of multiple parties and perspectives to be 

successfully addressed, and a defined role that a partnership could perform to address the need or 

problem?

› Is there a set of individuals and organizations with the right expertise, authority, credibility, and influence 

that are willing to commit to starting and productively participating in a partnership?

› Would key stakeholders individually and collectively gain by participating through aligning agendas and 

combining resources to magnify the rewards and spread the risks?

› Has demonstrable progress on the issue in question already occurred (or could it occur relatively

quickly), and could a partnership accelerate progress beyond what would occur otherwise?

› Is there is commonly accepted evidence behind the need for action to address the challenge? 

› Is there powerful, organized opposition to the objectives of the partnership that could prevent a 

partnership from succeeding?

› Are there sufficient resources for partnership launch? Can reasonable certainty be provided that funding 

requirements can be met for the duration of the partnership?

• Preceding developments that support a strong start and can help to quickly build momentum

(Chapter 5);

• Strong design and design process that engendered joint ownership and trust (

Chapter 5); 

• Strategic, multi-level, multi-angle implementation supported through a neutral secretariat

(Chapter 6); and

• Exceptional people and enduring relationships (Chapter 6). 

2. WHEN A VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIP MODEL MIGHT BE SUITABLE IN 

OTHER CONTEXTS

Determining what approach to take when attempting to catalyze or cause international policy (and 

environmental) change is a strategic decision. The two most oft-cited approaches are: 1) binding, formal 

agreements between governments and 2) voluntary intergovernmental or public-private partnerships. 

Other approaches include grassroots advocacy from civil society intended to apply public pressure for 

policy change, providing targeted technical assistance through philanthropy or NGOs to governments to 

support policy change, and efforts from within the private sector to promote change. Experts continue 

to discuss and debate the pros and cons of each approach, and many favor one approach over another. 

Issue-specific considerations, such as identifying the parties that would be needed to solve a particular 

problem, can guide whether to pursue a “PCFV-like” approach in other situations. If governments alone 

can efficiently and effectively solve a problem, for example, then a multi-stakeholder approach may not 

make sense. Still, it appears that there are general conditions, which if applicable, can signify when a 
Page 46

voluntary, multi-stakeholder approach could offer a strong opportunity to leverage change. These 

conditions, listed in Exhibit 8 as questions, are likely to be present in or applicable to many situations. In 

some instances only a few conditions may be in place, while others would need to be established 

through the efforts of the partnership itself. A strategic analysis is needed to determine if a voluntary 

partnership is the most productive approach.

3. EMERGING PARTNERSHIP DESIGN PRINCIPLES THAT ARE CONSISTENT 

WITH PCFV

Through the analysis completed on the Lead Campaign for this evaluation and review of literature on 

voluntary partnerships done in this regard, the evaluators identified an emerging set of principles 

intended to strengthen the design of voluntary multi-stakeholder partnerships. Once a decision is made 

to pursue a voluntary partnership approach, considering these principles in light of issue-specific factors 

can inform design, implementation, and ultimately lead to increasing the chance of greater results 

through a resulting effective partnership. Doing so can also help to maximize a partnership’s potential 

to influence change and avoid perceived or real risks associated with a voluntary approach, including 

concerns over uncertainty, lack of partner trust, misunderstandings about process and intent, and a fear 

of a lack of progress due to its voluntary nature. Exhibit 9 summarizes the evaluation team’s findings on 

these emerging principles. 

Whether intentionally or by happenstance, or more likely 

some combination of both, PCFV and the Lead Campaign do 

essentially embody these emerging partnership principles. 

In other words, the PCFV Lead Campaign is based on solid 

principles which have resulted in a particularly welldesigned and well-implemented voluntary partnership. 

Pursuing a voluntary partnership approach, even when the 

conditions are particularly well suited to that approach and 

the partnership is well designed and implemented, does not 

guarantee success. It is the opinion of the evaluators that 

the considerations and principles identified through this 

evaluation can nonetheless increase the chances that 

governments, non-governmental organizations, civil 

society, and business interests can effectively work 

together for the common good. 

PCFV – Beyond the Lead Campaign

As discussed in Chapters 1 and 3 of this report, PCFV has three campaigns including the Lead Campaign. 

The Sulfur Campaign and Clean Vehicles Campaign are more recent and more complex than the Lead 

Campaign. 

“The PCFV model is transferable 

but you have to be willing to do 

the hard work of getting the basic 

structure right. Identifying a 

mission, specific goals, the playing 

field among partners, who makes 

decisions... We took the time to 

do this... If [other partnerships] 

don’t have a clear way for all 

partners to engage with each 

other, it’s hard for it to work.”

— NGO Partner Interviewee
Page 47

EXHIBIT 9. EMERGING VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIP DESIGN PRINCIPLES

› Develop clear goals: Develop clear, specific (and preferably measureable) goals that define the 

objective of the partnership and focus attention and action on mutually beneficial results over a sustained 

period. 

› Build a strong core membership: Carefully choose initial core membership to include stakeholders 

with a strong interest in the outcome, who can bring required expertise to establish early credibility and 

contribute to early demonstrable progress that can attract additional partners over time.

› Thoughtfully design the partnership and utilize this process to engender buy-in and trust: Take 

the time needed to carefully design the partnership, including roles and responsibilities, governance 

rules, membership criteria, partnership duration and exit strategy, decision making process, financial 

responsibilities, and monitoring and reporting. During the design phase, build critical buy-in and establish 

trust among the partners.

› Make clear the power and authority of each partner: As part of the governance rules, clearly identify 

partner status if it is deemed necessary to differentiate among partners for legitimate reasons such as 

safeguarding against unfair advantage of any partner or partner group.

› Maximize voluntary and comprehensive participation: Determine what motivates key stakeholders to 

participate and design accordingly, emphasizing the comprehensive and inclusive nature of the 

partnership.

› Ensure neutral management: Consider establishing a secretariat or similar function housed in an 

organization or institution that is seen as “position neutral” to facilitate the work of the partnership in an 

efficient and trustworthy manner and manage resources in a way that optimally leverages funding.

› Secure commitments for funding sufficient to launch the partnership, while also identifying longterm funding opportunities: Ensure a relatively stable source of funding for the partnership to 

successfully launch with, at a minimum, strong indications of future support for longer-term funding 

commensurate with the partnership’s scope and duration. Securing long-term funding is an 

acknowledged challenge, and in some cases depends on demonstrating results early on to garner or 

justify additional support over time.

› Build in the ability to adapt and course correct: Accept that adaptability in strategy and 

implementation will likely be required to maximize effectiveness; learn from experience and adapt to 

changes in the external landscape.

› Empower sustained change in the field: Utilize the partnership to build capacity and empower those

who will routinely implement the change on the ground after the partnership ends its work.

› Guarantee transparency and accountability: Build in transparency, reporting, and accountability 

around decision making, implementation, and progress. Third-party monitoring and evaluation can be a 

helpful tool in this regard.
Page 48

In the case of lowering the level of sulfur in fuel, for example, it took a protracted negotiation process 

for the Partnership to agree on the global goal of 50ppm. This goal-setting challenge was not quite as 

onerous in the case of the Lead Campaign. Another challenge with desulfurization is the high cost of 

implementation in terms of required capital investment,103 even though the human health and 

environmental benefits of removing sulfur significantly outweigh the costs on the order of 10 to 1.104

The capital costs required are higher when compared to eliminating lead in large part because sulfur is 

naturally occurring in fuel and therefore needs to be removed (whereas lead is an additive). Still, 

despite these challenges, the Sulfur Campaign, which PCFV formally launched four years after the Lead 

Campaign, is gaining momentum. A strong indicator of progress made is that, as of late 2011, all but 

one African country has formally adopted the policy target of 50 parts per million fuel sulfur standard at 

the Ministerial level, though implementation of the fuel sulfur reductions will take time and will often 

occur in a phased approach. 

In the case of accelerating the manufacturing and distribution of “clean vehicles” (the Clean Vehicles 

Campaign), the situation is also complex, requiring consideration of such issues as vehicle standards and 

manufacturing locations (country by country; manufacturer by manufacturer), used vehicle trade (the 

vast majority of vehicles in most developing countries are second-hand imports from other countries), 

vehicle licensing and inspection, and other external factors. The Partnership only recently has turned its 

attention to this Campaign, and it is still working to develop a specific goal.

The Lead Campaign was relatively fortunate in that it was easier to envision, start, pursue, and track. 

Even so, the evaluators believe that the combination of campaign design, strategy, and people has made 

the Lead Campaign an outstanding and exceptional success. A testimony to this finding is that, as part 

of this evaluation, several interviewees described how their countries would still be using leaded fuel 

today if the Partnership had not introduced them to the facts about what lead was doing to their 

populations – particularly their children – and demonstrated how it was technically and financially 

feasible to make a change that previously seemed impossible, or at least extremely difficult, to make.

