This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location 

and gain skills necessary for success (Photo: Ukrainian and 

Polish soldiers compete in a soccer during cultural day at the 

International Peacekeeping 

and Security Center in 

Yavoriv, Ukraine).

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General”

provides the foundational 

knowledge you need to 

operate effectively in any global environment with a focus on 

Eastern Europe. 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Ukrainian society. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your assigned deployment 

location. This section is 

designed to complement 

other pre-deployment training

(Photo: A Ukrainian media

woman dances as the US Air 

Forces in Europe Band plays 

a song in Dnipro, Ukraine).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or

contact the AFCLC Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Ukraine
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington admitting to having chopped down 

a cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the 

premium Americans 

place on personal 

honesty and leadership 

integrity (Photo: A 

Ukrainian fighter jet 

conducts a low-altitude 

fly over in Mykolaiv, 

Ukraine). 

Force Multiplier

The military services 

have learned through experience the importance of 

understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar 

world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a 

century, today the US military is operating in what we classify 

as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of 

cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of our 

engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture 

into the future. 

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what 

the Air Force refers to as 

“cultural domains” – in

order to better understand 

the primary values and 

characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally 

competent military member can use these domains–which 

include kinship, language and communication, and social and 

political systems and others (see chart on next page)—as tools 

for understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a 

US military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Winter in 

Slovenia).

Social Behaviors across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good 

and bad, defines right and 

wrong behavior, and 

assigns a value of 

meaningful or 

meaningless. Our beliefs 

form the fundamental 

values we hold to be true

– regardless of whether 

there is evidence to 

support these ideas. Beliefs are a central aspect of human 

culture. They are shared views about world order and how the 

universe was physically and socially constructed (Photo: A river 

boat in Prague, the capital of Czech Republic). 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, 

right or wrong depends 

on our deeply-held beliefs 

we started developing 

early in life that have 

helped shape our 

characters. Likewise, 

these values are 

ingrained in our 

personalities and shape 

our behavior patterns and our self-identities. Because cultural 

beliefs are intensely held, they are difficult, though not 

impossible, to change (Photo: Ukrainian soldiers). 

CULTURE

GENERAL
Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also 

serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of 

individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or 

making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model 

for classifying culture to illustrate two

levels of meaning, as depicted. 

Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to 

recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above 

the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews 

may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, 

particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your 

ability to suspend judgment in order to understand another 

perspective is essential to establishing relationships with your 

host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold 

your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from 

a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often 

involves taking an 

alternate perspective 

when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: Romanian military personnel converse in front 

of a plane in the Bucharest airport).

As you travel through Eastern Europe, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that 

are not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language (Photo: 1909 

Russian painting of Slavic 

peoples). 

Eastern Europe comprises 

10 countries on the eastern

side of the European 

continent: Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, 

Moldova, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine. 

Archaeological finds suggest people inhabited the region as 

early as 40,000 BC. From approximately 10,000-3,000 BC, 

hunter-gatherers formed semi-permanent settlements, 

sustained by agriculture and cattle herding. Slavic tribes settled 

in the plains of present-day Ukraine as early as 2000 BC, 

eventually moving west and south along the fertile basin of the 

Danube River. Notably, although short-lived, the Roman 

Empire’s incorporation of much of the region’s South in the 

early centuries AD significantly influenced culture in presentday Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovenia. 

Over the following centuries, various migratory peoples from 

elsewhere in Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia 

continued to settle in the region, expelling, conquering, or 

mixing with the Slavs and other inhabitants. By the 10th 

century, loosely aligned settlements coalesced into large, 

powerful kingdoms, including the Bohemian Empire centered in 

present-day Czech Republic and the Kingdoms of Hungary, 

Poland, and Bulgaria. In the 14th century, much of the region 

fell to the Ottoman Empire, based in present-day Turkey, with 

many of the region’s residents experiencing several centuries 

of Turkish raids. 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
While present-day Bulgaria and Romania remained under 

Ottoman rule for over 500 years, in the 16th century, many

regions became subject to the rule of the Austrian House of 

Habsburg – one of Europe’s most influential royal dynasties 

that later joined Hungary to form the powerful AustroHungarian Empire. Meanwhile, Poland formed an independent 

state, eventually uniting with neighboring Lithuania to control 

large parts of the region, including Ukraine and Belarus. 

Unable to repel persistent attacks from neighbors, the PolishLithuanian Empire disintegrated in the late 18th century, with 

Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus falling under Russian control for 

the next nearly 120 years. During this time, Russia violently 

quelled nationalist movements, suppressed regional 

languages, and deported 

thousands of native

inhabitants while 

encouraging Russian 

immigration into the region. 

All 10 Eastern European 

states experienced 

substantial conflict during 

World War I (WWI). 

Immediately following the war, most states enjoyed brief 

periods of independence. By contrast, the newly formed Union 

of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) absorbed Belarus, 

Moldova, and Ukraine, all of which suffered severely under 

communist repression. Notably, after its defeat in WWI, the 

Austro-Hungarian Empire splintered. Hungary consequently 

lost nearly 2/3 of its territory and 3/5 of its people to 

neighboring nations (Photo: Russian army in 1920s Kiev). 

With the onset of World War II (WWII), all 10 states again 

became battlegrounds. While some immediately sided with the 

Axis powers, others were unable to withstand German 

aggression. All 10 states suffered heavy casualties throughout 

the war. During its occupation of the region, Nazi Germany 

murdered, deported, or confined most of the region’s sizeable 

Jewish population and other “undesirables.” 

At war’s end, the USSR either absorbed or heavily influenced 

the political, social, and economic systems of each Eastern 

GENERAL

CULTURE
European state. Adopting communist tenets, each state 

nationalized private companies, appropriated private property, 

and rapidly expanded industrial development. Communist 

leaders also encouraged Russification in the region, violently 

repressing national languages, religions, and cultures. 

In the late 1980s, democratic movements swept across the 

Soviet bloc, and within a few years, all 10 states had declared 

independence from the USSR. Further, they removed 

communist leaders, transformed their governments, and 

adopted market capitalism. Since then, all states but Belarus

largely pivoted away from Russian influence to pursue political, 

military, and economic integration with the West. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all the ways 

in which individuals are 

linked to others in their 

community. All 10 

Eastern European states 

are parliamentary 

republics led by an 

elected Prime Minister, 

President, and legislature. In most states, Presidential powers 

are largely ceremonial with executive power vested in the 

Prime Minister, who leads the government together with the 

support of a Cabinet of Ministers. In most states, political 

parties typically form coalitions in order to attain and maintain 

power (Photo: Hungarian Parliament). 

With most having suffered crippling dictatorial rule for much of 

the late 20th century, each Eastern European state emerged in 

the 1990s with new political, social, and economic structures. 

While some states have since created relatively stable, well-run 

democracies, others face challenges to the democratic 

process. Corruption is a prevalent problem in the region. In 

some cases, governments’ inability to adequately curb 

widespread corruption results in frequent public protests, 

causes distrust of public officials, and creates an overall 

skepticism of the democratic process. Moreover, weakened by 

GENERALCULTURE
overly broad and at times differing ideological profiles, ruling 

political coalitions and parties tend to dissolve frequently, 

resulting in a political landscape marked by infighting and 

successive changes of government. 

Most states are members of strong regional alliances, such as

the European Union (EU) and NATO. Although somewhat

fraught with political instability, most states remain committed 

to improving democratic processes, serving as advocates of a 

democratic and pro-Western agenda in the region. By contrast, 

Belarus is politically aligned with Russia, while Ukraine and 

Bulgaria have historically attempted to balance relations 

between the West and Russia, at times resulting in internal 

tension between 

ideologically opposing 

political groups (Photo:

Kiev, Ukraine).

With the exception of

Belarus, the states rely 

on NATO, the EU, the 

US, and other 

international support to defend against external, state-level 

threats. Russia’s recent aggression in the region, notably its

2014 annexation of Crimea and ongoing support of separatist 

rebels in eastern Ukraine, has significantly heightened regional 

tensions and consequently dominates the states’ security 

environment. 

The region exhibits differing levels of ethnic diversity. Poland, 

for example, is largely homogenous, with ethnic Poles 

comprising 97% of the population. By contrast, the native 

populations of Ukraine and Czech Republic are significantly 

lower, 78% and 64%, respectively. Notably, the Roma and 

other ethnic minorities suffer significant social division, 

discrimination, and stigmatization across Eastern Europe. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

GENERAL

CULTURE
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

Early residents of Eastern Europe practiced a variety of 

indigenous religions, venerating multiple deities and spirits who 

inhabited the natural world. Romans introduced Christianity as 

early as the 1st century. By the 10th century, many Eastern 

European kingdoms had adopted Christianity as a state 

religion. In the early 11th century, theological differences 

between western and eastern branches of the Christian 

movement forced a permanent divide between the Roman 

Catholic Church centered in Rome and the Eastern Orthodox 

tradition of the Byzantine Empire. Over subsequent centuries, 

both branches of Christianity flourished in the region. Later, as 

the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, some states 

saw the Catholic Church reorganize under Lutheran authority. 

Across the region, 

Christianity became closely

linked to national identity. 

In Poland, for example, the 

Catholic Church became 

entrenched in daily life, 

influencing education, social 

services, and remaining 

politically influential even 

today. Throughout the centuries, Judaism also enjoyed growth 

in the region, with among others, Polish and Czech Jewish

communities growing significantly until their annihilation during 

WWII (Photo: Bulgarian Orthodox imagery hangs in a church). 

During their years of occupation and influence, the Soviets 

suppressed all religious institutions and activities in the states, 

while simultaneously cultivating atheism and encouraging the 

devout to abandon long-held religious beliefs. To do so, the 

states’ communist governments carefully regulated religious 

affairs and deported clergy, while destroying or converting most 

churches and synagogues for other uses. Consequently,

membership in religious organizations decreased significantly

over the years. Nevertheless, most states saw a resurgence in 

religiosity once religious freedom was restored following the fall 

of communism. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Today, some of the region’s inhabitants are Orthodox Christian, 

while others – including the majority of Poles (90%), Slovaks 

(62%), Slovenes (58%), and Hungarians (52%) – are Roman 

Catholic. Notably, while most Eastern Europeans retain deep 

religious convictions, others remain religiously unaffiliated. For 

example, only about 50% of Belarusians claim a religious 

affiliation – the lowest rate in the region – while large numbers 

of Slovenes, Slovaks, and Czechs are atheist. In parts of the 

region, small Jewish and Muslim communities are experiencing 

some growth. One notable exception is Bulgaria, where a 

relatively large Muslim community (8% of the population) traces 

back to the early 14th century. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members 

(often called “fictive 

kin”). 

Family life and 

relationships are 

highly valued within 

Eastern European 

societies. Residents 

maintain strong 

connections with 

both immediate and 

extended family members, supporting them emotionally and 

financially and providing physical care for elderly or ailing kin if 

needed. Most households comprise 2 parents and their 

children (nuclear family), with many families choosing to have 

just 1 or 2 children. Nevertheless, extended kin on both sides 

of the family often live nearby and are significantly influential in 

family matters (Photo: A Romanian girl).

Rapid urbanization has changed family life in recent years, as 

urban inhabitants marry later or cohabit (live in long-term, 

unmarried partnership) and have fewer children. Consequently, 

while the traditional family structure remains common in rural 

areas, it is more diverse in urban centers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
While historically marriage was an arranged union, today 

Eastern Europeans typically choose their own partners. 

Couples may spend several years dating, live together, and 

have children before choosing to marry. In some states, 

divorce is increasingly prevalent among younger generations, 

with rates comparable to the US. Still in others, the practice is 

relatively uncommon and carries social stigma. 

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

The Eastern European states’ historically patriarchal culture 

privileged men as leaders and providers. While some of the 

region’s inhabitants continue to adhere to traditional values – 

men as breadwinners and heads of household and women as 

mothers and wives – gender roles and responsibilities began to 

transform during the Soviet era and continue to change today, 

particularly among younger generations (Photo: Polish woman 

holds a copy of 

Poland’s Constitution). 

Although women hold 

equal rights under the 

law, political, social, and 

economic inequalities 

between the genders 

remain. For example, 

women often face 

discrimination in the 

hiring and promotion process, routinely receive lower wages 

than their male counterparts, and suffer from sexual 

harassment in the workplace. 

Despite these barriers, the number of women serving in the 

political sector across the region has increased over the past 

few decades. Eastern European women hold a significant 

proportion of national and sub-national government positions, 

with most states maintaining similar or higher female 

participation rates in their national legislatures as the US. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Notably, the region’s women suffer high rates of gender-based 

violence (GBV), particularly domestic abuse and rape. Often 

considered private matters, many incidences of GBV go 

unreported. If cases are reported, the prosecution of 

perpetrators is rare. Although homosexuality is legal throughout 

the region, homosexuals still suffer discrimination, 

stigmatization, and violence in some areas. 

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally. Most of the region’s 

languages derive from the 

Slavic branch of the IndoEuropean language family, 

while Moldovan and 

Romanian belong to the 

same family’s Eastern 

Romance branch. A 

member of the Uralic 

family, Hungarian is the 

region’s only language not 

part of the Indo-European family. Notably, the Bulgarian, 

Belarusian, and Ukrainian languages are written in the Cyrillic 

alphabet. By contrast, all other state languages employ the 

Latin script (Photo: Rural Ukrainian shop). 

Some states managed to largely avoid harsh Russification 

policies during the Soviet era. Others suffered years of 

linguistic repression when Russian became the predominant 

language in education, the media, and government 

proceedings. Today, with the exception of Belarus, Russian is 

no longer the region’s main language. Instead, native 

languages have largely supplanted Russian, though some 

residents continue to use Russian in business and everyday 

life. The states are also home to native speakers of other

languages, notably Romani (the language of the Roma), 

Turkish, German, and other regional languages. English has 

become increasingly popular over the last several decades and 

is spoken widely in business and by young, urban residents. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Generally, the region’s residents demonstrate respect, privacy, 

and candor in their communication practices. In some states, 

communications reflect notable emotion and engagement. By 

contrast, others typically refrain from displaying strong 

emotions in public, feel comfortable in silence, and prefer quiet 

speech. Across the region, residents usually share personal 

information only with family or close friends and are reserved 

when interacting with strangers. 

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems 

such as schools or 

through informal 

learning by watching 

adults or peers (Photo: 

Central School in 1910 

Ukraine).

Prior to the 14th 

century, most formal 

education in the region 

occurred in religious institutions where clergymen taught 

religion and basic literacy. Notably, while Hungary, Poland, and 

the Czech Republic had established universities as early as the 

14th century, secular centers of higher academic learning were 

slow to develop elsewhere in the region. Nevertheless, by the 

late 1800s, extensive public school networks administered both 

religious and secular curricula to millions of students across the 

region. 

Most Eastern European governments established free and 

compulsory public education systems in the early 20th century. 

The subsequent Soviet occupation and influence brought 

significant changes to schools and curricula. During that period, 

the education system promoted Soviet ideology and communist 

tenets and emphasized Russian culture and language. It also 

GENERAL

CULTURE
prioritized vocational instruction, while simultaneously 

suppressing Eastern European languages and culture. 

Today, most Eastern European students receive free and 

compulsory schooling at the primary and secondary levels. 

School enrollment rates are high, and nearly 100% of Eastern 

European residents are literate. Challenges to the education 

systems include low teacher salaries, rural school closures, 

and disparities in educational attainment between majority 

groups and linguistic and ethnic minorities. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. As in most Western 

cultures, Eastern Europeans tend to be preoccupied more with 

time management than relationship-building. They too value

punctuality, a sense of responsibility, and candid professional 

interactions. Within their personal lives, however, most Eastern 

Europeans invest significant time into establishing and 

maintaining relationships (Photo: A Polish paratrooper interacts 

with a US National 

Guard soldier). 

They also like to build

relations before 

conducting business,

which tends to move 

more slowly in 

Eastern Europe than 

in the US. Throughout 

the region, residents 

usually begin discussions with light conversation. Most 

communication is explicit and direct, with frequent eye contact.

Eastern Europeans generally require less personal space when 

conversing than is common in the US. One exception is in 

Slovenia, where residents maintain about the same personal 

distance as in the US. 

Eastern European states observe a number of public holidays

such as Christmas, Easter, and their respective independence 

day. Further, all Eastern European states commemorate both 

the end of World War II and the Soviet era, as well as unique 

seasonal or harvest holidays.

GENERAL

CULTURE
9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most Eastern European forms of artistic expression – 

including art, architecture, dance, music, and theater – reflect

the region’s rural peasant past, history of foreign presence, and 

modern global trends.

Traditional music and dance in Eastern Europe typically 

promote themes such as nature, the seasons, rural life, and 

love. Folk songs, festivals, and dance are particularly popular 

in rural areas, often utilizing traditional instruments. Most 

common dances are performed in pairs, circles, or lines. Under 

Russian and Soviet influence, classical ballet became a 

common form of dance across the region. Classical music and 

opera remain popular, as well as rock, jazz, and international 

pop music. Government financing for the arts largely declined 

after the Soviet era, yet artistic freedom has increased 

significantly (Photo: 

Slovak dancers perform 

in a circle). 

