Expeditionary Culture 

Field Guide

Benin

Parakou

Djougou

Porto Novo
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the decisive cultural dimension of your assigned 

location and gain skills 

necessary for success (Photo: 

Beninese medics perform 

routine physical examinations 

on local residents of 

Wanrarou, Benin). 

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 introduces “Culture General,” the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global

environment. 

Part 2 presents “Culture Specific” Benin, focusing on unique 

cultural features of Beninese society and is designed to 

complement other pre-deployment training. It applies culturegeneral concepts to help increase your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment location

(Photo: Beninese Army

Soldier practices baton strikes 

during peacekeeping training 

with US Marine in Bembereke, 

Benin).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or

contact AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil. 

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

ECFG Benin

About this Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story – 

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE 
nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture. 

Social Behaviors Across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For 

example, all societies obtain 

food for survival, although

agrarian societies generally 

produce their own food for 

limited consumption using 

very basic techniques. 

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

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market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing most 

of what was traditional 

and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form of 

bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 55-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia). 

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers. 

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life. 

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2017 statistics, only 80% of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 33 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual. 

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 16% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 70% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection and 

widespread poverty caused 

by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 63% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions. 

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as civil 

war, disease, poverty, 

and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational 

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Beninese society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Known as Dahomey until 1972, the region of modern-day 

Benin was historically home to many ethnic groups. In the 17th 

century, the Kingdom of Dahomey grew powerful through slave 

trade with Europeans. Succumbing to French expansionist 

plans, Dahomey became a colony within French West Africa in 

the late 19th century. Gaining independence in 1960, Dahomey 

struggled through political upheaval before entering a period of 

military control as a Marxist-Leninist state. Since transitioning 

to multi-party democracy in 1991, Benin has seen multiple 

peaceful transitions of power, becoming one of sub-Saharan 

Africa’s most stable countries despite 

remaining one of the world’s poorest

(Photo: A Beninese woman carries 

her laundry while walking with her son 

back to her village).

Early History

Scholars know little about the early 

history of the territory comprising

modern-day Benin. Hunter-gatherer 

groups likely roamed the region, 

where small kingdoms probably rose 

and fell. The highly-developed Benin 

Empire that dominated much of 

southern Nigeria from the 15th-19th centuries never included 

any territory of modern-day Benin. 

The Rise of Kingdoms

Between the 14th-17th centuries, the Aja people migrated from 

Tado (in modern-day Togo) to establish a kingdom at the town 

of Allada, somewhat inland from Benin’s Gulf of Guinea coast. 

According to tradition, 3 brothers fought for the throne of Allada

in the early 17th century. When the oldest brother triumphed, 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

the others left to establish their own kingdoms, one founding 

Hogbonou near the coast with the other establishing Abomey 

further inland. All 3 kingdoms paid tribute to the powerful 

Yoruba Kingdom of Oyo in modern-day Nigeria. Meanwhile, the 

Bariba people migrated west from Nigeria to establish a cluster 

of states in the North, while Ouidah emerged as an important 

kingdom on the coast.

The Arrival of Europeans and the Slave Trade

Portuguese ships passed Benin’s southern coast in 1472, 

seeking a sea route to India. Some 200 years passed before 

the Portuguese began small-scale trade with local residents. 

Afterwards, the Portuguese established a trading post at 

Hogbonou, which they renamed Porto-Novo (Benin’s capital 

today). Regular trade with Benin’s coastal inhabitants began in 

earnest in the 17th century, when Dutch, English, French, and 

other Europeans arrived. The region’s principal export was 

slaves, traded for 

manufactured items from 

Europe (Illustration: 1851 

depiction of slave traders

and their slaves in 

Dahomey).

In the 2nd half of the 

17th century, the slave 

trade flourished with the 

increased demand for 

slave labor in the Americas, and Europeans began calling the 

region the “Slave Coast.” By the beginning of the 18th century, 

Benin’s coastal settlements of Ouidah, Porto-Novo, and GrandPopo exported as many as 20,000 slaves per year, 

predominantly war captives from the entire region of modernday Benin. These slaves took their beliefs and traditions with 

them to the New World, evidenced by the survival of Voudoun

(or Voodoo – see p. 1-3 of Religion and Spirituality) and other 

Beninese cultural elements among certain Afro-American and

Afro-Caribbean communities even today.

The Kingdom of Dahomey

The Atlantic slave trade brought new weapons to the region, 

intensifying conflict among local kingdoms. The Europeans 
HISTORY &

MYTH

initially focused their trade relations with Benin’s coastal 

kingdoms, and eventually other communities sought to profit 

from the lucrative slave trade. Seeking direct access to 

European traders on the coast, King Agaja of inland Abomey 

began a period of expansive growth in the 18th century.

Abomey eventually conquered Allada in 1724 and took the 

coastal Kingdom of Ouidah in 1727. Also known as Abomey 

after its capital city, the resulting Kingdom of Dahomey became

the region’s dominant power, encompassing much of coastal 

and central Benin. Meanwhile, Porto-Novo successfully 

resisted Dahomey attacks and remained independent, and 

around 1730, the Yoruba Kingdom of Oyo attacked and 

defeated Dahomey. For the next almost 100 years, Dahomey 

maintained its independence while paying tribute to Oyo.

A militaristic Kingdom with a highly trained army, Dahomey was 

well-known among Europeans, who favorably compared it to 

ancient Greece by labeling it “Black Sparta.” Within its rigidly 

stratified society, the ruler’s authority was absolute and 

supported by an elaborate cult of ancestor king worship that 

included human sacrifices at annual public ceremonies. The 

Kingdom successfully united disparate communities by 

intermarriage and the imposition of uniform laws, in the process 

fashioning a new national identity, the Fon, that is Benin’s 

largest ethnic group today (see p. 11 of 

Political and Social Relations). 

Dahomey was also renowned for its 

contingent of female warriors, the Mino

(“our mothers”). Admired for their valor 

and skill, the Mino likely began in the 

1720s as a palace guard drawn from the 

king’s wives. By the mid-19th century, 

Mino warriors comprised about 1/3 of 

Dahomey’s army (Illustration: 19thcentury depiction of a Mino warrior, 

called “Amazon” by Europeans).

Dahomey continued to conquer new 

territories throughout the 18th century. It supported its 

expansionist wars by capturing slaves to work its royal 

plantations and also trade them to Europeans for weapons and 
HISTORY &

MYTH

other manufactured goods. Dahomey captured slaves during 

its regional conquests and slaving raids in the territories of the 

Yoruba in the East and Bariba in the North. Historians estimate 

that Dahomey supplied up to 20% of the slaves sold to 

Europeans in the 18th century, trading with British, French, and 

Portuguese primarily at Ouidah. Dahomey’s slaving activities

were destabilizing, reducing the region’s adult population by 

about 20% and prompting many inhabitants to flee.

Decline of the Slave Trade

Dahomey achieved its height of power under Kings Guézo (r. 

1818-58) and Glélé (r. 1858-89). Ruling from royal palaces in 

Abomey, Guézo defeated the Kingdom of Oyo in 1823, freeing 

Dahomey from its tributary payments. Conversely, Glélé’s 

attempts at eastward expansion were defeated by the powerful

state of Abeokuta in modern-day Nigeria. 

By the mid-19th century, the slave trade was in decline due to 

European efforts to abolish it. The Europeans abandoned their 

fortified posts at Ouidah as British warships began to patrol the 

Atlantic for slaving ships. Occasionally, the British confiscated

their slave cargo and released the 

Africans on the coasts of present-day 

Sierra Leone, even though far from their 

homelands. 

With the slave trade declining, King 

Guézo (depicted in an 1851 illustration) 

sought other sources of income, 

primarily the export of palm oil produced 

by slaves on the royal plantations. In 

1852, a British naval blockade forced 

King Guézo to accept a treaty abolishing 

the slave trade, yet Dahomey largely 

disregarded the agreement. 

Consequently, the Kingdom continued to capture and export

slaves to the US until 1865 and to Brazil and the Caribbean 

until 1885.

Nevertheless, the less lucrative palm oil exports could not 

make up for the dwindling slave trade. Under King Glélé, 

Dahomey declined economically, scaled back its Mino corps 

and reduced its military campaigns. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

French Colonial Expansion

Meanwhile, Europeans became increasingly interested in the 

region’s palm oil and peanuts, driving colonial competition 

between the British, based on the Gold Coast (modern-day 

Ghana), and the French on

the Ivory Coast (modern day 

Côte d'Ivoire). In 1842, the 

French reoccupied their fort at 

Ouidah in pursuit of the palm 

oil trade, then signed a treaty 

with King Guézo in 1851 

securing their right to trade at 

Ouidah.

A decade later, the British 

annexed Lagos (in modernday Nigeria), sparking fears of 

Britain’s expansionist 

ambitions in Benin. Seeking

military support, the king of Porto-Novo agreed to allow the 

French to establish a base of power and make his Kingdom a 

French protectorate in 1863. To further secure their foothold in 

the area, the French negotiated an agreement with Dahomey’s 

King Glélé in 1878 to protect his Kingdom from the British in 

return for control of the Dahomey port of Cotonou. 

King Behanzin (in an 1895 illustration above) assumed the 

Dahomey throne in 1889. Disputing French control of Cotonou,

he provoked an attack by

the French in 1890, 

resulting in the First 

Franco-Dahomean War, 

known in Benin as the 

First War of Resistance. 

Defeating Dahomey, the 

French enforced their 

claim on Cotonou. In an 

uneasy truce, both sides

stockpiled arms and 

expanded their militaries 

(Illustration: 1895 depiction of a battle during the Second 

Franco-Dahomean War).
HISTORY &

MYTH

In 1892, King Behanzin sent a letter to the French threatening 

never-ending war if they attacked. In response, French General 

Alfred-Amédée Dodds marched on Dahomey with 

approximately 3,600 troops, initiating the Second War of 

Resistance. After 23 battles over the course of 7 weeks, the 

French forces decisively defeated Dahomey. Rather than have 

Abomey fall into French hands, King Behanzin set the town on 

fire and fled, though the French later captured and exiled him.

The Colony of Dahomey: In 1894, General Dodds placed 

Agoli-Agbo, a relative of King Behanzin, on the Dahomey 

throne. In return, Agoli-Agbo signed Dahomey’s surrender to 

France, and on June 22, 1894, the French formally established 

the colony of Dahomey with its capital at Porto-Novo. French 

Dahomey was larger than the Kingdom of Dahomey, 

incorporating all the lands between Britain’s colony to the east 

(modern-day Nigeria) and Germany’s colony to the west 

(modern-day Togo).

Agoli-Agbo remained a puppet-king under the French until 

1900, when French authorities exiled him and implemented

direct colonial rule. The French never allowed another king to 

assume the Dahomean throne, and with the 1908 death of 

Porto-Novo’s king, all 

major thrones in Benin 

were vacant. 

Nevertheless, some rulers 

retained power and 

authority within their 

communities, and their 

descendants still identify 

as “princes” or 

“princesses” today. In 

1909, France defined French Dahomey’s boundaries with its 

neighboring colonies (modern-day Niger and Burkina Faso), 

establishing the borders of present-day Benin (Photo: Fon 

chiefs in Abomey in 1908). 

French West Africa

In 1904, France incorporated French Dahomey into French 

West Africa (Afrique occidentale française or OAF), a 

federation of French colonial territories ruled by a French 
HISTORY &

MYTH

governor-general in Senegal. In the early 20th century, OAF

was home to around 10 million people and encompassed some

1.8 million mi. of territory across modern-day Benin, Burkina 

Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and 

Senegal.

The French believed that their colonies should be both selfsufficient and contribute to France’s economic growth. 

Consequently, France tried to minimize its expenditures in 

Benin, maintaining a small colonial government and focusing 

primarily on the resources it could extract from the region. The

colonial government became increasingly detached from local 

populations, and insufficient funds resulted in ineffective 

administration and governance.

By 1914, the French colonial administration was concentrated

on developing the coastal region’s agricultural sector, primarily

palm oil production. French companies gained control of the 

plantations, and through 

the support of the colonial 

administration’s forced 

labor policies, the sector 

grew to include cotton 

and peanut production. 

Although high taxes and 

low commodity prices 

frequently led to 

economic and social 

instability, the French pursued some economic development, 

building a deep-water port at Cotonou (Benin’s de-facto seat of 

government today) (Photo: French Dahomey governor with 

local residents in 1932).

Social Change: French Dahomey encompassed not only the 

residents of the former Kingdom of Dahomey, but also the 

Yoruba in the South and East and the Muslim Bariba in the 

North (see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations and p. 7-8 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Early French policies assumed that

over time colonial inhabitants would assimilate to French 

culture, become French citizens, integrate with France, and 

enjoy equal access to French institutions. In Senegal, its oldest 

colony, French authorities granted a few locals full citizenship, 
HI

MYTH

STORY &

but all other residents of the OAF became subjects of France 

with many obligations and few rights. While possible in theory, 

the achievement of citizenship by OAF residents was rare: by 

1937 only 2,500 of some 15 million West Africans had acquired 

French citizenship.

Meanwhile, colonial authorities did little to improve living 

conditions beyond providing minimal health and education 

services (see p. 2 of Learning and Knowledge). More 

significant were the changes brought by French missionaries 

(see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality) and the return of former 

slaves and their descendants from the Americas. Called

Brésiliens (Brazilians), these returnees brought Afro-Brazilian 

and Caribbean culture with them, influencing cuisine (see p. 2

of Sustenance and Health), art, and 

architecture. Through the influence 

of the Brésiliens and missionaries, 

Christianity and Western-style

education spread, particularly in the 

South. By the 1950s, French 

Dahomey was known in the OAF for 

its large numbers of intellectuals, 

authors, and professionals (Photo: 

Missionaries in Benin around 1910). 

Towards Independence

Gradually, French attitudes towards 

its colonies changed. First, 

Europeans’ sense of cultural superiority began to diminish after 

the horrors of World War I. Second, the economic hardship of 

the Great Depression enhanced the importance of both raw 

materials from the colonies and the colonial markets as 

destinations for French manufactured goods. Consequently, 

the French were compelled to develop the skills and well-being

of their colonial subjects. 

Third, residents of French colonies played an important role in 

supporting the French resistance during World War II (WWII) 

and later in France’s First Indochina War, further changing 

France’s views of its colonial subjects. Among West Africans, 

these experiences were also transformative, with many

benefitting from technical training received in the French army. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Even more significantly, these overseas experiences laid bare 

the exploitative realities of colonial rule, prompting growing 

opposition to colonialism across West Africa.

After WWII, local farmers benefitted from a growing economy, 

while an expanding education system created a small group of

educated West Africans. As they gained knowledge and 

economic stability, West Africans sought enhanced political 

participation. Meanwhile, European colonial powers faced 

strong international pressure to transition their overseas 

territories toward independence. 

In France’s colonies, this process began with the French 

constitution of 1946, which granted French citizenship and 

representation in the French National Assembly to colonial 

subjects. Nevertheless, these changes fell short of West 

African aspirations, since the French granted only limited local 

government autonomy and 

parliamentary representation. 

Moreover, because of its weakened 

postwar economy, France was slow 

to implement development plans in 

the OAF, provoking further 

discontent (Photo: French Dahomey

stamp from 1940).

In response, West Africans began 

forming nationalist organizations and 

political parties, such as the 

federation-wide African Democratic 

Rally (RDA). In 1956, France 

passed the loi-cadre (Reform Act) 

that transferred new powers of self-government to certain subregions of its colonies. Unsatisfied, the RDA continued to press 

for additional rights. Confronting unrest in other colonies and 

internal turmoil, France offered its West African colonies full 

self-government and association in a French Community that 

would handle international affairs. All the OAF colonies except 

Guinea accepted the arrangement. Instead, Guinea demanded 

and received full independence. Guinea’s example 

emboldened the other colonies to make similar demands. On 

August 1, 1960, Dahomey achieved independence. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Independent Dahomey

Post-independence, Dahomey’s political landscape quickly 

fractured along ethnic and regional divisions. The rivalry of 

these factions, representing Porto-Novo, Abomey, and the 

North, prevented the formation of a national identity. In its first 

elections in December 1960, Dahomey elected northerner 

Hubert Maga as President, provoking resentment among 

residents of the South. Meanwhile, a weak economy spurred

strikes and demonstrations. By 1963, the country was on the 

brink of civil war and secession by the North. The military 

stepped in and overthrew Maga, initiating almost a decade of 

coups and attempted coups, 9 changes of government, and 5 

constitutions. In an attempt to bring political stability to the 

country, 3 rival factions formed a Presidential Council, which 

held all legislative and executive power. Nevertheless, financial 

mismanagement and corruption continued, provoking strikes 

and demonstrations, especially among trade unionists, the 

youth, and the army’s junior officers, who conducted 2 mutinies 

and another coup attempt in 1971-72.