Other interviewees described how PCFV helped them to make the transition more quickly and easily, 

even if they would have made the change eventually. The individuals involved at all levels, including 

those who have led and staffed the Campaign for the past nine years, and those who have promoted 

and implemented the changes on the ground, clearly deserve particular credit for the Campaign’s 

success. 

Focusing on the Lead Campaign first has created a strong foundation upon which the Partnership can 

now focus its attention on sulfur reductions and clean vehicles, utilizing the networks, relationships, and 

trust built over the past nine years. Although the two more recently initiated Campaigns are more 

 103 A 2003 Asian Development Bank study estimated capital costs in Asian countries to range from $374M to $450M depending on the 

refinery’s existing treatment capabilities and quality of the incoming crude oil to reach the 50ppm level. The Asian Development Bank, “Cost of 

Diesel Fuel Desulphurization for Different Refinery Structures Typical of the Asian Refining Industry,” 10 January 2003. 

<http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/PubADBSulphurReport.pdf> 104 Katherine O. Blumberg, Michael P. Walsh, and Charlotte Pera. “Low-Sulfur Gasoline & Diesel: The Key to Lower Vehicle Emissions,” 3. 

<http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/PubLowSulfurPaper.pdf.>
Page 49

complex, the evaluators believe they have and will continue to benefit from PCFV’s strengths as 

described throughout this report. 
Page 50

CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS

The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles formed when a group of committed individuals recognized 

an avoidable threat to public health and the environment and a timely opportunity to address it. In the 

face of solid evidence regarding the impacts of high blood lead levels, particularly on children, and 

decades of experience demonstrating how other countries had eliminated lead from fuel, a group of 

credible experts and decision makers from different sectors seized the opportunity to work together as 

partners in the developing world to make global lead phase out in fuels a reality. 

The partners established effective relationships and networks to support change from within each 

region and country, using an approach that worked best for each country’s unique set of circumstances. 

The partners deployed a strong, multifaceted implementation strategy that benefited from partners’ 

various strengths. They learned from experience, and over the years honed the Lead Campaign’s 

strategy and tactics to maximize its influence. The UNEP Clearing House played a critical central 

coordination role, including management of the Campaign’s modest budget and serving as an “honest 

broker,” while also participating as one of PCFV’s partners. 

This evaluation found that developments that preceded the formation of PCFV, including existing 

momentum for phase out and data showing it was technically and financially feasible to do so, enabled a 

strong basis for the launch for the Lead Campaign. At the same time, this report describes how the 

Campaign’s specific design and implementation characteristics, as well as the individuals involved, have 

significantly bolstered the Campaign’s existing strengths. The Campaign’s design and implementation 

features (a clear and measurable goal, equality amongst partners, and balanced representation within 

the Advisory Group, among others) are reflected in an emerging set of voluntary partnership design 

principles. In this vein, the Lead Campaign and PCFV more generally offer a learning opportunity. 

This evaluation was not designed to assess the role of the PCFV in facilitating lead phase out; however, 

the role of PCFV in the phase out of lead in Sub-Saharan African was studied previously and PCFV was 

found to have, at a minimum, sped up the phase out by several years. Anecdotal stories shared during 

the interviews for this evaluation also suggest that, in some cases, country partners would still be using 

leaded fuel if it were not for the Partnership, while, in other cases, the Partnership has been one of 

several factors leading to the phase out of lead. Many interviewees who are familiar both with the Lead 

Campaign and with other voluntary, multi-stakeholder partnerships believe that PCFV – and the Lead 

Campaign in particular – is one of the most effective partnerships of its kind. 

Nevertheless, the work of the Partnership is far from over. Six countries are still using leaded fuel, 

though signals indicate that these final countries will phase out lead entirely by 2013 if not sooner. Even 

with a strong partnership to promote progress, the Sulfur and Clean Vehicles Campaigns pose additional 

challenges and require extensive commitments to and investments in longer-term change to be 

successful. The PCFV partners are contemplating strategies for moving forward on all three campaigns. 

One consideration is to report on progress at the 2012 Rio +20 Summit and subsequently reinvigorate 

and update the Partnership if needed. 
Page 51

APPENDIX A. BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Signifies sources related to voluntary partnerships that informed the findings in Chapter 7.

•• Signifies sources related to previous evaluations, reports, or studies of PCFV.

Adams, Laurie, Natasha Besch-Turner, Daniel Carroll, Jeffrey Harris, Jeffrey S. Hart, Olga Stein, and Thane 

Thompson. “Evaluation Report: Partnership Programs May Expand EPA’s Influence.” United 

States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Inspector General. Report No. 2007-P-00003. 

November 2006.•

Annest J., K. Mahaffey, D. Cox, and J. Roberts. “Blood lead levels for persons 6 month–74 years of age:

United States 1976–80.” Advance Data from Vital Health Stat, No. 79. DHHS Pub. No. (PHS) 82-

1250. Public Health Service, Hyattsville, Md. 1982.

Armstrong, Jane and Jane Metcalfe. Clean Fuels and Vehicles Partnership Factsheet. 2002. 

Asian Development Bank and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center. “Country Synthesis Report on 

Urban Air Quality Management: Thailand.” December 2006.

Asian Development Bank. “Cost of Diesel Fuel Desulphurization for Different Refinery Structures Typical

of the Asian Refining Industry.” January 2003. 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/PubADBSulphurReport.pdf

Biermann, Frank, et. al. “Rio +20 Policy Brief #3: Transforming Governance and Institutions for a Planet 

under Pressure: Revitalizing the Institutional Framework for Global Sustainability: Key Insights 

from Social Science Research.” The Earth System Governance Project. •

Blumberg, Katherine O., Michael P. Walsh, and Charlotte Pera. “Low-Sulfur Gasoline & Diesel: The Key to 

Lower Vehicle Emissions.” http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/PubLowSulfurPaper.pdf.

Bultynck, Patrick and Chantal Reliquet. “Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline in Oil Importing Countries of SubSaharan Africa: The Case of Ethiopia: Action Plan.” World Bank Clean Air Initiative in SubSaharan African Cities & Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme. December 2003. 

Bultynck, Patrick and Chantal Reliquet. “1998-2002 Progress Report: Working Paper Number 10.” World 

Bank Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities. January 2003. http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/04/19/000012009_20

040419142042/Rendered/PDF/284500PAPER0SSA0Clean0air0no1010.pdf

California Air Resources Board. “Key Events in the History of Air Quality in California.” 

http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/brochure/history.htm
Page 52

California Air Resources Board, Stationary Source Division. “Proposed Identification of Inorganic Lead as 

a Toxic Air Contaminant, Part B, Health Assessment.” Technical Support Document. March 1997.

Chemical Heritage Foundation. “Eugene Houdry.” http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/chemistry-inhistory/themes/petrochemistry-and-synthetic-polymers/petrochemistry/houdry.aspx

Chulalongkom University and Pollution Control Department (PCD). “Unleaded Gasoline Policy: Health 

Benefits for School Children and Traffic Policemen in Bangkok Metropolitan Administration.”

2002.

Clean Air Act Advisory Committee Partnership and Community-Based Programs Work Group. “Strategic 

Use and Implementation of EPA OAR Voluntary, Partnership, and Community-Based Programs: A 

Report of the Clean Air Act Advisory Committee.” October 2010. •

Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities and Asian Development Bank. “Final Consultants’ Report: A Road Map 

for Cleaner Fuels and Vehicles in Asia.” 2008.

Clifford, Jerry and Margo Oge. Letter from OITA to “Colleagues”. 2002.

The Division for Sustainable Development. “Background Paper No. 1: Partnerships for Sustainable 

Development – Update.” United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 

Commission on Sustainable Development Thirteenth Session. April 2005. 

http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd13/documents/bground_1.pdf. •

European Union. Monitoring Report: Cleaner Transport for Better Urban Air Quality and Reduced Global 

Emissions. 2009. •, ••

Freedland, Jonathan. “Greens don't need the US.” The Guardian. August 16, 2002.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2002/aug/16/environment.usa

Goldsmith, Stephen and William D. Eggers. Governing by Network: The New Shape of the Public Sector.

The Brookings Institution. 2004. •

Hirshfield, D. and J. Kolb. “Phasing out Lead from Gasoline: Feasibility and Costs.” Implementing the 

Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe. World Bank, Environment 

Department, Washington, D.C. 1995.

Innospec Inc. “United States Securities and Exchange Commission Form 10-K: Annual Report Pursuant to 

Section 13 OR 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.” December 2010. 

http://www.innospecinc.com/assets/_files/documents/apr_11/cm__1301911642_Form_10-

K_2011.pdf

International Council on Clean Transportation. “Briefings: Fuel Additives: MMT.” September 2010. 

http://www.theicct.org/2010/09/fuel-additives-mmt/

International Finance Corporation. Stakeholder Engagement: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies 

Doing Business in Emerging Markets. World Bank Group. May 2007. 
Page 53

http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/p_StakeholderEngagement_Full

/$FILE/IFC_StakeholderEngagement.pdf.•

International Fuel Quality Center. Special Report: Global: Status of Gasoline Lead Phase-Out. 2009. 