Rural landscapes and 

geometric designs are 

common themes in visual 

arts. Eastern Europeans

also practice various 

traditional handicrafts 

and folk art that reflect 

the region’s rich peasant history, along with Christian or ancient 

pagan motifs. Common handicrafts include pottery, 

embroidery, and baskets. Soccer is the most widely followed 

sport in the region, followed by basketball, volleyball, and 

gymnastics. During the winter, residents also enjoy ice hockey,

skiing, and ice skating.

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures, and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Eastern European dishes tend to be simple, hearty, and mildly 

seasoned. Most meals consist of a staple, such as potatoes, 

oats, or barley served with a meat, fresh salad, and various 

breads. While beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage, 

some residents enjoy unique 

herbal liquors or vodka. Notably, 

the region also has a rich 

history of wine production, 

dating back to the 1st century 

BC (Photo: Hungarian pork 

goulash and dumplings). 

Health in Eastern Europe has 

improved significantly in recent 

decades, evidenced by 

decreased infant and maternal 

mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents 

have access to free, state-funded healthcare in modern 

facilities. 

Nevertheless, the region’s healthcare systems face several 

challenges. The quality of care varies significantly between 

private/public and urban/rural facilities. Generally, public

facilities concentrate in cities and are ill-equipped, 

overcrowded, understaffed, and plagued by corruption. 

Meanwhile, private facilities offer first-rate care mostly to the 

wealthy. Finally, a shrinking yet aging population threatens to 

burden already overloaded national healthcare services in 

many states.

Non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases such as cardiovascular, 

cancer, respiratory, liver and diabetes account for the majority 

of deaths across Eastern Europe. In addition, the region’s 

residents suffer from high rates of suicide and alcohol 

poisoning. Mostly a result of Soviet-era industrial policies, 

pollution is a widespread hazard throughout Eastern Europe, 

causing further health-related issues.

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Prior to the 19th century, the Eastern European 

states maintained largely agrarian economies, with residents 

GENERAL

CULTURE
engaging in subsistence agriculture or laboring as serfs on 

large elite landholdings (Photo: Belarusian currency). 

During the 1800s, several states began to industrialize, while 

Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, and Slovenia remained primarily 

agrarian. Industrialization intensified throughout the region in 

the Soviet era, when all states followed a centrally-controlled 

and planned 

economic system, 

establishing large 

collective farms and 

developing various 

heavy industries. 

Following the end of 

communism, the 

states immediately 

sought to decentralize their economies and adopt liberal, free 

market systems. While the transition initially caused their 

economies to contract, by the early 2000s, all 10 nations 

experienced growth. For most states, accession into the EU 

further spurred economic expansion. In 2008, the global 

financial crisis slowed investment in the region, reducing 

demand for exports and causing severe economic contractions 

in every state except Poland and Belarus. 

Some of the states reacted quickly to the crisis with strict 

internal reforms which allowed their economies to rebound 

within a few years. Others were slow to respond and suffered a 

protracted recession. Notably, the crisis in Ukraine has hurt 

that country’s recent economic growth, while Belarus continues 

to experience economic stagnation. 

The economic outlook in the region is varied. Some states such 

as Romania, Czech Republic, and Slovenia appear poised to 

maintain stable growth rates. The non-EU member states of

Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova are impacted the most by 

geopolitical events in Russia. All 10 states are vulnerable to 

economic fluctuations due to their export-oriented economies. 

Some common economic challenges include persistent 

corruption, aging populations, and emigration of skilled 

workers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
The EU is by far the region’s largest trading partner, except for 

Belarus, which heavily relies on trade with Russia. As EU 

members, most Eastern European states benefit from a secure 

business environment and free movement of goods and 

services. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. All 10 Eastern European states have invested in 

extensive road networks and efficient public transportation 

systems, particularly in urban areas. While Slovenia maintains

the region’s best roads, Ukraine and Romania have some of 

the world’s worst. Rural infrastructure is typically less 

developed, and 

corruption often 

impedes progress on 

road and rail projects. 

Generally in better 

condition than roads, 

railways connect major 

cities throughout the 

region, though some services are slow and inefficient. The 

Black Sea and major rivers, notably the Danube, host important 

ports. Although modern information technology is available in 

all states, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Bulgaria, and Romania 

have some of Europe’s least developed networks. Internet use 

also varies widely, with well over 80% of Slovaks using the 

Internet at home compared to just under 50% of Ukrainians

(Photo: US soldiers speak with a Polish resident).

While Poland relies on fossil fuels for 87% of its energy needs, 

nuclear fuels account for 61% of Hungary’s energy usage. 

Most Eastern European states depend on imported natural gas 

and oil from Russia and the Middle East. Governments

throughout the region have announced their intention to

increase the use of renewable resources such as hydroelectric 

plants, wind, and other renewables. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize Eastern European society at large, we will focus 

on specific features of Ukrainian society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Over the centuries, Ukraine’s position between Europe and 

Asia made it a crossroads of trade, while its abundant natural 

resources and rich soil attracted migrants and invaders from 

Scandinavia to Central Asia. Ukrainians trace their nation’s 

history to a 9th-century Slavic kingdom founded by Vikings. In 

subsequent centuries, Ukraine endured foreign invasions and 

occupations. By the early 1600’s, resistance flared with the 

Cossacks, who would establish a temporary independent state 

before absorption into the Russian Empire. The 20th century 

was a tragic period, with Ukraine losing some 15 million people 

due to the world wars, famine, and communist political 

repression. With the 1991 end of communism, Ukraine finally 

achieved its independence. In recent years, Ukraine has faced 

challenges to its political and economic stability, while 

defending its borders from an aggressive 

Russia. In 2014, Russia occupied the 

Ukrainian territory of Crimea, while 

Russian-backed insurgents began their 

destabilizing activities in Eastern Ukraine, 

leading to a territorial dispute. 

Early History

Archaeological evidence indicates that

humans lived along the Black Sea coast on 

the Crimean Peninsula around 30,000 

years ago. By about 20,000 years ago, 

regional inhabitants constructed dwellings 

of mammoth bones. Beginning around the 

5th millennium BC, people living along Ukraine’s waterways in 

the North and West began to settle in permanent agricultural 

communities. Members of this Trypillian culture also made 

intricate clay pottery and figurines (Photo: Ukrainian stamp 

featuring Trypilllian artifacts).

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Around 3000 years ago, waves of nomadic peoples began to 

arrive in the region. Renowned as horse-mounted warriors, the 

Scythians established a vast empire centered on the Crimean 

Peninsula around 750 BC. The Scythians were talented 

goldsmiths who buried their nobility along with the jewelry 

made for them. Today, that artwork is prominently displayed in 

various museums. Meanwhile, Greeks established colonies on 

the Black Sea coast beginning in the 7th century BC. 

Migrations of groups such as Baltic Goths, Central Asian Huns, 

and Central Asian Bulgars 

and Avars continued in the 

1st millennium AD (Photo: 

Scythian earrings from the 

3rd century BC).

The Arrival of the Slavs

Meanwhile, Slavic tribes had 

left their Central Asia

homeland, settling north of the Black Sea by around the turn of 

the millennium. In the 5th century AD, Germanic tribes moved 

south to invade the Roman Empire, disrupting the Slavic

settlements and prompting many to migrate again. Primarily 

farmers, the Slavs spread through much of East and Central 

Europe. While other Slavs moved west and south, the 

ancestors of the Ukrainians, Russians, and Belarusians (known 

as the East Slavs) spread through much of Ukraine. The Slavs

built several fortified settlements, most notably Ukraine’s 

modern-day capital of Kyiv. While archaeologists believe the 

city was founded around the 6th century, Ukrainian tradition 

holds that 3 brothers founded the settlement in 482. 

Kyivan Rus

At the end of the 8th century, the Vikings began to rapidly 

expand beyond Scandinavia. Known as Varangians in Eastern 

Europe, these merchant-warriors traveled along rivers, trading 

and pillaging. By the mid-9th century, they had reached the 

territory of modern-day Ukraine. In 882, Varangian prince Oleg 

conquered Kyiv and united several neighboring tribes. With its 

capital at Kyiv and its Slavic population known as the Rus, the 

subsequent Kingdom was called Kyivan Rus. Over the next 2 

centuries, Kyivan Rus became a powerful empire extending 

from the Baltic Sea in the North to the Black Sea in the South.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Volodymyr I the Great’s Conversion to Christianity: An 

admirer of the powerful Byzantine Empire, King Volodymyr I 

(the Great) traveled to Constantinople, the Byzantine capital 

(Istanbul today) where he 

adopted Eastern Orthodox 

Christianity in 988 (see p. 

2 of Religion and 

Spirituality). He then held 

baptisms in Crimea and 

soon after invited Orthodox 

priests to Kyiv, where they 

performed a mass baptism 

of city residents. Both 

Christianity and Byzantine culture heavily influenced the 

development of Kyivan Rus in following years. In the mid-11th

century, Kyivan Rus entered a long period of decline during 

which centralized power in Kyiv gradually gave way to fractured 

principalities loosely associated under the name Rus’ Land 

(Illustration: 20th-century painting of Vikings and Slavs).

The Arrival of the Golden Horde

The region was weak and fractured when Genghis Khan and 

the Mongol hordes united in the steppe north of China and 

began their conquests of much of Asia, the Middle East, and 

Europe. The Mongol Golden Horde and its armies of Turkic 

Tatars reached the outskirts of Rus in 1237 and sacked Kyiv in 

1240, ending the Kyivan Rus era. Within the territory of 

modern-day Ukraine, the western principality of GaliciaVolhynia managed to stay somewhat independent during this 

period. It reached its height under Danylo Romanovych, who in 

1256 established Lviv, Western Ukraine’s largest city today. 

Meanwhile, in the South, Crimea and the surrounding steppe 

had come under the gradual control of the Turkic nomadic 

Kipchaks who were later defeated by the Golden Horde in 

1237. As the Kipchaks fled, they were replaced by Tatar

members of the Horde. When the Golden Horde disintegrated

in the mid-15th century, some territories divided into smaller 

divisions called Khanates (a political entity ruled by a Khan). 

One such territory, the Crimean Khanate, developed a close 

relationship with the Ottoman Empire, centered in Istanbul, a 

status it would retain until its 1774 conquest by Russia. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Polish and Lithuanian Rule

Meanwhile, both Poland and Lithuania were seeking to grow. In 

the mid-14th century, Poland invaded Galicia-Volhynia and 

soon controlled the entire region. Having already seized most 

of neighboring Belarus, Lithuania occupied most of the 

remaining Ukrainian territories, including Kyiv in the 1360s. 

Competition between the 2 powers for Galicia-Volhynia ended 

in the 1380s, when Lithuania took Volhynia from Poland.

Under Lithuanian rule, the Rus (or Ruthenian) lands of modernday Ukraine initially retained considerable autonomy. As the

Ruthenian aristocracy preserved its position, the government 

and legal code drew heavily from Slavic customs, and the Rus 

language became the official state language. Influenced by the 

Ruthenians, many pagan Lithuanians converted to Orthodox 

Christianity. By contrast, direct Polish rule in Galicia resulted in 

significant changes. Alterations in law and land tenure caused 

the Ruthenian aristocracy to lose its political dominance and 

societal position, Meanwhile, the Roman Catholic Poles 

actively tried to weaken Ruthenian Orthodoxy. 

The Polish-Lithuanian Union: Nevertheless, Ruthenian 

influence in Lithuanian-held lands would not last. In 1386, 

Lithuania and Poland united, and as a requirement of the 

union, Lithuania’s leader converted to Roman Catholicism. 

Soon, the PolishLithuanian union

became Europe’s 

largest country, with 

borders from the Baltic 

to the Black Sea. 

Poland dominated the 

union, meaning its 

policies discriminating against the Ruthenian population and 

Orthodox Christianity also affected Lithuanian-held Ukrainian 

territories. As a result, Polish language, culture, traditions, and

Roman Catholicism spread throughout the region. Some

Ruthenian nobles sought support from the Russian principality 

of Muscovy (Moscow) in their failed attempts to break away 

from Poland-Lithuania (Photo: 16th-century Polish-Lithuanian 

coins).
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: To counter the 

mounting menace of an expansionist Russia to the east and 

the Ottoman Turks to the south, Poland and Lithuania 

strengthened their connection by founding the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth in 1569. Poland then annexed most 

of Lithuania’s Ukrainian territories. Subsequently, the term 

okrayina, meaning “outskirts” was widely used to describe the 

Commonwealth’s frontier.

Over the next century, almost all ethnically Ukrainian lands 

experienced Polish political and cultural domination. Because 

the Poles reserved certain roles and privileges for Polish 

Catholics, many Ruthenian elite adopted the Polish language 

and Roman Catholicism. By contrast, Ukrainian language and 

the Orthodox faith came to be associated with the lower 

Ruthenian classes. Meanwhile, Ukraine’s fertile lands attracted 

Polish nobles, who settled on large agricultural estates worked 

by Ukrainian peasants. Gradually, the peasants saw their plight 

worsen over the course of the 16th century. Many became 

serfs, enslaved laborers who were bought and sold with the 

land they worked for their wealthy Polish landowners. 

This influx of Polish nobles and expansion of agriculture

encouraged the growth of towns where foreigners, known as 

burghers, formed a new middle class. Burghers included

Polish, German, and an especially large population of Jewish 

craftsmen, business 

owners, and estate 

managers (Photo: 19thcentury painting of the 

1569 union of Poland 

and Lithuania).

Religious Divides

As the Catholic Church 

steadily expanded eastward, some Orthodox Ruthenians 

rejected Polish values and emphasized their traditional 

Orthodox and Ukrainian identities. For example, around 1580

Ruthenian Prince Konstantyn Ostrozky founded a Ruthenian 

cultural center in Volhynia that attracted leading scholars and 

printed the first Bible in Old Church Slavonic, a precursor to 

modern Ukrainian (see p. 2 of Language and Communication). 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Seeking to gain status within the Commonwealth, the Orthodox 

Church leadership in 1596 chose to accept the authority of the 

Roman Catholic Church, creating the Uniate Church 

(predecessor of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church – see p.

6 of Religion and Spirituality). Although the Commonwealth 

granted the Uniate Church official recognition, it never gained a 

place in society equal to that of the Roman Catholic Church. 

Indeed, many Ukrainians rejected the arrangement, preferring 

to support an underground Orthodox Church and causing a 

deep split in Ruthenian society that persists today (see p. 2 of 

Religion and Spirituality). 

The Cossacks Emerge

Beginning in the 15th

century, Lithuania hired 

mercenaries for protection 

against the Crimean 

Khanate. Soon, many others

– notably Muscovites, Moldovans, Poles, Jews, and Greeks 

fleeing economic or religious persecution in their homelands – 

joined the mercenaries’ ranks on the Ukrainian southern 

steppe. By the late 16th century, Ruthenians seeking to escape 

serfdom joined these groups, making them predominantly

Ruthenian in language and culture.

Called Cossacks from the Turkic word kazak, meaning “free 

man,” these groups developed a semi-democratic military 

society with a general assembly (rada) led by a commander-inchief (hetman). From their armed base at Zaporozhian Sich, 

the Cossacks fought off slaving raids conducted by the 

Crimean Khanate and attacked Ottoman ships and 

settlements. Poland also engaged the Cossacks to fight on 

their behalf against the Tatars, Ottomans, and Muscovites

(Illustration: 19th-century painting of Cossacks).

Cossack Rebellions and Orthodox Resurgence: 

Increasingly viewing themselves as a distinct group, the 

Cossacks engaged in a series of revolts against the Poles 

beginning in 1591. In 1620, the Cossacks aligned with the 

Orthodox Church, and Kyiv, now a Cossack stronghold, 

became a refuge for Orthodox thinkers. With Cossack military 

support, the Orthodox Church pressured the Polish 
HISTORY &

MYTH

government and received rights equal to the Uniate Church. 

The resurgence of Orthodoxy sparked a cultural revival (see p. 

1 of Learning and Knowledge).

The Khmelnytsky Insurrection: Seeking to avenge Polish 

injustice to his family, Cossack hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky

led a successful insurrection against the Poles with the help of 

Tatar, Muscovite, and Swedish allies in 1648. This victory 

inspired a massive popular uprising, 

with widespread violence as 

Cossacks and Ruthenian peasants 

turned on those they considered 

their oppressors – Polish landlords 

and officials, Roman Catholic and 

Uniate clergy, and Jews (see p. 7 of 

Religion and Spirituality) 

(Illustration: 17th-century painting of 

Khmelnytsky). 

The Treaty of Pereyaslav: In 1649, 

Khmelnytsky began to organize an 

independent Cossack state. Seeking an ally, Khmelnytsky

signed the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav with the Russian Tsar

(emperor) which provided mutual defense against the Poles. 