The People’s Republic of Benin

In October 1972, Colonel (later General) Mathieu Kérékou

seized power in Dahomey’s 6th and last military coup. He 

quickly consolidated control, jailing some opposition political 

and military leaders, while forcing 

others into early retirement or selfexile. In 1974, Kérékou declared 

Dahomey a single-party, MarxistLeninist state, then changed its 

name to the People’s Republic of 

Benin a year later. As both the name 

of a nearby bay and an ancient 

empire in neighboring Nigeria, Benin 

was a meaningful yet neutral name 

intended to unite the country’s ethnic 

groups (see p. 11-13 of Political and 

Social Relations) (Illustration: Coat of arms of the People’s 

Republic of Benin). 

As a Marxist-Leninist state under Kérékou’s People’s 

Revolutionary Party of Benin (PRPB), Benin gained the 

financial backing of the Soviet Union (USSR), North Korea, and 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Cuba, resulting in a decade of economic improvement and 

relative political stability. Besides nationalizing almost every 

economic sector, the government also limited personal 

freedoms, such as forcing Beninese to work on collective 

farms. 

Yet Benin soon faced challenges on several fronts. Beginning 

in the 1970s, the economy began to contract due to drought, 

corruption, and mismanagement. By the early 1980s, many 

state companies were failing. Meanwhile, the nationalization of 

the education system had failed, causing teachers to leave the 

country in droves and leading to a serious deterioration of 

educational standards, access, and outcomes (see p. 2 of 

Learning and Knowledge). 

In response, Kérékou pledged to restrict the state’s role in the 

economy and seek investment from the West. Some economic 

alleviation occurred when Benin began exporting limited

amounts of oil from its Semè offshore oil wells (see p. 2 of 

Economics and Resources). As the USSR faced its own 

internal instability in the late 1980s, it withdrew its financial 

support, causing economic and social 

conditions to continue to decline. 

When the government was unable to 

meet the payroll for the military and 

public-sector employees, anger and 

resentment across society grew.

His regime barely clinging to power in 

the face of constant demonstrations,

Kérékou (pictured in 2006) agreed to 

host a National Convention (NC) in 

1990 that would debate solutions to 

the country’s economic woes. Open to 

all, even to exiled opposition groups, 

the NC quickly enlarged its mandate, developing a new 

constitution, while organizing multiparty elections and preparing 

for civilian rule. Under this pressure, and with economic 

incentives from international donors hanging in the balance, 

Kérékou accepted the inevitable. After 18 years in power, he 

denounced Marxism, dissolved the PRPB, and granted 

amnesty to political prisoners.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Republic of Benin

The NC’s constitution established the renamed Republic of 

Benin as a multiparty democracy with a President limited to 2 

5-year terms and a National Assembly, both elected through 

universal suffrage (see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations).

Interim leadership fell to Kérékou and Fon leader Nicéphore 

Soglo. 

As new political parties emerged, some 14 candidates sought 

the Presidency in the 1991 elections. While no candidate 

achieved a majority in the first round, opposition candidate 

Soglo won in the run-off, and Kérékou peacefully stepped 

down. 

Newly-democratic Benin attracted significant investment from 

Western nations, while international donors funded 

infrastructure improvements. President Soglo also undertook 

economic reforms and implemented widely-respected fiscal 

policies. Nevertheless, Soglo’s popularity declined as the public 

perceived little benefit from reforms. 

Kérékou Returns to Power: In 1996 and 2001, Kérékou again 

challenged Soglo for the Presidency. Both times, Kérékou

prevailed, earning him the nickname “The Chameleon” for his 

ability to change political colors to remain in power. During 

Kérékou’s decade as President, the weak economy remained 

an issue of popular discontent, and workers went on strike 

several times. In 2003-04, 

corruption investigations 

dogged Kérékou’s 

administration. Barred from 

seeking another term in 

2006, Kérékou retired. 

Contemporary Benin

Independent candidate 

Thomas Boni Yayi (pictured 

at his 2006 inauguration) 

won the 2006 presidential election on a platform focused on 

addressing economic development and fighting corruption. The 

2011 elections were postponed due to problems registering 

voters. Despite ongoing charges of irregularities, Yayi won 

reelection that year and continued his anti-corruption efforts.
HISTORY &

MYTH

During his 2 terms in office, Yayi reportedly survived several 

assassination attempts, notably a 2012 poisoning plot. The

alleged mastermind of both that plot and an attempted coup the 

next year was President Yayi’s former ally and so-called “King 

of Cotton” Patrice Talon (see p. 5 of Economics and 

Resources), who subsequently fled to France. 

Although the source of the conflict between the 2 is unclear, it 

is likely found in the cotton industry. Specifically, Talon co-led 

Benin’s private professional cotton association, the Association 

Interprofessionnelle de Coton (AIC or Inter-Professional Cotton 

Association) until 2012, when President Yayi removed the 

association’s authority 

and placed the cotton 

industry under 

government control. This 

move likely cost Talon 

some lucrative 

government contracts. 

Publicly, though, Talon

explained that the 

conflict arose from

Yayi’s attempt to seek a 3rd presidential term. After 

international mediation, President Yayi pardoned Talon in 

2014, ending the conflict. Nevertheless, Talon’s accusations 

disrupted President Yayi’s efforts to combat corruption through 

constitutional reform, since supporters of Talon continued to 

believe Yayi sought to use the reform to enable a 3rd term 

(Photo: President Yayi greets US President Bush in 2008).

In 2016, some 30 candidates ran for the Presidency, notably 

also Talon. Although he finished second in the first round, 

Talon prevailed in the run-off, winning some 65% of the vote

largely on his promise to revive the stagnant cotton industry. 

Since taking office, Talon has removed control of the cotton 

industry from the government and returned it to the AIC. He 

has also established a commission to recommend reforms to 

fight corruption, although he lacks majority support in the 

legislature to pass such measures (see p. 5-6 of Political and 

Social Relations). He has also removed several local officials 

from office, reportedly due to mismanagement, although likely

also due to their support for former President Yayi. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. 

Many of Benin’s myths and legends explore the origins of 

collectivités (lineages or communities) (see p. 13 of Political 

and Social Relations) and features of the natural world, while 

folktales typically describe heroic feats or teach moral lessons. 

Both types of stories often feature characters who perform 

magical and miraculous actions, such as Vodun (Voudoun

spirits-see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). One well-known 

story relates how a Vodun spread the use of magic among 

humans.

Legba, The Trickster: One day, a Vodun named Legba 

fashioned a snake and instructed it to bite people as they 

gathered at the local market. Once bitten, the people looked for 

help, and Legba appeared to cure them. Grateful, the people 

paid Legba, helping him to make a 

good living.

A local man named Awa had the 

courage to ask Legba what creature 

was biting the people. Legba 

explained how he had used magic to 

create the snake and invited Awa to 

join him in his enterprise. Soon, 

Legba and Awa began making other 

magic charms used to either harm or

cure. 

Seeing this, Mawu, the creator 

goddess, grew angry. She made 

Legba invisible so that he no longer 

could appear human and must remain a Vodun. By contrast, 

Awa remained a man who eventually became chief of magic 

and shared his knowledge of both good and evil charms. That 

is how magic came to the people and spread across the land

(Photo: Late 19th-century door from the palace of Dahomey 

King Glélé in Abomey).
Official Name

Republic of Benin

République du Bénin (French) 

Political Borders

Nigeria: 503 mi

Niger: 172 mi

Burkina Faso: 240 mi

Togo: 405 mi

Coastline: 75 mi

Capital

Porto-Novo

Demographics

Benin’s population of about 11 million is 

growing at a rate of 2.7% per year. Like 

many African states, Benin is a young 

nation – about 65% of the population is 

under age 24 and less than 3% over age 65. About 45% of the 

population lives in urban areas, predominantly in the commercial 

center of Cotonou, the capital of Porto-Novo, and AbomeyCalavi. Most Beninese live in the South, while northern areas 

remain sparsely populated. Unlike other West African nations 

where inland farmers often move to the coast seeking economic 

opportunities, rural 

Beninese farmers tend to 

relocate from densely 

populated coastal 

regions to Benin’s less 

inhabited center to 

pursue agricultural 

enterprises. 

Flag

Benin’s flag consists of 2 

equal horizontal bands of gold (symbolizes wealth) and red 

(represents courage) and a vertical green band (denotes hope 

and revival). 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Located in West Africa, Benin borders Niger to the north, Nigeria 

to the east, the Bight of Benin in the Gulf of Guinea to the south, 

Togo to the west, and Burkina Faso to the northwest. One of 

Africa’s smallest nations, Benin’s total land area is about 42,700 

sq mi, making it slightly 

smaller than Pennsylvania 

and about the same size 

as Cuba. Low-lying plains 

stretch along Benin’s 

southern coastline, where 

large lagoons 

intermittently break sandy 

beaches and dunes. A 

fertile clay area extends 

just north of the coast, 

while most of the remaining interior is characterized by flat and 

at times undulating plains, forested savannas, and rolling hills. 

In the North, the Atacora Mountains extend west into 

neighboring Togo. Here, Benin’s highest peak, Mont Sokbaro, 

rises to 2,159 ft (Photo: Bends in the Niger River give the W 

National Park its name).

Agricultural land consisting of arable areas, permanent crops, 

and pastures covers about 1/3 of the country, while tropical 

forests spread across an additional 40%. Africa’s 3rd longest 

river, The Niger, forms a large delta in Benin’s Northeast. Other 

major rivers include the Pendjari, Mékrou, and Ouémé, among 

others. Benin’s coast has shallow sandbanks with no natural 

harbors, making access difficult for larger vessels. 

Climate

Benin’s climate and temperatures vary across 2 zones: semiarid 

in the North and subtropical in the South. Accordingly, northern 

areas tend to be hot and dry, while the South experiences a 

humid and rainy climate interspersed with hot and dry seasons 

July-September and November-March. Rainfall arrives along 

the coast beginning in late March and lasts through July. While 

rains eventually spread to northern regions, they remain heavier 

in the South. Along the coasts, temperatures average 80°F yearround. By contrast, in the North, temperatures often exceed 

100°F, peaking in March-April. Hot, dry, and dust-laden 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
harmattan trade winds from the Sahara Desert blow north to 

south from December-March. 

Natural Hazards

Benin is vulnerable to several types of natural hazards, notably

harmattan winds, floods, and periodic droughts. Harmattan

winds intermittently blanket portions of Benin with a thick haze 

of fine red dust, severely limiting visibility, disrupting air and road 

traffic, and causing various respiratory health complications. 

Heavy rains occasionally cause flooding along Benin’s southern 

floodplains. By contrast, a lack of significant rainfall in the North 

leads to drought, which in turn contributes to desertification. 

Environmental Issues

The clearing of land for cotton production, commercial logging, 

and fuel for cooking fires has contributed to rampant 

deforestation and loss of habitat for several of the world’s 

endangered species. 

Some farming techniques 

deplete soil quality and 

cause erosion, while 

desertification leads to 

shortages in potable 

water, particularly in 

northern rural areas. 

Further, just 7% of rural 

Beninese and 36% of 

urban residents have 

access to modern sanitation systems (see p. 6 of Sustenance 

and Health). As a result, improper waste disposal in rural regions 

creates water and soil pollution. In urban areas, air pollution 

caused by automobile emissions is an additional concern 

(Photo: A street in the western Beninese town of Bantè).

Government

Benin is a presidential republic with a parliamentary government. 

The country divides into 12 administrative departments, each 

controlled by a governor and elected local council. Benin has 

had several constitutions, the 1st adopted in 1946, while Benin 

was still under French colonial administration (see p. 9 of History 

and Myth). The last constitution dates from 1990, when Benin

transitioned to multiparty democracy (see p. 12 of History and 

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Myth). It separates power among the executive, legislative, and 

judicial branches and outlines the basic rights and freedoms of 

the Beninese people. 

Executive Branch

Executive power is vested 

in the President, who 

serves as chief-of-state, 

head-of-government, and

commander-in-chief of 

Benin’s Armed Forces. The 

President is directly elected 

by popular vote to serve up 

to 2 consecutive 5-year 

terms. Upon assuming 

office, the President appoints a Council of Ministers to help 

manage the nation’s day-to-day affairs. The post of Prime 

Minister (PM) was frequently vacant over the last 25 years and 

then abolished in 2016. The office of the President guides and 

develops domestic and foreign policy but also retains 

considerable influence over the legislative and judicial branches. 

The current President, Patrice Talon, assumed office in 2016

(Illustration: Benin’s coat of arms).

Legislative Branch

Benin’s legislature is a single chamber National Assembly (NA) 

composed of 83 members elected in multi-seat constituencies 

by proportional representation to serve 4-year terms. The NA 

controls all legislative powers, including amending the 

constitution, appointing positions in government, and approving 

declarations of war. The NA meets twice yearly for legislative 

sessions, though the President may request emergency 

sessions at any time throughout the year.

Judicial Branch

Benin’s legal system is a mix of formal law, which derives from 

the French legal system, and informal, customary law, which is 

based on traditional, unwritten practices of the indigenous 

population. The civil judiciary includes a Supreme Court, a 

Constitutional Court, a High Court of Justice, Courts of Appeal, 

and a system of lower, district courts. As the highest court, the 

Supreme Court is the final court of appeal for both civil and 

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criminal cases. With advice from the NA, the President appoints 

all Supreme Court justices to serve renewable 5-year terms. 

Meanwhile, the High Court of Justice decides on cases of 

treason and other crimes committed by members of the 

government. Local, customary courts resolve disputes involving 

family, inheritance, and property. In 2018, a member of Benin’s 

judiciary, Judge Reine Alapini-Gansou, joined the International

Criminal Court, an 18-member international tribunal based in 

The Hague, Netherlands that prosecutes cases of genocide, war 

crimes, and crimes against humanity. 

Political Climate

While Benin successfully transitioned from a dictatorship to a 

multi-party democracy in the 1990s (see p. 11-12 of History and 

Myth), its political environment over the last several decades has 

been characterized by infighting, political fragmentation, and 

occasional violence. New political parties frequently form around 

a prominent political figure or along ethnic and regional lines but 

tend to be ideologically divided, underfunded, and lack political 

influence outside of their regional bases. Although political 

parties often form alliances to gain wider support among the 

Beninese, these coalitions tend to be weak, disagree on political 

platforms, and dissolve 

frequently. 

As of 2018, Benin has 

over 30 active political 

parties, 11 of which 

participate in the NA. 

Currently holding the 

most (33) NA seats, 

the Cowrie Force for 

an Emerging Benin 

(Forces Cauris pour un Bénin emergent or FCBE), led by 

former President Thomas Boni Yayi (pictured, with former US 

President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama) (see 

p. 12-13 of History and Myth), is Benin’s most prominent party.

Largely composed of Yayi’s supporters, the FCBE has 

consistently won the most seats in the last 3 parliamentary 

elections and follows a liberal, centrist political ideology. The 

FCBE retains considerable influence in Benin’s political arena. 

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A wealthy businessman with a history marred by political 

scandal (see p. 13 of History and Myth), President Talon 

secured an unexpected victory in the 2016 Presidential election 

after campaigning to reduce unemployment and improve Benin’s

dilapidated health and education infrastructure. Since assuming 

office, President Talon has 

attempted to revamp the 

stagnant economy and 

improve residents’ access 

to healthcare and education 

services through numerous 

reforms. Progress, 

however, has been slow. 

With public confidence in 

the government eroding and 

tensions rising, early 2018 saw a series of public sector strikes 

and anti-government demonstrations, primarily orchestrated by 

students and health and education sector employees (Photo: 

Rural Beninese women).