IPIECA. Getting the Lead Out: Downstream Strategies and Resources for Phasing Out Leaded Gasoline. 

Fuels and Vehicles Working Group Report Series: Volume II. 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/Pub-IPIECA-LeadOut.pdf

IPIECA. Partnerships in the Oil and Gas Industry. 2006.

http://www.ipieca.org/sites/default/files/publications/partnerships.pdf

IPIECA. Partnerships in the Oil and Gas Industry: The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles. 2006. ••

Kitman, Jamie Lincoln. “The Secret History of Lead.” The Nation. March 2000. 

http://www.thenation.com/article/secret-history-lead

Koekkoek, Brenda. “Partnerships & Strategic Engagement.” UNEP Mercury Programme. February 2009. 

PowerPoint Presentation. •

Komite Penghapusan Bensin Bertimbel. Memorandum of Understanding between Komite Penghapusan 

Bensin Bertimbel (Joint Committee for Leaded Gasoline Phase-out) or KPBB and UNEP Division of 

Policy Development and Law. 2005.

La Viña, Antonio, Anne Marie DeRose, Arthur Getz Escudero, Jesse Ribot, Gretchen Hoff, Patrick Bond, 

and Sandra Moniaga. Making Participation Work: Lessons from Civil Society Engagement in the 

WSSD. World Resources Institute. October 2003. http://www.wri.org/publication/makingparticipation-work. •

Lovei, Magda. Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline in Central and Eastern Europe: Health Issues, Feasibility, 

and Policies. World Bank. June 1997. http://books.google.pt/books?id=AS-

_RxVq95kC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false

Lovei, Magda. Phasing Out Lead From Gasoline: Worldwide Experiences and Policy Implications. World 

Bank Technical Paper No. 397. 1998.

Malena, Carmen. “Strategic Partnership: Challenges and Best Practices in the Management and 

Governance of Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships Involving UN and Civil Society Actors.” Prepared 

for the Multi-Stakeholder Workshop on Partnerships and UN-Civil Society Relations. February 

2004. •

Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association (MECA). “The Case for Banning Lead in Gasoline.” 

January 2003. 

Martens, Jens. “Multistakeholder Partnerships – Future Models of Multilateralism?” Friedrich-EbertStiftung. January 2007. •
Page 54

Metcalfe, Jane. “Better air quality through cleaner fuels and vehicles—the Partnership for Clean Fuels 

and Vehicles (PCFV).” 2007. PowerPoint Presentation. 

Metcalfe, Jane, Rob de Jong, Richard Kassel, and Rob Cox. The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles: A 

Global Success Story. 2008. 

Morrison, David. “Understanding Public-Private Partnerships.” United Nations Foundation. •

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles Sulphur Working Group. “Recommended Practices for the 

Decommissioning, Dismantling, and Disposal of Lead Alkyl Compound Facilities and Equipment.” 

February 2007. http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/TELReport.pdf

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles Valve Seat Recession Working Group. “Eliminating Lead from 

Gasoline: Report on Valve Seat Recession.” May 2004. 

http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/pdf/VSR-FinalDraft.pdf

Pattberg, P. et al, “Assessing the Role and Relevance of the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency 

Partnership (REEEP) in Global Sustainability Governance.” Institute for Environmental Studies, 

VU University Amsterdam. •

Patton, Michael Quinn. “Utilization-Focused Evaluation Checklist.” 2002. 

http://web.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/10905198311Utilization_Focused_Evaluation.pdf

Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe and UNEP-based Partnership for Clean 

Fuels and Vehicles through the Ad Hoc Working Group of Senior Officials. Presented at Sixth 

Ministerial Conference “Environment for Europe”. Public-Private Partnership for Reduced Air 

Pollution from Vehicles through No-Lead and Low-Sulphur Fuels. 2007. 

http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2007/ece/ece.belgrade.conf.2007.24.e.

pdf. ••

Safrudin, Ahmad. To Escort Applied Policy on Leaded Gasoline Phase-out: A Final Report to UNEP. Komite 

Penghapusan Bensin Bertimbel (KPBB).

Sieghart, Dr. Lia Carol and Mr. Helal Al Reiashi. Project Closure Report: Support to the Development of a 

National Strategy and the Implementation of a Commitment Building Programme to Phase Out 

Leaded Gasoline in Yemen. Republic of Yemen Environmental Protection Authority.

South Coast Air Quality Management District. “The Southland's War on Smog: Fifty Years of Progress 

Toward Clean Air.” May 1997. 

http://www.aqmd.gov/news1/Archives/History/marchcov.html#The Arrival of Air Pollution

Soubbotina, Tatyana P. and Katherine A. Sheram. Beyond Economic Growth: Meeting the Challenges of 

Global Development. World Bank Development Education Program. 2000. 

http://www.worldbank.org/depweb/beyond/global/chapter10.html

Timberg, Craig. “Era of Leaded Gas Comes to an End in Most of Africa.” Washington Post. January 2006. 
Page 55

The Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning. “Don’t Repeat the Lead Gasoline Experiment.” 2002. 

www.globalleadnet.org

Tsai, Peter L. and Thomas H. Hatfield. “Global Benefits From the Phaseout of Leaded Fuel.” Journal of 

Environmental Health. 74: 8-14. 2011. ••

Tsai, Peter L. and Thomas H. Hatfield. The Global Benefits of Phasing Out Leaded Fuel. California State 

University, Northridge. 2010. ••

UN News Service. “UN Environmental Chief Calls for New Partnerships to Clear African Urban Smog.” UN 

News Centre. 26 July 2006. 

United Nations Department of Public Information and Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 

“Partnerships for Sustainable Development.” August 2003. •

United Nations Economic and Social Council. “Partnerships for Sustainable Development: Report of the 

Secretary-General.” Commission on Sustainable Development: Sixteenth Session. May 2008. 

http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N08/229/62/PDF/N0822962.pdf?OpenElement.•

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). “Benefits of Lead Phase-out.” 

UNEP. Clearing-House for the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles. Summary of the Eighth Meeting

of the Global Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles. 2010.

http://www.unep.org/transport/PCFV/PDF/8GPMReportFF.pdf. 

UNEP. “Declaration of Dakar.” Regional Conference on the Phasing-Out of Leaded Gasoline in SubSaharan Africa. 2001. http://www.unep.org/pcfv/pdf/DataDakarDecl.pdf. 

UNEP. Global Lead Campaign “Last Push” Strategy- DRAFT. 

UNEP Global Mercury Partnership. Review of Global Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships. 2008. 

http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/UGMP/INF%207.pdf. •, ••

UNEP. “Governance Rules.” http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/GovcRules.pdf. 2003. 

UNEP. “Leaded-petrol Phase Out in Sub-Saharan Africa.” 2004. Press Release. 

UNEP. Lead Phase-Out: The Story... so far: 2002-2008. Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles. 2009. .flv 

file. 

UNEP. “Narrative Submission.” Belgium Award Submission.

UNEP. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV).

Conducted by Todd, David and Hazel Todd of International Development, Environment and 

Disasters. 2010. http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/leadphaseoutreport.pdf. ••
Page 56

UNEP. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV).

conducted by Todd, David and Hazel Todd of International Development, Environment and 

Disasters. 2010. 

http://www.unep.org/Transport/PCFV/PDF/leadEvaluation_summaryreport.pdf. ••

UNEP. “Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles.” 2002.

UNEP. “PCFV Lead Campaign National and Regional Activities.” 2002-2009.

UNEP. “Performance Indicators for PCFV C-H on Budget Item.” 2008.

UNEP Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean. Final Report of the Sixteenth Meeting of the 

Forum of Ministers of the Environment of Latin America and the Caribbean: Santo Domingo, 

Dominican Republic: 27th January to 1st February 2008. 

UNEP. “Summary of BLL Pre & Post Leaded Gasoline Phase Out.” PowerPoint.

UNEP. Target 2008: Global Elimination of Leaded Petrol: A Report of the Partnership for Clean Fuels and 

Vehicles (PCFV). http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/LeadReport-Brochure.pdf

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 60/215 “Toward Global Partnerships.” March 2006. 

http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/500/50/PDF/N0550050.pdf?OpenElement

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 2006-2011 EPA Strategic Plan: Charting Our 

Course. September 2006. 

Unknown Author. “Benefits of Lead Phase-out.” 

Unknown Author. “Industry: Special Study on Support to the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles 

(PCFV) Global Campaign to Phase Out Leaded Gasoline World Wide.” 

http://www.unep.org/eou/Portals/52/Reports/I_Lead_PhaseOut_ExecSummary.html. ••

Unknown Author. “Mobile Source Air Pollution.” 2008. PowerPoint. 