While the treaty also specified self-government for the 

Cossacks, the actual intent of the document is still controversial 

today. Ukrainian historians typically emphasize the Russians’ 

recognition of Ukraine’s autonomy. By contrast, Russians tend 

to consider the document as evidence of Ukraine’s acceptance 

of Russian control. Despite the treaty, relations between the 

Cossacks and the Russians quickly deteriorated.

The Ruin

Following Khmelnytsky’s 1657 death, no clear Cossack leader 

arose, leading to a state of chaos the Ukrainians call “the 

Ruin.” Efforts towards Ukrainian statehood failed as 

competition between Poland and Russia for Ukrainian lands

heightened. To clarify their claims, Poland and Russia agreed 

to partition the Ukrainian territories under a 1667 truce. 

Specifically, Poland retained its Ukrainian territories west of the 

Dnieper River (Right-Bank Ukraine), while Russia claimed Kyiv 

and the territories east of the Dnieper (Left-Bank Ukraine).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Many Cossacks resisted the partition. Seeking to reunify 

Ukraine, hetman Petro Doroshenko of the Right Bank invaded 

the Left Bank. The invasion ultimately failed, and from 1669, 

the Ottomans, Tatars, Poles, and Russians competed to 

control the Right Bank, devastating some areas. In the ensuing 

chaos many Right Bank Cossacks 

fled for the Left Bank, where they 

hoped an autonomous hetman state 

under Russia would provide better 

living conditions (Photo: 19th-century 

painting of Doroshenko). 

The Ruin ended with the 1686 PolishRussian Treaty of Eternal Peace, 

which reaffirmed the 1676 partition. 

While the treaty ushered in an era of 

relative stability, Right Bank residents

continued to suffer. Now capable of 

suppressing the weakened 

Cossacks, Poland abolished the 

Right Bank hetman state in 1699, then encouraged Ruthenian 

peasants from the Northwest to resettle the depopulated 

region. Despite these failures, the decades of turmoil solidified 

Cossack identity. Cossacks on both sides of the Dnieper now 

referred to their fatherland as Ukraine.

The Hetmanate in Left-Bank Ukraine

In contrast to the Right Bank, residents of the Left Bank 

enjoyed relative prosperity. In 1669, Moscow reaffirmed its 

commitment to an autonomous Cossack state (Hetmanate)

outlined in the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav. Although the 

Russian Tsar retained considerable influence, for a century the 

Hetmanate enjoyed a measure of self-government and

flourished economically, though the conditions of the serfs 

gradually worsened. Nevertheless, Kyiv experienced a cultural 

renaissance and flowering of Ukrainian literature. 

Sloboda Ukraine: Meanwhile, land east of the Hetmanate was

largely unpopulated. Seeking hardy settlers who could develop 

the land and defend the region against Tatar incursions, 

Moscow encouraged Cossacks and Ukrainian peasants fleeing 

Polish rule and The Ruin to inhabit the lands. Called Sloboda 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ukraine after the free settlements (slobodas) founded by the 

newcomers, the region saw tremendous population growth

along with the development of the city of Kharkiv, Ukraine’s

2nd-largest city today.

Ivan Mazepa: The Left Bank Hetmanate reached its peak 

under Ivan Mazepa, who spent much of his wealth restoring 

and supporting Ukrainian churches, schools, and cultural 

institutions. In 1704, Mazepa took advantage of a Right Bank 

anti-Polish revolt to briefly reunite the 2 Ukrainian territories.

Nevertheless, Cossack officers resented the Russians’ use of 

Cossack regiments and believed

Russia’s administrative and military 

reforms threatened Cossack 

autonomy. Under pressure from his 

officers and in a bid for 

independence, Mazepa led an 

unsuccessful uprising against 

Russia in 1709 (Illustration: 18thcentury painting of Mazepa).

Russian Absorption of the

Hetmanate: Following Mazepa’s 

failed rebellion, Russian Tsar Peter I

severely curtailed the Hetmanate’s 

autonomy. Russia took control of grain exports, banned 

Ukrainian language publications, and conscripted tens of 

thousands of Cossacks into hard labor. For the next 50 years, 

successive Tsars continued Russia’s erosion of Ukrainian 

autonomy until Catherine II (the Great) of Russia abolished the 

Hetmanate in 1764. In the 1780s, the Russian military 

absorbed the Cossack regiments, while the Russian 

government imposed serfdom in the Ukrainian territories and

placated the Ukrainian elite by elevating their status to equal 

that of the Russian nobility.

Right-Bank and Western Ukraine under Poland

Meanwhile, life in Polish-controlled Right-Bank and Western 

Ukraine differed significantly. Few Cossacks remained, as most 

urban areas suffered substantial economic decline, with their 

populations becoming heavily Polish or Jewish. Discontent

among the serfs occasionally resulted in uprisings.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Russian Expansion

The Russian absorption of the Left-Bank Hetmanate coincided 

with Russia’s expansion south. Seeking access to the Black 

Sea, Russia conquered the Crimean Khanate in 1774, then 

annexed the entire Black Sea 

northern coast by 1783.

Ukrainians, along with smaller 

numbers of Russians, Germans, 

and residents of the Balkans, then 

colonized these lands. 

Russia also interfered heavily in 

Polish affairs throughout the 18th

century, culminating in initial 

partitions of the Poland-Lithuanian 

Commonwealth in 1772 and 1793. 

By the final partition in 1795, 

Russia claimed all of Right-Bank

Ukraine as well as most of Lithuania. Thereafter, Russia 

controlled about 80% of Ukrainian lands, while the remaining 

20% fell to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy (Illustration: 19thcentury painting of Tsar Peter the Great).

Ukraine under Russian Imperial Rule

The Russian Empire reorganized the Ukrainian territories as 

regular Russian provinces. As a result, the Ukrainian lands lost 

their national distinctiveness. The label “Little Russia” (Malaya 

Rus’ or Malorossiya), the Russian term for the Left Bank, all 

but replaced “Ukraine,” while the Right Bank was called 

Southwestern Land. 

In the Left Bank, descendants of Cossack officers gradually 

became Russified nobility through education, intermarriage, 

and government service. Other developments affirmed Russian 

control, such as bureaucratic reforms, the introduction of 

military conscription, and the founding of Russian universities 

in Kharkiv and Kyiv. In 1861, Tsar Alexander II abolished 

serfdom. While the estimated 45% of Ukrainians who were 

serfs found new freedoms, economically they suffered through 

burdensome taxes or a lack of land. By 1914, some 2 million 

Ukrainians had emigrated east to Central Asia, Siberia, and

Russia’s Far East in search of better conditions. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Nevertheless, entrepreneurs established large agribusinesses, 

developing Ukraine’s reputation as the bread basket of Europe. 

Ukraine also underwent industrial growth in the eastern 

Donbas region, although the workers were primarily Russian

immigrants from elsewhere in the Empire. The Right Bank 

fared worse under Russian imperial rule. After suppressing an 

uprising by Polish residents in 1830-31, Russia implemented 

harsh Russification policies, deporting some 340,000 Polish 

nobles to the East. Russia also abolished the Uniate Church, 

while forcing conversion to 

Russian Orthodoxy. 

Imperial Russia restricted 

Jewish residence to the 

so-called Pale of 

Settlement, a large area 

encompassing modernday Belarus, Lithuania, 

Moldova, parts of Latvia 

and Russia, and much of Ukraine (see p. 3 of Religion and 

Spirituality). By the end of the 19th century, Jews made up 

approximately 8% of the population of Ukraine’s Right Bank, 

primarily in urban areas. From 1881, the Jewish population 

experienced increased anti-Semitism and waves of pogroms, 

or violent anti-Jewish attacks (Pictured: 19th-century painting of

a Cossack playing music as rebels hang a tax collector). 

The Rise of Ukrainian Nationalism

In the 1840s, the region experienced a Ukrainian national 

revival. The most significant figure was poet and artist Taras 

Shevchenko, whose works glorified Cossack heritage while 

condemning Tsarist oppression (see p. 6 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation) The Ukrainians living in Austrian-controlled Galicia 

also became active, establishing the first Ukrainian-language 

newspaper. 

In the late 19th century, Ukrainians in the Russian Empire 

formed hromadas, secret brotherhoods dedicated to Ukrainian 

nationalism. In an attempt to suppress their activities, the 

Russians banned virtually all Ukrainian publications in 1863, 

extending the prohibitions to performances and education in 

Ukrainian in 1876. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

World War I (WWI)

WWI pitted the Central Powers, comprising Germany, AustriaHungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria, against the Allies, 

comprising France, Britain, the US, and Russia. Ukrainian 

territories saw significant conflict and tremendous loss of life, 

while some 3 million Ukrainians mobilized for Russia and

250,000 fought for Austria. In the first years of the war, both 

Russia and Austria brutally suppressed Ukrainian nationalists 

under their rule, as both powers suspected their Ukrainian 

populations harbored ties with the adversary. In 1917, 

revolution consumed Russia. Inspired, Ukrainian nationalists 

established the Ukrainian Tsentralna Rada (Central Council) 

and declared the Ukrainian National Republic. 

Interwar Soviet Ukraine

Nominally independent for the next 3 years, Ukraine continued 

to experience conflict and chaos as a re-emergent Poland, the 

Tsarist Whites, and the communist Bolsheviks fought for 

control of the region. Between 1917-20, Kyiv changed hands 

some 15 times. By 1920, the Bolsheviks secured control of 

Eastern and Central Ukraine, establishing the Ukrainian Soviet 

Socialist Republic (UkrSSR) with the eastern city of Kharkiv as 

its capital. The communists’ economic policies, namely the 

nationalization of all businesses and the forcible requisition of 

food, contributed to a famine in 1921-22 that killed a million 

Ukrainians. In response, 

Soviet leader Vladimir 

Lenin introduced the New 

Economic Policy in 1921, 

which permitted some 

private enterprise while 

allowing farmers to 

control their surplus 

crops. In 1922, Soviet 

Ukraine became one of 

the founding states of the 

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). While the 1924 

USSR constitution granted each republic government extensive 

authority over their own affairs, in reality the Communist Party 

exercised supreme power (Photo: Ukrainians dismantle a 

Russian monument in 1917 Kyiv).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Early policies established Ukrainian as the official language of 

the government and military, while expanding Ukrainian 

education and scholarship. Nevertheless, Soviet leader Joseph 

Stalin reversed course in 1928, enforcing Russification along 

with industrialization and agricultural collectivization. While

industrialization was somewhat effective, Ukrainians objected 

to collectivization by revolting, slaughtering cattle, and 

destroying farm machinery. 

The Holodomor: To destroy the

resistance, Stalin deliberately set 

unattainably high grain quotas for the 

1932 harvest. The Soviets then 

seized the grain while closing Ukraine 

to food imports. The result was a 

massive food shortage leading to the 

Great Famine or Holodomor. Within 

15 months, some 7 million Ukrainians 

died, 1/3 of which were children. The 

Soviets then repopulated Ukraine’s 

devastated villages with Russian settlers (Photo: Ukrainian girl 

during the Holodomor). 

The Soviets also repressed religious activities, (see p. 3-4 of 

Religion and Spirituality) with several years of purges known as 

the “Great Terror” to follow. The secret police monitored 

citizens, then without warning, arrested, tortured, exiled, or 

executed those deemed disloyal. By 1941, around a million 

Ukrainians had been shot or sent to labor camps.

Western Ukraine under Polish Rule

Meanwhile, Poland emerged from the chaos of WWI as an 

independent state whose territory included much of Western 

Ukraine. Attempting to repress Ukrainian nationalism, Poland

imprisoned some 70,000 Ukrainians and censored the 

Ukrainian press. Further, Poland repressed Ukrainian language 

use, forced conversion to Roman Catholicism, and encouraged 

Polish colonization of the region. 

The Great Patriotic War

Known as the Great Patriotic War among the Soviet republics, 

World War II (WWII) began with Germany’s 1939 invasion of 

Poland. In accordance with the terms of their secret non-
HISTORY &

MYTH

aggression pact, Germany and the USSR partitioned Poland 

within weeks of the invasion. In this way, the USSR acquired

Poland’s Ukrainian territories, which it incorporated into the 

UkrSSR, while deporting some 1 million people east, many of 

them Jews and Poles. 

In mid-1941, Germany 

launched a surprise 

invasion of the USSR, 

crossing Ukraine’s western 

border and bombing Kyiv. 

The retreating Soviets

conducted a scorched earth 

policy while evacuating nearly 4 million skilled laborers and 

intellectuals, as well as hundreds of factories, to Russia. By 

year’s end, the Nazis occupied most of Ukraine. Although 

some Ukrainians initially greeted the Germans as liberators, 

Nazi polices soon proved brutal and oppressive (Photo: WWIIera tanks at a Kyiv museum).

Besides deporting some 2.2 million Ukrainians to Germany as 

slave labor, the Nazis annihilated the Jewish population

through mass deportations and extermination. Some 800,000 

Jews living in Eastern Ukraine escaped by fleeing further east 

into the USSR. While some Ukrainians sheltered Jews, local 

recruits also aided the Nazis. Meanwhile, 2 resistance 

movements arose. The nationalist anti-Soviet Ukrainian 

Insurgent Army (UPA) and a Soviet partisan movement battled 

both the Nazis and each other, embroiling Ukraine in civil war.

By 1943, a Soviet counteroffensive forced the Nazis into a slow 

retreat, returning all of Ukraine to Soviet control by October 

1944. Overall, some 5-7 million Ukrainians died in the war, 

including some 1.5 million Jews. Conflict destroyed 80% of 

industrial and agricultural capacity and devastated nearly 

29,000 cities, towns, and villages, leaving 10 million homeless. 

In mid-1944, the Soviets forcibly deported all Crimean Tatars, 

Armenians, Bulgarians, and Greeks from Crimea to Central 

Asia and made Crimea a province of Russia a year later. 

Post-War Soviet Ukraine

WWII events along with national border shifts following the war 

compelled population transfers of some 10 million people 
HISTORY &

MYTH

across Eastern and Central Europe. Most of Ukraine’s German 

inhabitants fled to Germany with the Nazi retreat. Other 

transfers were involuntary – Poland expelled some 500,000 

Ukrainians while Ukraine forcefully deported over 800,000 

Poles. All these movements created clear ethnic territorial 

boundaries in the region for the first time. Of the 1.3 million 

slave laborers that were forced to repatriate to Ukraine from 

Germany, the Soviets deported around 300,000 to Siberia and 

subjected the rest to political re-education. Western Ukraine, 

new to the Soviet world, suffered a particularly harsh 

Sovietization process, with around 500,000 inhabitants

deported due to the ongoing 

rebellious activities of the 

UPA. 

Central planning continued to 

emphasize heavy industry, yet 

the Ukrainian economy was 

slow to recover. Agricultural 

recovery also lagged, resulting 

in some 1 million deaths due to famine in 1946-47. Following 

Stalin’s 1953 death, the USSR instituted some reforms. In

celebration of the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of 

Pereyaslav, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev transferred

Crimea from Russia to Ukraine in 1954 (Photo: Soviet leaders 

Khrushchev and Stalin in 1936).

Russification: As part of a broader effort in the 1950s-60s to 

develop a common communist identity among Soviet citizens, 

Khrushchev reinvigorated Russification policies by favoring the 

Russian language over Ukrainian in all realms (see p. 1 of 

Language and Communication). Policies also encouraged the 

migration of Russians into Ukraine, while forced migrations and 

incentives led Ukrainians to settle in other Soviet republics. 

Dissident Activity: Begun in the 1950s, the dissident 

movement blossomed in the mid-1960s under the

shestydesyatnyky, the generation born since the Great

Terror. Despite the threat of arrest, dissidents communicated

through samizdat, self-published protest letters and essays. In 

the early 1970s, the Soviets cracked down, making widespread 

arrests while shuttering Ukrainian language publications. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Nuclear Disaster at Chernobyl

On April 26, 1986, the region suffered the world’s worst nuclear 

accident, namely the explosion of a reactor at the Chernobyl 

nuclear power plant located 65 mi north of Kyiv on the Dnieper 

River near the Belarus border. While 2 workers died the night 

of the accident, 28 others succumbed to acute radiation 

poisoning within weeks. Ultimately, elevated radiation exposure 

affected some 5 million people, with hundreds of thousands

receiving doses high enough to increase cancer risks (see p. 4

of Political and Social Relations).

An Opening

Beginning in 1985, Soviet 

leader Mikhail Gorbachev

(pictured with then US 

President Reagan)

introduced a series of 

reforms that would 

eventually result in the 

unintended dissolution of 

the USSR. These reforms – most notably perestroika

(restructuring) and glasnost (openness) – introduced market 

forces into the struggling Soviet economy and increased 

individuals’ freedom of expression. Although the reforms were 

largely unsuccessful, deteriorating economic conditions 

sparked a wave of protest movements across Eastern Europe. 

Prominent protest issues in Ukraine included resistance to 

Russification, Ukrainian nationalism, religious freedom, and 

environmentalism sparked by the Chernobyl incident. 