Despite recent friction, Benin has maintained more than 2 

decades of relatively peaceful democratic governance and 

remains one of Africa’s most stable nations. The government 

generally respects freedom of assembly, expression, and press

(see p. 3-4 of Technology and Materials), and as a result, 

Beninese enjoy a wide range of civil liberties. Although voters 

often turn out in low 

numbers and opposition 

groups at times report 

voting irregularities, 

international observers 

deem elections 

generally free and fair. 

Nevertheless, like many 

fledgling democracies, 

Benin has struggled to 

curb rampant corruption 

across all levels of government. Despite efforts by both former 

President Yayi’s and current President Talon’s administrations, 

corruption continues to obstruct public services and occasionally 

threatens to disrupt the democratic process (Photo: Beninese 

schoolchildren). 

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Defense

The Beninese Armed Forces (BAF) are a small, unified military 

force consisting of ground, maritime, and air branches with a 

joint strength of 7,250 active duty troops plus a paramilitary 

force. The BAF are primarily charged with maintaining internal 

security and reinforcing 

Benin’s borders to 

reduce illicit trafficking 

and other foreign

threats. Recently, 

emerging threats from 

radical Islamist groups 

operating in the region 

(see “Security Issues” 

below) have prompted 

the BAF to improve 

domestic counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism capabilities 

through training and capital investment (Photo: A member of the 

Beninese military participates in US-led counter-terrorism 

training as part of Benin’s broader efforts to strengthen its 

borders and curtail illegal cross-border movement). 

Army: By far the largest of the 3 military branches, the Beninese 

Army is a force of 6,500 active-duty troops consisting of 12 

maneuver battalions and squadrons (including armored, light, 

and air maneuver), 4 combat support battalions, and 2 combat 

service support battalions.

Navy: The Beninese Navy consists of 500 active-duty personnel

equipped with 5 patrol and coastal combatants. Maritime 

security has recently emerged as a priority for the BAF. As a 

result, the Navy has attempted to bolster its current fleet and 

anti-piracy capabilities by acquiring additional high-speed craft. 

Air Force: The smallest of the 3 branches, the Beninese Air 

Force consists of 250 active-duty personnel and is equipped with 

6 aircraft and 5 helicopters. 

Paramilitary: The Beninese Paramilitary divides into 2,500 

active-duty Gendarmerie members organized into 4 maneuver 

units. 

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Security Issues

Benin’s security environment is largely dominated by increased 

concern over Islamist extremist groups in the region. 

Islamist Groups: While Benin remains free of Islamist violence 

as of 2018, several large terrorist organizations operate just 

beyond its borders. One of Benin’s most pressing threats is Boko 

Haram, a particularly violent Islamist insurgent movement based 

in neighboring Nigeria that seeks to purge the region of Western 

influence. Since emerging in the 1990s, Boko Haram has 

expanded operations to parts of Chad, Niger, and Cameroon, 

where it regularly conducts brutal terrorist attacks. Since 2009, 

Boko Haram has destroyed entire villages, killed over 20,000 

people, and displaced over 2.3 million others across the Lake 

Chad region.

In 2015 Boko Haram publicly pledged its allegiance to the 

Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS, also known as Daesh, ISIL, 

and IS), a militant Islamist group currently controlling large 

swaths of territory in Iraq and Syria. This new alliance with ISIS

fuels the concern that Boko Haram may gain more regional 

influence, notably in Benin. Seeking to deter potential activities

of Boko Haram and other Islamist groups, Benin has sought to 

strengthen its borders through various investments into the BAF. 

In 2017, for example,

Benin’s army and 

national police 

participated in separate

bilateral military 

exercises with US and 

French forces specifically 

designed to fortify Benin’s 

border protection 

capabilities (Photo: Beninese sailors and US Marines conduct 

NCO development and general maintenance management 

training at naval headquarters Cotonou, Benin). 

Foreign Relations 

Benin’s aims to diversify and strengthen its economy, ensure the 

safety of its borders, and limit the influence of regional Islamist 

militant groups shape its foreign relations. As a result, Benin 

cultivates friendly relations with neighboring countries, 

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participates in international peacekeeping missions, and actively 

promotes democracy, peace, and stability within the region. 

Benin is also a member of global institutions like the United 

Nations, the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and the 

World Trade Organization. Regionally, Benin participates in the 

African Union and the Economic Community of West African 

States. 

Regional Security Cooperation: Benin participates in the 

Multi-National Joint Task Force (MNJTF), a 5-country counterterrorism force (with Chad, Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria) 

established in 2015 to fight common security concerns such as

Boko Haram and other Islamist militant groups. The main 

objectives of the MNJTF are to deny terrorists the ability to move 

across borders, reduce the severity of incursions, assist with the 

return of internally displaced people, promote knowledgesharing among member nations, and develop regional military 

interoperability. 

Since 2015, the MNJTF’s force of some 10,000 African troops 

has reversed some of Boko Haram’s territorial advances around 

the Lake Chad region, destroyed over 32 terrorist camps, and 

freed more than 20,000 hostages. Since joining the organization 

in late 2015, Benin has deployed 750 troops to participate in 

MNJTF operations. 

Relations with the US:

While the US and Benin first 

established diplomatic ties 

in 1960 upon Benin’s 

independence from France, 

political turmoil in the 1960s 

followed by nearly 2 

decades of communist rule 

stifled bilateral relations. 

Political, economic, and military ties between the 2 nations 

strengthened significantly in the 1990s, when Benin transitioned 

to multiparty democracy. Today, the US supports Benin’s 

continued efforts to liberalize and diversify its economy, 

strengthen its democratic institutions, and expand the role of civil 

society and other socio-economic agencies (Photo: 

Humanitarian aid arrives in Benin from the US). 

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The US also provides Benin substantial military support, both 

through financial contributions and military training. Seeking to 

enhance Benin’s interoperability with US forces and increase 

regional security, the US primarily focuses on strengthening the 

BAF’s counter-terrorism and internal security capabilities. In 

addition to military support, the US provides Benin with bilateral 

assistance to improve its healthcare system, strengthen civil 

society and human rights institutions, develop physical 

infrastructure, reduce corruption, and support sustainable 

agriculture and food security programs, among numerous other 

initiatives. 

Ethnic Groups

Benin is home to over 50 ethnic groups, many of which also 

inhabit its neighbors – Togo, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Niger – 

and other regional countries such 

as Chad. Many of Benin’s residents 

trace their roots to 1 or more primary 

ethnic groups that migrated and 

settled in the region centuries ago

(see p. 1-2 of History and Myth). For 

example, the Yoruba people spread 

from the East in the 12th century, 

over time forming the Nagot, 

Tchabe and Idaatcha ethnic groups. 

Meanwhile, the Gun, who today live 

around the southern capital city of 

Porto-Novo, result from 

intermarriage between the Yoruba 

and Aja, who migrated from 

southeastern Togo and notably established the Kingdom of 

Dahomey in the 18th century (see p. 3 in History and Myth) 

(Photo: A Beninese child).

Fon: The Fon and related groups constitute Benin’s largest 

ethnic grouping, composing over 38% of the population. Like the 

Gun, the Fon trace their roots to the Aja (see p. 1 of History and 

Myth). The Fon are primarily located in southern regions, where 

they comprise the dominant ethnic group. In recent years, many 

Fon have spread across the country, and the Fon language is 

the most widely used local tongue (see p. 2 of Language and 

Communication).

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Aja: Known as the founders of the Kingdom of Dahomey, the 

Aja today compose over 15% of Benin’s population.

Yoruba: Comprising approximately 12% of Benin’s population, 

the Yoruba ethnic group spread throughout southwestern 

Nigeria and into the territory of modern Benin over 1000 years 

ago. In the 17th century, the Yoruba formed the powerful 

Kingdom of Oyo based in modern-day Nigeria, which was a rival 

to the Kingdom of Dahomey (see p. 3 of History and Myth). 

Today, most of Benin’s Yoruba live East along the border with 

Nigeria. 

Bariba: Located primarily in Benin’s Northeast, the Bariba and 

related groups compose nearly 10% of the population. 

Renowned horsemen, the Muslim Bariba are primarily cattle 

herders whose ancestors moved into the region from northern 

Nigeria several hundred years ago (see p. 2 of History and 

Myth). The Bariba traditionally have a stratified society and 

employ Fulani herdsmen (see below).

Dendi: The Dendi are a relatively small 

ethnic group, comprising about 3% of 

the population. They migrated from 

Mali in the 16th century and today 

constitute the dominant ethnic group in 

Benin’s sparsely populated North.

Originally Muslim farmers, the Dendi 

are now primarily traders. Like the 

Bariba, the Dendi often employ Fulani 

to care for their cattle (Photo: Beninese 

villagers).

Fulani: Fulani and related groups 

compose over 8% of Benin’s population. Locally known as the 

Peul, Fulani are nomadic herders who live across northern and 

central Africa, including the northernmost regions of Benin. Most 

Fulani are Muslim, and many serve in Benin’s armed forces. The 

Fulani are known for their distinctive, bright clothing. 

Brésiliens: Descendants of former slaves who returned from 

Brazil and the Caribbean in the 19th century (see p. 8 of History 

and Myth), Brésiliens generally have distinctive Portuguese 

names, are typically well educated, and live in the coastal areas.

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Prominent traders during French colonial rule, Brésiliens lost 

much of their power and influence after Benin’s independence, 

and many eventually emigrated to France.

Other Groups: Other notable groups include the Ottomari (also 

known as Somba or Bétammaribé) and Yoa-Lopka. Benin is also 

home to other ethnic groups from West Africa, Asia, and the 

Middle East, most of them residing in Cotonou and other large 

cities. 

Social Relations 

Benin is culturally diverse, home to numerous ethnic groups, 

each with its own language, customs, and traditions. Relations 

among the groups are generally peaceful and harmonious. 

Nevertheless, Benin experiences some societal divisions that 

primarily manifest in political rivalries between ethnic groups 

from the North and South (see p. 10 of History and Myth). For 

example, geographically isolated, north-dwelling groups such as 

the Bariba tend to compete for political power with the Fon and 

other groups living along the densely populated southern coasts. 

Disagreements often stem from the comparative 

underdevelopment of the North’s education, health, and 

economic infrastructure. Moreover, 

some inter-ethnic conflicts are rooted 

in historical events. The Mahi, for 

example, maintain some animosity 

towards the Fon, who enslaved many 

of the Mahi people when they ruled 

the Kingdom of Dahomey (see p. 2-4 

of History and Myth). (Photo: A 

Beninese Slave Trade Memorial at 

Ouidah).

Although Benin’s ethnic groups have 

their own distinctive social systems, 

based on their customs and beliefs, several elements are 

common across groups. The family is traditionally the prime

social unit for most Beninese, with some ethnic groups also 

identifying with a collectivité (lineage or community) formed by 

several families. For other Beninese, the village is the basic 

social unit, often organized around a patrilineal line (descends 

through the male bloodline) with a local village king as leader. 

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Overview 

According to a 2013 census, about 49% of Beninese are 

Christian and about 28% Muslim. Some 12% follow Voudoun, 

a traditional belief system (see below), while the remainder 

adhere to other traditional beliefs and practices or claim no 

religious affiliation. Although they 

identify as Christian or Muslim, 

many Beninese also incorporate 

elements of or other traditional 

religions into their devotional

practices (Photo: Voudun Python 

temple in Ouidah). 

Benin’s constitution establishes a 

secular state with no national 

religion. It also guarantees 

freedom for Beninese to worship 

and practice according to their 

personal beliefs if those activities

do not infringe upon public order. 

The law prohibits religious discrimination and allows Beninese 

police and other security forces to intervene in inter-religious 

conflicts as a neutral party. To practice freely, all religious 

groups must register with the government. Thereafter, religious 

organizations may perform services in public, establish private 

schools, and receive government funding, among other 

privileges. Generally, relations among Benin’s numerous 

religious groups are marked by mutual tolerance and 

cooperation.

Voudoun and Other Traditional Beliefs

Before the introduction of Christianity and Islam, Beninese 

followed a variety of traditional religious beliefs and practices, 

many of which continue to feature prominently in modern 

Beninese society. Of these, Voudoun (also known as Vodun or 

Voodoo) is the most prevalent, practiced in different forms by 

some members of the Fon and Yoruba ethnic groups (see p. 

11-12 of Political and Social Relations. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

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Voudoun is an animist religion, in which followers believe that 

the spirit of life or consciousness resides in all objects, both 

animate and inanimate. Animism promotes the notion that all 

natural objects – for example, mountains, trees, and animals –

are sacred, and this conviction establishes a close connection 

between Voudoun followers and their environment. 

Voudoun also recognizes a supreme being, an all-powerful god 

who created the world. Known as Mahu, Dada-Segbo, 

Semedo, or Gbedoto among the Fon and Olorun or 

Olodumare among the Yoruba, the creator god is good, 

merciful, and unknowable. Because the supreme-being does 

not intervene in daily life, practitioners rarely make appeals 

directly to him/her. Instead, they petition numerous lesser 

divinities, or Vodun among the Fon and Orisha among the 

Yoruba, through prayer and sacrifice. Viewing these spirits as 

protectors of the natural world, followers hold special 

ceremonies or perform certain rites at temples and shrines to 

encourage spirits to bring rain, good harvests and health, 

financial success, and other blessings. 

Voudoun followers also believe that the spirits of their 

ancestors intervene in daily life to guide or obstruct human 

behavior. As a result, funerals are particularly important events, 

often marked by 

elaborate rituals that 

help the deceased 

transition into the 

afterlife (see p. 7 of 

Family and Kinship). 

Other important ritual 

ceremonies mark birth 

and death, celebrate 

initiation, promote 

healing, and cast out evil 

spirits. Celebrants 

typically offer food and drink to the ancestor and other spirits

during the ceremonies, which also include chanting and 

dancing (pictured) while wearing elaborate, colorful costumes.

Trained priests or priestesses are responsible for maintaining 

good relations with the spirit world in their communities and 

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lead important rituals. To become a Voudoun priest or 

priestess, students attend religious schools (also called 

“convents”), where they often endure physically and mentally 

taxing curricula comprised of lessons and traditions transmitted 

through the generations. Some international observers have 

raised concerns that such Voudoun schools, whose activities 

are largely shrouded in secrecy, occasionally abduct or forcibly 

enroll their students, 

prevent members from 

leaving, or forbid 

followers to convert

from the religion. 

Christian or Muslim 

Beninese oftentimes

integrate particular 

aspects of Voudoun

into their devotional 

practices. For example, following a death, families may perform 

both a Voudoun ritual and a Christian or Muslim funeral (see p. 

7 of Family and Kinship). Moreover, Beninese experiencing 

misfortune or seeking information about their destiny or future 

may consult diviners (called bokono by the Fon and babalao

by the Yoruba), who are ritual specialists having the ability to 

communicate with spirits, answer questions, and offer guidance 

to those afflicted by hardships. Beninese occasionally accuse 

one another, even babies, of witchcraft or practicing evil, 

harmful magic (aze). Such an accusation can result in 

significant mistreatment of the accused (see p. 4 of Family and 

Kinship) (Photo: Animal skulls, which serve as Voudoun

talismans, on display in Benin). 

During Benin’s communist era (see p. 10-11 of History and 

Myth), the government imposed an atheistic worldview which

rejected religion. While it consequently limited the activities of 

all religious groups, the state mounted a particularly aggressive

campaign against traditional religious communities, destroying 

many sacred trees, shrines, and other important Voudoun

sites. Upon emerging from communism (see p. 12 of History 

and Myth), the government reinstated freedom of religion, 

notably establishing a national holiday to celebrate Voudoun

and other indigenous traditions. 

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Christianity

Although Christianity first arrived in Benin in the early 17th

century, resistance from Beninese and death from disease

among the missionary population prevented the new religion 

from taking root initially. 

Efforts to Christianize the region continued to stall until 1860, 

when Father Francois Borghero, an Italian-born missionary, 

established the first successful Roman Catholic mission along 

Benin’s coast. Over the following decades, French Catholic 

missionaries expanded their networks, opening schools (see p. 

1-2 of Learning and Knowledge) and offering medical services 

to the Beninese. With such services largely unavailable prior to 

their arrival, Christian missions played a dominant role in the 

development of Beninese 

society during the colonial 

era (see p. 6-9 of History 

and Myth). 