Unknown Author. “A Study on the Global Benefits of Lead Phase-Out.” 

US Agency for International Development. “HIV/AIDS: Frequently Asked Questions.” 

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/News/aidsfaq.html#deaths

US EPA. FY 2011-2015 EPA Strategic Plan: Achieving Our Vision. September 2010.

US EPA. “As Prepared for Administrator Johnson, Eco-Cities of the Mediterranean Forum 2008, Ishtar, 

Dead Sea, Jordan.” 2008. Speech. 

http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/8d49f7ad4bbcf4ef852573590040b7f6/a3e130497d

4a4745852574e900589ff5!OpenDocument. 
Page 57

US EPA. “EPA’s International Priorities.” Updated April 2011. 

http://www.epa.gov/international/topsix.html

US EPA. “US EPA Mobile Source Emissions - Past, Present, and Future: Milestones.” 

http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/solutions/milestones.htm

US EPA National Center for Environmental Innovation. 

“Guidelines for Evaluating an EPA Partnership Program (Interim).” March 2009. •

US EPA National Center for Environmental Innovation. 

“Guidelines for Designing EPA Partnership Programs.” December 2007. •

US EPA and US Agency for International Development. “Implementer's Guide to Phasing Out Lead in 

Gasoline.” Hager Bailey Services. March 1999. 

http://nepis.epa.gov/EPA/html/DLwait.htm?url=/Adobe/PDF/400004HW.PDF

Vollmer, Derek, K Kathleen M McAllister, and Jacqueline Coté. “Clean Water and Sanitation for All: 

Global Water Challenge.” The National Academies International Chamber of Commerce, G 

Geneva published in Derek Vollmer and Rapporteur, Science and Technology for Sustainability 

Program; National Research Council, National Academies Press. 2009. •

Walsh, John. “UN PCFV – Fuel Samples & Lead Data: Draft Proposal.” PowerPoint. 2008. 

Walsh, John. “UN PCFV Fuel Sampling & Testing Program: April 2010 Update.” UNEP PCFV 8th Global 

Partnership Meeting. PowerPoint. 

http://www.unep.org/transport/PCFV/PDF/8GPM_MichaelwalshFuelSampling.pdf

Walsh, Michael P.. “The Global Experience With Lead in Gasoline and the Lessons We Should Apply to 

the Use of MMT.” American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 50: 853–860. 2007.

World Bank Group. Removal of Lead from Gasoline. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. . 

July 1998. 

World Bank Group. Removal of Lead from Gasoline: Technical Considerations. Pollution Prevention and 

Abatement Handbook. World Bank Group. July 1998.

World Health Organization. “Malaria.” Fact Sheet. 

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/

World Health Organization. “Tobacco.” Fact Sheet. 

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/index.html#

World Health Organization. “Tuberculosis.” Fact Sheet. 

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/

Zammit, Ann. “Development at Risk: Rethinking UN-Business Partnerships.” The South Centre and UN 

Research Institute for Social Development. 2003. •
Page 58

APPENDIX B. THE GLOBAL BENEFITS OF PHASING OUT 

LEADED FUEL: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Peter L. Tsai and Thomas H. Hatfield. The Global Benefits of Phasing Out Leaded Fuel. California State 

University, Northridge. 2010.

This report reviews the literature on the benefits of phasing out leaded fuel. Health impacts are 

reviewed along with methodologies for assessing economic benefits. The U.S. is the most closely 

studied nation in the literature, but various regions are included in this review. Associated studies on 

lead from sources other than leaded fuel are also included. Because unleaded gasoline allowed the 

introduction of the catalytic converter, these associated benefits are reviewed as well. 

We evaluate various methods for extrapolating from US benefits to global benefits. We argue that 

extrapolation based on the ratio of US GDP to world GDP is the most accurate method at this time. 

The various estimates of global benefits range from $1- $6 trillion/year. Based on a selection of 

components from the most accurate studies in the literature along with extrapolation based on GDP, 

our best estimate of global benefits is $2.44 trillion/year, or 4% of global GDP, with a range of $1.74 –

2.83 trillion/year. We discuss the limitations of these estimates and provide a basis for refining the 

estimates as new data become available.

These benefits may also be expressed as a percentage of GDP (% = Benefits/GDP), and the resulting 

percentage may be used to disaggregate the benefits for developed versus developing nations. In 

nations with similar economies, benefits may be calculated using a common %GDP multiplied by a 

nation’s GDP. In other words, the phasing out of leaded fuel plays a fundamental role in a nation’s GDP. 

We also apply this approach to estimate the economic benefits from the subsequent use of catalytic 

converters.

GDP is a valuable measure of the global benefits from phasing out leaded fuel, but it is by no means the 

only measure. We consider the effects as they are distributed among populations, which highlight the 

impacts in developing countries. Each year, the phase-out of leaded fuel is expected to prevent over 

125,000 childhood deaths and over a million adult deaths. Another key benefit is to prevent the loss of 

over 300,000 IQ points every year. This in turn prevents a variety of effects, including lead-linked crime, 

taxes forgone, and ADHD. Population densities around the world provide a vivid picture of how these 

benefits are distributed. 

We also consider additional effects on our estimates, including some of the unknown effects from lead 

exposure, increased urbanization worldwide, and the growing impacts expected in emerging 

information economies. We consider how outrage factors can change willingness to pay and thereby 

alter our assessed values as more people become more aware of the effects from lead. Indeed, we 

argue that the phase-out of lead is fundamentally a human rights issue, as intellectual development is a 

profoundly human activity. Finally, we consider the basic limitations associated with all estimates of 

GDP.
Page 59

We suggest approaches to refining these estimates, including a breakdown of GDP sectors in education, 

tax revenue, and healthcare. We also consider why these refinements ultimately may not be needed for 

the decision to phase out leaded gasoline. The payoff of phasing out leaded gasoline has already been 

well justified over a variety of assumptions and scenarios. Nevertheless, the ability to estimate benefits 

remains important in justifying the expenditures in nations, regions, and ultimately in global efforts by 

the United Nations Environment Programme’s Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (UNEP-PCFV). 
Page 60

APPENDIX C. OUTCOME AND INFLUENCE EVALUATION OF 

THE UNEP PARTNERSHIP FOR CLEAN FUELS AND 

VEHICLES (PCFV): EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

UNEP. Outcome and Influence Evaluation of the UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV). 

2010. http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/leadphaseoutreport.pdf.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A. This report presents the findings of an evaluation of the contribution of the UNEP Partnership for 

Clean Fuels and Vehicles to the phase out of leaded petrol in Sub Saharan Africa.

B. The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) is a global initiative to promote and support 

better air quality through the introduction of cleaner fuels and vehicles in developing and 

transitional countries. It is a public-private partnership launched by a group of committed partners 

from governments, international organisations, industry and non-governmental organisations 

(NGOs). The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - based Partnership Clearing-House 

provides technical, networking and financial support for improved capacity and technology transfer 

through regional, national and local activities related to cleaner fuels and vehicles.

C. There was one main objective of the initial support provided by the Partnership in Sub Saharan 

Africa (SSA), namely the total phase-out of leaded petrol in SSA by the end of 2005. If this state were 

attained, the Partnership would have achieved its objective.

D. In mid-2001, Sudan was the only SSA country to have totally removed leaded petrol from use within 

its borders. This meant that some 48 Sub-Saharan Africa countries remained with total or (in a few 

cases) partial use of leaded petrol, which would need to be reversed within a period of four and a 

half years.

E. By the deadline of the end of 2005, the target of helping Sub Saharan Africa to be totally free of 

leaded petrol was attained.

F. In order to assess the results of the Partnership, a hypothetical “business as usual” counterfactual 

scenario was calculated. The reduction achieved in use of leaded fuel in SSA was of the order of 

Metric Tons (MT) 17,745 per annum at the end of 2005, rose to about MT 20,138 per annum in 2010

and to MT 23,071 p.a. by 2015. This gives a total of approximately Metric Tons 90,000 avoided by 

mid 2010, rising to MT190,690 by 2015 and to MT 304,770 by 2020. We cannot precisely predict 

how long it would have taken to achieve the phase out without the contributions of PCFV and other 

players. However, it is clear that there had been very little progress prior to the original Dakar 

Conference in 2001, with only Sudan totally lead-free and motorists in South Africa, Namibia and 

Botswana having limited access to unleaded fuel. This suggests that, as a very conservative estimate 

it would have taken ten years rather than five to achieve and that, on this basis, the total amount of 

leaded petrol avoided would have been at least MT 190,000; with a strong likelihood that this figure

would have actually been nearer to MT300,000, in view of the minimal progress, which had been 
Page 61

made prior to the Dakar Conference and the establishment of the PCFV. The urban population 

potentially benefitting from these reductions was expected to rise from 411 million in 2000 to 470 

million by 2015.