New political organizations, such as the Popular Movement of 

Ukraine for Reconstruction (shortened to Rukh), pressed for 

change. In spring 1990, the first partially free elections for the 

Ukrainian Parliament saw many seats go to noncommunist 

candidates. Meanwhile, Gorbachev sought to preserve the 

crumbling USSR, proposing a new union treaty among the 

Soviet republics. In response, students led mass 

demonstrations and a hunger strike in Kyiv. In August 1991, 

Gorbachev survived an attempted coup d’état by communist 

hardliners. Days later, on August 24, 1991, the Ukrainian 

Parliament declared independence and banned the Communist 

Party. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Post-communist Ukraine

In December 1991, Ukrainian voters approved independence 

by national referendum while electing Leonid Kravchuk their 

first President. Although Ukraine joined the Russia-led 

Commonwealth of Independent States, several issues strained 

relations between Ukraine and Russia, notably the status of 

Crimea and control of the USSR’s Black Sea fleet.

Following its ejection of the Crimean Tatars and other 

minorities from Crimea at the end of WWII, the USSR 

encouraged significant Russian migration to the peninsula, 

resulting in a Russian-majority population. In 1991, Crimeans 

voted in support of Ukrainian independence. Nevertheless,

Russia continued to claim ownership of Crimea. Meanwhile, 

some 250,000 Crimean Tatars returned to their homeland after 

years of exile (see p. 15 of Political and Social Relations). In 

1994, a Crimean separatist movement gained substantial 

momentum before collapsing, followed by the Ukrainian 

government reaffirming direct political rule. 

The dispute 

between Ukraine 

and Russia over 

the Black Sea fleet 

lasted several 

years. After laying 

claim to the whole 

fleet, Ukraine eventually allowed Russia to acquire the majority 

of the fleet in exchange for debt forgiveness. The question of 

basing rights at the port of Sevastopol was settled in a 1997 

treaty that allowed Russia to lease the port facilities for 20 

years. The agreement also acknowledged Ukraine’s existing 

borders, including Crimea (Photo: A Russian ship in 

Sevastopol harbor in 2012).

Economic Collapse: Meanwhile, the severing of economic 

ties with the rest of the USSR, compounded with government 

financial mismanagement, resulted in Ukraine’s economic 

collapse (see p. 2 of Economics and Resources). The highly 

corrupt process of privatizing industry resulted in a new class of 

corrupt and criminal business leaders known as “oligarchs” 

(see p. 16 of Political and Social Relations).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Leonid Kuchma succeeded Kravchuk as President, serving 2 

terms from 1994-2004. Kuchma oversaw privatization and the 

signing of a cooperation agreement with the North American 

Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1997. Despite calls for his 

impeachment following accusations of corruption and media 

suppression, he remained in office.

The Orange Revolution

Former Prime Minister (PM) Viktor Yuschenko (pictured)

appeared poised for victory in the 2004 presidential elections 

against staunchly pro-Russian PM Viktor Yanukovych. After 

surviving dioxin poisoning on the campaign trail allegedly 

carried out by Ukraine Security Forces, Yuschenko lost. When 

evidence of election tampering emerged, some 200,000 

Kyivans gathered on Maidan Nezalezhnosti, Kyiv’s 

Independence Square, sparking a 

wave of protests called the Orange 

Revolution after Yuschenko’s 

campaign colors. In December, the 

Supreme Court ruled the election 

invalid. In new elections, Yuschenko 

prevailed. 

Yuschenko and Yanukovych

During his Presidency, Yuschenko

pursued membership in the EU and 

NATO, yet achieved only closer 

cooperation. Meanwhile, relations with Russia deteriorated. 

Turmoil in Parliament resulted in frequent PM changes. Even 

his rival Yanukovych held the PM post during his term. By 

2010, Yuschenko’s popularity had plummeted.

Yanukovych won the 2010 presidential election with strong 

support from Russian-majority and economically depressed 

Eastern Ukraine. Besides instituting reforms to increase the 

power of the Presidency, Yanukovych took several actions to

appease Russia, notably halting Ukraine’s efforts to join NATO 

and extending Russia’s naval base leases in Sevastopol until 

2042 in exchange for a discount on Russian natural gas. He 

and his administration also enriched themselves by siphoning

government funds into foreign accounts. International concern 

regarding the rule of law in Ukraine increased.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Euromaidan: The Revolution of Dignity

Bowing to Russian pressure, Yanukovych’s administration 

abruptly announced it would not sign a long-anticipated 

association agreement with the EU in late 2013. The move 

sparked protests on Kyiv’s Maidan called the Revolution of 

Dignity and known 

internationally as Euromaidan 

(pictured). A heavy-handed 

government response turned 

the situation violent in early

2014, leading to deaths. 

Protests erupted across the 

country, even in Eastern 

Ukraine, historically supportive 

of Yanukovych and his pro-Russia policies. In February, scores 

of Ukrainians were killed and hundreds injured when police 

tried to retake the Maidan from protesters. An EU-brokered 

agreement between Yanukoych and opposition leaders called 

for early elections and the formation of an interim government. 

With his power base crumbling, Yanukovych fled Ukraine for 

Russia. As of early 2018, Yanukovych remains on trial in 

absentia for treason. 

Russia Annexes Crimea and Occupies Eastern Ukraine

Taking advantage of Ukraine’s political chaos, Russia 

engineered its annexation of Crimea. In early March 2014, 

groups of unidentified armed men captured Crimea’s airports 

and occupied the Crimean Parliament building, raising a 

Russian flag. Pro-Russian lawmakers then dismissed the 

government and installed their own PM. On March 6, the 

Parliament voted to secede from Ukraine. In a referendum held 

2 weeks later, some 97% of Crimean voters approved of joining 

Russia. Many observers condemned the voting, citing 

irregularities such as armed men at polling stations, suggesting 

the vote was rigged. On March 18, 2014, Russian President 

Vladimir Putin signed a treaty incorporating Crimea into the 

Russian Federation, prompting significant international protest. 

As Russia strengthened its hold on Crimea, it revoked the 2010 

treaty regulating its lease on the port of Sevastopol, since 

Russia now considered it part of Russia. It subsequently 

increased the price of natural gas to Ukraine by 80%, causing 
HISTORY &

MYTH

significant hardship. Russia then announced it had no further 

interest in Ukrainian territory, yet a NATO report showed that 

some 40,000 Russian troops were massed on Ukraine’s 

eastern border. In April, pro-Russian gunmen stormed 

government buildings in several cities in Ukraine’s Donbas 

region. Despite international efforts to defuse the situation, the 

pro-Russian militants expanded their control, even abducting 

international monitors and 

journalists. 

Meanwhile, the Ukrainian 

government managed to control 

armed forces loyal to President 

Yanukovych and to hold together a 

country divided by the Revolution 

of Dignity. In May 2014, Ukrainian 

voters elected Petro Poroshenko, a 

prominent businessman and 

Euromaidan protester, to the 

Presidency. Although pro-Russian militants disrupted voting in 

the Donbas region (see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations), 

turnout elsewhere was strong. Shortly after taking office, 

Poroshenko signed the long-delayed association agreement 

with the EU (see p. 11 of Political and Social Relations) (Photo: 

President Poroshenko and former US Senator McCain).

Intense fighting resumed following the election, but by July, the 

Ukrainian military had made some headway against the 

insurgents. In response, Russia supplied the rebels with new 

armaments, including antiaircraft missiles. On July 17, 2014,

one such missile shot down a Malaysian Airlines passenger jet

over Ukraine, killing all 298 civilians on board. 

Ukraine Today

Crimea remains an internationally unrecognized province of 

Russia, and Ukrainian forces remain locked in conflict with 

insurgents in the East. As of 2018, the Donbas conflict has 

resulted in over 10,000 deaths, over 24,500 injuries, and some

1.7 million displaced. Despite the uncertainty caused by the 

conflict, Poroshenko’s administration has been active in

implementing reforms to the financial sector, the healthcare 

system, and the notoriously corrupt gas sector.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. For Ukrainians, myth and 

folklore played an important role in maintaining pagan beliefs in 

the face of pressures to convert to Christianity during the 

medieval period. Other stories helped to bolster Ukrainian 

identity through years of foreign rule. Many tales feature spirits, 

demons, and other mythical creatures while others tell of the 

exploits of Cossacks (Photo: Early 20th-century painting of 

riders on the steppe). 

The Tale of the Iron Wolf

Once upon a time, a man gave his 

servant a magic egg in payment for 

years of loyal service. The man gave 

his servant instructions, telling him to 

go home, build an animal pen, then 

break the egg in the middle of the 

enclosure. Warning him not to break 

the egg on his way home, the man 

sent the servant on his way. Despite 

the warning, the servant could not repress his curiosity. He 

stopped and broke open the egg. Immediately, hundreds of 

cattle sprang out. The servant was amazed but quickly realized 

there was no way he could get the cattle home. 

Suddenly, an iron wolf appeared and suggested a solution. The 

wolf would put the cattle back in the egg, but would return to 

eat the servant on his wedding day. The servant agreed, and 

the iron wolf put the cattle back in the egg and sealed it. 

Returning home, the servant followed the original instructions, 

becoming a wealthy cattle herder. Eventually he wanted to 

marry. When the iron wolf appeared on his wedding day, the 

servant leaped on his horse and fled across the steppe. For 

each of the next 3 nights, he stopped at a different cottage, 

where the inhabitants presented him with a dog with sharp 

hearing who would warn of the approach of wolves. Hearing 

the Iron Wolf approaching on the 4th night, the 3 dogs attacked 

and killed it. Safe, the man returned home to his bride.
Official Name

Ukraine

Ukrayina

Україна (Ukrainian) 

Political Borders

Belarus: 690 mi 

Russia: 1,208 mi

Moldova: 747 mi

Romania: 373 mi

Hungary: 80 mi

Slovakia: 60 mi

Poland: 332 mi

Coastline: 1,729 mi

Capital

Kyiv

Demographics

Ukraine’s population of about 44 million is declining at an 

annual rate of -0.4%, due in part to historically low birth rates 

(see p. 4 of Sex and Gender) and a stagnant economy which 

has prompted many Ukrainians to emigrate (see p. 2 of 

Economics and Resources). About 70% of the population lives 

in urban areas, concentrating primarily in and around the 

capital city of Kyiv, the 

eastern city of Kharkiv, and 

the Black Sea port of 

Odesa. 

Flag

The Ukrainian flag divides 

evenly into 2 equal 

horizontal blue and gold 

bands. The blue represents the sky, mountains, and rivers, 

while the gold symbolizes Ukraine’s fields of grain. First

adopted in 1918 then banned during the Soviet era, the 

Ukrainian flag was reinstated in 1992 following the end of 

communism (see p. 17 of History and Myth). 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

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Geography

Situated in Eastern Europe, Ukraine borders Belarus to the 

north, Russia to the east, the Sea of Azov and Black Sea to the 

south, Romania and 

Moldova to the 

southwest, and 

Hungary, Slovakia, 

and Poland to the 

west. Ukraine’s total 

land area is about 

224,000 sq mi, 

making it Europe’s

2nd largest country 

after Russia and slightly smaller than Texas. Russia currently 

occupies about 7% of Ukrainian territory, including the entire

Crimean Peninsula in the South and about 1/3 of the eastern 

provinces of Donetsk and Luhansk (see “Security Issues” 

below and p. 19-20 of History and Myth). 

Extending north from Ukraine’s southern shoreline, vast, rolling 

plains and steppe plateaus cover most of the country. 

Ukraine’s Black Sea coast is lined with sandy beaches and 

occasional, rocky cliffs. The rugged Carpathian Mountains

(pictured above) dominate much of Ukraine’s western regions. 

Here, Ukraine’s highest point, Mount Hoveria, rises to 6,762 ft 

(Photo: The beach at 

Yalta, a resort city on the 

Crimean Peninsula).

Ukraine is home to 

thousands of small lakes 

and nearly 23,000 rivers. 

Most rivers flow northsouth, emptying into the 

Black Sea and Sea of 

Azov. Ukraine’s longest 

and economically significant rivers include the Dnieper, 

Dniester, and Donetsk, while the Danube, Europe’s longest 

river, comprises Ukraine’s border with Romania. The Pripyat 

Marsh, one of Europe’s largest wetland areas, occupies the

northern basins of the Dnieper and Pripyat rivers. Some 70% of 

Ukraine comprises pastures and arable land characterized by 

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black, nutrient-dense soil, making Ukraine one of the world’s 

most fertile agricultural areas. Located primarily in the North, 

forests cover about 1/5 of the country.

Climate

Ukraine experiences a temperate continental climate with 4 

distinct seasons. Summers are hot and dry, while winters tend 

to be long, cold, and wet. By contrast, the southern Crimean 

Peninsula experiences a moderate, Mediterranean climate with 

mild winters and long, hot summers. Generally, northeastern

and mountainous regions experience colder temperatures than 

southern and coastal regions, which are warmed by winds

sweeping in from the 

Mediterranean Sea. On 

average, temperatures in 

the summer month of 

July average 75°F and 

dip to 21°F the winter 

month of January. 

Precipitation is heaviest 

in the North and the 

mountains of the West. Snowfall typically occurs DecemberFebruary (Photo: US, Canadian, Ukrainian, and Lithuanian 

service members participate in marksmanship training in 

Ukraine).

Natural Hazards

Ukraine is vulnerable to various types of natural hazards, 

predominantly harsh winters, floods, and occasional droughts. 

In 2012, severe winter temperatures plummeting to -9°F killed 

over 130 people. Floods primarily affect western regions near 

the Carpathian Mountains and low-lying river basins. In 2014, 

for example, flooding forced hundreds to evacuate after heavy 

rains caused the Dniester River to overflow. Commercial 

logging, the clearing of land for agricultural development, and 

illegal timber production result in rampant deforestation, 

degrading and eroding soil and contributing to flooding and 

landslides. Ukraine also occasionally experiences wildfires, 

which are exacerbated by droughts and more prevalent in 

deforested areas, notably the Chernobyl fallout region (see 

“Environmental Issues” below). 

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Environmental Issues

Unrestrained and damaging industrialization during Ukraine’s 

communist period (see p. 12-16 of History and Myth) resulted 

in massive nationwide environmental degradation. Significant 

water and air pollution was caused by the improper disposal of 

industrial waste, untreated sewage, and hazardous chemicals. 

Despite some efforts by the Ukrainian government to clean up 

affected areas, rivers and lakes remain polluted by raw 

sewage, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff, particularly in 

Ukraine’s more developed and industrialized East. 

Most of Ukraine’s major rivers empty into the Black Sea, 

dumping high concentrations of heavy metals, pesticides, and 

urban waste along its shores. Moreover, overfishing, heavy 

shipping traffic, occasional oil spills, and the introduction of 

non-native species threaten the Black Sea’s marine habitats. 

Industrial emissions continue to degrade air quality in large 

industrial centers and some urban 

areas, notably Luhansk, Donetsk, 

and Zaporizhia, where factories 

and coal-burning power plants emit 

toxic fumes. The eastern city of 

Mariupol ranks as Ukraine’s most 

polluted city. 

Radioactive contamination from 

the 1986 Chernobyl incident (see 

p. 16 of History and Myth) likely

will continue to linger for decades. 

In 2017, Ukraine replaced the 

aging concrete sarcophagus used 

to protect Chernobyl’s damaged 

reactor. The replacement structure

will eventually allow engineers to dismantle and remove 

hazardous nuclear materials from the area (Photo: A portion of 

the Chernobyl nuclear power plant).

Government

Urkaine is a semi-presidential constitutional republic with a 

parliamentary government. The country divides into 24

provinces (oblasti), 2 municipalities (mista) of Kyiv and 

Sevastopol, and the autonomous republic of Crimea. The US 

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government does not recognize Russia’s annexation of Crimea

and the city of Sevastopol, nor does it recognize Russia’s 

designations of the areas as the Federal City of Sevastopol 

and Republic of Crimea. Adopted in 1996, Ukraine’s 

constitution separates power among the executive, legislative, 

and judicial branches, while outlining the fundamental rights of 

Ukrainian citizens.

Executive Branch 

The President, who is head-of-state and commander-in-chief of 

Ukraine’s Armed Forces, is elected by popular vote to serve up 

to 2 consecutive 5-year 

terms. Among others, 

Presidential powers

include the ability to 

propose constitutional 

amendments and veto 

legislation passed by the 

Parliament. A special

National Security and 

Defense Council helps 

the President develop Ukraine’s national defense policy and 

advises the President on issues affecting domestic and 

international stability. Current President Petro Poroshenko took 

office in 2014 (Photo: US Secretary of Defense Mattis shakes 

hands with President Poroshenko at the Pentagon in 2017).

The President shares executive power with the Prime Minister 

(PM), who is head-of-government. With the support of a 

Cabinet of Ministers, the PM oversees the country’s day-to-day

affairs. Nominated by the President and confirmed by the 

Parliament, the PM is traditionally a member of the political 

party or coalition that holds the most seats in the legislature. 