Gradually, Christianity 

spread to northern 

regions, and by 1965, an 

estimated 45% of 

Beninese children who 

attended school were 

enrolled in Catholic institutions. In 1974, the Catholic 

archdiocese of Cotonou comprised 450 missionary schools 

staffed by over 2,500 educators. Although Benin’s government 

later formally integrated all Catholic schools into the state 

educational network, Catholic missions and churches today 

continue to serve as hubs of health, education, and social 

services (Photo: The Notre-Dame d’Arigbo basilica in Dassa, in 

central Benin).

Islam

Origins of Islam

Muhammad, who Muslims consider God’s final Prophet, was 

born in Mecca in 570 in what is today Saudi Arabia. Muslims 

believe that while Muhammad was meditating in the desert, the 

Archangel Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, revealing 

the Qur’an, or “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday lives and 

shape their values.

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Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to its adherents. The term Islam literally 

means submission to the will of God, and a Muslim is “a person 

who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into 2 sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunnis are 

distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the 

Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, 

Shi’a Muslims believe the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the 

Prophet Muhammad 

(Photo: Late 7th century 

Arabian Qur’an).

Five Pillars of Islam 

There are 5 basic 

principles of the Islamic 

faith. 

• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God, 

and Muhammad is His Messenger.” 

• Prayer (Salat): Pray 5 times a day while facing the Ka’aba in 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Ka’aba is considered the center of 

the Muslim world and a unifying focal point for Islamic 

worship. 

• Charity (Zakat): Donate a percentage of one’s income to 

the poor or needy. 

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of 

Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia once in a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of Judaism and Christianity. 

In fact, Muslims consider Christians and Jews “people of the 

Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, because they also believe 

in one God. 

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Abraham: All 3 faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, known as 

Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace their 

descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; while 

Muslims trace theirs to Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son Ishmael. 

Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments, and Muslims view Islam as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Jews and Christians altered God’s 

word and that Muhammad received the true revelation of God. 

Jesus: The 3 religions differ significantly in their understanding 

of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for 

the Messiah to come. 

Muslims recognize Jesus 

as a prophet but do not 

acknowledge his divinity or

the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims 

believe that God 

determines the time of 

death and birth. While 

people grieve the loss of family members or friends, they do 

not view death as a negative event, as Muslims believe that a 

person who lived a good life goes on to live in Heaven (Photo: 

US Marine at the Ka’aba in 2012).

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s command to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with the publicized violence often associated with

jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to terrorism and 

consider it contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Observed during the 9th month of the Islamic lunar calendar 

(see p. 2 of Time and Space), Ramadan is a month-long time 

for inner reflection, self-control, and focus on God. During this 

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time, Muslims who are physically able fast from dawn to 

sunset. Many Muslims believe that denying their hunger helps

them to learn self-control, appreciate the difficulties of the poor, 

and gain spiritual renewal – by fasting, a Muslim learns to 

appreciate the good in life. Beninese Muslims typically break 

their daily fast at sunset with a meal known as iftar. Ramadan 

includes several holidays:

• Lailat al-Qadr: This “Night of Power” marks Muhammad’s 

receipt of the first verses of the Qur’an.

• Eid al-Fitr: Also called Korité in Benin, this “Festival of FastBreaking” celebrates Ramadan’s end and is a national 

holiday in Benin.

Another important holiday is celebrated when the Hajj ends, 

about 70 days following the end of Ramadan.

• Eid al-Adha: Also known as Tabaski in Benin, this “Festival 

of Sacrifice” commemorates Abraham’s willingness to 

sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, according to Christians), 

as proof of his loyalty to God. It is also a national holiday. 

The Arrival of Islam in Benin

Islam first penetrated the region as Muslim Arab traders 

traveled across the 

Sahara into northern 

Benin as early as the 9th 

century. Islam’s initial 

impact was minimal, but 

over time, many 

inhabitants of northern 

trading towns adopted the 

new religion. Islam had 

become popular among 

the elite due to its 

association with the 

studies of sciences, geography, poetry, and governance. The 

spread of Islam in Benin has been peaceful but contained 

largely to Beninese living in the North, although some southern

urban areas also have large Muslim communities (Photo: A 

group of Beninese women).

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Religion Today

Most Beninese are deeply spiritual, with Christian, Islamic, and 

traditional beliefs permeating daily life. Benin observes 

Christian, Muslim, and Voudoun celebrations as national 

holidays, with religious events serving as popular social 

occasions. 

Islam

Nearly all Beninese Muslims adhere to the Maliki school of 

Sunni Islam, a generally tolerant school of thought that 

emphasizes community consensus and the primacy of the 

Qur’an over later Islamic teachings. Benin is also home to a 

small population of Shi’a Muslims who are primarily noncitizens. There is also a growing presence of the Ahmadiyya

Muslims, with their distinctive white/green painted 

signs/mosques. Originating in colonial India, the Ahmadiyya 

movement is spreading across West Africa. Most Muslims live 

in Benin’s North. Muslim typically children attend Qur’anic 

schools, either in addition to 

or instead of attending public 

schools, where they learn the 

practices and morals of Islam 

and memorize Qur’anic 

verses in Arabic.

Christianity 

Some 26% of Beninese 

identify as Roman Catholic, 

while about 14% as 

Protestant, including Celestial 

Christians (known for their allwhite Sunday attire), 

Methodists, Baptists, 

Pentecostals, and others. The 

remainder of Benin’s 

Christian population divides among The Church of Jesus Christ

of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah’s Witnesses, and 

followers of the Family Federation of World Peace and 

Unification (Unification Church). Concentrating in southern 

regions, Benin’s Christian churches serve as primary sources 

of social, medical, and educational services for their members 

(Photo: Cathedral at Ouidah). 

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Religion and Politics

Benin generally remains free of religious conflict and interfaith 

tensions, although bouts of violence among various groups 

occur on occasion. In 2016, for example, a family dispute over 

the rightful control of a mosque in the central village of Semere 

escalated to violence, compelling Beninese security forces to 

intervene and consequently resulting in 5 deaths and multiple 

injuries. Additionally, a group of Voudoun

followers vandalized a Catholic prayer 

center in the Southeast, claiming the 

Christian group had intentionally 

interfered with a Voudoun ritual. While 

the dispute eventually was resolved 

peacefully, initial tensions necessitated 

the presence of security forces (Photo: A 

US health volunteer talks with Beninese 

women as they prepare lunch). 

The Beninese government actively 

works to promote religious tolerance. 

Government officials regularly attend religious ceremonies 

organized by various groups, often broadcasting the events 

over state-owned television. In a notable example, President 

Talon coordinated and mediated the peaceful resolution of a 

19-year property feud between 2 

factions of the Protestant Methodist 

Church of Benin. 

Moreover, the government 

participates in an ongoing “African 

Initiative on Education for Peace 

and Development through 

Interreligious and Intercultural 

Dialogue,” which compels politicians 

and local religious leaders to 

coordinate on projects that promote 

religious tolerance. Finally, every year Beninese celebrate 

“Ecumenical Day,” whereby religious leaders attend a summit 

to publicly promote interfaith dialogue and bridge any divides 

among Benin’s religious communities (Photo: Beninese 

celebrate the opening of a health clinic in Pehunco, a town in 

northern Benin). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

The large extended family is the center of Beninese life, 

whereby often serve as a mutual support network. While there 

are some differences among ethnic and religious groups, all 

Beninese celebrate rituals to mark important personal 

milestones.

Residence 

Housing structures vary depending on location, family 

composition, and income. While most urban dwellers have 

access to electricity and clean drinking water, just 36% have 

modern sanitation systems (see p. 3 of Political and Social 

Relations). Further, few rural communities have any of the 

basic necessities – electricity, running water, or sanitation (see 

p. 6 of Sustenance and Health). Both urban and rural Beninese 

typically live in walled compounds housing multiple families 

who share kitchen and bathroom facilities. Furnishings in both 

rural and urban homes are typically sparse, consisting of 

sleeping mats or 

mattresses, a few stools 

or chairs, and a table. 

Rural: Some 55% of 

Beninese live in rural 

areas, where extended 

families typically share a 

walled or fenced 

compound of several 1-3-

room dwellings 

constructed of mud brick with thatched or tin roofs. A central 

courtyard features a shared kitchen, eating space, water pump 

or well, and animal pen. An enclosed latrine is located some 

distance from the compound, while a walled showering area is 

attached to a dwelling. Home styles vary by ethnic group. For 

example, the Somba people prefer 2-story houses without 

windows, while the Bétammaribé construct clay huts with 

thatched roofs called tatas (Photo: Outdoor cooking facilities in 

a compound in Savalou, in central Benin). 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Urban: Benin has experienced rapid urbanization in recent 

decades. In 1960, just 9% of the population lived in urban 

areas, yet by 2016, that proportion had risen to 45%. In 

contrast to their rural counterparts, urban compounds typically 

house several unrelated nuclear families (2 parents and their 

children) in cement brick dwellings. Residents typically rent 

their own dwelling, while sharing kitchen and bathroom space 

with the other compound residents. Benin’s wealthier urbandwellers tend to live in apartment buildings or Western-style 

single-family homes.

Family Structure 

Traditionally, multiple 

generations lived in close 

proximity. This pattern is 

still common in rural 

areas, though many urban 

Beninese live as nuclear 

families, sometimes far 

from their extended families. Men were traditionally the primary 

breadwinners, while the women were responsible for the 

majority of domestic tasks, childcare, and assist with 

agricultural chores (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender) (Photo: A US 

Navy pediatrician speaks with a Beninese family). 

Extended families provide a financial and emotional support 

network. Tradition dictates that a Beninese’s success and 

material gains also belong to his larger family unit. However, as 

nuclear families become more prominent in urban areas, the 

financial and social expectations associated with extended 

family relationships are becoming less demanding.

Polygyny: This term refers to the practice of a man having

multiple wives simultaneously, which is relatively common in 

Benin. Historically, multiple wives symbolized a man’s 

masculinity, wealth, and social status. The additional labor 

wives provided also likely gave the family an economic 

advantage in a subsistence economy (see p. 4 of Economics 

and Resources). Although exact statistics for Benin are 

unavailable, experts estimate that 30%-50% of West Africans 

today live in polygynous relationships. While the rate is 

significantly lower among the more educated and urban

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
dwellers, polygynists in Benin include people of all faiths (see 

p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Even though a Beninese man may take multiple wives, a 2004 

law only recognizes his first wife as his lawful spouse. For the 

most part, the law becomes significant primarily upon a 

husband’s death, when only the lawful wife has a right to inherit 

her husband’s property. Nevertheless, all the man’s children 

may also inherit, regardless 

of the legal status of their 

mothers. 

Children

Families are typically large, 

and children assume

household responsibilities

from a young age. Tasks for 

girls include cooking, caring 

for younger family members, 

and fetching firewood and water. Boys typically perform farm 

chores or work in the family business. Families also emphasize 

respect for authority and older family members beginning early 

in childhood. Upon adulthood this respect transforms into 

responsibility for the physical and financial support of aging 

parents (Photo: A Beninese child). 

Some parents suffering from extreme poverty (see p. 3 of 

Economics and Resources), allow their children under the legal 

age of 14 to work in agriculture, mines, or quarries or as street 

vendors and domestic servants to earn money for the family.

These children often labor in difficult conditions for little pay. In 

a practice called vidomegon, rural parents send their children 

to live with relatives or friends in the city to perform domestic 

labor in return for receiving an education. Host families 

sometimes break the agreement, forcing the children to work

long hours without adequate food in conditions making them

vulnerable to physical or sexual abuse. 

Rites of Passage

Beninese observe rites-of-passage ceremonies to mark the 

various stages of life such as birth, puberty, marriage, and 

death. While rituals may vary considerably across ethnic and 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
religious heritage, they are usually held in the extended family’s 

so-called ceremony house.

Birth: A birth is a joyous occasion, and Beninese view children 

as a sign of vitality, good fortune, and wealth. New parents

typically share news of a pregnancy enthusiastically and 

widely. Historically, women gave birth at home, after which the 

baby’s umbilical cord was placed in a pot and buried. Among 

Beninese who follow Voudoun (see p. 

1-3 of Religion and Spirituality), families 

host a special agabasa-yiyi ceremony 

soon after a birth to welcome the child 

into the community. During the 

ceremony, a diviner (ritual specialist – 

see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality) 

assigns a joto, an ancestral protector

and associated du, an individualized set 

of rules that govern and direct the life of 

the child. An important rite-of-passage, 

the agabasa-yiyi ceremony ties the 

newborn to family, ancestors, and 

community, while also guiding the child away from harmful 

influences throughout his life. Beninese consider those without 

a joto as disconnected from the community and may ostracize 

them (Photo: A Beninese woman carries her baby while 

balancing a load on her head).

Despite widespread campaigns against the practice, infanticide 

occasionally occurs, primarily in Benin’s North. The practice 

stems from traditional beliefs regarding witchcraft (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality), whereby certain characteristics and 

circumstances indicate that a baby is a biiyodo or witch. These 

include physical defects or abnormalities, premature or breech 

birth, and death of the mother during birth, among others. To 

discourage infanticide in these situations, some organizations

perform rituals designed to dispel the power of babies deemed 

witches without harming them. 

Naming: While specific traditions vary across ethnic groups, 

Beninese typically observe certain naming rituals. According to 

Bariba custom, a child is simply referred to by their gender and 

birth order, such as “2nd daughter/son,” until their 4th birthday 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
when the child receives a unique name. Among the Fon, a 

baby’s name reflects its birth circumstances or physical 

characteristics (see p. 4 of Language and Communication). By 

contrast, Yoruba babies typically have 2 naming ceremonies, 

one for each side of the family. In addition to local language 

names, some families also give their children a Christian or 

Muslim name.

Coming-of-Age: Some Beninese ethnic groups mark the 

transition from adolescence to adulthood around age 18-20. 

For example, Muslim 

Beninese often celebrate a 

young adult’s completion of 

their Qur’anic studies with a 

party. Male circumcision at 

age 18 is also an important 

rite of passage among 

some groups. 

Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically 

interact from a young age and mix at school, markets, or work. 

Casual dating is common, and couples often socialize at family 

events and ceremonies, dances, or dinners. Young people 

usually date multiple partners before deciding to marry (Photo: 

Beninese learn about their rights in a US-sponsored program). 

While arranged marriages were common in the past, they are 

relatively rare today except in some rural northern regions. 

Instead, most Beninese make their own romantic matches 

without significant input from their families, typically marrying in 

their late 20s. Although child marriage (marriage before age 

18) is illegal, an adolescent as young as 14 may marry legally 

with parental permission and a judge’s consent. As of 2014, 

almost 30% of Beninese women aged 20-49 had married 

before age 18, and in some cases were forced marriages (see 

p. 3 of Sex and Gender). Couples must marry in a civil 

ceremony or register with the government to receive legal 

recognition of their union. Some Beninese, notably Muslims, 

ignore this requirement and opt only for religious ceremonies.

Bridewealth: Refers to a sum paid by the groom’s family to 

the bride’s as compensation for the loss of her presence and 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
labor. Upon the arrangement of a union, the families must 

negotiate a mutually-agreeable bridewealth before wedding 

preparations take place. It consists of cash, jewelry, or other 

valuable items and traditionally is negotiated by female elders 

from the bride’s family, indicating their approval of the planned 

union of the 2 families. Because the bridewealth can be 

substantial, some couples must spend years saving for it and 

have to postpone their wedding. In the interim, some choose to 

live together and start a family. 

Some groups enjoy other pre-wedding customs. For example, 

Yoruba couples typically hold an elaborate engagement 

ceremony, whereby representatives for the bride’s and groom’s 

families, called the olopa idura (groom’s family) and olopa 

ijoko (bride’s family), formally exchange a letter requesting the 

bride’s hand in marriage. Traditional food and dancing follow

(Photo: Rural Beninese 

marriage celebration). 

Weddings: While 

specific practices vary 

by ethnic group, region, 

and religion, weddings 

are generally joyous 

events celebrated by 

the community. Couples 

often tailor their wedding celebrations to their individual 

preferences for traditional, Christian or Muslim, and civil 

events. During the ceremony, some Beninese choose to wear 

traditional clothing (see p. 1 of Aesthetics and Recreation), 

while others wear Western-style white dresses and dark suits. 

Others incorporate both Western and traditional music and 

dress into their nuptials. 