G. Research on the connection between Blood Lead Levels (BLLs) and health across continents 

indicates that the phase out of leaded petrol is the critical factor in reducing overall human exposure 

to lead. Evidence from Hungary and Thailand is consistent with that for the United States; whilst 

PCFV-supported research in Ghana showed dramatic decreases in BLLs after the phase out in that 

country. It is therefore clear that the Partnership contributed to substantial health benefits in Sub 

Saharan Africa; which in turn promoted social and economic gains through reduced sickness and 

improved physical and mental development, particularly of children in urban areas.

H. UNEP made a substantial contribution to this process, operating at three levels. As an institution, 

often represented at the highest level, UNEP promoted and reaffirmed the importance and 

achievability of the objective at a series of conferences throughout the region. The widely-respected 

expertise of UNEP in the realm of international environmental management, coupled with its 

perceived absence of vested interests was a critical factor in enrolling national political support at 

the highest levels, which was essential to ensure that intentions were followed through with the 

intensity and persistence required to phase-out leaded petrol throughout the region.

I. As a member of PCFV, UNEP helped to bring into the Partnership a broad range of stakeholders and 

to maintain their commitment through regular and ad hoc meetings. The experience of the 

organisation in promoting regional (and even global) environmental management initiatives was 

invaluable in ensuring that the process occurred in a cost effective manner.

J. At the level of day to day guidance of the process, the UNEP-based and supported Clearing House 

(CH) provided effective support with, initially, very limited resources. Gradually, the range of 

activities increased, as did the available resources. The CH enabled PCFV to operate by coordinating, 

advising, supporting the preparation of documentation, publishing and a range of activities without 

which the Partnership could not have been effective. As funds increased, from UNEP and other 

sources, the CH also played a vital role in managing Partnership financial and other support to 

organisations in SSA countries, to hold meetings, run advocacy campaigns, conduct research and 

engage in activities essential to underpin the process of change; which often started from a low level 

of public knowledge and even substantial misconceptions concerning unleaded fuel.

K. Although it is not possible to attribute the phase-out of leaded fuel to the support provided at these 

three levels by UNEP, or indeed to PCFV as an institution, it is clear that the phase-out would not 

have been achieved in anywhere near the same timescale without them. The contribution of UNEP 

operated on different levels: as a high level advocate to Governments, influencing support in the 

right places; as a channel to resources within the Partnership, some of whom were attracted to join 

because of the reputation of UNEP; and as a facilitator and supporter of activities at various levels, 

but particularly at the country level.

L. Evaluation of the role of PCFV in the phase out of leaded petrol in Sub Saharan Africa shows several 

key aspects, which contributed to its success. These included:

• Intervention design well-focussed on its objectives

• Comprehensive composition of the Partnership
Page 62

• Ability to support multi-level processes

• Approach tailored to available finance

• High quality management and staff.

M. Areas which were not fully successful and which would warrant additional consideration in any 

future Partnerships include:

• Need to maximise awareness of established best practice from an early stage

• Develop and implement agreed systems of compliance monitoring and, where feasible, 

sanctions for non-compliance.

Lesson 1

N. UNEP should consider a Partnership approach for issues for which:

• voluntary change at the desired level appears a feasible objective

• an alliance of different stakeholders can address all dimensions including:

• political commitment

• technical expertise

• financial support

• public awareness and support

• industry best practice

• UNEP’s reputation as a leader in international environmental change processes canengage 

high level political support.

Lesson 2

O. Partnerships should be built around the following principles:

• Clear objectives and commonly agreed goals

• Timescale with milestones

• Guiding principles

• Early attention to high level political commitment

• Each partner makes a unique contribution and is essential for success

• Clear governance rules and structure

• Regular review of Partnership performance

• Ability to listen and compromise

• Monitoring system for compliance

• Active consideration of possibilities for sanctions for non-compliance, which might work 

within a voluntary system.

Lesson 3

P. In order to move from outcomes, which the project can (mainly) directly deliver, to the intended 

long term impact objectives of the intervention, (which are mainly delivered by other stakeholders) 

partnership interventions should ensure that essential “impact drivers” are set in motion from the 

earliest possible stage. These should be determined during the design stage and may include:

• High level support and specified commitments from concerned governments: including high 

level champions, participation of all appropriate agencies, technical capacity, defined 

personnel responsibilities, and an adequate level of secured funding.
Page 63

• Active engagement of civil society organisations at international and national level, with 

specified contributions and adequate monitoring and assistance to ensure focus on 

intervention objective

• Focused participation of private sector representative bodies or companies with specific 

expertise and interests, which conform closely with those of the partnership

• Public awareness and support, based on production and circulation of materials detailing 

international best practice standards and support to national organisations, which can 

interpret and advocate the issues effectively in local contexts

• An appropriate coordination and support mechanism, which can: keep processes moving in 

line with the agreed schedule; offer or facilitate technical support in response to specific 

requests; provide financial support, particularly for such areas as local advocacy campaigns; 

research and monitoring; facilitate linkages and exchanges among partners, and between 

partners and participating countries; assemble, organise and disseminate up-to-date 

information to a broad range of interested parties.

• Development and implementation of effective monitoring mechanisms, to determine 

progress towards the partnership objective, highlight areas of low performance in need of 

additional attention and assess compliance once timebased deadlines have been passed

• Early consideration of possible sanctions against non-compliance, which might be viable and 

effective within a voluntary programme of change.
Page 64

APPENDIX D. EXAMPLE INTERVIEW GUIDE

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles Evaluation

Guide for Interviews with the Non Governmental Organizations

May 2011

Background and Approach

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) has contracted with Industrial Economics, Inc. and 

Ross & Associates Environmental Consulting, Ltd. to conduct a third-party evaluation to examine the 

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (Partnership) Lead Campaign and learn lessons that might be 

transferable to other existing or future international partnerships focusing on international 

environmental, health, and technological outcomes.

This evaluation is focused on learning from the design and implementation of the Partnership’s Lead 

Campaign. It will not focus on the Partnership’s Low Sulphur Campaign or the Clean Vehicles Campaign, 

or on evaluating the Lead Campaign’s effectiveness in achieving environmental and health outcomes, 

which have been the subject of other evaluations and reports. The evaluation is intended to 

complement rather than repeat previous evaluations of the Partnership. The results of this evaluation 

are intended primarily to inform US EPA’s engagement in existing or future international partnerships; 

however, others will likely be able to gain insights from the findings and recommendations as well.

Please note that information shared during the interviews will be confidential. In presenting findings 

from interviews, the evaluation team may attribute findings to groups of interviewees, but will not 

attribute findings or quotes to individuals without first obtaining permission from the respective 

interviewees. 

The following interview questions are intended to serve as a guide for our conversation and are 

provided in advance to spur your thinking and responses. Where possible, please be prepared to 

provide specific examples. Your responses are important, and we thank you for participating in the 

interview. If you have any questions or would like to provide any additional feedback or information, 

please contact: 

Anna Williams

Ross & Associates Environmental Consulting, Ltd.

anna.williams@ross-assoc.com

+1 (206) 792-4032 (Seattle, Washington, USA—Pacific Daylight Time/UTC-7)
Page 65

Questions

Topic I: Partnership Startup and Design 

Interviewees who are not familiar with the Partnership’s history may skip to the later questions. 

1. To the extent that you are familiar with the Partnership’s early history, please share your thoughts 

on why the Partnership formed. 

a. Was there anything particularly instrumental to the Partnership’s formation (e.g., 

political or economic conditions; timing; individuals)? 

b. Do you think that the conditions that led to the Partnership’s formation were unusual 

or unique? Are they replicated today in the context of other new or existing 

international partnerships? 

2. What, if any, was your organization’s role in the Partnership’s formation?

3. To what extent do you think that the Partnership’s voluntary, public-private structure or UNEP’s role 

as convener and clearinghouse has influenced the Partnership’s effectiveness?

a. Is there anything else about the Partnership’s structure (e.g., governance, roles) that 

you think has influenced the Partnership’s effectiveness?

4. Is there anything else about the Partnership’s design and startup that you would like to share?

Topic II: Partnership Implementation 

5. Why did your organization join the Partnership? 

a. What were the perceived benefits of participating? 

b. Where there any risks or down sides to participating?

6. What role has your organization played in the Lead Campaign?

7. What roles have other partners, including UNEP and US EPA, played in Lead Campaign? 

8. What roles have funding and other resource investments (by your organization or others) played in 

implementation of the Lead Campaign?

9. What do you think would be different (in terms of the phase out of leaded fuel) if the 

Partnership/Lead Campaign did not exist? 
Page 66

10. Is there anything not already mentioned about the Partnership’s design and implementation that 

has significantly influenced implementation or accomplishment of the Lead Campaign’s goals?

Topic III: Partnership Learning and Improvement 

11. What obstacles did the Partnership encounter and how has the Partnership worked to address these 

obstacles to ensure effective implementation of the Lead Campaign? 