The current PM, Volodymyr Groysman, took office in 2016. 

Legislative Branch

Ukraine’s legislature is a 1-chamber Supreme Council (SC) 

(Verkhovna Rada) composed of 450 members serving 5-year 

terms. While 225 members are directly elected in single-seat 

constituencies by a simple majority vote, the remaining 225 are 

directly elected through a nationwide vote based on 

proportional representation. Russia’s annexation of Crimea and 

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occupation of Ukraine’s eastern provinces prevented the 

affected regions from participating in the 2014 legislative 

elections, leaving 27 seats vacant in the current SC. The SC

controls all national legislative powers, including amending the 

constitution, appointing positions in government, approving 

declarations of war, passing the national budget, and ratifying 

international treaties. 

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a Supreme Court of Ukraine (SCU), a 

Constitutional Court, Courts of Cassation, Courts of Appeals, 

and a system of lower courts. As the highest court, the SCU is 

the final court of appeal for both civil and criminal cases and is 

organized into civil, criminal, commercial, and administrative 

chambers, as well as a military panel. A 20-member Supreme 

Council of Justice (SCJ) elects the 95 Supreme Court justices, 

each formally appointed by the President to serve a 5-year 

term or until age 65, with SCJ approval. Meanwhile, the 

President, the SCU, and the SC each appoint 6 justices of the 

18-member Constitutional Court to serve nonrenewable 9-year 

terms (Photo: the 

capital city of Kyiv).

Political Climate

Ukraine’s political 

landscape is 

characterized by a 

multi-party system in 

which political parties 

or coalitions of parties 

compete for power. Generally, those parties and coalitions 

which hold the majority of seats in the SC also hold the bulk of 

government leadership positions and retain considerable 

control over the political environment. Parties and coalitions 

dissolve, reform, or rebrand frequently, resulting in a political 

climate often characterized by infighting and frequent changes 

of government. 

Ukraine’s current President, Petro Poroshenko, came to power 

in mid-2014 after massive protests forced the removal of 

former President Viktor Yanukovych, whose pro-Russian and 

increasingly authoritarian term in office was marred by 

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scandals, corruption, and accusations of election fraud (see p. 

19 of History and Myth). Taking office amid an ongoing

separatist conflict in Eastern Ukraine (see “Security Issues” 

below), Poroshenko vowed to restore peace to Ukraine, while

politically and economically realigning the nation with the EU 

and the West (Photo: Former Ukrainian President Yanukovych 

with former US Secretary 

of State Clinton in 2010).

While progress has been 

slow, Poroshenko’s 

government has passed 

legislation to reduce 

corruption, increase 

transparency, decentralize 

industry, launch public 

broadcasting, and grow civil society. As a result, civil liberties 

restricted under Yanukovich, notably freedom of expression 

and assembly, have largely been restored. 

Moreover, PM Volodymyr Groysman, who took office in 2016

following the abrupt resignation of his predecessor, shares 

Poroshenko’s political ideology. Like Poroshenko, Groysman 

promotes integration with Europe, holds a rigid anti-corruption 

stance, and seeks to strengthen Ukraine’s democratic 

institutions 

Although government transparency and the strength of 

democratic institutions have improved since 2014, Ukraine’s 

preoccupation with the violent conflict in the East and deep 

economic crisis (see p. 3 of Economics and Resources) have 

slowed the progress of recent reforms. As a result, widespread

corruption persists and increasingly provokes public distrust of 

officials and of democratic institutions. 

In addition, the government’s inability to subvert Ukraine’s 

extensive organized crime networks – which link to the 

judiciary, police, and political and business leaders – further 

erodes the public’s confidence. A 2016 poll indicated that just 

14% of the population approves of the current administration, 

raising fears among observers that the popular unrest could 

spark political upheaval. Ukraine’s next elections are scheduled 

for 2019. 

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Defense

The Ukrainian Armed Forces (UAF) are a unified military force 

consisting of ground, air, and maritime branches, with a joint 

strength of 204,000 active 

duty troops, 900,000 

reserve personnel, and 

over 88,000 paramilitary 

troops. With a few 

exceptions, all men aged 

20 must serve between 

18-24 months of 

compulsory military 

service. The UAF are 

charged with defending against both domestic and foreign 

threats, protecting critical infrastructure, supporting disaster 

relief efforts, and engaging in international peacekeeping 

missions (Photo: US Senator John McCain with members of a 

Ukrainian Anti-Terrorist Operation). 

Ill-equipped, underfunded, and inadequately trained, the UAF 

was largely unprepared to respond to Russia’s 2014 

occupation of Crimea and the subsequent outbreak of 

hostilities in eastern Ukraine (see “Security Issues” below). 

Since then, Ukraine has taken steps to posture its military to 

respond effectively to the current security environment. As a 

result, the UAF has been increasingly able to engage with 

separatist forces in the 

East (Photo: Ukrainian 

soldiers participate in a 

blank-fire training exercise 

with US soldiers in 2018).

Army: The Ukrainian 

Army consists of 145,000 

active-duty troops, 

organized into 22 

maneuver battalions and brigades (including reconnaissance, 

armored, mechanized, and light), a surface-to-surface missile 

brigade, 18 combat support brigades, regiments, battalions, 

and companies, 4 combat service support regiments and 

companies, 5 helicopter brigades and regiments, and 4 air 

defense regiments. 

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Air Force: The Ukrainian Air Force consists of 45,000 activeduty personnel and has 4 fighter brigades, 2 fighter/ground 

attack brigades, 2 intelligence, surveillance, and 

reconnaissance (ISR) squadrons, 3 transport brigades, training 

squadrons, transport helicopter squadrons, and 6 air defense 

brigades. 

 

These units are equipped with 125 combat capable aircraft and 

47 helicopters (Photo: 2 US Air National Guard F-16Cs rest on 

the runway as a Ukrainian SU-27 aircraft takes off in the 

background at 

Mirgorod Airbase 

in Ukraine.)

Navy: Consisting 

of 6,000 activeduty personnel, 

the Ukrainian 

Navy includes 

Naval Aviation 

and Naval Infantry 

units and is 

equipped with a principal surface combatant, 4 patrol and 

coastal combatants, a mine warfare and mine 

countermeasures vessel, 4 amphibious landing ships and craft, 

and 10 logistics and support vessels. 

Russia’s annexation of Crimea forced the Ukrainian Navy to 

relocate its headquarters from Sevastopol to Odessa in 2014. 

Several Ukrainian naval vessels remain under Russian 

possession in Crimea (see p. 19-20 of History and Myth).

High-Mobility Airborne Troops: The high mobility branch of 

the UAF, the Ukrainian Airborne Troops (also known as the 

Ukrainian Paratroopers), consists of 8,000 active duty 

personnel divided into 5 air maneuver brigades. 

Paramilitary: The Ukrainian Paramilitary forces consist of 

approximately 46,000 National Guard members divided into 

armored, mechanized, and light maneuver battalions and about 

42,000 Border Guards, including a Maritime Border Guard 

subdivision.

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Foreign Relations 

Ukraine’s strategic geographic location at the crossroads of 

Europe and Asia has resulted in a foreign policy influenced by

the political, miltary, and economic components of the 

European Union (EU) and Russia. Upon emerging from 

communism, Ukraine initially pursued balanced ties with both

Western Europe and Russia. 

As relations with Russia deteriorated in 2014 (see p. 19 of 

History and Myth), Ukraine eventually drew closer to Europe. 

That year, Ukraine signed the Ukraine-European Union 

Association agreement, which formally establishes closer 

political and economic cooperation between Ukraine and the 

EU’s 28-member states and more decisively demonstrates 

Ukraine’s recent divergence from Russian influence. 

International Cooperation: Since the outbreak of conflict in 

2014, Ukraine has received military support from the West, 

primarily from the US and the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO) – a political and military alliance among

29 nations (including 

the US) that promotes

its members’ security

through collective 

defense. While not a 

NATO member, 

Ukraine has recently 

passed reforms to 

modernize and 

restructure its military to better meet NATO standards and 

increase interoperability with NATO forces. 

Since 2014, Ukraine has participated increasingly in NATO-led 

and other international military exercises, conducting 500 

training exercises in 2015 alone (Photo: Ukrainian, US, 

Canadian, and Lithuanian snipers conduct marksmanship 

exercises as part of NATO interoperability training). 

Ukraine is a member of various international organizations, 

including the United Nations, Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council,

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe,

International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and the World Trade 

Organization.

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Regional Relations: Ukraine maintains friendly relations with 

all 4 members of the Visegrad Group (V4) – a political and 

economic alliance of Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, and the 

Czech Republic. Individually, the V4 share bilateral trade and 

energy ties with Ukraine, while also collectively promoting 

Ukraine’s integration into Europe. The V4 also has helped

shape Ukraine’s foreign policy and domestic affairs to better 

meet European standards. 

Recently, Russia’s aggressive military actions in the region 

have prompted Ukraine to pursue warmer relations with its 

border nations, Belarus and Romania in particular. Despite 

having an unresolved border dispute with Belarus and resource 

rivalries with Romania, Ukraine has expanded military and 

economic cooperation with both nations. 

Relations with the US: The US and Ukraine first established

diplomatic ties in 1991, when Ukraine gained independence 

from the Soviet Union. Since then, the US has helped Ukraine 

transition to democracy, better integrate into the European 

community, and strengthen its free market economy, 

governance structures, and civil society. Today, the 2 nations

share political, economic, and military ties, cooperating in areas 

such as national defense, regional security, energy and trade, 

and cultural

exchanges (Photo: A 

Ukrainian marching 

band performs the US 

national anthem at the 

opening of joint 

military exercises in 

2013). 

Following Russia’s 

2014 invasion of 

Crimea and involvement in the separatist conflict in Eastern 

Ukraine, the US and Ukraine signed the Ukraine Freedom 

Support Act (UFSA) – a broad bilateral agreement that 

increases US military and economic assistance to Ukraine, 

while also requiring the US to impose strict economic sanctions 

against Russia. While UFSA successfully established closer 

military cooperation between the 2 nations, Ukraine rejected a 

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proposal to allow the US to establish a permanent base within 

its borders in 2016. As a result, US access to and involvement 

in the conflict remains somewhat limited. Nevertheless, the US 

continues to train Ukrainian troops and perform joint miitary 

operations.

In addition to bolstering Ukrainian military capabilty, the US 

also provides substantial financial assistance to Ukraine. Since 

1992, the US has delivered over $5.1 billion in aid to promote 

judicial reform, combat corruption, provide huminatarian aid, 

and strengthen 

democractic and civic 

institutions. Further, the 

US and Ukraine have 

signed a bilateral trade 

and investment 

agreement allowing

some goods, services, 

and capital to move 

more freely between 

the 2 nations. Moreover, a US-Ukraine Council on Trade, 

established in 2008, seeks to increase bilateral trade by 

identifying mutually beneficial economic opportunities and 

removing impediments to investment flows (Photo: Ukrainian, 

Canadian, and US soldiers stand in formation).

Security Issues

Ukraine’s security environment is dominated by elevated 

tensions with a recently aggressive Russia and an ongoing 

separatist conflict in Eastern Ukraine. 

Relations with Russia: Ukraine and Russia share historically 

tense and contentious relations that progressively deteriorated 

as Ukraine cultivated ties with the West over the last several 

decades. Most recently, Ukraine’s 2014 ouster of pro-Russian 

President Yanukovich (see p. 19 of History and Myth) elevated 

hostilities between the 2 nations. Tensions spiked significantly 

a few months later, when Russia invaded and annexed the 

Ukrainian territory of Crimea. The international community, 

including the US, EU, and 100 members of the UN, 

condemned and rejected the move as illegitimate, while 

affirming Ukraine’s territorial sovereignty. 

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Since then, Russia’s fortification of military capacity in Crimea 

and along Ukraine’s eastern borders, as well as its continued 

support of pro-Russian separatist rebels in Eastern Ukraine

(see “Internal Instability” below), have considerably escalated 

bilateral tensions. Responding to Russian aggression, Ukraine 

has bolstered its military and invited additional military and 

economic support from its Western allies (the US, EU, and 

NATO). For example, the US-led Joint Multinational Training 

Group-Ukraine oversees defense and security training of 

Ukrainian forces and promotes their integration with Western 

forces from Canada, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and the 

United Kingdom. 

Although Ukraine has 

diversified trade and 

energy networks with the 

West, its continued 

reliance on Russian 

imports (see p. 5 of 

Economics and 

Resources) make it 

particularly vulnerable to economic disruptions from Russia. 

This vulnerability has become more pronounced since the 

annexation of Crimea, when Ukraine lost access to much of its 

domestic supply of oil, as Russia increased the price of its 

natural gas (see p. 20 of History and Myth) (Photo: US Senator 

McCain meets with Ukrainians affected by instability). 

Internal Instability: Since 2014, pro-Russian separatists 

seeking political autonomy from Ukraine have been waging an 

insurgency in Ukraine’s eastern provinces of Luhansk and 

Donetsk, together commonly referred to as the Donbas region. 

Although both sides have attempted to alleviate ongoing 

clashes through multiple ceasefire agreements – most recently

in late-2017 – they have failed to withstand following renewed 

outbursts of violence. As of 2018, sporadic fighting between 

Ukrainian forces and separatist militias continues. The severity 

of the conflict is exacerbated by Russia’s involvement in the 

region. Although Russia publicly denies it, Ukrainian and 

international observers have documented Russian financial, 

military, and political support of rebel groups and accuse it of 

prolonging the hostilities. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
As of 2018, more than 10,000 Ukrainians have been killed in

the violence and nearly 1.7 million displaced. Hoping the 

dispute will soon be resolved, most refugees from the hostilities

have settled just outside the conflict zone, with about 1 million

residing in neighboring Russia. Additionally, the insurgency has

severely stressed Ukraine’s already scant national resources, 

with damage to national infrastructure amassing to over $350 

billion. As of early 2018, Ukraine’s economy remains deeply 

troubled, threatening to destabilize Ukraine’s government and 

its ability to adequately respond to the ongoing violence. 

Ethnic Groups

Ukraine’s historical ethnic diversity (see p. 2-10 of History and 

Myth) was significantly bolstered in the 20th century by Soviet 

policies that encouraged Russian workers to relocate to 

Ukraine (see p. 13-15 of History and Myth). According to the 

2001 census, the latest available data, Ukrainians comprise the 

majority (78%) of the population, while Russians make up the 

largest minority at about 17%. Most Russians live in Ukraine’s 

South and East. Russians also comprise the majority of the 

population in 

Crimea, at about 

60%. 

Crimea is also 

home to a large 

population of 

Crimean Tatars. 

Expelled by the 

Soviet government 

after World War II 

(WWII) (see p. 14

of History and Myth), thousands of Crimean Tatars have 

returned to Ukraine since the late 1980s, and today comprise 

approximately 12% of the Crimean population. Although 

approximately 3 million Jews lived in Ukraine prior to WWII, the 

Nazis’ criminal activities during the war (see p. 14 of History 

and Myth) and emigration during Ukraine’s communist era 

decimated the community. Today, Ukraine’s approximately 

103,600 Jews primarily live in urban areas and speak Russian

(see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality) (Photo: Ukrainians visit a 

Jewish memorial for a massacre carried out during WWII).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ukrainians who identify as Roma or “Gypsy” also constitute a 

significant minority. While Ukraine’s census tallies the Roma 

population at about 48,000, human rights organizations 

estimate the actual population to be much larger, between 

200,000-400,000. The Roma live throughout Ukraine in small 

communities on urban peripheries, with the largest population 

of around 42,000 in Ukraine’s far west Zakarpattia 

(Transcarpathia) Oblast. Other minority groups include 

Moldovans (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), 

Romanians (0.3%), and Poles (0.3%), as well as several 

hundred Turkic-speaking Krymchaks and some 1,200 Crimean 

Karaites. 

Social Relations

Ukrainian society features several social divisions. The rise of 

the oligarchs, who seized control of many of the newly 

privatized Ukrainian industries after independence (see p. 17 of 

History and Myth), led to the development of a new class of 

ultra-rich Ukrainians in the 1990s. 

By contrast, educated professionals, notably teachers and 

scientists, largely lost their financial security and status 

available under the Soviet system. Additionally, a generational 

divide exists between older and younger Ukrainians. The

generations tend to exhibit a nostalgia for life as it existed

during the Soviet period, while the younger generations 

welcome the independence and freedom afforded by postSoviet democracy. 

Observers also note a 

distinct geographical divide 

in Ukrainian society. While

residents of Western 

Ukraine are characterized 

as rural, traditional, and 

oriented towards Europe, 

residents living in Eastern 

Ukraine are seen as primarily urban-dwellers, who traditionally 

look towards Russia for guidance and influence (Photo: A 

Ukrainian boy in traditional dress).