While Christian weddings are typically performed by a minister 

and occur in a church, Muslims usually gather at the home of 

an elder from the bride’s family. The highlight of the Muslim 

ceremony occurs when the bride fetches the groom from his 

seat among his family to join her on a sofa at the front of the 

room. Later, the groom presents the bride with an envelope 

containing the bridewealth. After she verbally accepts the offer, 

the couple signs an Islamic marriage contract.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Some Beninese incorporate elements of Voudoun or other 

traditional beliefs (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality) into their 

wedding. For example, the couple may consult a fâ (oracle) to 

determine what types of sacrifices to hold during the ceremony. 

During the wedding, the couple typically presents offerings 

before the groom’s family Voudoun shrine, while reciting 

special prayers. Regardless of tradition, family and friends 

gather after the ceremonies for celebrations that sometimes 

extend for several days. 

Divorce: Divorce is common and has little if any stigma 

associated with it. Most Beninese remarry following divorce.

Death 

In general, Beninese view a funeral as a time to reflect on the 

deceased and celebrate his reunification with the ancestors

(see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). Funerals are often 

elaborate events, consisting of days of feasting, music, and 

dance, sometimes requiring the family to acquire loans or sell 

possessions to finance the festivities. Funerals are sometimes 

delayed so the family can gather the necessary funds or allow 

time for family and friends 

living at a distance to make

travel arrangements (Photo: 

Grand Mosque at Porto 

Novo).

Besides celebrations, funerals 

typically also include a parade 

and religious service. After the 

burial, mourners gather at the 

family’s ceremony house or at the home of the deceased. 

Beninese also typically commemorate the anniversary of a 

loved one’s death by gathering again for shared meals and 

dancing. In line with Islamic tradition, Muslim Beninese bury 

their loved ones as soon as possible after death, usually within 

24 hours. The deceased’s body is washed, wrapped in a white 

shroud, and transported by male family members to a mosque

where a cleric offers prayers. Relatives then transport the 

deceased for burial in a cemetery or within the family 

compound. Muslim mourners typically gather for memorial 

services on the 4th, 8th, and 40th or 41st day after the burial. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Despite constitutional guarantees of political, social, and 

economic equality among Beninese citizens, some traditional 

customs tend to marginalize women and promote female 

subordination. As a result, women are underrepresented in 

government and business leadership positions and often 

become victims of physical violence and sexual harassment. 

Gender Roles and Work

Beninese society maintains a distinct division of labor between 

the genders. Within the home, women are responsible for 

preparing meals, childcare, and collecting water and firewood. 

In rural areas, women also typically perform agricultural chores 

like planting and harvesting crops. By contrast, men perform 

most heavy farm chores, such as clearing the land for planting. 

As household heads, men make the majority of family 

decisions and are the 

primary financial providers. 

Labor Force: As of 2017, 

approximately 69% of 

women worked outside the 

home, higher than rates in 

the US (56%) and regional 

neighbors Burkina Faso 

(58%) and Niger (67%). 

Single mothers represent a significant portion of this labor force 

and often work as entrepreneurs who sell food, produce, or 

clothing. Specialized loan programs designed by the 

government and non-profit organizations help women enter the 

workforce by providing the capital needed to open stores, 

restaurants, shops, and other small businesses. Although such 

financial programs increasingly provide new economic 

opportunities for women, prevailing patriarchal attitudes tend to 

limit women’s ability to reach positions of authority within the 

workplace. Nevertheless, working women tend to maintain 

control of their own finances even after marriage, allowing them 

some economic autonomy (Photo: A Belgian sailor teaches 2 

female Beninese sailors to pilot a zodiac boat).

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and the Law

Despite legal guarantees of gender equality, discrimination and 

unequal treatment persist. It is particularly evident in rural 

areas where certain cultural and religious traditions and

customary law (see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations) 

restrict women’s rights. Furthermore, Beninese women across 

the country experience discrimination in obtaining employment, 

credit, equal pay, and property.

Although the law provides for equal inheritance and recognizes 

the rights of mothers, customary law designates males as the 

primary heirs to land and property and privileges the 

father’s/husband’s role over that of the wife/mother. For 

example, a woman’s husband or husband’s family may claim 

her earnings for their own needs, 

limiting her opportunities for 

economic advancement. Across 

Benin, husbands frequently act as 

the gatekeepers of their wives’ 

schedules, determining whether 

she may leave the home or visit 

friends and family (Photo: Belgian 

Navy personnel provide CPR 

instruction to a Beninese sailor). 

Because women rarely inherit nor

have the means to purchase land 

or property, they often lack the 

collateral needed to obtain credit. 

Some formal laws promote male 

privilege. For example, Beninese mothers may pass on their 

nationality to their child only if the father is unknown or of 

unclear nationality. Otherwise, the child automatically is 

assigned the father’s nationality.

Gender and Politics

While women do not face legal barriers to vote or run for public 

office, patriarchal attitudes coupled with women’s low literacy 

rates (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge) tend to inhibit their 

participation in politics. For example, women make up just 7% 

of Parliament members, a significantly lower rate than in 

neighboring Togo (18%) and Niger (17%) and the US (19%). 

SEX &

GENDER
Despite some government attempts to increase women’s 

political participation, the current Talon administration (see p. 6

of Political and Social Relations) has failed to make real 

change. For example, President Talon named just 3 women to 

his 21-member cabinet. 

Gender Based Violence (GBV) 

Experts report that 70% of Beninese women experience GBV 

in their lifetime. While laws criminalize rape, sexual assault, 

and domestic violence, several factors prevent the reporting of 

crimes, investigation by the police, and punishment of 

perpetrators. 

Generally, victims 

are reluctant to 

report offenses due 

to social stigma or 

fear of retaliation. 

Even if victims do 

report crimes, the 

police generally lack 

training in evidence 

collection and the 

applicable law, compelling judges to reduce most sexual 

offense charges to misdemeanors. The prosecution of 

domestic violence crimes is especially difficult, with many 

judges refusing to even hear such cases (Photo: A US Navy 

sailor and Beninese women at a US military health event). 

Despite laws criminalizing the act, sexual harassment is also 

common. It is especially prevalent in schools, where some 

male teachers harass their female students. Although illegal, 

forced marriages, particularly between men and young girls, 

are common and perhaps even widespread in rural areas. 

Traditionally, the marriage begins with the abduction and rape 

of the child bride. 

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): This practice refers to a

procedure whereby a woman’s sex organ is modified in a way 

that reduces her ability to experience sexual pleasure and is 

intended to discourage premarital sex and infidelity. Illegal in 

Benin, FGM’s prevalence is decreasing as a result of public 

awareness campaigns that emphasize the physical dangers of 

SEX &

GENDER
the practice. Nevertheless, FGM persists in some areas and 

among certain ethnic groups. Today, some 7% of Beninese 

females aged 15-49 have undergone the procedure, usually 

before age 13, with the rate increasing to almost 60% in some 

rural northern regions. 

Sex and Procreation

While extramarital sex is relatively common, Beninese 

traditionally view sexual intimacy as a private matter between 

married couples. At 5 births per woman, Benin’s fertility rate is 

comparable to 

regional neighbors 

Togo (4.5), Burkina 

Faso, (5.4), and 

Niger (5.6) but is 

significantly higher 

than the US (1.8). 

Some Beninese 

women begin 

having children at a 

young age: in 2010, 

some 23% of women aged 20-24 had given birth before age 

18. Moreover, Beninese women suffer a high rate of death 

during childbirth (see p. 4 of Sustenance and Health). 

Some 45% of Beninese women report that their husbands 

make their health decisions for them, particularly reproduction. 

This lack of decision-making control among women aggravates

their overall lack of access to and knowledge of modern 

contraceptive methods. For example, just 17% of females aged 

15-49 reported using contraception in 2015. Abortion is legal 

only in cases of incest, rape, or severe fetal defect (Photo: A 

Beninese woman and child).

Homosexuality

While not expressly illegal, homosexual behavior is not openly 

accepted, and acts are sometimes prosecuted under public 

indecency laws. Consequently, homosexuals tend to conceal 

their sexual orientation. Nevertheless, public tolerance and 

acceptance is growing, and in 2015 LGBT groups met in 

Cotonou to discuss human rights issues. 

SEX &

GENDER
Overview

Benin’s official language, French, is also the primary language 

of business, government, education, and the media. Most 

Beninese speak one (or more) of 50 indigenous languages as 

their primary tongue. Due to this linguistic diversity, French also 

serves as a common 

tongue among speakers 

of different indigenous 

languages.

French

First introduced to the 

region in the 17th 

century, French was the 

official language of 

colonial Dahomey, when it was part of French West Africa (see 

p. 6-9 of History and Myth). Upon achieving independence, 

Dahomey (later Benin – see p. 9 of History and Myth) retained

French as its official language. Some 3 million Beninese, 

primarily urban-dwellers, speak French today. Many Beninese 

French-speakers utilize a variety known as Francais d’Afrique

(African French), a form of French adapted to the grammatical 

structures and vocabularies of African indigenous languages. 

These local adaptions can make African French difficult for 

standard French speakers to understand (Photo: US Navy sailor 

assists Beninese at an optometry clinic).

Indigenous Languages

Benin’s 50+ indigenous languages generally correspond to its

ethnic identities (see p. 11-13 of Political and Social Relations). 

Some 49 of Benin’s languages belong to the Niger-Congo 

language family, while only Dendi, a language spoken in the 

North, belongs to the Nilo-Saharan family. 

The South is home to the Gbe and Yoruboid language groups, 

while Gur languages predominate the North interspersed with 

pockets of Atlantic, Mande, and Songhai languages. All of 

Benin’s indigenous languages are tonal languages that use tone 

or pitch to convey meaning.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Gbe: Some 19 of Benin’s languages belong to the Gbe group, 

the largest including Fon (about 1.2 million speakers) and Aja 

(about 600,000). Most speakers of Gbe languages concentrate

along Benin’s coast and around the cities of Cotonou and PortoNovo. 

Yoruboid: Speakers of Benin’s 10 Yoruboid languages cluster 

in south-central Benin along the border with Nigeria, which is 

also home to a sizeable Yoruba-speaking population. The main 

Yoruboid languages are Nago (both Northern and Southern with

about 450,000 speakers) and Yoruba (about 125,000). 

Gur: Speakers of Benin’s 15 Gur languages live throughout the 

less-populated North. The most common Gur languages are

Baatonum (about 600,000 speakers) and Yom (around 

450,000). 

Other indigenous languages: Benin’s other languages include 

varieties from the Atlantic language group (notably Fulfulde with 

about 300,000 speakers); the Mande language group (Boko, 

about 100,000 speakers); and the Songhai language group 

(Dendi, about 160,000 speakers). All these varieties are spoken 

in the North. 

English

Few Beninese speak English, though some business people, 

government officials, and employees of the tourism industry may 

have some knowledge of the language. While English is taught 

in secondary schools (see 

p. 5 of Learning and 

Knowledge), the quality of 

instruction is generally 

poor. Nonetheless, 

English is gaining in 

popularity, especially

among Beninese who 

engage in business with 

Nigerians who speak 

Nigerian Pidgin, a lingua franca (a common language between 

speakers of different native languages) that includes elements 

of English and indigenous languages (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of State Kerry speaks with Benin’s former President 

Yayi). 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Overview

Effective communication in Benin requires not only knowledge 

of French or an indigenous language but also the ability to 

interact effectively using language. This broad notion of 

competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation, 

turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, these forms 

of communication help to 

ensure that statements are 

interpreted as the speaker 

intends (Photo: Beninese 

women teach sewing to a 

Peace Corps volunteer).

Communication Style

Communication patterns 

vary due to Benin’s religious 

and ethnic diversity. For example, southern Beninese are 

typically open and outgoing, while Northerners tend to be more

reserved. Nevertheless, most Beninese tend to be respectful of

their conversation partners, especially elders, paying close 

attention and avoiding interruptions. Beninese typically have a 

gentle sense of humor and like making jokes and laughing at 

small problems. Yet 

they usually avoid 

cruel jokes and 

consider sarcasm

particularly rude and 

disrespectful.

Greetings

In keeping with

society’s emphasis on 

respect for others, 

Beninese typically extend greetings with great care. Beninese 

men generally shake hands, sometimes snapping their fingers 

following the handshake in less formal situations. When greeting 

an elder or other person entitled to great respect, Beninese may 

bow slightly or support the right elbow with the left hand during 

the handshake (Photo: A US Marine and US Embassy official 

meet Benin’s Ministry of Interior Placide Azande).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Greetings between men and women typically involve a 

handshake, though some women prefer only a verbal greeting.

Consequently, foreign nationals should wait for members of the 

opposite sex to initiate a handshake. Friends and family 

generally greet each other with 3 or 4 alternating cheek kisses.

Names

Many Beninese have French first names, although Beninese 

typically also have names that represent their ethnic and 

religious identities and have a specific meaning. Among the Fon, 

some children are named for events during childbirth. For 

example, a child born on the way to a market might be named 

Alifoe (“man of the road”). The Yoruba tend to give their children 

names based on their father’s occupation or details of their birth. 

Thus, the 2nd-born of twins might be named Kehinde (“late 

arrival”). By contrast, the Bariba first name a baby according to 

its place in the family (see 

p. 4 of Family and Kinship), 

give it a Muslim name a few 

days later, and bestow its

permanent name several 

years later (Photo: US 

Coast Guard member 

briefs Benin sailors).

Forms of Address

Forms of address vary 

depending on age, status, and relationship. Beninese commonly 

use professional titles in both formal and informal situations. For 

example, a customer may refer to his taxi driver as chauffeur,

while students address their teacher as professeur. 

Beninese tend to address others of the same age and social 

status using their first name or a nickname. They also commonly 

use terms denoting family relationships with non-family, such as 

calling a young female friend petite soeur (“little sister”) or an 

older acquaintance tante (“aunt”). Beninese sometimes address 

elders as the mother or father of their firstborn child. For 

example, the Fon-speaking parents of a child named Dossa 

might be called Dossanon or Dossato (“Dossa’s mother” or 

“Dossa’s father”) or, among French speakers, Maman Dossa or 

Papa Dossa. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Conversational Topics

Beninese often engage in extended conversation to 

demonstrate the importance of the relationship. For example, 

after exchanging greetings, 

Beninese typically ask a 

series of questions about 

health, work, and family, 

among other topics. Not 

intended as meddling, 

these questions 

demonstrate concern and 

interest. Beninese may also 

make remarks to indicate 

their desire to keep a conversation going, such as asking “Tu es 

là?” (“Are you there?”), with the appropriate response simply 

“Oui” (“yes”). Beninese also habitually wish others good luck in 

whatever they are doing or might be doing later, covering a 

range of human activity such as “Good sitting,” “Good digesting,” 

“Good partying,” and, in professional settings, 

acknowledgement of hard work (Photo: US Navy sailors assist 

Beninese at a medical clinic in Cotonou).

Gestures

Beninese tend to use hands during conversation as a substitute 

for spoken words or to add emphasis. For example, men slap 

the back of their hands and woman the back of their thighs to 

signal exasperation. They also use certain sounds for 

communication, such as making a clicking sound in the throat to 

signal agreement. Beninese do not beckon with their index 

fingers but typically retract all fingers into the right hand, held 

with the palm facing down. This beckoning gesture is somewhat 

similar to a greeting common in the US whereby a person waves 

an open hand, palm facing out, side-to-side. Consequently, the 

similarity of the 2 gestures may cause confusion and prompt 

some Beninese to interpret a wave as a beckoning. 

Language Training Resources 

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center website

at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. Click on 

the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then Language 

Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English French

Hello Bonjour

How are you? Comment ça va or ça va?

I am well Je suis bien or ça va

Yes Oui

No Non

Please S’il vous plaît

Thank you Merci

You are welcome De rien

Excuse me Excusez-moi

What is your name? Quel est votre nom?

Where are you from? D'où venez-vous?

Goodbye Au revoir

What does ___ mean? Que veut dire ___?

What is this? Qu'est-ce que c'est que ça?

How do you say ___? Comment dit-on ___?

...in English ...in French? ...en anglais ? ...en français?

I’m sorry Pardon

Do you speak (French/English)? Parlez-vous Français/Anglais ? 

What do you want? Qu’est-ce que vous voulez ?

What time is it? Quelle heure est-il?

Where is the doctor? Où est le médecin?

What is the price? Quel est le prix ?