12. If this Partnership were created today, knowing what you do now from the past several years of 

implementation, would you recommend changes to the Partnership’s design or processes? 

a. Is there anything else that you would you recommend be done differently? 

13. Are there any other insights about the Partnership’s learning and improvement that you would like 

to share?

Topic IV: Partnership Key Lessons and Insights 

14. What are the most important (2-3) lessons from the Lead Campaign’s implementation to date that 

are informing your organization’s work on this partnership and other partnerships?

a. To what extent do you think these lessons apply generally to other partnerships?

Topic V: Other

15. We have already invited key people to participate in the interviews for this evaluation; however, we 

are interested in your ideas on the most important people to speak with to gain the deepest insights 

into the Partnership’s design and implementation. With this in mind, are there particular individuals 

who you think could offer particularly important or unique perspectives for this evaluation? 

16. Do you have any other feedback or reflections on the design or implementation of the Partnership 

that you would like to share?
Page 67

APPENDIX E. PCFV GOVERNANCE RULES

UNEP. “Governance Rules.” http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/GovcRules.pdf. 2003.

1.0 The Partnership 

1.1 These are the rules that govern the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles, as adopted by the 

Partners during the Annual Partnership Meeting held on 11 and 12 December 2003 in The 

Hague, The Netherlands. 

1.2 The Partnership was launched at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 

Johannesburg in September 2002 by governments, international organisations, industry, and 

non-governmental organisations (NGOs). 

1.3 The Partnership’s goals are presented in the Mission Statement (Annex 1). 

2.0 Membership 

2.1 The Partnership is open to any government, international organisation, industry organisation, 

non-governmental organisation or academic institution that supports the Mission Statement of 

the Partnership. Organizations may join as full Partners, and individuals with relevant expertise 

may join as Associate Partners. Associate Partners have all the same rights and responsibilities 

as Partners except for voting privileges. 

2.2 Membership is subject to Advisory Group review; objections by the Advisory Group to 

membership applications will be forwarded to the Partnership. The same rules of procedure are 

necessary to suspend membership. 

3.0 Advisory Group 

3.1 The Advisory Group is a representative group of all Partners established to facilitate Partnership 

activities. 

3.2 The Advisory Group will be comprised of voluntary members. 

3.3 Advisory Group members will select a Moderator. 

3.4 The Advisory Group should strive to equally represent the diverse groups within the Partnership. 

3.5 The duties of the Advisory Group are outlined in Annex 3. 

4.0 Partnership Meetings 

4.1 Partners will meet at least on an annual basis and at such other times as deemed necessary. 

Meetings may be in person, by conference call or by any other means allowing decisions by a 

quorum. Associate Partners may attend these meetings. 

4.2 Only Partners may vote on Partnership matters. 

4.3 Any Partner or the Clearing-House may invite non-Partners to Partnership meetings for specific 

purposes and for limited discussion items. Such non-Partners will have an observer status and 

must agree to Chatham House rules before being allowed to attend the meeting (see Annex 4). 

4.4 The Advisory Group will submit Financial and Progress Reports to the Partners on or before the 

Annual Partnership Meeting. 
Page 68

4.5 The Advisory Group will propose an Annual Budget and Workplan to the Partners for approval at 

the Annual Partnership Meeting. 

4.6 The Partnership should strive for consensus in decisions, which will pass if there are no 

substantial objections. 

4.7 Partners, Associate Partners and observers will be expected to cover the costs of their 

participation, unless the Advisory Group approves otherwise. 

5.0 Partnership Working Groups 

5.1 From time to time, the Partnership may establish Working Groups to implement its mission. 

5.2 Only Partners and Associate Partners may participate in such Working Groups, although 

Working Groups may consult experts from time to time. Such experts may participate in 

meetings only after agreeing to follow Chatham House rules (Annex 4). 

5.3 Working Groups may elect their own Chairs. 

5.4 Working Groups should strive for consensus in decisions, which will pass if there are no 

substantial objections. 

5.5 Working Groups must try to schedule their meetings to maximise the opportunities for group 

member participation. 

5.6 Working Group documents: Following completion of documents by the Working Groups, the 

documents shall be circulated to the entire Partnership for 30 days for review. If significant 

comments are received and/or major problems noted, the Working Group and its Chair will 

address these concerns. If deemed necessary by the Working Group, there may be a second 

distribution of the document to the entire Partnership. The Chair of the Working Group should 

highlight changes in the document so modifications are clear. 

5.7 Working Group members may not release Working Group documents to non-Partners until the 

process outlined in 5.6 is completed. 

5.8 Once approved, Working Group documents shall contain a disclaimer stating that the Working 

Group document does not necessarily reflect the views of all Partners. 

5.9 Working Groups shall report their activities to the Partnership at the Annual Partnership 

Meeting. 

6.0 Rules 

6.1 In all activities under the Partnership, including Working Groups, Advisory Group Meetings and 

Partnership Meetings, Chatham House rules (see Annex 4) will apply. 

7.0 Changing Partnership Governance Rules 

7.1 Any Partner may propose changes to previously approved Partnership governance rules, 

policies, documents and the Clearing-House mandate and duties. Partners proposing such 

changes must have an opportunity to explain the proposed change at a Partnership meeting. 

7.2 The Partnership may agree to a proposed change under the following voting rules: 

7.2.1 Proposed changes regarding matters indicated under 7.1 will be forwarded by email to the 

Clearing House, who will then forward it to the entire Partnership for voting. All Partners must 

submit their votes within 30 days of the request, and a decision will carry if supported by threequarters of all Partners within the 30-day period. 
Page 69

8.0 The Clearing-House 

8.1 The mandate and duties of the Clearing-House are presented in Annex 2. 

8.2 The Clearing-House will help the Advisory Group and Partnership Working Groups prepare for 

and implement any Partnership meetings. 

8.3 The Clearing-House will help the Advisory Group prepare Annual Financial and Progress Reports 

and a proposed Annual Work Plan and Budget for Partnership consideration at the Annual 

Partnership Meeting. 

8.4 The Clearing-House may represent the Partnership. 

8.5 The Clearing-House is located at UNEP Headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. P.O Box 30552 Nairobi, 

KENYA Tel: +254-20-624-184 Fax: +254-20-624-324 

9.0 Conflict Resolution 

9.1 In the event of a conflict that arises between Partners, which is not covered under the 

Governance Rules, the following process shall be followed: 

9.1.1 Partners with grievances shall submit their respective grievances to the Advisory Group. 

9.1.2 The Advisory Group will discuss the situation with each party, then come to a decision regarding 

the conflict. 

10.0 Legal Liability 

10.1 Neither the Partnership nor any of the Partners can be held liable for any direct, incidental, 

consequential, indirect, or punitive damages arising out of any activity, policy, and or other 

action undertaken by any party, including Partners, that pertain to the Partnership and its 

functioning. 

11.0 Public Communications 

11.1 Any Partner, Associate Partner or Advisory Group member who speaks publicly about the 

Partnership and who is not a designated spokesperson must make it known that he or she is 

representing only his or her own views and not that of the full Partnership. 

11.2 The Clearing-House will help the Partnership communicate with the public, including with the 

media, consistent with its mandates and duties. 

ANNEX I – Partnership Mission Statement 

a. Help developing countries to develop action plans to complete the global elimination of leaded 

gasoline and start to phase down sulphur in diesel and gasoline fuels, concurrent with adopting 

cleaner vehicle requirements; 

b. Support the development and adoption of cleaner fuel standards and cleaner vehicle 

requirements by providing a platform for exchange of experiences and successful practices in 

developed and developing countries as well as technical assistance; 

c. Develop public outreach materials, educational programmes, and awareness campaigns; adapt 

economic and planning tools for clean fuels and vehicles analyses in local settings; and support 

the development of enforcement and compliance programmes, with an initial focus on fuel 

adulteration; and 
Page 70

d. Foster key partnerships between government, industry, NGOs, and other interested parties 

within a country and between countries to facilitate the implementation of cleaner fuel and 

vehicle commitments. 

ANNEX 2 – CLEARING-HOUSE MANDATE 

The Partners assigned the following tasks to the Clearing-House: 

• share and disseminate information to the Partners on relevant issues; 

• operate and maintain a website to provide easy access to information, Partner activities, and 

resources; 

• provide logistics for Partnership activities and events: workshops, technical assistance activities, 

etc; 

• provide administrative help to Partners; 

• maintain contacts in developing countries; 

• help to gather appropriate information for countries; 

• liaise with the other existing groups working on related activities; 

• help to bring in new partners or participants in Partnership activities; 

• develop and disseminate public outreach materials about the Partnership, along with technical 

materials for the developing countries; 

• help to bring developing country NGOs, universities, and governments into the Partnership or its 

activities; and 

• support Partners, at their request, in addressing the tasks above. 