Since the onset of Russian aggression in Ukraine, otherwise 

peaceful intra-ethnic relations between ethnic Ukrainians and 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
the nation’s substantial Russian population have deteriorated 

considerably. Many Russian residents remain culturally and 

politically oriented towards Russia, with some supporting

Ukraine’s economic and political integration with Russia. By 

contrast, other Russians living in Ukraine feel a cultural affinity 

with Ukraine and are committed to Ukraine’s sovereignty and 

sociopolitical alignment with the West. Amid an increasingly 

hostile environment, some Russian residents fear that rising 

Ukrainian nationalist sentiment may lead to restrictions on 

Russian culture and language and lead to violence by far-right 

nationalist groups. 

Some social divisions exist among ethnic Ukrainians and other 

minorities. While some minority members have fully integrated 

into Ukrainian society, a few communities remain socially 

segregated. For example, most Roma continue to live in 

isolated communities, experience significant barriers in access 

to education, healthcare, and social services, and regularly 

face discrimination, violence, and poverty (Photo: A Ukrainian 

military member stationed in Crimea during the Russian 

invasion poses for a 

portrait). 

Ukraine’s legal 

framework has 

historically protected 

the cultural, linguistic, 

and religious identity 

of all ethnic groups. In 

late 2017, however,

the government 

adopted a new law restricting the use of minority languages in 

schools (see p. 1 of Language and Communication), prompting 

criticism from minority groups. Moreover, police and the judicial 

system often fail to protect minorities from violence and 

discrimination, leaving some groups increasingly vulnerable to 

harassment. Tatars and members of other minority ethnic 

groups living in Russian-occupied Crimea are vulnerable to 

heightened levels of violence such as killings and abductions 

by Russian authorities, suppression of their native languages, 

and denial of their religious and economic rights.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview 

A 2016 national survey conducted by an independent Ukrainian 

research organization estimates that about 65% of the 

population belongs to an Orthodox Christian Church, around 

7% are Greek Catholic, 2% Protestant, 1% Muslim, another 1% 

Roman Catholic, and 0.2% Jewish. The survey also indicates 

that about 7% of the population 

claims to be “simply a Christian,” 

while the remaining 16% claim no

religious identity (Photo: St. 

Michael’s Golden-Domed Cathedral 

in Kyiv). 

Ukraine’s constitution protects 

freedom of religion, recognizes no 

state religion, and calls for the 

separation of church and state. The 

law criminalizes discrimination 

based on faith, while allowing all 

religious groups to practice freely. 

Nevertheless, the government 

retains the ability to restrict religious groups’ activities if those 

practices threaten public order, the health or morality of the 

population, or the rights and freedoms of other Ukrainians. 

Religious groups must register with the state to gain legal 

recognition. Once registered, groups retain privileges not 

granted to unregistered groups, including the rights to receive 

government funding, perform religious services in public, own 

property, open religious schools, and publish religious 

materials. 

Ukraine’s Early Spiritual Landscape

The region’s early inhabitants had a rich spiritual life, practicing

polytheistic religions in which worshippers recognized and 

venerated multiple deities and spirits. Deities represented 

different aspects of life and nature and included Perun (the 

God of thunder and order), Veles (the God of prosperity), 

Dazhboh (the God of the sun), and Mokosh (the Goddess of 

fertility and birth), among others. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Believing the deities could guide or obstruct human behavior, 

worshippers performed elaborate ceremonies at outdoor 

shrines or altars. These rituals often incorporated offerings of 

food or animal sacrifice. Other early Ukrainians practiced 

animism, the belief that the spirit of life or consciousness 

resides in natural objects such as trees, mountains, fields, and 

animals. Today, a few Ukrainians continue to observe 

traditional beliefs, while others incorporate aspects of 

indigenous faiths into their Orthodox or other devotional 

practices. 

The Arrival and Spread of Christianity 

Although Christianity already had a small presence in the

region in the early 10th century, the religion did not fully take 

root until 988, when King Volodymyr I converted to the Eastern 

Orthodox tradition of the Byzantine Empire (see p. 3 of History 

and Myth). Ukraine’s leaders subsequently converted much of 

its population to the new faith, while suppressing followers of 

pagan traditions. 

Nonetheless, many Ukrainians continued to practice elements 

of their pagan faiths in subsequent centuries, gradually fusing

both Byzantine and indigenous traditions to form a unique 

Ukrainian Orthodox 

religious identity

(Photo: St. 

Michael’s GoldenDomed Monastery 

in Kyiv). 

Over subsequent 

centuries, the 

Ukrainian Orthodox 

Church (UOC)

served as a center 

of Ukrainian cultural and literary life and helped define and 

sustain Ukrainian identity throughout years of foreign 

occupation and influence (see p. 3-7 of History and Myth). 

Although Poland attempted to spread Roman Catholicism 

during its control of the region, the prominence of Orthodox 

Christianity among the peasantry limited Catholicism’s reach

(see p. 5 of History and Myth).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion under Russian Rule

When Russia absorbed most of Ukraine in the late 18th century

(see p. 10 of History and Myth), it proclaimed Russian 

Orthodoxy as the state religion. Although the UOC lost its 

religious autonomy when it was placed under the authority of 

the Russian Orthodox Church, Ukrainian religious leaders were 

able to retain their distinct traditions, and the UOC continued to 

flourish through the 20th century. While it tolerated Ukrainian 

Orthodoxy, the Russian state severely repressed other 

churches and religions, particularly Judaism. Although Ukraine 

was home to a Jewish community of about 3 million in the mid19th century, rising anti-Semitism and religious pogroms during 

Russian rule drastically reduced the population by the start of 

the 20th century (see p. 11 of History and Myth). 

Religion during the Soviet Period

Ukraine’s 1922 incorporation into the Soviet Union (see p. 12 of 

History and Myth) significantly altered the country’s religious 

landscape. Soviet authorities imposed their communist 

worldview of atheism, or the disbelief in deities and the 

rejection of religion. Consequently, the Ukrainian communist 

state discouraged churchgoing and religious worship, 

persecuted or outlawed religious organizations, and destroyed 

places of worship or converted them for alternative uses. 

The Plight of Ukraine’s Jews in World War II

With Ukraine serving as a major battleground in World 

War II, the population experienced significant losses. 

Like elsewhere in Europe, Ukraine’s Jewish 

community suffered the most (see p. 14 of History and 

Myth). In areas they controlled, Nazi occupiers 

confined Jews to ghettos, shipped them to labor 

camps, exterminated them in concentration camps, or 

murdered them by other means. In Ukraine’s largest 

single massacre, Nazi forces murdered over 33,000 

Jews in a mass shooting in Kyiv’s Babi Yar ravine in 

1941. By war’s end, nearly 1 million Jews – more than 

1/2 of Ukraine’s Jewish population – had perished. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religious repression was particularly brutal in the 1930s, when 

the Soviets executed, deported, or banned many Orthodox 

clergy as part of their efforts to rid Ukraine of any dissidents to 

the new Soviet political system (see p. 13 of History and Myth).

While the UOC continued to function over the next 7 decades, 

the communist state drastically restricted its activities. For 

example, the government banned the performance of 

traditional rites-of-passage rituals such as marriage, baptism, 

and burial in churches, replacing them with secular 

ceremonies. The state also systematically persecuted Muslims, 

Protestants, Jews, and members of other minority religious 

groups, drastically reducing their populations. While Ukraine 

experienced a significant revival of Orthodox religious activity 

following the 1991 collapse of communism (see p. 16 of History 

and Myth), Jewish, Muslim, and some other religions remain 

small in contrast to its pre-20th century presence in the region. 

Religion Today

Over the last several 

decades, the government 

has rebuilt and restored 

many places of worship, 

notably traditional wooden 

churches dating to the 15th 

century (pictured), along with

ancient religious altars, icons, and frescoes. Religious 

participation tends to vary by geography and age and is higher 

in rural areas and among women and older generations. 

Orthodoxy continues to play an important role in society, with

many Ukrainians intrinsically linking Orthodox Christianity to 

their national identity.

The Ukrainian government promotes interfaith tolerance, and 

minority groups are generally safe from religious persecution. 

Yet since the outbreak of separatist violence in Eastern 

Ukraine (see p. 20 of History and Myth), Catholics, Protestants, 

Jews, and other members of minority religious communities

report harassment and vandalism of their places of worship. 

Moreover, Muslims in Russia-occupied Crimea (see p. 13-14 

and 17 of Political and Social Relations) face increased levels 

of violence. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Orthodox Christianity: Ukraine’s Orthodox faithful comprise 

one of the world’s largest Orthodox communities. Orthodoxy in 

Ukraine divides into several branches. The 2 most predominant 

are the Ukrainian Orthodox Church-Kyiv Patriarchate (UOCKP) and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church-Moscow Patriarchate 

(UOC-MP). Established in 1992 soon after the fall of 

communism, the UOC-KP formed as part of a Ukrainian 

nationalist movement to 

distance Ukraine’s religious 

identity from Russian 

influence. 

UOC-KP founders failed to 

follow canonical procedures 

when establishing the 

branch. As a result, the 

Moscow Patriarch 

excommunicated the Kyiv Patriarch. As of 2018, the UOC-KP 

has no formal canonical status. Despite its lack of recognition, 

the UOC-KP is Ukraine’s largest Orthodox branch, with 

membership totaling about 25% of the population. UOC-KP 

followers concentrate primarily in western regions, with a few 

churches located in central districts (Photo: Alter of St. 

Vladimir’s Cathedral, a prominent UOC-KP site). 

With a membership of about 15% of the population, the UOCMP is Ukraine’s 2nd largest religious institution. The UOC-MP 

traces its roots to the original Ukrainian church founded in 988. 

Although the UOC-MP has held autonomous canonical status 

since it formally separated from the Russian Orthodox Church 

in 1990, the UOC-MP still recognizes Moscow’s ecclesiastical 

authority. While it has a smaller membership than the UOC-KP, 

the UOC-MP owns most of the Orthodox churches located in 

Ukraine. While followers of UOC-MP reside across the country, 

they predominate in Russian-speaking areas in eastern and 

southern Ukraine. 

Slightly over 1/5 of Ukrainians choose to remain unaffiliated 

with a specific Orthodox church, while fewer than 5% attend 

other, smaller Orthodox churches such as the Ukrainian 

Autocephalous Orthodox Church (UAOC), founded in 1921. 

Heavily persecuted by the Soviet regime during the communist 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
era, many UAOC clergy and members fled Ukraine to avoid 

execution. The UAOC re-emerged in 1991, yet membership in 

the church remains small (less than 2%), with most followers 

living in Western Ukraine. 

Societal divisions sometimes overlap with religious divisions. 

Local authorities tend to be sympathetic to their region’s 

majority Orthodox sect, while simultaneously discriminating 

against members of the region’s religious minorities. As a 

result, all Orthodox groups, including the UOC-MP and UOCKP, are subjected to routine discrimination and prejudice by 

local authorities. Moreover, amid recent political tensions with 

Russia (see p. 13-14 of Political and Social Relations), some 

Ukrainians accuse the Russian government of provoking social 

unrest by leveraging its historic ties to the UOC-MP. 

For example, in 2016 

Ukrainian parliament 

members claimed Russia 

was using the UOC-MP to 

spread anti-Ukrainian 

propaganda in order to

destabilize the country. 

Parliamentarians

consequently proposed a 

controversial bill intended to increase government oversight of

Ukraine’s religious institutions, while restricting some of UOCMP’s activities. In response, the UOC-MP denied any 

involvement with Russia and criticized the proposed legislation

as unconstitutional, discriminatory, and endangering Ukraine’s 

otherwise tolerant religious landscape (Photo: Former US 

Secretary of State Kerry walks by Kyiv’s St. Andrew’s Church). 

Other Christian Groups: About 4 million Ukrainians belong to 

the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC), first established 

as the Uniate Church in the late 16th century (see p. 6 of 

History and Myth). Seeking to preserve their culture and 

escape religious persecution during Polish-Lithuanian rule of 

Western Ukraine (see p. 4 of History and Myth), UGCC 

members accepted the authority of the Roman Catholic Pope 

in Rome, while retaining their traditional Orthodox doctrine and 

beliefs. Today, UGCC followers subscribe to a mixture of 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Orthodox, Catholic, and indigenous traditions and live primarily 

in Ukraine’s western Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, and Ternopil 

districts. 

Some 1 million Ukrainians are members of the Roman Catholic 

Church. Primarily ethnic Poles or Ukrainians of Polish descent, 

Roman Catholics concentrate in Ukraine’s West. Ukraine is 

also home to a small community of Protestants, whose 

presence in Ukraine dates to the mid-16th century. Other 

Christian groups include Pentecostals, Methodists, Jehovah’s 

Witnesses, Mormons, and Seventh-day Adventists. 

Islam: While the government estimates that about 500,000 

Ukrainians are Muslim, community leaders suggest the 

population is closer to 2 million. According to government 

estimates, some 60% are Crimean Tatars who adhere to the 

Hanafi sect of the Sunni branch, a generally tolerant and liberal 

school of Islamic thought. First settling in Ukraine as early as 

the 13th century, the Crimean Tatars suffered significant 

persecution during the Soviet era (see p. 12-16 of History and 

Myth). Driven out in 1944, Tatars began returning to Crimea in 

the late 1980s (see p. 17 of History and Myth).

Today, most Crimean Tatars continue to live on the southern 

Crimean Peninsula, a region currently annexed by Russia (see 

p. 13-14 of Political and Social Relations). Since the 

annexation and subsequent outbreak of conflict in Eastern 

Ukraine, Tatars and other 

Muslims have become 

vulnerable to intimidation, 

harassment, and incidences 

of outright violence by 

Russian occupiers and 

separatists. 

Judaism: Ukraine’s most 

recent census of 2001 tallies

the Jewish population at

about 104,000. By contrast, Jewish leaders estimate the 

population is closer to 370,000, making it Europe’s 3rd and the 

world’s 5th largest Jewish population. Ukrainian Jews 

concentrate in Kyiv, Dnepropetrovsk, Kharkiv, and Odesa 

(Photo: A Jewish cemetery in Western Ukraine).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Through centuries of political upheaval and foreign occupation, 

strong familial bonds remained a constant in Ukraine. While 

modern economic hardship often results in smaller family units, 

parents maintain close relationships with their children through 

adulthood, and extended 

families are typically tightknit. 

Residence 

While more than half of the 

population lived in rural 

regions before 1960, 

heavy industrialization 

promoted widespread 

migration to the cities in subsequent decades. Today, about 70% 

of Ukrainians live in urban areas. Since property is expensive 

and financing tools are largely unavailable, few Ukrainians own

their own homes. Instead, most Ukrainians rent their dwellings, 

often from the government. In order to defray housing costs, 

Ukrainians may lease rooms in their homes or share a dwelling 

with roommates (Photo: Ukrainian apartment building). 

Urban: While some larger cities feature a few pre-Soviet era 

buildings and some new skyscrapers, most urban dwellers live 

in concrete, multi-story apartment complexes built during the 

Soviet era. Often small, apartments typically have 1-2 bedrooms 

and a pull-out sofa in a living room to maximize sleeping space. 

Some Ukrainians live in a hurtozhytok arrangement, where a 

communal kitchen and bathroom adjoin private living areas for 

several families. Traditional Ukrainian interior decoration 

includes colorful wallpaper and wall and floor rugs, though 

modern European home décor is increasingly popular. 

Rural: Many rural Ukrainians live in self-built homes with pitched 

roofs of straw or tile. Houses in the West and North traditionally

feature white walls and brightly colored window frames with 

colorful floral accents. Within the home, the main living space 

houses a pech (stove) across from a family table. During the 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
winter, family members may roll out bedding on the floor near

the stove. Among Orthodox families, white-washed walls serve 

as a backdrop for the display of religious icons (see p. 4 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Outdoor spaces typically include a 

porch and garden surrounded by a tall fence. Few rural homes 

have access to running water, and only 1/3 connect to sewer 

lines. Almost no rural houses have central heating. 

Family Structure

Ukrainians value strong familial bonds. Forged through centuries 

of political and economic hardship, loyal family relations 

emphasize cooperative work and collective wellbeing. While 

most Ukrainians today live as nuclear families (2 parents and 

their children), households comprising extended family

members remain common. In such households, babtias

(grandmothers) often serve as caregivers for their grandchildren, 

while passing on local customs and traditions. Even if both 

parents work outside the home (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender), 

the father is traditionally the head of the household and primary 

breadwinner, while the mother holds responsibility for most 

household chores.

Children

Due primarily to the 

country’s ongoing difficult

economic conditions (see 

p. 3 of Economics and 

Resources), most

Ukrainian families have 

just 1 child. Authoritarian 

parenting styles are 

common, although parents and children typically maintain a 

deep and abiding affection for each other. Relatives and parents

lovingly pamper children as a means of tempering the strict 

discipline. Children usually live at home until marriage, even 

upon graduation from university, and some parents 

economically support their children well into adulthood (Photo: 

Ukrainian children in traditional clothing release doves during 

Independence Day celebrations). 