Who? Qui?

When? Quand?

Which? Quel?

Why? Pourquoi?

Where Où? 

Good morning/Good day Bonjour

Good evening Bonsoir

Good night Bonne nuit

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 38.4%

• Male: 44.9%

• Female: 27.3% (2015 estimate)

Traditional Education

Conventional approaches to education varied across time and 

ethnic groups. Beninese typically used informal, experiencebased, and oral teaching styles to transmit customs, values, 

skills, and historical knowledge to younger generations. In some 

Beninese families today, elder family and community members 

still tell stories, sing songs, recite poems, and use coming-of-age 

rituals to pass on knowledge and skills. 

With the 18th-century rise of the Kingdom of Dahomey (see p. 

2-3 of History and Myth), education was limited customarily to 

administrators who oversaw a complex tax and census system. 

Few Dahomeans beyond this small class of bureaucrats 

received formal training or education.

Education in Colonial Dahomey

Before formal colonization by the French, Catholic missionaries 

established mission schools in Dahomey in the late 19th century

(see p. 4 of Religion 

and Spirituality). 

Concentrated in the 

South, these schools 

formed the basis of the 

region’s education 

system after its 

incorporation into 

French West Africa in 

the early 20th century. 

These institutions followed the French model of 6 years of

primary followed by 6 years of secondary education, with French

as the language of instruction. Because Dahomey had no postsecondary institutions, students seeking to continue their 

education had to travel to Senegal or Europe (Illustration: 1930 

depiction of a Catholic mission and school in Porto-Novo).

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
The French intended their education system to immerse local 

inhabitants in French ideals and assimilate them into French 

culture, although the project largely failed. The French devoted 

far too few resources to the colony’s development (see p. 7-8 of 

History and Myth), and formal education never reached more 

than a minority of Dahomeans. Educational infrastructure was 

particularly underdeveloped in the sparsely-populated North, 

where predominantly Muslim inhabitants were often reluctant to 

send their children to French schools operated by Christian 

missionaries. 

Education after Independence

Following Dahomey’s 1960 independence, a decade of political 

instability (see p. 10 of History and Myth) prevented major

education reform. By contrast, the country’s 1974 shift to a 

Marxist-Leninist dictatorship (see p. 10 of History and Myth) 

brought significant change. Specifically, reforms focused on

opening education to the entire population, removing French 

colonial influence, transferring mission schools to state control,

and instilling an allegiance to socialism. The state mandated 6 

years of free, compulsory primary education, replaced French

with indigenous varieties as languages of instruction, and 

compelled students and teachers to contribute to school budgets

through work (Photo: A Peace Corps member teaches an 

English class in Benin).

The results of these 

reforms were mixed. 

While enrolment

increased significantly, 

the quality of education 

suffered. Despite 

requiring instruction in 

indigenous languages, the 

state developed few or no educational materials in any of 

Benin’s 50+ indigenous varieties (see p. 1-2 of Language and 

Communication). By the 1980s, in the midst of a national political 

and economic crisis (see p. 11 of History and Myth), trained 

teachers were fleeing Benin in droves, leading to a serious 

deterioration of educational standards, access, and outcomes. 

As the government abandoned its reforms plans, Benin recorded

a 31% dropout rate in 1989.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Following Benin’s 1990 transition to democracy (see p. 10-11 of 

History and Myth), the government called a national education 

conference to announce a 

new series of education 

reforms. Notable changes 

included the re-privatization 

of some schools, a new 

curriculum, and increased 

state funding for education. 

Nevertheless, serious 

issues remained. In 2000, 

almost 50% of schools 

occupied temporary 

structures, while only 15% of classrooms had chairs (Photo: US 

Navy sailor dances with schoolchildren in Cotonou).

Modern Education System

Benin’s education system today still follows the French model. 

With French the primary language of instruction, most lessons 

focus on memorization and rote learning. Government spending 

on education as a percentage of total expenditure has fluctuated 

in recent years, from a high of 26% in 2010 to 17.5% in 2015. 

In comparison to its neighboring countries, Benin’s educational

spending is similar to Togo (18%) and Burkina Faso (18%) but

higher than the US (14.5%). In 2014, Benin’s government 

committed to maintaining education spending at 27%, yet 

missed that target in subsequent years. Consequently, Benin 

relies heavily on foreign aid to finance education, accepting 

some $41 million from international organizations from 2014-

2017 (see p. 6 of Economics and Resources). 

Benin’s education system faces numerous challenges that result 

in chronic poor performance. While tuition for primary school 

was abolished in 2006, secondary school is still fee-based and 

students at all levels must purchase books, uniforms, and school 

supplies, placing a heavy financial burden on families. Gender 

disparities in the educational system are pronounced: just 38% 

of eligible females were enrolled in secondary school in 2015,

compared to 52% of males. Some parents are reluctant to send 

their daughters to school because of fear of sexual harassment 

by male teachers (see p. 3 of Sex and Gender). 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Benin also faces serious challenges in teacher retention and 

training. In 2015, the 

average class size was

45 and only about 69% of 

teachers held the proper 

teaching credentials. 

Further, schools often 

lack adequate textbooks 

and supplies (Photo: 

Fulani girl at a school in 

northern Benin). 

The government has 

introduced reforms to address these problems. To reduce

gender disparities, the government provides tuition support for 

girls in secondary school, even waiving tuition entirely for girls 

studying science and technology. To overcome teacher 

shortages, the government strives to improve teacher training 

and recruitment. Criticism of the curriculum has led to an 

overhaul, with a greater focus on practical skills. Additionally, the 

government has proposed plans to better align the education 

system with the needs of the labor market and to allow foreign 

educational institutions to offer higher education. Nevertheless, 

Benin’s educational outcomes are among the world’s lowest, 

and parents who can afford it send their children to private 

schools (Photo: Members of a US government-supported 

Mothers’ Association 

discuss how to keep 

girls in school).

Pre-Primary: Preprimary education in 

Benin is optional. In

2015, some 24% of 

children of the 

appropriate age were 

enrolled, a rate that 

has steadily increased 

since private nursery schools were introduced in the 1990s. The 

government has committed to funding additional public 

preschools to meet rising demand. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Primary: Benin’s primary education program consists of 6 

grades, typically starting at age 6. In 2014, some 96% of 

students of the appropriate age were enrolled in primary 

schools. The curriculum includes lessons in French, math, social 

studies, science and technology, art, and physical education. 

Despite being compulsory, the primary school graduation rate in 

2015 was just 83% for boys and 73% for girls. Upon graduation, 

students receive a Certificat d’Etudes Primaires (Certificate of 

Primary Studies). 

Secondary: Non-compulsory secondary school comprises 7 

years divided into first-cycle (grades 7-10) and second-cycle

(grades 11-13) programs. In 2015, just 45% of students of the 

appropriate age were enrolled in secondary education, and the 

graduation rate was 50% for

males and 37% for females. 

Secondary instruction

builds on the primary school 

curriculum while adding 

classes in English, history, 

geography, biology, 

physics, family economics, 

civil education, philosophy, 

and other foreign languages. The first-cycle secondary program

begins around age 12. Upon completion, students must pass the

Brevet d’Etudes du Premier Cycle (First Cycle Studies Exam)

to advance to the second-cycle program. Upon successful 

completion of the second-cycle program, graduates receive the

title of Baccalauréat de l'Enseignement Secondaire (Bachelor 

of Secondary Education). Students may then advance to postsecondary programs of study (Photo: A Beninese student reads 

aloud in Fon at a community education center in Ouidah).

Technical Education: As an alternative to the first-cycle

secondary program, students may choose to attend a 3-year 

technical institution. Programs of study are available in 6 subject 

areas: science and industry; science, administration, and 

management; science and agriculture; health, family, and social 

education; and hotel and restaurant management. Besides

attending classes, students also complete apprenticeships.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Upon completion, graduates receive the Certificat d’Aptitude 

Professionnelle (Certificate of Professional Studies). Students 

may then choose to advance to a 3-year second-cycle technical 

program which awards them either a Baccalauréat de 

l'Enseignement Secondaire Technique (Bachelor of 

Secondary Technical Education) or a Diplôme de Technicien 

Industriel (Industrial Technician Diploma). 

Post-secondary: Benin’s first institution of higher learning was 

the University of Dahomey, founded in 1970. Known as the 

University of Abomey-Calavi today, the institution forms part of 

Benin’s national university system, along with the University of 

Parakou; the National University of Science, Technology, 

Engineering, and Mathematics; and the National University of 

Agriculture. Additional post-secondary educational offerings 

include branch campuses of these public universities and 

several private institutions

located throughout the 

country. (Photo: Members 

of a school’s English club 

in Benin).

Most courses of postsecondary study require 2 

years leading to the 

Diplôme Universitaire

(University Diploma). An 

additional year of study leads to the Licence (similar to a 

Bachelor’s degree) and another 2 years result in the Maîtrise

(Master’s). Engineering, agronomy, and medical degrees 

require lengthier courses of study. Specialized post-secondary 

institutions offer teacher training and the award of the Certificat 

d'Aptitude Pédagogique (Certificate of Pedagogical Studies) 

for students who have earned a University Diploma.

Islamic Education

Despite Benin’s sizeable Muslim population (see p. 8 of Religion 

and Spirituality), the sparsely-populated North features few 

specialized Islamic educational institutions. By contrast,

southern Benin is home to several “Franco-Arabic schools” 

sponsored by Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt that provide 

general and Islamic education in French and Arabic.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Beninese tend to view personal relationships as the foundation 

of effective business negotiations. While customs often vary by 

context or ethnic group, most Beninese tend to exhibit a casual 

attitude towards time and punctuality.

Time and Work 

Offices generally open Monday-Friday from 8:00am-12:30pm 

and 3:00pm-6:30pm. While hours vary, shops and markets 

typically open Monday-Saturday from 9:00am-1:00pm and 

4:00pm-7:00pm, with a break for lunch. Locally-owned shops 

and stalls are typically open 

whenever the owner is available, 

which is often around the clock

(Photo: A Beninese vendor in a 

marketplace).

Major banks are open MondayFriday 8:00am-5:00pm and on 

Saturday from 9:00am-1:00pm. 

While hours vary, restaurants are 

generally open from 11:00am11:00pm, though some may close 

for a few hours at midday.

Working Conditions: The legal 

workweek in Benin is 40-46 

hours, though agricultural workers 

may work up to 60 hours, 6 days a week. In practice, Beninese 

employed informally in the agricultural or domestic sectors 

often exceed the legal limit, working closer to 70 hours. While 

Benin has labor laws to protect workers, lax enforcement and a 

large informal sector enable violations like workplace

discrimination and child labor (see p. 3 of Family and Kinship). 

Time Zone: Benin adheres to West Africa Time (WAT), which 

is 1 hour ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 6 hours 

ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Benin does not 

observe daylight savings time. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Date Notation: Like the US, Benin uses the Western 

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Beninese often write 

the day first followed by the month and year.

Lunar Calendar: Beninese use the Islamic calendar to track 

Muslim holidays. Since it is based on lunar phases, dates fall 

11 days earlier each year in relation to the Western calendar. 

The Islamic calendar’s 12 months each have 30 days or fewer. 

Days begin at sunset on what the Western calendar would 

show as the previous day. For example, each new week begins 

at sunset on Saturday, and the Muslim holy day of Friday 

begins on Thursday evening. 

Time and Business

Successful business dealings typically depend on personal 

connections. Because they highly value the trust that arises in 

close relationships, most Beninese prefer that business 

associates also become friends, which is often facilitated by the 

exchange of gifts. Once the friendship is established, Beninese 

tend to expect preferential treatment or certain privileges and 

National Holidays

• January 10: Voudoun Festival

• March/April: Easter Monday (dates vary)

• May 1: International Labor Day

• May/June: Ascension Day (dates vary)

• May/June: Whit Monday (dates vary)

• August 1: Benin Independence Day

• August 15: Assumption Day

• November 1: All Saint’s Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

These Islamic holidays occur on variable dates 

according to the lunar calendar:

• Korité (Eid al-Fitr): End of Ramadan

• Tabaski (Eid al-Adha): Festival of Sacrifice

• Maouloud: Prophet Muhammad’s birthday 

SPACE

TIME &
may ask for favors, such as the hiring of their family members. 

Nevertheless, most Beninese maintain a division between work 

and family life. Business associate rarely host work functions at 

home, instead conducting business in the office or at small 

restaurants called maquis (see p. 3 of Sustenance and 

Health). 

Communication in the office is typically formal. Employees 

address their superiors using their professional titles and use 

informal speech only with colleagues of a comparable age and 

position. In general, Beninese tend to avoid publicly discussing 

workplace disagreements. 

Instead, they often air 

their grievances with 

other colleagues privately

(Photo: A US Marine 

presents a certificate to a 

Beninese sailor).

Most Beninese have a 

relaxed attitude towards 

time. Consequently, punctuality is often disregarded, and 

schedules and meetings are subject to last minute changes 

and cancellations. The everyday difficulties associated with

poverty, illness, and the needs of family members are often the 

cause of meeting cancellations and workplace absences. 

Personal Space

As in most societies, personal space in Benin depends on the 

nature of the relationship. While privacy and personal space 

are often minimal among friends and family, an arm’s length is 

an appropriate speaking distance between acquaintances. 

Degrees of personal space depend on factors such as ethnic 

identification and religion, and foreign nationals should follow 

the lead of their Beninese counterpart. 

Touch: Beninese of the same sex often engage in more 

conversational touching than Americans. Same-sex male 

friends often touch each other on the arm or shoulder to 

emphasize a point or to demonstrate their close platonic 

relationship, while close female friends may hold hands (see p. 

4 of Language and Communication for touching between 

opposite sexes). 

SPACE

TIME &
Left Hand Taboo: Like people from other cultures in Africa, 

Asia, and the Middle East, the Beninese consider the left hand 

unclean and reserve it for personal hygiene. Foreign nationals 

should avoid using the left hand when eating, gesturing, 

accepting items, or greeting another person, as these actions 

may offend their Beninese associates. 

Eye Contact

The appropriate amount of eye contact depends on age and 

gender. Generally, avoiding direct eye contact while speaking 

to an elder is a sign of respect. By contrast, friends typically 

maintain eye contact during conversations to signify their 

trustworthiness. Extended eye contact with a member of the 

opposite sex may signal romantic interest.

Photographs

Government and military sites, airports, and religious buildings 

may restrict or prohibit photography (often marked with the 

notice interdit or “forbidden”). Foreign nationals should acquire 

a Beninese’s consent before 

taking his photo. Some 

Beninese may expect 

compensation in return (Photo: 

Beninese children).

Driving

Poor road conditions and high

carjacking rates, particularly in 

rural areas, make driving 

hazardous, while few traffic signals make road crossing 

dangerous for pedestrians. Benin’s rate of 28 road traffic 

deaths per 100,000 people is on par with neighbors Niger (28) 

and Togo (32), yet significantly higher than the US rate (11). 

Vehicles with 4-wheel drive are often necessary for travel in 

rural areas, where heavy seasonal rains make most roads 

completely impassable. To reduce the number of carjacking 

incidents, the police maintain roadblocks where officers inspect 

vehicles and documentation. Zémidjans (motorcycle taxis – 

see p. 1 of Technology and Material) are especially vulnerable 

to accidents and assaults. Beninese frequently use gasoline 

smuggled in from neighboring countries which typically has a

poor quality that can cause serious damage to vehicles. 

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Benin’s dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect the country’s 

indigenous customs, religious diversity, and colonial influences.

Many Beninese artists, musicians, and writers receive acclaim 

on the international stage. 

Dress and Appearance 

In professional and urban settings Beninese tend to wear 

formal and conservative Western clothing. Styles are

particularly conservative in predominantly Muslim areas, 

primarily the North, where residents are more likely to wear

traditional clothing on Fridays (the Muslim holy day – see p. 2 

of Time and Space). Generally, Beninese value a neat 

appearance, typically maintaining clean and pressed clothing.

Men: Traditional men’s clothing consists of an ankle-length, 

embroidered robe called a boubou layered over a long tunic 

and matching pants. The ensemble typically features brightly 

colored and patterned traditional material. In rural areas, men 

sometimes wear a cloth wrapped around the waist paired with 

a dashiki (loose shirt) as casualwear. 