ANNEX 3 – DUTIES OF ADVISORY GROUP 

Duties of the Advisory Group include: 

• Preparing the proposed Annual Budget and Workplan and the Annual Financial and Progress 

Report for approval by the Partnership 

• Reviewing and approving new memberships and forwarding to the Partnership those requests 

that require further consideration. 

• Deciding, after consultation with the Partners, the date and location of Partner meetings 

• Establishing agendas for Partnership Meetings 

• Assist with resolving conflicts as required 

• Reviewing the Newsletter, as forwarded by the Clearing-House 

• Serving as the public spokesperson for the Partnership 

• Designating additional spokespersons for specific issues, projects or regional activities, as 

needed 

• Advise the Clearing-House as required 
Page 71

ANNEX 4 – CHATHAM HOUSE RULES 

Participants are free to use the information or opinions disclosed to them during Partnership meetings 

and Working Group meetings, subject to two conditions: 

a. Neither the identity nor the affiliation of the speakers, nor that of any other participant at that 

meeting may be revealed. 

b. It may not be divulged that the information was received at that meeting.
Page 72

APPENDIX F. LIST OF PCFV PARTNERS

Provided by UNEP PCFV Clearing House. 2011.

1. African Refiners Association (ARA)

2. Afton Chemical

3. Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers

4. American Honda

5. American Petroleum Institute (API)

6. Asian Clean Fuels Association (ACFA)

7. Association for Emission Control by Catalyst (AECC)

8. Association of European Automobile Manufacturers (ACEA)

9. Association of Intl. Automobile Manufacturers

10. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Working Group

11. Blacksmith Institute

12. BP America Inc.

13. Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)

14. Caucasus Environmental NGO Network (CENN)

15. Central American Commission on Environment and Development

16. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)

17. Centre of Expertise and Certification of Oil and Oil Products ‘Organic Ltd’

18. Centro de Transporte Sustentable

19. Centro Mario Molina Chile

20. Chile National Commission on the Environment (CONAMA)

21. China State Economic and Trade Commission

22. CITAC AFRICA LLP

23. Corpaire – Institution mandated by Ecuadorian Government for Air Quality Control

24. Daedalus LLC

25. Democratic Republic of Congo - Ministère de l’Environnement, Conservation de la Nature, 

Eaux et Forêts

26. Ecogestión

27. Egerton University

28. El Salvador Daily News

29. Energy and Environment Saving Ventures

30. Engine Manufacturers Association

31. Environment Australia

32. Environment Canada

33. Environmental and Energy Technology and Policy Institute

34. Environmental Defense

35. Environmental Liaison Centre International (ELCI)

36. European Commission

37. European Fuel Oxygenates Association

38. FIA Foundation
Page 73

39. Fleet Forum

40. Forum For Environment

41. Ghana Environmental Protection Agency

42. Global Environment and Technology Foundation

43. Indonesian Ministry of Environment

44. Institute of Environmental Studies (IES) Albania

45. Institute of Petroleum Studies

46. International Energy Agency (IEA)

47. International Fuel Quality Center

48. International Petroleum Industry Environment Conservation Association (IPIECA)

49. Israel Ministry of Environmental Protection

50. Italy Ministry of Environment and Territory

51. Jane Armstrong, Associate Partner

52. Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association

53. Japan Petroleum Energy Center (JPEC)

54. Kenya Auto Bazaar Association

55. Kjaer Group A/S

56. Komite Penghapusan Bensin Bertimbel (KPBB)

57. Korean Ministry of Environment (MoE)

58. Kukulkan Foundation

59. Lagos Metropolitan Area Transport Authority (LAMATA)

60. Lao PDR, Ministry of Public Works and Transport

61. Lawyers’ Environmental Action Team (LEAT)

62. Lubrizol Corporation

63. Manufacturers of Emission Control Association (MECA)

64. Mexican Center for Environmental Law, A.C. (CEMDA)

65. Mexico - Instituto Nacional de Ecologia (INE)

66. Mexico Office for Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT)

67. Michael Walsh, Associate Partner

68. Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP, China)

69. Mongolia, Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism

70. Mozambique Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Affairs

71. National Association of Automobile Manufacturers of South Africa (NAAMSA)

72. National Automotive Council (Nigeria Ministry of Industry)

73. National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) - Kenya

74. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)

75. Navistar Inc.

76. Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning & Environment (VROM)

77. Nigeria Federal Ministry of Environment

78. Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel / The Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS)

79. Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d’Automobiles (OICA)

80. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)

81. Petrobras
Page 74

82. Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica

83. Petroleum Institute of East Africa (PIEA)

84. Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro

85. Regional Environment Centre for Central and Eastern Europe (RECCEE)

86. Regional Environmental Centre for the Caucasus (REC Caucasus)

87. Rupesh Kumar Sah, Associate Partner

88. Salzburg AG Utilities UAE FZE

89. Scientific and Research Institute of Motor Transport (NIIAT)

90. Serbian Chamber of Commerce

91. Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)

92. Somali Ministry of Environment and Disaster Management

93. South Africa Dept. of Minerals & Energy

94. South African Petroleum Industry Association (SAPIA)

95. South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP)

96. Southern Centre for Energy and Environment

97. Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON)

98. Thailand Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE)

99. The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center (CAI-Asia)

100. The Clean Air Institute/Clean Air Initiative for Latin American Cities

101. The Climate and carbon Market Department of the Environment Secretary of Rio de Janeiro 

State

102. The LEAD Group

103. The LEVON Group

104. TNT

105. Tracerco, U.K.

106. Trust For Lead Poisoning Prevention

107. U.S. Agency for International Development

108. U.S. Department of Energy

109. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

110. United Nations Dept for Economic & Social Affairs (UNDESA)

111. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

112. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)

113. United Nations World Food Programme (WFP)

114. Universidad Nacional de Colombia

115. Vanilla-Jatropha Development Foundation (VJDF)

116. VBD Automotive Technologies

117. World Resources Institute (WRI)

118. Yemen Environment Protection Authority
Page 75

APPENDIX G. PCFV LEAD CAMPAIGN NATIONAL AND 

REGIONAL ACTIVITIES THROUGH 2009

United Nations Environment Programme. “PCFV Lead Campaign National and Regional Activities.” 2002-2009.

PCFV LEAD CAMPAIGN NATIONAL AND REGIONAL ACTIVITIES105

Summary 

Activity Total 

Lead SSFAs106/MOUs107 (2004-2009) 32

National lead activities (2002-2009) 39

Countries supported for national activities 30

Countries supported in regional and subregional lead activities 

(2002-2009)

67

Total number of countries supported in lead 

activities (whether at national, sub regional 

& regional level)

77

Lead SSFAs/MOUs (2004-2009)

Country Region Activity Year 

1. Burundi Africa Lead phase out workshop 2004

2. Benin Africa Lead phase out workshop 2004

3. Kenya Africa Training on unleaded gasoline for 

petrol attendants 

2004

4. Rwanda Africa Public awareness campaign 2004

5. CEE (coordinated by REC) CEE108 Activities on vehicles and fuels in the 

region including lead 

2005

6. Djibouti Africa lead phase out workshop 2005

7. Gambia Africa Lead phase out workshop and public 

awareness campaign 

2005

8. Ghana Africa Air quality monitoring project 2005

9. Indonesia AP109 Public awareness on unleaded fuels 2005

10. Kenya Africa Workshop and public awareness on 

unleaded fuels

2005

11. Tanzania Africa Public awareness campaign (LEAT) 2005

12. Togo Africa Lead phase out workshop 2005

13. Uganda Africa Lead phase out workshop/ public 

awareness 

2005 

14. Yemen MENAWA

110

Lead assessment and lead exposure 

studies 

2005

15. Ghana Africa air quality monitoring project 2006

 105 United Nations Environment Programme. “PCFV Lead Campaign National and Regional Activities.” 2002-2009. 106 Small Scale Funding Agreements 107 Memorandum of Understanding 108 Central and Eastern Europe 109 Asia and the Pacific 110 Middle East, North Africa, and West Asia
Page 76

16. Ghana Africa Blood lead testing 2006

17. Malawi Africa Public awareness 2006

18. Malawi Africa Support to task team preparing draft 

standards 

2006 

19. Mozambique Africa Public awareness on unleaded fuels 2006

20. Tanzania Africa Air quality monitoring project 2006

21. Zambia Africa Public awareness on unleaded fuels 2006

22. Indonesia AP BLL (capacity building support) 2007

23. Afghanistan Lead testing 2007 

24. Eastern Europe, Caucasus 

and central Asia (REC 

Caucasus) 

CEE Workshop on clean fuel and vehicles 

including lead phase out 

2007

25. Jordan MENAWA Public awareness on unleaded fuels 

and capacity building 

2007

26. Serbia and Macedonia 

(REC HQ)

CEE BLL and lead phase out activities 2007

27. Morocco MENAWA Lead phase out workshop and public 

awareness campaign 

2008 

28. Bosnia and Herzegovina 

(REC CEE)