Abuse of minors is a problem that goes largely unreported, with 

the government lacking effective social services to appropriately

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
handle cases and serve victims. Of particular concern is child 

pornography produced for international distribution. Children in 

state-run residential institutions are particularly vulnerable to 

exploitation. Further, international observers suggest some 

separatist groups in Ukraine’s East (see p. 20 of History and 

Myth and p. 14 of Political and Social Relations) coerce 

adolescents into fighting. In 2016, the conflict in Eastern Ukraine 

counted 166 child casualties over the previous 2 years of 

conflict. Overall, the ongoing violence in Eastern Ukraine has

affected some 1.7 million 

children, with many 

forced to flee their 

homes (Photo: US 

Servicewoman poses 

with Ukrainian child). 

Birth: According to 

superstition, denying a 

pregnant woman’s 

requests brings bad luck. 

Consequently, Ukrainians typically treat an expectant mother

with great care. A birth is a festive occasion, though visits to the 

mother and child after the birth are usually limited to family

members. Because they believe that compliments bring bad 

luck, some Ukrainian mothers tend to reject praises for their 

babies.

Following a birth, Ukrainian parents typically appoint godparents

who provide moral and financial support to the child throughout 

his life. Among Orthodox families (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality), parents christen their babies during the first few 

weeks of life. The ritual typically includes a priest performing a 

blessing, anointing the child with oil, and ceremonially dunking 

the baby into a baptismal basin. A ceremonial haircut sometimes

follows the event. Godparents usually feature prominently in 

both the ceremony and the celebration that follows. 

Dating and Marriage: 

Boys and girls typically interact from a young age and tend to 

begin casual dating in their early teens. Popular activities for 

young couples include going to movies, clubs, or discos. In

general, a relationship may last several years before an 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
engagement. Traditionally, a man formally sought permission to 

wed from the potential bride’s parents or asked a close friend to 

seek permission on his behalf. Today, such traditions are rare, 

with most families considering the decision to marry solely the 

couple’s. One exception is among couples who are not 

financially independent. They often seek permission to marry 

from the parents with whom they plan to live following the 

marriage. Ukrainians typically marry in their late 20s or early 30s, 

though cohabitation before or instead of marriage is common. 

Weddings: Traditionally, Ukrainian engagements and weddings 

involved elaborate rituals encompassing several days of 

festivities and symbolic exchanges. Because marriages were 

often strategic matches for wealth or social position, not 

necessarily love, many Ukrainians believed that strict adherence 

to the rituals would create a joyful union in the absence of natural 

affection. For example, a woman traditionally presented a 

pumpkin to the potential 

groom to signal her 

acceptance or a loaf of 

bread to signify rejection 

of his marriage proposal 

(Photo: Ukrainian bride 

and groom). 

Since the state 

discouraged these 

elaborate and uniquely Ukrainian traditions during the 

Communist era, they largely vanished. Today, most weddings 

consist of a civil ceremony before a government official at city 

hall or in a banquet hall followed by a dinner and reception. 

However, recent revivals of old traditions include a renewed 

popularity of a mock kidnapping of the bride which requires the 

groom to pay a ransom of alcohol or treats. 

Many couples opt for a religious ceremony after the civil 

proceedings. During a traditional Orthodox wedding, various 

rituals symbolize the Holy Trinity. For example, the best man and 

maid of honor hold gold crowns over the couple’s heads while 

the priest leads the couple around the altar 3 times. The priest 

then blesses the rings 3 times, and the couple takes 3 sips of 

wine from a shared goblet. For the duration of the ceremony, the 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
bride and groom clasp right hands while holding lighted candles 

in their left hands (Photo: 

The interior of an 

Orthodox Christian 

church). 

Divorce: Ukrainian 

divorce rates have

steadily increased since 

1960. In 2015, the 

divorce rate was 3 per 

1,000 people, higher 

than regional neighbors Poland (1.7), Romania (1.5), and the US

(2.5). Reasons cited for increased divorce rates include 

alcoholism, infidelity, domestic abuse, and financial issues. 

Death 

Following a loved one’s death, Ukrainians typically cover the 

mirrors of the deceased’s home. Family and friends usually 

gather for 3 days of prayer. Mourners visit to express their 

condolences and present flowers to the family. Some mourners 

may eat a symbolic meal of wheat and honey that signifies 

eternal life. Family and friends then gather for a funeral, and 

afterwards, the deceased is buried at a cemetery. 

Following the burial, loved ones share a “meal of mercy” in honor 

of the deceased, then 

gather again on the 9th 

day after the death. 

Leading up to the 40th day

after the death, the 

Orthodox faithful pray 

fervently for the soul of the 

departed, as Orthodox 

Christians believe that 

God determines where a 

soul spends eternity

during this period. After the 40th day, mourners gather to share 

another meal. During this event, they traditionally display a small 

glass of vodka and a piece of bread in memory of the deceased. 

These offerings remain in place until the alcohol evaporates

(Photo: An old cemetery in Dubove in Western Ukraine).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Ukraine’s society is traditionally patriarchal, meaning men hold 

most power and authority. Social, economic, and political 

disparities persist despite legal guarantees of gender equality. 

Moreover, many women become victims of domestic and 

sexual violence. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Ukrainian women traditionally hold

responsibility for all household chores and childrearing. During 

the Communist era, social policies like subsidized childcare 

and extensive paid maternity leave supported working mothers. 

Since independence in 1991 (see p. 16 of History and Myth),

these programs have largely disappeared, yet the expectation 

that women balance domestic and professional responsibilities 

remains. As a result, many women today shoulder most 

domestic responsibility, while also working outside the home. 

Because rural areas generally lack utilities such as running 

water and electricity, 

domestic chores are 

particularly burdensome, 

making life for (Photo: A 

Ukrainian woman). 

Labor Force: In 2017, 

about 52% of women 

worked outside the 

home, lower than the US 

and Russian rates

(56%), yet higher than regional neighbors Moldova (39%), 

Romania (47%), and Poland (49%). In the labor market, 

Ukrainian women consistently earn about 30% less than their 

male counterparts, a much larger wage gap than the European 

Union (16.3%) and US (20%) averages. Moreover, although 

Ukrainian women are generally better educated than men, they 

are overrepresented in low wage jobs and the informal 

economy, inhibiting their access to benefits and financial 

independence.

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Within the labor force, professions typically have gender 

associations, with higher-wage positions traditionally 

designated masculine. Since the end of Communism, some of 

these associations have changed. For example, during the 

Soviet era, women made up the majority of workers in the

financial sector, yet as that field grew in importance and 

salaries rose following the shift to market capitalism (see p. 2 of 

Economics and Resources), the sector became dominated by 

men. Today, women typically work in healthcare, education, 

food processing, and legal services, while men dominate 

technology, agriculture, and defense. Even within these

“female” fields, women are underrepresented in managerial 

roles and positions of authority. Within the workplace, women 

experience significant sexual harassment and discrimination in 

hiring and promotion 

(Photo: A Ukrainian 

woman works in a shop). 

Gender and the Law

Social and financial 

inequalities persist

despite legal stipulations 

of equal treatment in

inheritance, property, 

and work. Similarly,

there exsists a host of 

civil and criminal legal repercussions for workplace 

discrimination and harrasment, although enforcement is rare. In 

addition, women are legally entitled to equal access to credit 

and loans, but their lower incomes often bar them from 

eligibility. If they do receive loans, their low incomes often 

subject them to higher interest rates.

Gender and Politics 

As early as the 16th century, women engaged in political life 

and served as local governors, often because men were 

engaged in battle during Ukraine’s years of foreign occupation 

(see p. 6-11 of History and Myth). Later, during the Soviet era, 

quotas ensured women served at various levels of government. 

For example, women routinely made up more than 30% of the 

national legislature and nearly half of the members on some 

local councils.

SEX &

GENDER
Today, women play a less prominent role in politics. With

independence, the quota system ended and as of 2017, just 

12% of national parliament members were female, compared 

to almost 20% in the US Congress. While many women serve 

as civil servants, they become significantly less represented at 

higher levels of government and management. Yulia 

Tymoshenko, Prime 

Minister from 2007-2010, 

is a prominent exception. 

Other politically active 

women include the 

members of Femen, a 

Ukrainian feminist activist 

group started in 2008 

that gained notoriety 

across Europe for its 

protests of human

trafficking (Photo: Oksana Syroyid, Deputy Speaker of the 

Ukrainian parliament, participates in a US-led defense forum). 

Gender Based Violence (GBV) 

GBV is a prevalent problem, though experts believe just 10% of 

abused women file complaints or seek help. This 

underreporting is likely due to shame about the abuse and fear 

of law enforcement. Legal barriers to justice include the failure 

of the law to recognize spousal rape and domestic violence as 

criminal offenses. Until recently, a clause even allowed law 

enforcement to warn victims against “provoking” abuse instead 

of charging abusers. Some victims remain with their abusers 

due to housing shortages, a lack of financial independence, 

and fear of retaliation. Further, the sense of responsibility 

women feel for their children makes them less likely to leave an 

abusive partner. Finally, a lack of social services and the 

reluctance of law enforcement to intervene discourage many 

women from seeking help.

Trafficking: Human trafficking remains a serious problem. 

Many trafficked persons in Ukraine are subject to forced labor 

and sexual exploitation. Ukraine’s economy and geography 

make it a prime destination for recruitment of women for the 

international sex trafficking market. Traffickers often target 16-

year-olds who have been released from the orphanage system. 

SEX &

GENDER
Traffickers also use a host of deceptive tactics to recruit 

women, such as advertisements for well-paying work abroad or 

talent auditions. Without strong foreign language skills or 

financial stability, women easily become trapped within the sex 

trafficking industry. 

Sex and Procreation

During the Soviet era (see p. 11-16 of History and Myth), public 

displays of affection and sexuality were largely uncommon. 

Attitudes have liberalized in recent years, and public displays 

are now more common.

Independent Ukraine largely adopted the liberal abortion law of 

the Soviet era. In the immediate post-independence years, the 

combination of widely-available abortions, few contraceptive 

alternatives, and scarce information about sexual health and 

safety resulted in high abortion rates. In 1995, the rate was 4 

times that of the US. Since then, improved sexual education 

and availability of contraception has resulted in lower abortion 

rates. (Photo: Ukrainian women attend a concert by the USAFE 

Band).

The Ukrainian birth rate 

of 1.5 children per 

woman is below that 

required to maintain the 

population and also

below the US rate of 1.8. 

Experts believe poverty 

and political turmoil contribute to this low rate. To incentivize 

child-bearing, the government provides monetary bonuses to 

pregnant women and 4 months of fully-paid maternity leave. 

Homosexuality

Though decriminalized after independence, homosexuality 

remains a socially sensitive issue in Ukraine. Laws banning 

employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation 

are seldom enforced. Despite a slow increase in societal 

acceptance, most LGBT individuals avoid public displays of 

their sexuality, as harassment and violence remain common. 

Reports suggest some incidents of violence against gay 

individuals in Russian-occupied Crimea have been government 

sponsored.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Ukraine’s official language is Ukrainian, spoken as a native 

language by about 68% the population. Beginning around the

17th century, Russian became the official language in some 

Ukrainian territories and was the primary language of Soviet 

Ukraine in the 20th century. Consequently, almost 90% of the 

population also speaks Russian

today, many as a native language. 

The official status of Ukrainian 

changed over the course of the 20th

century. The right to use Ukrainian in 

educational institutions was

enshrined under Bolshevik rule in 

1918 (see p. 12 of History and Myth).

During Stalinist repression of the 

1930s (see p. 13 of History and Myth),

Russian was favored over Ukrainian, 

yet in the immediate post-World War 

II years, instruction in Ukrainian was 

again allowed. Laws changed again 

in the 1960s favoring Russian. Thus, 

even though Ukrainian was afforded some official status under 

Soviet rule, it usually played a secondary role to Russian. Upon 

independence from the Soviet Union (see p. 16 of History and 

Myth), Ukrainian became the official language, a status that was 

confirmed in the 1996 constitution (Illustration: Page from a 

Ukrainian Bible published in 1561). 

Today, language remains a sensitive issue. In 2017, the 

government announced that Ukrainian would be the primary

language of instruction in school after grade 5. Further, the law 

specified instruction using other languages would be allowed 

only for official European Union (EU) languages. This law has 

sparked outrage among Ukraine’s neighbors, notably Russia

and some EU members, who have protested that it removes 

legal protections for speakers of minority languages (see p. 4 of 

Learning and Knowledge). 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Ukrainian

Ukrainian is a member of the East Slavic branch of the Slavic 

family of languages. It is closely related to Belarusian and 

Russian, sharing about 60% of its vocabulary with Russian. It 

also has notable similarities with some West Slavic languages, 

especially Polish. 

Written in the 

Cyrillic script with 

33 characters, 

Ukrainian has 5 

characters (Ґ, І, Ї, 

Є, ‘) that do not 

appear in 

Russian. Ukrainian is primarily spoken as a native language in 

Western Ukraine, although a sizeable minority of the population 

in Eastern Ukraine also speaks the language (Photo: Metro sign 

in Kyiv).

Russian and Other Minority Languages

Recognized as a minority language with certain rights, Russian 

is the native language of about 30% of the population. Russian 

is the Slavic language with the greatest number of speakers

worldwide and is written in the Cyrillic script, although 4 letters 

(Ы, Э, Ё, Ъ) appear in Russian and not in Ukrainian. Russian is 

most prevalent in Ukraine’s South and East, particularly the 

Crimean Peninsula and the Donbas region, where up to 90% of 

residents speak Russian as their first language (see p. 15 of 

Political and Social Relations). 

Ukrainian law recognizes the languages of several other minority 

groups besides Russian, namely Belarusian, Bulgarian, 

Armenian, Gagauze, Greek, Urum, Yiddish, Crimean Tatar, 

Moldavian, Polish, Romanian, Slovak, Hungarian, and Czech. 

As of 1990, the latest year for which data are available, Russian 

has the most speakers (39 million) in Ukraine, followed by

Yiddish (630,000), Romanian (330,000), Crimean Tatar 

(260,000), Hungarian (160,000), Polish (140,000), and 

Bulgarian (130,000). The other languages have fewer than 

100,000 speakers each. 

Speakers of these recognized minority languages are afforded 

certain rights under the law. For example, if a language is 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
spoken by more than 10% of the population in a certain area, 

this so-called “regional language” may be used in court and in

similar government venues.

English

English has increased in importance as Ukraine’s westernoriented government has sought greater ties to the EU (see p. 

11 of Political and Social Relations). While many young people 

speak the language at varying levels, English proficiency overall 

remains poor, with a recent assessment ranking Ukraine as one 

of Europe’s lowest-proficiency countries. 

In 2016, President Petro Poroshenko declared a “Year of 

English,” offering free language courses and summer camps 

with the help of international organizations. The Ukrainian 

government aims to enroll 1.5 million Ukrainian children in the 

program by 2020. 

Communication Overview

Communicating competently in Ukraine requires not only 

knowledge of Ukrainian or Russian, but also the ability to interact 

effectively using language. This broad notion of competence 

includes paralanguage 

(rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal 

communication (personal 

space, touch, gestures), 

and interaction 

management (conversation 

initiation, turn-taking, and 

termination). When used 

properly, these forms of communication help to ensure that 

statements are interpreted as the speaker intends (Photo: 

Ukrainians at a running festival in Kyiv).

Communication Style

Ukrainian communication patterns are highly dependent on the 

specific relationship. Ukrainians tend to be friendly and 

gregarious among friends, but guarded among strangers and

acquaintances. Ukrainians may sound rude when they are 

speaking English, simply because they tend to omit English 

formalities and grammatical structures that do not exist in their 

native language. Ukrainians tend to be talkative, often 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
responding to simple questions such as “how are you” with long 

answers that reveal a great deal of information about 

themselves. This talkativeness is especially evident in Ukraine’s 

traditional celebratory toasts and speeches. 

Greetings

Greetings vary depending on age, gender, and social situation. 

In informal contexts, Ukrainians generally greet each other with 

a wave and a simple Pryvit (“hi”). Among friends, men typically

kiss a woman once on the cheek, and greet other men with a 

hug and pat on the back. Female friends usually exchange 3 

alternating cheek kisses, starting on the left. In more formal 

settings and with elders,

Ukrainians generally 

shake hands and say 

Dobryj den’ (“good day”) 

(Photo: Former US 

Secretary of State Kerry 

shakes hands with Prime 

Minister Volodymyr 

Groysman).

Names

Ukrainian names comprise a first (given), a middle (patronymic), 

and a last (family) name. The patronymic name denotes male 

ancestry and is formed by adding an ending (-vych for males 

and -vna for females) to a person’s father’s first name. For 

example, the former Prime Minister’s name Yulia Volodymyrivna 

Tymoshenko indicates that she is the daughter of Volodymyr. 

Traditionally, last names had different forms to indicate gender. 

Upon marriage, a wife historically took her husband’s name and 

added an -a ending as a gender marker. However, this 

convention is becoming uncommon, with few Ukrainian women 

making that change today.