Women: Traditional women’s attire typically consists of a 

pagne (a large piece of colorfully patterned cotton fabric 

wrapped around the body and tucked in at the side) worn with 

a boumba (blouse) and a matching head wrap. The length of a 

woman’s pagne indicates her age and marital status (older, 

married women tend to wear longer pagnes), though women of 

all ages tend to wear longer 

styles for formal occasions. 

For special events, a woman 

might add a boubou covered 

in intricate embroidery 

(Photo: Beninese in 

traditional dress wait for 

medicines). 

Recreation 

Beninese typically spend 

their leisure time with family members and friends. Popular 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
pastimes include socializing, listening to the radio, relaxing in 

maquis (see p.3 of Sustenance and Health) and playing 

checkers, cards, and traditional games (see “Games” below). 

Singing, dancing, and making shopping trips to the market also 

serve as common social activities. Though widespread poverty 

limits recreational travel for most Beninese, some urbandwellers make periodic visits to their home villages, particularly 

for family ceremonies and festivals. 

Festivals and Holidays: Even Beninese who identify as

Christian or Muslim typically celebrate various Voudoun

ceremonies and events (see p. 1-3 of Religion and Spirituality). 

For example, Beninese celebrate National Voudoun Day with 

rituals and ceremonies conducted in temples across the 

country. During the Gelede festival, celebrants honor female 

ancestors, while petitioning the spirts for plentiful rain for the 

next harvest. Similarly, the Egungun festivities honor 

ancestors believed to have returned to earth temporarily to 

offer advice to the living. Both festivals feature specially trained 

dancers in elaborate 

costumes who alter their 

voices to embody the 

various spirits. 

During the zangbeto ritual,

dancers dressed in 

costumes resembling

haystacks represent the 

Voudoun guardians of the 

night. Traditional enforcers

of law and order, the zangbeto patrol the streets for criminals

and ensure the safety of the community. Beninese also widely 

celebrate Christian and Muslim holidays. For example, many 

non-Christians celebrate Christmas, and during the Islamic

holiday of Tabaski (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality),

Muslim Beninese often invite non-Muslim neighbors to join the 

festivities. Other important national holidays include 

Independence Day, when Beninese enjoy parades and picnics. 

Although traditions vary among religious groups, most 

Beninese celebrate New Year’s by gathering with friends and 

family to share a meal and await the new year (Photo: 

Egungun dance costume from the mid-20th century).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sports: Football (soccer) is Benin’s most popular sport and 

pastime. Most boys, men, and some girls play in community 

games, often with 

improvised materials. 

The Beninese national 

soccer team, 

nicknamed Les 

Écureuils (the 

Squirrels), has had little 

international success, 

though many on its 

squad play for 

European professional 

teams. Other popular sports include basketball, handball, 

running, and wrestling. Female participation in sports is 

historically low, yet various initiatives aim to increase that rate

(Photo: Benin Sailors and Marines pose with US Marines 

following a volleyball game). 

Games: Beninese enjoy an array of traditional games. Also 

known as adji or mancala, oware is a popular 2-person game 

in which players try to capture an opponent’s game pieces –

usually pebbles or seeds – by moving them according to 

certain rules across a board with small pits. Other popular 

games include checkers and cards. 

Music and Dance

Drums are the foundation of traditional Beninese music. 

Instruments range from the high-pitched keri keri, played with 

a stick or hand, to the single-membrane gudugdu and the 2-

headed, hourglass-shaped dundun. Experienced drummers 

adjust the drum’s tension, while playing to create complex 

rhythms, a skill that was also used historically to transmit 

information between and among villages. Besides drums, bells 

and rattles also feature prominently in traditional music. 

Dance is an important part of daily life and an integral part of 

many Voudoun ceremonies (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Dancers typically coordinate their movements to 

the rhythms of the drums to depict the characteristics of the 

spirit or the events they are portraying. For example, in 

performances honoring Shango, the spirit of thunder, male and 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
female dancers encircle a tree. While the women move quickly 

with short steps, the men slap their hands on their sides. At the 

same time, 3 different drums create short, sharp beats 

reminiscent of thunder claps. 

Recognized internationally is 4-time Grammy winner Angélique 

Kidjo who sings in English and French in addition to Fon and 

Yoruba (see p. 2 of Language and Communication). Many 

popular bands mix 

West African with 

other musical 

traditions. For 

example, the Gangbe 

Brass band melds

jazz, big band music, 

and traditional 

Beninese rhythms, 

while the group 

Africando All Stars features New York salsa musicians and 

West African vocalists (Photo: Beninese celebrate the opening 

of a health clinic with music and dance).

Theater and Cinema

Theater is an important form of entertainment especially for

Beninese who lack electricity and access to television (see p. 1

of Family and Kinship). Traveling theater groups regularly set 

up makeshift stages in the middle of villages and perform plays 

for the community. Beninese actor Djimon Hounsou has gained 

fame in several Hollywood films and received 2 Oscar 

nominations. 

Literature 

Benin has a rich history of oral literature. Traveling storytellers 

called griots traditionally roam the country sharing 

genealogies, histories, proverbs, poems, and folktales, often

accompanied by music. A primary source of history and 

entertainment since ancient times, griots remain popular across 

the country and West Africa at large.

Beninese authors face several hurdles to publication and 

dissemination of their written literature, although several 

Beninese authors have received international recognition. 

Considered Africa’s first novel, Félix Couchoro’s 1920 work

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
L’Ésclave cleverly criticized colonial elites, while using a 

distinct form of African French (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). In the 1970s-80s, playwright and author Jean 

Pliya explored the colonial experience and translated traditional 

Fon stories for French-speakers. Finally, philosopher Paulin 

Hountondji’s 1976 work African Philosophy: Myth and Reality is 

considered one of Africa’s 100 best 

books of the 20th century. 

Folk Arts and Handicrafts 

Traditional Beninese art and 

handicrafts often serve practical,

spiritual, and aesthetic purposes. Folk 

artists typically utilize metal, leather, 

wood, cotton, or clay to make pottery, 

textiles, furniture, costumes, tools, 

and instruments. For example, 

weavers use looms to create both 

everyday and ceremonial clothing 

worn for important events like weddings, funerals, and babynaming rituals (see p. 4-7 of Family and Kinship). Woodworking 

artists carve intricate masks blending human and animal 

features that help dancers embody the spirits they represent

when performing Voudoun rituals. Toiles appliqués is a 

traditional sewing technique in which layers of colored cloth 

create a tapestry (Photo: Early 19th-century wooden throne of 

King Guézo – see p. 4 of History 

and Myth). 

Beninese sculpture and carvings 

traditionally use mystical and 

abstract forms and distorted ratios 

to convey information about the 

essence of an object instead of 

creating a perfect likeness. This 

technique has inspired many

Western artists such as renowned 

20th-century Spanish artist Pablo 

Picasso, who admired the magical 

element of the masks and 

sculptures used in West African rituals (Photo: Mid-20th 

century Yoruba mask from Benin).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Beninese value time spent with family and friends, gathering 

frequently for meals in the home. While cuisine varies by 

region, most Beninese dishes tend to incorporate fresh, local, 

and seasonally available ingredients. 

Dining Customs

Although dining customs vary across the country, most 

Beninese eat 1-3 daily 

meals, depending on 

their income. Rural 

farmers, for example, 

typically eat 3 daily 

meals, including a 

hearty breakfast and 

lunch in the fields 

followed by a small 

evening meal at home. 

By contrast, poor urban workers may have just 1 large meal 

during the day, supplemented with various snacks (Photo: 

Beninese fishermen). 

Women traditionally prepare all meals, cooking over fires built 

outdoors or in small outbuildings to keep smoke and heat away 

from the main dwellings (see p. 1 of Family and Kinship). 

Because most homes have no refrigeration, families purchase 

fresh ingredients from local markets multiple times a week. 

Guests and male family members usually eat first, followed by 

children and women. Men customarily consume the largest 

portions of food and receive the best pieces of meat and fish. 

Families typically eat from several large, centrally-placed 

shared dishes. While they may utilize spoons and other 

utensils for some dishes, Beninese commonly use their fingers 

and thumb to scoop food into their mouths. Beninese eat only 

with their right hand, as the left hand is considered to be

unclean (see p. 4 of Time and Space). Beninese consider it 

rude to refuse food and expect guests to sample some of each 

dish offered by the host. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet

Benin’s cuisine varies by region and depends largely on the 

availability of fresh, seasonal ingredients. Generally, meals 

prominently feature a staple starch accented by comparatively 

small portions of meat, fish, and fresh vegetables. In the North, 

primary staples include sorghum and yams, and in the South,

corn, cassava (starchy tuberous root also known as manioc), 

and millet. Usually served as thick, doughy porridges 

collectively known as pate, these staples accompany spicy, 

aromatic sauces incorporating numerous ingredients, such as

vegetables, nuts, herbs, and occasionally meat or fish. Rice, 

pasta, couscous (a form of pasta that originated in Northwest 

African), are also popular but generally reserved for holidays 

and special occasions. 

Beef is a common protein in the North, while fish features 

prominently in southern dishes, especially in communities 

along Benin’s coast and rivers. Common varieties include carp, 

tilapia, and perch, which may be served dried, smoked, fried, 

boiled, or sautéed, often in palm oil. Other forms of protein 

include goat, lamb, chicken, and agouti (a rodent known as the 

greater cane rat). Other notable meats consumed mostly in 

rural areas include antelope, wild 

rabbit, lizard, and snake. 

Beninese enjoy a wide variety of 

vegetables, notably onions, 

beans, tomatoes, okra, and 

cucumbers. Beninese also

consume various tropical fruits, 

such as mangos, breadfruit, 

papayas, bananas, pineapples, 

and avocados. While less popular 

among southern Beninese, dairy 

products comprise an important 

component of northern diets.

Some Beninese may adhere to 

certain dietary restrictions. For example, observant Muslims 

(see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) consume neither pork nor 

alcohol. In addition, they observe particular rules of animal 

slaughter and meat preparation to ensure that food is halal, 

allowed by Islamic law (Photo: Mango tree in northern Benin).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Meals and Popular Dishes

Breakfast is usually light, often tea paired with bread or koko, 

hot cereal. Lunch is the largest and main meal, although in 

some areas, dinner is also substantial. Most lunch and dinner 

dishes include pate, consisting of ground millet, sorghum, corn, 

or yams, boiled and stirred until the mixture achieves a doughy, 

hardened consistency. Formed into balls, pate is served with 

various dipping sauces, cubed meats, cheeses, fish, or eggs. 

Popular varieties include akassa (made from fermented corn) 

and amiowo (red in color and made from corn and palm oil). 

Although the exact preparation of sauces varies by region, the 

most common components include peanuts, okra, garlic, 

onions, chili peppers, and dried tomato. Other common dishes 

include wagasi (fried, cubed cheese made from milk and tree 

sap – a popular accompaniment to pate in the North); igname 

pilee (pounded yam); wache (brown rice mixed with beans and 

spices); and gari (a thin porridge made from cassava that is 

similar to grits and consumed by the very poor). For dessert, 

Beninese enjoy brioche, 

sweet bread, or fresh fruit 

juices (Photo: Beninese 

women make kuli kuli, 

fried rolls of peanut 

paste). 

Eating Out

While the urban upper 

class enjoys dining at 

French restaurants, the

average Beninese only occasionally eats out. In urban areas, 

markets, vendors, and casual eateries (maquis or buvettes) 

sell a variety of traditional Beninese fare and various street 

foods, such as fresh juice, fried bananas, bread, omelets, tofu, 

beignets (fluffy, fried pastries), and other snacks. Tipping is 

uncommon. 

Beverages 

Beninese enjoy tea and coffee throughout the day. Freshly 

squeezed juices, notably papaya, orange, pineapple, and 

mango, are also popular. Alcoholic beverages include various 

locally-produced beers, such as Flag, Castel, and Beninoise, 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
sodabi (palm wine), and tchoucoutou (a thick, sweet beer 

brewed from millet and primarily consumed in the North). 

Imported wine, beer, and spirits are available in urban areas. 

Health Overview

Although the government has made improvements to Benin’s

healthcare infrastructure since transitioning to democracy in 

1991, the population’s overall health remains poor. With 405

deaths per 100,000 live births, Benin’s maternal mortality rate 

remains among the world’s highest, exceeding the US rate (14) 

by nearly 30 times. 

Infant mortality (the proportion of infants who die before age 1) 

decreased substantially from 105 deaths per 1,000 live births in 

1991 to 63 deaths in 2016. Nevertheless, it remains the world’s 

23rd highest, well above the US rate of 6 and higher than the 

Sub-Saharan average of 53. Moreover, although life 

expectancy at birth increased from 54 to 61 years between 

1991-2015, it remains significantly lower than the global 

average of 72 and US average of 79. 

Some 40% of the population lives below the poverty line and 

about 18% of Beninese children under age 5 are underweight, 

the world’s 30th highest rate of child malnutrition. Generally, 

the healthcare system 

suffers a lack of funding 

and a shortage of 

medical professionals. 

Many facilities, even in 

urban areas, are 

dilapitaded, overcrowded, 

and understaffed. The 

quality of care dimishes 

further in rural areas, 

effectively denying many rural Beninese access to modern 

healthcare. (Photo: A US Navy hospital corpsman discusses

vitamins and oral hygiene with a Beninese woman).

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Beninese medicine centers on the use 

of herbal remedies rather than surgical procedures to identify 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
and treat illness and is routinely used both in urban and rural 

areas. Traditional healers are typically religious figures (see p. 

3 of Religion and Spirituality) who incorporate a spiritual

component in their treatments. Beninese consult such healers 

to cleanse the body of illness, ward off spirits believed to bring 

sickness, and restore physical and mental wholeness. 

Modern Healthcare System

Benin’s healthcare system remains in a state of disrepair and is 

largely unable to provide preventative, maternal, long-term, and 

emergency care for the majority of the population. While there 

are a number of modern hospitals in urban areas, the majority 

of Benin’s medical facilities are outdated, ill-equipped, and 

severely understaffed. In addition, many pharmacies are 

understocked in even the most common medicines, while 

others sell ineffective or even harmful counterfeit versions.

Because some medical facilities and 

practitioners require payment before 

services are rendered, some patients 

delay or forgo treatment altogether. 

Moreover, hospitals and clinics are 

concentrated in cities and 

significantly underserve rural 

dwellers. Small, rural clinics often 

operate without electricity, running 

water, and sanitation and lack the 

resources and medical expertise to 

treat serious illnesses. In more 

remote areas, residents must travel long distances to seek 

medical care, making modern healthcare completely 

inaccessible for many. Consequently, traditional folk medicines 

remain the standard for many Beninese.

Benin also suffers from a lack of trained medical personnel. As 

of 2013, Benin had just 15 physicians per 100,000 people, 

below the World Health Organization’s recommendation of 23

physicians per 100,000 people and significantly below the US 

rate of 255. Although Benin’s few private facilities generally 

offer higher quality care, they are unaffordable to most 

Beninese (Photo: A US Navy medic examines a baby during a 

health fair in Cotonou). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

As is common in developing countries, communicable, 

infectious, and parasitic diseases are the leading causes of 

illness and death in Benin, accounting for 52% of all deaths in 

2015. Predominant diseases include bacterial and protozoal

diarrhea, hepatitis, typhoid fever, yellow fever, tuberculosis, 

dengue fever, and meningitis. In addition, widespread poverty 

and a lack of prenatal, maternal, and child health services 

results in widespread child malnutrition, which facilitates the 

spread of disease. In recent years, incidences of noncommunicable diseases such as heart disease, cancer, chronic 

respiratory diseases, and digestive diseases have also become 

prevalent, accounting for about 37% of all deaths in 2015. 

Meanwhile, preventable 

“external causes,” such 

as car accidents, 

suicides, and other 

injuries, caused about 

10% of all deaths.

Some 67,000 Beninese

or about 1% of the 

population are HIV/AIDS

positive. While relatively 

low compared to other African nations, this rate is concerning. 

HIV disproportionately affects women and rural dwellers who 

lack comprehensive knowledge of HIV transmission and 

prevention methods (Photo: A mother and child sit in front of a 

mosquito net provided by the US to help combat malaria). 