CEE Capacity building 2008

29. Montenegro (REC) CEE Lead phase out campaign and 

develop vehicle and fuel standards 

2009

30. South East Europe (Bosnia, 

Herzegovina, Macedonia, 

Montenegro, Serbia) 

(REC HQ)

CEE Cleaner fuels and vehicles activities 

including lead phase out 

2009

31. Tajikistan AP National workshop on lead phase out 2009

32. Tunisia (with participation 

of Algeria and Morocco)

Africa Sub-regional workshop on lead phase 

out

2009 

Total MOUs/ SSFAs (32)

National lead activities (2002-2009)

Country Region Year Activity

1. Nigeria Africa 2001 Lead phase out workshop

2. DR Congo Africa 2002 Lead phase out workshop

3. Ethiopia Africa 2003 Lead phase out workshop

4. Mauritania Africa 2003 Lead phase out workshop

5. Tanzania Africa 2003 Lead phase out workshop 

6. Benin Africa 2004 Lead phase out workshop 

7. Burundi Africa 2004 Lead phase out workshop 

8. Kenya Africa 2004 Training on unleaded gasoline for petrol attendants 

9. Rwanda Africa 2004 Public awareness campaign 

10. Djibouti Africa 2005 Lead phase out workshop

11. Gambia Africa 2005 Lead phase out workshop and public awareness campaign 

12. Ghana Africa 2005 Air quality monitoring project 

13. Indonesia AP 2005 Public awareness on unleaded fuels

14. Kenya Africa 2005 Workshop and public awareness on unleaded fuels

15. Tanzania Africa 2005 Public awareness campaign (LEAT)

16. Togo Africa 2005 Lead phase out workshop

17. Uganda Africa 2005 Lead phase out workshop/ public awareness 
Page 77

Country Region Year Activity

18. Yemen MENAWA 2005 Lead assessment and lead exposure studies 

19. Ghana Africa 2006 air quality monitoring project 

20. Ghana Africa 2006 Blood lead testing 

21. Malawi Africa 2006 Public awareness

22. Malawi Africa 2006 Support to task team preparing draft standards 

23. Mozambique Africa 2006 Public awareness on unleaded fuels 

24. Serbia CEE 2006 Capacity building

25. Tanzania Africa 2006 Air quality monitoring project

26. Zambia Africa 2006 Public awareness on unleaded fuels

27. Afghanistan 2007 Lead testing 

28. Indonesia AP 2007 BLL (capacity building support)

29. Jordan MENAWA 2007 Public awareness on unleaded fuels and capacity building 

30. Macedonia CEE 2007 BLL and lead phase out activities

31. Serbia CEE 2007 BLL and lead phase out activities 

32. Bosnia CEE 2008 Capacity building 

33. Herzegovina CEE 2008 Capacity building

34. Jordan MENAWA 2008 Capacity building

35. Laos AP 2008 Capacity building

36. Mongolia AP 2008 Capacity building

37. Morocco MENAWA 2008 Lead phase out workshop and public awareness campaign 

38. Montenegro CEE 2009 Lead phase out campaign and develop vehicle and fuel 

standards 

39. Tajikistan AP 2009 National workshop on lead phase out 

Total (39 national activities 2002-2009)

Countries supported in regional and sub-regional lead activities (2002-2009)

Country Region Activity Date 

1. Mali Africa Technical Experts Group Meeting on the 

Phase Out of Leaded Gasoline in SubSaharan African Countries

27-29 March 2003 

Bamako, Mali

2. Benin "

3. Ethiopia " " "

4. Gabon " " "

5. Kenya " " "

6. Mauritania " " "

7. Senegal " " "

8. South Africa " " "

9. Tanzania " " "

10. Togo " " "

11. South Africa Africa SADC Sub-regional Workshop for the 

Phase-Out of Leaded Gasoline 

6-7 October 2003, 

South Africa

12. Angola " " "

13. Cameroon " " "

14. DR Congo " " "

15. Ghana " " "

16. Lesotho " " "

17. Madagascar " " "
Page 78

Country Region Activity Date 

18. Malawi " " "

19. Mauritius " " "

20. Mozambique " " "

21. Tanzania " " "

22. Zambia " " "

23. Zimbabwe " " "

24. Cameroon Africa Confrence sous-rgionale sur l'limination 

du plomb dans l'essence en Afrique de 

l'Ouest et Centrale

16-17 March 2004 

Douala, Cameroon

25. Angola " " "

26. Central Africa 

Republic

" " "

27. Congo 

Brazaville

" " "

28. DRCongo " " "

29. Gabon " " "

30. Tunisia Africa Sub-regional Workshop for North African 

states on the phase-out of leaded 

gasoline 

14 -16 August 2008, 

Tunis, Tunisia

31. Algeria " " "

32. Morocco " " "

33. Egypt MENAWA Policy Development Meeting for the 

Middle East and North Africa 

June 2006, Cairo, 

Egypt

34. Bahrain " " "

35. Iran " " "

36. Jordan " " "

37. Lebanon " " "

38. Libya " " "

39. Morocco " " "

40. Saudi Arabia " " "

41. South Africa " " "

42. Syria " " "

43. Tunisia " " "

44. Yemen " " "

45. Bahrain MENAWA Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Policy 

Development meeting on Clean Fuels 

and Vehicles

12-13 March 2008, 

Manama, Bahrain

46. Egypt " " "

47. Jordan " " "

48. Kuwait " " "

49. Lebanon " " "

50. Libya " " "

51. Morocco " " "

52. Oman " " "

53. Palestine " " "

54. Saudi Arabia " " "

55. Syria " " "

56. Tunisia " " "

57. Yemen " "

58. UAE " "
Page 79

Country Region Activity Date 

59. Georgia CEE Conference on Cleaner Fuels and 

Vehicles for Eastern Europe, Caucasus

and Central Asia (EECCA)

24-25 January, 2008, 

Tbilisi, Georgia

60. Armenia " " "

61. Azerbaijan " " "

62. Hungary " " "

63. Kazakhstan " " "

64. Kyrgyzstan " " "

65. Macedonia " " "

66. Moldova " " "

67. Russia " " "

68. Turkmenistan " " "

69. Uzbekistan " " "

70. Macedonia CEE Sub Regional Meeting on Lead Phase-Out 

in Southeast Europe

12-13 February 2009, 

Ohrid, FYR 

Macedonia

71. Bosnia " " "

72. Herzegovina " " "

73. Serbia " " "

74. Montenegro " " "

75. Hungary Central and Eastern Europe & Turkey 

Workshop on Clean Fuels & Vehicles, 

27-28 October, 2005 

Szentendre Hungary 

76. Albania " " "

77. Bosnia " " "

78. Herzegovina " " "

79. Czech republic " " "

80. Estonia " " "

81. Bulgaria " " "

82. Latvia " " "

83. Lithuania " " "

84. Macedonia " " "

85. Romania " " "

86. Serbia " " "

87. Montenegro " " "

88. Slovakia " " "

89. Slovenia " " "

90. Turkey " " "

91. Bosnia CEE South East Europe 

Cleaner fuels and vehicles activities 

including lead phase out coordinated by 

REC HQ

2009 

92. Herzegovina " " "

93. Macedonia " " "

94. Montenegro " " "

95. Serbia " " "

96. Tunisia Africa Sub-regional workshop on lead phase 

out

14-16 August 2008

97. Algeria " " "

98. Morocco " " "

99. Lebanon Clean Fuels and Vehicles in Western Asia, 15-17 March 2004
Page 80

Country Region Activity Date 

Beirut Lebanon 2004 regional workshop 

100. Algeria " " "

101. Bahrain " " "

102. Egypt " " "

103. Iraq " " "

104. Jordan " " "

105. Kuwait " " "

106. Morocco " " "

107. Oman " " "

108. Palestine " " "

109. Saudi Arabia " " "

110. Syria " " "

111. Tunisia " " "

112. Kenya Africa Sub-regional Workshop on the Phasing 

out of Leaded Gasoline in East Africa 

June 2002

113. Senegal Africa Dakar sub-regional workshop March 2002

114. Benin Africa Sub regional workshop 2002

115. Mali Africa SSA Refining Experts Meeting 2003

116. South Africa Africa SSA Phase II of UNEP's Leaded Petrol 

Phase-out Programme Launch

2003

117. Kenya Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Conference ("Dakar 

+2")

2004

118. Italy CEE Central and Eastern Europe Partnership 

event

2004

119. Serbia CEE Cleaner Fuels and Vehicles at the 

Environment for Europe Ministerial 

Conference Belgrade participants list not 

available

10-12 October, 2007

120. Eastern 

Europe, 

Caucasus and 

central Asia 

(REC Caucasus)

CEE Sub-regional workshop on clean fuel and 

vehicles including lead phase out

2007

121. CEE

(coordinated 

by REC)

CEE Activities on vehicles and fuels in the 

region including lead

2005

Total (67 countries supported 2002-2009)

22 sub-regional activities