Benin’s government struggles to provide clean drinking water 

and sanitation services to the population. As of 2015, about 

85% of urban dwellers and 72% of rural residents had access 

to clean drinking water, while just 36% of urban and 7% of rural 

dwellers had access to modern sanitation facilities. Shortages 

of potable water and improper disposal of human waste

contribute to high rates of communicable diseases, such as 

malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis. Intermittent flooding further 

contaminates drinking water and puts Beninese at greater risk 

of infection from various parasites, bacteria, and water-borne 

diseases. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, most regional inhabitants subsisted as small 

farmers or animal herders. In the 18th century, the Kingdom of 

Dahomey rose to prominence as a key supplier in the transAtlantic slave trade (see p. 2-4 of History and Myth). In return, 

Dahomey acquired European manufactured goods, notably 

weapons, allowing the Kingdom to become a regional power.

The decline of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in the mid-19th 

century (see p. 4 of History and Myth) marked the end of 

Dahomey’s economic boom. In response, Dahomey’s leaders 

sought other sources of income, notably the export of palm oil 

produced by slaves on royal plantations (see p. 4 of History 

and Myth). By the beginning of the 20th century, France had

incorporated Dahomey into French West Africa. 

French colonial administrators dedicated few resources to the 

colony (see p. 7-8 of History and Myth), viewing it as 

economically unimportant for France despite Dahomey’s 

limited exports of cotton, palm oil, and peanuts. Instead, the 

colony served strategic purposes, both as a buffer to German 

and British expansion in West Africa and as an important 

transportation corridor for goods to and from Africa’s interior. 

To facilitate the movement of goods, the French made 

significant improvements to the Port of Cotonou and developed 

a road and railroad 

network connecting it to 

Niger and Upper Volta 

(Burkina Faso today) 

(Photo: Historic photo of 

Cotonou rail station). 

Upon achieving 

independence in 1960, 

Dahomey faced severe 

challenges to its political and economic stability (see p. 10 of 

History and Myth), resulting in a decade of coups that 

effectively hindered economic development.

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
In 1974, President Kérékou declared Benin a Marxist-Leninist 

state (see p. 10 of History and Myth) and nationalized almost

all sectors of the economy. Boosted by aid from the Soviet 

Union (USSR), North Korea, and Cuba, the socialist 

experiment was initially a success. The economy was also 

helped by limited production of oil from the offshore Semè field, 

which peaked at about 2.9 million barrels a year in the late 

1980s. Nevertheless, an economic downturn in the 1980s plus

the withdrawal of Soviet 

support left the country in 

a severe crisis (see p. 11

of History and Myth). 

Desperate for investment, 

Kérékou denounced 

Marxism in 1990 and

struck a deal with the 

World Bank and 

International Monetary 

Fund. Financial aid and 

private investment flowed in, bolstering infrastructure and 

public services. Nevertheless, austerity measures imposed by 

creditors meant that most Beninese remained mired in poverty

(Photo: A busy market in Benin).

Throughout the 1990s, Benin’s economy steadily improved, 

helped by substantial aid from Europe and an increase in 

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). In 1994, Benin’s currency, the

West African CFA Franc (see “Currency” below), was sharply 

devalued, making Benin’s exports more competitive. While the 

economy remained dominated by subsistence farming, the 

government encouraged the development of agro-business,

primarily cotton for export. At the same time, a small industrial 

sector began to develop.

In the 2000s, cotton remained Benin’s most significant export, 

though limited processing capacity meant exports were limited 

to low-value raw cotton. During this period, Benin prioritized the 

privatization of several state-owned industries, notably cotton

production and operations at the Port of Cotonou. Production of 

oil at the Semè field began declining in the late 1990s, and by 

2003, the site was abandoned. Meanwhile, the European 

Union provided an infusion of €275 million between 2002-2007. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Benin’s economy grew steadily, yet at lower rate than the 

African average.

Today, Benin’s economy relies almost entirely on agricultural 

exports and informal trade with Nigeria, placing it on precarious 

footing. Agriculture has proven vulnerable to weather-related 

events (such as the 2010 floods) and international price 

shocks. Meanwhile, events in Nigeria (such as the 2017

devaluation of the naira, Nigeria’s currency) could potentially

affect Benin’s economy

negatively. 

Benin also continues to rely 

heavily on foreign aid, especially 

for the development of 

infrastructure. In 2015, an 

international aid organization

provided some $375 million for

electricity production upgrades, 

reducing blackouts and attracting

FDI. Likewise, the Port of 

Cotonou, which provides some 

80% of Benin's tax revenues, 

continues to attract investment. 

Despite an average 5% growth rate since 2014, Benin remains 

one of the world’s poorest countries, with 90% of the population 

living on less than $5.50 per day and 50% living on less than

$1.90 in 2015 (Photo: A Beninese woman prepares beans).

Several challenges impede Benin’s economic development, 

notably the large informal economy and widespread corruption.

Informality is a particularly serious problem, with some 65% of 

the total economy outside the control of the government, 

making it untaxed and unregulated. Likewise, Benin routinely 

ranks poorly in international corruption indices, placing 85 of 

180 countries in a 2016 study, a factor that serves to 

discourage entrepreneurship and FDI. The government has 

announced reforms to the regulatory and tax systems to

encourage private investment and public-private partnerships. 

Nonetheless, these plans have proven unpopular, especially 

among public service employees who went on strike in early 

2018 in protest.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Services

The services sector is the largest component of Benin’s 

economy, accounting for 51% of GDP and 46% of the labor 

force. The sector consists primarily of retail trade and

commerce, notably the import of goods through the Port of 

Cotonou for resale in Benin and neighboring countries. The

government has proposed plans for investment in 

telecommunications infrastructure to establish Benin as a 

digital services hub for West Africa.

Transportation: Transportation comprises the most important 

services sub-sector. About 1/2 of all goods arriving at the Port 

of Cotonou are reexported to Nigeria, though significant 

amounts also flow to Niger and Burkina Faso. The sub-sector 

is expected to grow once planned railroad links connect Benin 

with its neighbors (see p. 1 of Technology and Material). 

Tourism: The number of international tourists visiting Benin 

annually more than tripled between 2002-15 to 255,000. 

Despite the steady growth, Benin attracts comparatively few 

tourists due to a lack of infrastructure and suitable facilities. 

Attractions include the palaces of Abomey (see p. 4 History 

and Myth), the former slave port of Ouidah, and Pendjari and 

W National Parks, among 

others.

Agriculture

The agricultural sector 

consists of farming, 

livestock, fishing, and 

forestry and accounts for 

some 26% of GDP and 

43% of the labor force. The 

government has 

announced plans to establish regional agriculture development 

centers to conduct research and promote high-value crops. 

Official statistics do not fully account for Beninese who work 

small plots for their own subsistence (Photo: US Army soldier

assists Beninese farmers).

Farming: Benin’s main agricultural products are cotton, corn, 

cassava, yams, beans, palm oil, and nuts. As Benin’s primary 

cash crop, cotton accounts for about 43% of exports, while nuts 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
comprise about 13%. Most other agricultural products are 

intended for local consumption. Cotton is largely exported raw, 

with only a small portion undergoing processing locally. Under 

the control of the government since 2012, the cotton market

has been returned to private control under current President

Patrice Talon, known as the “King of Cotton” (see p. 13 of 

History and Myth).

Fishing: While there is little large-scale harvesting, fishing is 

an important source of food, with an estimated 40,000 

Beninese working as fishermen. In 2013, marine fisheries 

produced around 16,000 tons with inland operations generating

another 26,000.

Forestry: In 1990, some 50% of Benin’s total land area was 

covered in forests. By 2015, the forested area had shrunk to 

38%, primarily due to the clearing of forests for farming, 

commercial logging, and firewood (see p. 3 of Political and 

Social Relations). In 2016, Benin exported limited amounts of 

wood to India, Italy, China, and Togo. The government 

designates certain forests as “sacred” areas where public 

access and commercial use is prohibited. 

Industry

Comprising 23% of GDP and 10% of Benin’s labor force, the 

industrial sector is composed of large enterprises such as 

cement factories, textile plants, and agricultural processing 

plants, and some small-scale gold mining operations. Some 

90% of Benin’s industrial capacity is located in Cotonou. The 

sector has shown strong growth, especially as cotton ginning 

begins to transition from village-level to larger industrial 

facilities. While the Semè oil field was abandoned in 2003, 

significant reserves have recently been discovered at the site. 

Despite plans for

commercial production, 

as of 2018 no oil 

extraction has occurred.

Currency

Benin uses the West 

African CFA Franc

(CFA) (pictured), issued in 5 banknotes (500, 1000, 2000, 

5000, 10000) and 7 coins (1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 100, 500). While the 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
CFA franc subdivides into 100 centimes, no centime currency 

is currently in use. CFA francs are pegged to the Euro at a rate 

€1=654 CFA and are backed by the French Treasury. In mid2018, $1 was worth 561 CFA (1 CFA was worth about 1/5 of a 

cent). Regulated by the Central Bank of West African States, 

the CFA franc serves as the official currency of the West 

African Economic and Monetary Union and is in use in Benin, 

Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali, Niger, 

Senegal, and Togo. The West African CFA Franc is equal in 

value to the Central African CFA Franc, which is used in the 

member states of the Central African Financial Community.

Foreign Trade 

Benin’s exports, totaling $407 million in 2016, primarily 

consisted of cotton, nuts, mineral products, seed and nut oils, 

and metals sold to India (15%), Malaysia (13%), Bangladesh 

(10%), Nigeria (7%), China (7%), and Niger (6%). In the same 

year, Benin imported $2.6 billion in foodstuffs, capital goods, 

and petroleum products from India (15%), Thailand (12%), 

France (10%), China (8%), Togo (7%), the Netherlands (5%), 

and Belgium (5%). Much of Benin’s informal, cross-border 

trade goes unrecorded by 

customs officials. If 

recorded, this informal 

trade would likely indicate 

Nigeria is a more 

significant import and 

export partner.

Foreign Aid

In 2016, Benin received 

approximately $493 million 

in humanitarian and 

development aid, primarily from international aid donors. Of 

these funds, 26% was earmarked for social infrastructure and 

services, 17% for health and population projects, and 13% for 

education. In 2017, the US provided some $23 million in aid, 

99% for health-related projects, primarily countermeasures 

against malaria. For the year 2018, the US plans to provide 

another $18 million for similar projects (Photo: Beninese 

children fetch water).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Benin’s physical infrastructure remains largely underdeveloped 

and in poor condition, and most Beninese lack access to 

modern telecommunications. The government occasionally 

restricts freedom of speech and press.

Transportation

Walking is the most common form of transportation. A few

Beninese own motorcycles or privately-owned vehicles (POV), 

mostly imported used cars. Cotonou, Porto-Novo, and larger

towns offer limited public transportation options such as taxis, 

minibuses, and zémidjans (motorcycle taxis). Large buses 

carry passengers between major urban areas, while most 

travel within rural areas occurs by taxi-brousses (bush taxis), 

which collect passengers in

designated autogares (auto 

stations) (Photo: Motorcyclists 

in Cotonou). 

Roadways: In 2006, only 

about 9% of Benin’s 9,941 mi

of roadway were paved, 

notably the highways 

connecting Cotonou, PortoNovo, and Parakou and routes linking Benin to neighbors 

Togo, Niger, and Nigeria. Many unpaved dirt roads outside

cities are impassable during the rainy season. 

Railways: Benin’s 272 mi of railway consists of 2 lines: one 

connects Cotonou to Parakou while the other comprises a 

coastal route linking Segboroué, Cotonou, Porto Novo, and 

Pobè. A Beninese court decision halted construction of a longplanned railroad connecting Parakou to Niamey, Niger in 2016. 

As of 2018, construction has not resumed. If completed, the 

route would become part of a planned regional rail system 

connecting Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Niger, 

and Burkina Faso. Nevertheless, these plans have stalled due 

to a lack of financing and technical challenges in integrating rail 

systems across the countries.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Ports and Waterways: Benin has some 75 mi of Atlantic 

coastline along the Bight of Benin. In addition, Benin has

access to 93 mi of the Niger River, which runs along its 

northern border and is 

navigable during the rainy 

season. The Ouémé, 

Couffo, and Mono rivers 

are also navigable by 

small boats. 

Benin’s only seaport, 

Cotonou, is a major hub

for West African trade, 

handling goods bound for

Nigeria, Togo, Niger, and Burkina Faso. The government has 

announced plans to modernize the port and the surrounding 

road network (Photo: US Coast Guard personnel and Beninese 

sailors during a military exercise).

Airways: Of Benin’s 6 airports, only Cotonou Cadjehoun 

Airport has a paved runway. A hub for RwandAir, Rwanda’s 

flag carrier, Cotonou Cadjehoun offers flights to Europe and 

other major African cities, serving over 500,000 passengers in 

2014. The government plans to complete a new international 

airport in Glo-Djigbé, north of Cotonou, by 2021.

Energy

While Benin produced as many as 8,000 barrels a day (b/d) in 

the late 1980s, it has not produced any crude oil in several 

decades (see p. 2 of Economics and Resources). 

Consequently, the country is reliant on imported petroleum 

products, consuming some 44,000 b/d in 2015. This figure 

does not include kpayo, unregulated gasoline smuggled 

across Benin’s borders and sold in cans and bottles at roadside 

stands.

Benin has little electricity-generating capacity, importing some 

96% of its electricity from Ghana and Nigeria in 2015. 

Generally, the power grid is small and unreliable – just 34% of 

Beninese had access to electricity in 2014, and among rural 

dwellers, that number dipped to 16%. In 2017, the government 

announced plans to add solar and other renewable energy 

facilities to increase electricity generating capacity. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

Benin’s constitution guarantees freedom of speech and press, 

although the government occasionally restricts those rights. 

Laws require print media companies to file every edition with 

the public prosecutor, while online media companies must 

obtain a license to distribute content. The government has 

used both provisions to 

regulate media outlets

(Photo: Former President 

Yayi gives a speech 

during the African Heads 

of State Conference in 

2012). 

While defamation and 

libel have been

decriminalized, some 

specific acts, such as 

insulting the President 

and endangering national security, remain criminal offenses, 

punishable by imprisonment. The government sometimes 

broadly interprets these provisions to bring charges against

journalists who criticize its decisions and actions. Nevertheless,

the government only occasionally jails journalists, usually 

releasing them quickly. 

The media are frequently critical of both governmental and

oppositional political figures, prompting the government’s 

media oversight body, the High Authority for Audiovisual and 

Communication (HAAC), to occasionally ban newspapers. In 

2016, the HAAC temporarily banned 4 media organizations and 

in early 2018, suspended the license of a private media outlet 

after it published an article deemed insulting to the President. 

Print Media: Benin has some 175 newspapers and periodicals. 

Prominent newspapers include the state-owned La Nation and

private publications Le Matinal, Fraternité, Le Républicain, 

L’Aurore, and L’Événement Précis, all published in French. 

Radio and TV: Due to high rates of illiteracy (see p. 1 of 

Learning and Knowledge) and limited electricity availability, 

most Beninese receive their news via portable radio. The 

government operates 3 stations, a national station (Radio 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Nationale) and 2 regional stations (Radio Parakou and Atlantic 

FM), that broadcast in French and 18 indigenous languages 

(see p. 1-2 of Language and Communication). Commercial 

radio stations such as 

CAPP FM, Golfe FM, 

and Radio Immaculée 

Conception are also 

popular. The 

government also 

operates a TV channel, 

Television Nationale, 

which broadcasts

alongside the private 

Golfe TV, La Chaine 2, 

and Canal 3 (Photo: A US Naval officer is interviewed by local 

Beninese media). 

Telecommunications

Benin’s telecommunications network has a limited reach and is 

generally of poor quality. In 2017, Benin had just 1.2 landline 

and 82 cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants but is growing 

rapidly, particularly in 

urban areas. (Photo: 

US Navy sailor and his 

Beninese counterpart 

repair a radar 

installation in Benin). 

Internet: Internet is 

generally available 

only in Benin’s larger 

towns and cities. In 

2017, Benin had less

than 1 fixed broadband and 8 mobile broadband subscriptions 

per 100 people, and just under 7% of the population accessed 

the Internet from home. Generally, authorities neither restrict 

access nor block or censor content. While the government has 

announced development plans that would provide Internet 

access to 80% of the population by 2021, little progress has 

been made toward this goal so far. Nevertheless, Internet 

usage rates will likely increase in coming years due to the 

growing availability of inexpensive smart phones. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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