Forms of Address

Forms of address underwent a significant change postindependence, with Pane (Mr. or Sir) and Pani (Mrs. or Madam) 

replacing Tovarysh (comrade). In formal situations, Ukrainians 

generally use these forms or professional titles followed by the 

last name. In informal situations, Ukrainians may address each 

other using only the first name or the first name with the 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
patronymic, a combination considered more respectful. In some 

areas, particularly rural regions, Ukrainians commonly address 

strangers with generic terms like molodoy chelovek (young 

man) or devushka (girl). 

Conversational Topics

Among acquaintances 

and in business settings, 

conversation tends to be 

quite formal and focused 

on basic information 

such as occupation, 

family, interests, and 

hobbies. In less formal 

situations, Ukrainians tend to speak more freely, discussing 

current events and world politics. While some Ukrainians are 

comfortable discussing politics, even speaking critically of their 

own country’s situation, foreign nationals should avoid such 

topics. Current hostilities with Russia (see p. 13-14 of Political 

and Social Relations) have inflamed nationalistic passions, and 

Ukrainians may take offense to any criticism of their country. 

Similarly, referring to the country as “the Ukraine,” as it was 

known during the Soviet era, may also be offensive (Photo: US 

and Ukrainian troops participate in training).

Gestures

Foreign nationals should avoid pointing with the index finger, 

which is considered uncultured, and placing the thumb between 

the index and middle fingers, which is considered extremely 

rude. Clapping hands during conversation signifies approval and 

encouragement, while whistling, especially during concerts and 

performances, signals disapproval. Ukrainians place particular 

emphasis on manners, such as pulling out chairs and opening 

doors for others. They consider it rude to speak with one’s hands 

in his pockets. 

Language and Training Sources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center website

at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. Click on 

the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then Language 

Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Ukrainian Russian

Hello Vitayu 

(formal)/Ahov 

(informal)

Zdrastvuyte

Hi Privyit Privyet

Good morning Dobroho ranku Dobroe utro

Good 

afternoon/evening

Dobroho 

dnia/večora

Dobriy 

den’/vyecher

Good night Na dobranič Dobroy nochi

What’s your name? Jak tebe zvaty? Kak vas zovut? 

My name is... Mene zvuť ... Menya zovut...

Yes Tak Da

No Ni Net

Please/ You’re 

Welcome

Bud' laska Pozhaluysta

Thank you Diakuju Spasibo

Cheers! Za zdorovja Na zdarovie

Where are you from? Zvidky vy? Oktuda vy?

I am from... Ja z ... Ja iz...

Where do you live? De ty zhyvesh? Gde vy zhivete?

I am American Ya amerykanetsʹ Ya amerikanets

/amerikanka (m/f)

Do you speak 

(English/Ukrainian/ 

Russian)?

Vy rozmovliajete 

angliyskou

/ ukrajinskou / 

rosiyskoyu?

Vy govorite poanglijski/ ukrainski

/ russki? 

Today Sʹohodni Segodnya

Tomorrow Zavtra Zavtra

Yesterday Vchora Vchera

Have a nice meal Smačnoho Prijatnogo 

appetita

Good luck! Nechaj scastyt’ Udachii!

Excuse me Pereprošuju Izvinite

I don’t understand Ja ne rozumiju Ja ne ponimaju

What? Shcho? Chto?

Me Meni Menya

What time is it? Kotra hodyna? Kotoryy seychas 

chas?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 99.8%

• Male: 99.8% 

• Female: 99.7%

Early History of Education

Before the arrival of formal education that accompanied the 

introduction and spread of Christianity in Kyivan Rus (see p. 3 of 

History and Myth), regional inhabitants informally transmitted 

values, skills, beliefs, and historical knowledge to younger 

generations. During the 10th-11th centuries, Kyivan Rus 

experienced a flowering of culture and arts that also included 

education, with Orthodox priests teaching some people to read 

and write.

The decline of Kyivan Rus in the 13th century (see p. 3 of History 

and Myth) halted the educational development of the area. With 

no source for higher education, most educated Ukrainians

traveled to universities elsewhere in Central and Western 

Europe to continue their studies. Nevertheless, a network of 

mostly parochial lower-level schools developed to serve the 

population in general. In the 16th-17th centuries, new schools 

associated with the Protestant Church and Catholic Jesuit 

missionaries competed for students. Instruction at these schools 

was primarily in Polish, 

German, or Latin. 

Founded during a period 

of Cossack control and 

Orthodox resurgence in 

the early 17th century 

(see p. 6-7 of History and 

Myth), Kyiv’s Mohyla 

Academy was the region’s 

first institution of higher 

learning. Lviv University, Ukraine’s oldest continually operating 

university, was established in 1661 (Photo: The National 

University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy is a bilingual UkrainianEnglish institution today).

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Under Russian rule in the 19th century, new universities were 

founded, greatly expanding the reach of higher education (see 

p. 10-11 of History and Myth). Even with this renewed focus on 

higher education, instruction in the Ukrainian language was 

largely prohibited at any level. In the late 19th century, Russian 

imperial authorities even banned the importation of Ukrainianlanguage books and public readings in Ukrainian. Only about

13% of Ukrainians were literate at the turn of the 20th century.

Education during the Soviet Era

The education system underwent a dramatic transformation as 

Ukraine was incorporated as a Soviet Socialist Republic within 

the USSR (see p. 12 of History and Myth). Change included the 

expansion of technical and vocation offerings to support the 

Soviets’ industrialization

goals (see p. 13 of History 

and Myth). Schools also 

became centers for 

political indoctrination, 

while religious instruction, 

previously a backbone of 

the system, was banned.

Early policies encouraged 

“Ukrainization” or the use 

of Ukrainian as the language of instruction in schools. Yet by the 

early 1930s, the political climate had shifted and new policies 

mandated Russian as the language of instruction (see p. 13 of 

History and Myth) (Photo: Graduates of Kyiv’s Shevchenko 

State Art School in 1940).

World War II (WWII) severely disrupted education in Ukraine. 

Within German-occupied regions, Ukrainian-language schools 

were only permitted until grade 4. The Soviets established 

schools for the millions of Ukrainians it evacuated to Russia and 

Kazakhstan (see p. 14 of History and Myth). Dozens of higher 

education institutions that were also “evacuated” to the East in 

the face of the Nazi threat continued to function in exile.

While Ukrainian was again a language of instruction in the years 

after WWII, by the 1960s, Soviet authorities had reestablished 

Russian’s primary place in institutions of higher learning. By the 

1970s, Russian-language primary and secondary schools 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
generally taught no Ukrainian language or literature. By 1987, 

just 16% of Ukraine’s schools used Ukrainian as a language of 

instruction, some 72% taught in Russian, and 12% used both 

languages.

Modern Education

With independence, Ukraine’s education system underwent 

major changes again. Reformers moved quickly to create a new 

Ministry of Education while re-introducing Ukrainian history and 

literature to the curriculum. Meanwhile, private and religious 

schools that had been banned under the Soviets re-opened 

(Photo: A Ukrainian 

soldier conducts a 

mine risk education 

class for school 

children in Maheriv in 

Western Ukraine). 

Economic collapse in 

subsequent years (see 

p. 2 of Economics and 

Resources) severely 

affected the provision of education. More recently, Russia’s 

annexation of Crimea and ongoing support to Russian 

separatists in Eastern Ukraine (see p. 19-20 of History and Myth) 

have prevented some children from attending school altogether. 

While Ukrainian students enjoy relatively high international 

rankings, the education system faces persistent problems in 

teacher training and retention, access (especially in rural areas), 

and enrollment. In 2014, the government spent about 13% of its 

budget on education, comparable to its Eastern European 

neighbors and to the US (14.5% in 2014). 

In 2017, the Ukrainian government implemented several reforms 

to modernize the education system. Changes for the 2018

school year include the extension of general secondary 

schooling from 2 to 3 years, thus making 12 years of education

compulsory, and capping general secondary class size at 30 

students. Seeking to attract and retain better teachers, the 

government raised the teacher base salary by some 83%, yet it 

remains below that of the lowest EU country. To ensure 

sufficient funding of these salaries, the law also mandates that 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
the government increase its spending on education to 7% of 

GDP (compared to 5.8% in 2014).

One reform has been especially controversial. According to the 

new law, national minorities (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication) have the right to bilingual education in grades 

1-4. Starting with grade 5, the law stipulates Ukrainian as the 

primary language of instruction, though local authorities may 

choose to offer instruction in a few disciplines in English or any 

other official EU language. However, the languages spoken by 

several national minorities, among them Russian, are not official 

EU languages. According to the law, then, these minorities have 

no right to instruction in the core subjects in their native 

languages. The law presumably would allow schools to offer 

lessons in non-EU minority languages like Russian just as they 

might for Latin, Chinese, or any other foreign language. 

Nevertheless, removal of Russian as a language of instruction 

has been soundly criticized as discriminatory towards Ukraine’s 

Russian-speaking minority.

Pre-Primary: Public and private preschools provide noncompulsory education for children aged 3-5. A 2001 law 

mandates that preschool education be free of charge in public 

institutions. In 2013, 85% of children of the appropriate age 

enrolled in pre-primary programs.

Primary: Primary school comprises 4 years starting at age 6. 

Compulsory subjects include language, math, social studies, 

geography, natural science, handicrafts, PE, and art. These are 

complemented by elective subjects of the students’ choosing. In 

2014, 96% of children of the 

appropriate age were 

enrolled in primary school

(Photo: US Army soldiers 

pose with schoolchildren in 

Starychi in Western 

Ukraine).

Secondary: Secondary 

education divides into basic 

secondary (grades 5-9) and 

general secondary (grades 10-12). The curriculum of basic 

secondary is similar to that of primary. After completing grade 9, 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
students take final examinations in Ukrainian, math, biology, and 

geography. General secondary education offers specialized 

instruction in preparation for university studies or 

technical/vocational training. At the end of grade 12, students 

must pass state examinations to receive a certification of 

completion. In 2014, some 89% of children of the appropriate 

age were enrolled in 

secondary education 

(Photo: US Olympic 

medalist Angela Hucles 

speaks to a secondary 

school student). 

Post-Secondary: To 

study at the postsecondary level, 

Ukrainians must pass an 

entrance examination which varies by institution. Ukrainian postsecondary institutions offer technical/vocational education 

leading to a Junior Specialist Diploma (2-4 years) or Bachelor’s 

degree (3-4 years), and academic programs leading to a 

Bachelor’s, Specialist, Masters, or Doctoral degrees (requiring 

4-8 years).

As of 2016, Ukraine had over 800 institutions of higher learning.

Acknowledging that many are of poor quality, the government 

recently announced plans to revoke accreditation of more than

1/2 of these institutions.

The government 

recognizes outstanding 

performance by granting 

the label “national” to a 

university. Although no 

Ukrainian university ranks 

among the world’s best, 

Ukraine’s system of 

higher education usually 

ranks among Eastern Europe’s highest. The country’s most 

renowned institutions include Lviv Polytechnic National 

University, National Technical University of Ukraine/Kyiv 

Polytechnic Institute (pictured), Taras Shevchenko National 

University of Kyiv, and the Karazin Kharkiv National University.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Ukrainians value close relationships in both their personal and 

professional lives, though they reserve physical affection for 

close friends and family. In general, personal connections are 

key to successful 

business in Ukraine. 

Time and Work

Ukraine’s work week 

runs Monday-Friday

from 9:00am-5:00pm

with a break from 

1:00pm-2:00 pm for 

lunch. While hours

vary, many food stores

and markets open 

daily (including Sunday) from 8:00am-8:00pm, though 

convenience stores are often open until 11:00pm or even round 

the clock (Photo: Shopping along Khreschatyk Street in Kyiv).

Most banks are open Monday-Friday from 9:00am-5:00pm. 

Post offices typically open Monday-Friday from 8:00am-9:00pm 

and from 9:00am-7:00pm on Saturdays. 

Working Conditions: While the standard work week is 40 

hours, laws protecting laborers in hazardous conditions limit 

some work weeks to 36 hours. Generally, the work week 

consists of 5 days, although the right to work part time, with 

shorter days or weeks, is available by law to pregnant women, 

mothers of children aged 14 and under, or for the caretakers of 

the disabled or infirm. All Ukrainians are legally entitled to 24 

vacation days a year. The workday before a national holiday 

ends an hour early. 

Time Zone: Ukraine adheres to East European Time (EET),

which is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 7 

hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Ukraine follows 

daylight savings from the end of March-October, when Ukraine 

is 3 hours ahead of GMT. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Date Notation: Like the US, Ukraine uses the Western

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Ukrainians often write 

the day first, followed by the month and year. 

Julian Calendar: Dating to ancient Roman times, the Julian 

calendar is 2 weeks ahead of the modern Gregorian calendar. 

For example, Christmas on the Julian calendar generally falls 

on January 7th instead of December 25th. The Julian calendar

was used widely among Orthodox populations through the 

19th-20th centuries. The Soviets (see p. 12-16 of History and 

Myth) adopted the Gregorian calendar in part to suppress the 

unique religious traditions associated with the Julian calendar. 

Today, Orthodox Ukrainians use the Julian calendar to track 

religious holidays.

Time and Business

Ukrainian business interactions tend to be somewhat formal. 

Business partners typically refrain from using first names, 

preferring titles and last names. Upon meeting, Ukrainians 

greet each person individually, usually by shaking hands (see 

p. 4 of Language and Communication). While Ukrainians 

accept tardiness in informal situations, business associates 

typically expect punctuality.

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 7 (on or around): Orthodox 

Christmas 

• March 8: International Women’s Day

• March/April (dates vary): Orthodox Easter

• May 1,2: International Labor Day

• May 9: Victory Day

• June 5: Holy Trinity Day

• June 28: Constitution Day

• August 24: Independence Day

• October 16: Ukrainian Defenders Day 

Any holiday that falls on a weekend is observed on 

the following Monday.

SPACE

TIME &
Personal connections and informal networks were crucial for 

navigating the extensive red tape and bureaucracy of the 

Soviet era, and they remain important tools for effective 

business dealings today. Consequently, business partners 

commonly gather for meals and other social events to create 

and solidify business 

relationships (Photo: 

Ukrainian President 

Petro Poroshenko meets 

with US Secretary of 

Defense Mattis). 

Strictly hierarchical

organizational structures 

are common, a holdover 

from the Soviet era. Further, the Soviet legacy of central 

planning and top-down policymaking continues to contribute to 

a reluctance for quick decision-making. Generally, the 

Ukrainian workplace emphasizes individualism over teamwork, 

though praise of performance is neither common nor expected.

Personal Space

As in most societies, personal space in Ukraine depends on 

the nature of the relationship. Ukrainians typically maintain

minimal personal space 

with friends and family yet 

preserve a greater distance 

among acquaintances.

When waiting in line or 

riding public transportation, 

Ukrainians tend to stand or

sit much closer to each 

other than Americans 

typically do (Photo: US Army Europe senior female leaders 

meet with Ukrainian Parliamentarians).

Touch: Conversational touching depends largely on the level 

of familiarity. While formal situations rarely involve touching 

beyond handshakes (see p. 4 of Language and 

Communication), Ukrainians typically engage in same-sex 

touching in informal situations. For example, female friends

often link arms to demonstrate the depth of their affection. 

SPACE

TIME &
Eye Contact: Ukrainians typically engage in direct eye contact 

during greetings (see p. 4 of Language and Communication) to 

convey interest, respect, and transparency. During

conversation, moderate eye contact signals attentive 

engagement, while Ukrainians may interpret a complete lack of 

eye contact as dishonesty. Nevertheless, staring may be 

considered rude.

Photographs

Foreign nationals should 

acquire a Ukrainian’s 

permission before taking his 

photo. Government and 

military installations, 

especially in Ukraine’s conflict 

areas (see p. 14 of Political 

and Social Relations) discourage or prohibit photography 

(Photo: Petro Sahaydachnoho Street in Kyiv’s historic Podil 

neighborhood).

Driving

Some Ukrainian drivers have aggressive habits, often ignoring

traffic laws and the right of way of pedestrians. In urban areas, 

some drivers may refuse to yield to pedestrians, particularly 

those who jaywalk. While road conditions in urban areas are 

fair, heavy traffic, potholes, cobblestones, and streetcar lines 

can make driving

uncomfortable. 

Conditions in rural 

areas are typically poor, 

where the combination 

of badly maintained 

roads and lack of 

lighting makes driving 

after dark especially dangerous. Despite severe penalities, 

drunk driving is common. In 2015, Ukraine recorded 10 traffic 

fatalities per 100,000 people, higher than the rate in

neighboring Romania (9) yet lower than the US (11) and 

Russian (17) rates. Like Americans, Ukainians drive on the 

right side of the road (Photo: A car breaks down in the 

Carpathian Mountains). 

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Ukrainian traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect 

the nation’s rural peasant history, foreign influences, 

independence movements, and modern global trends. 

Dress and Appearance 

Traditional: Ukrainians tend to wear traditional clothing only 

for folk-dance performances and other special events. Specific 

patterns vary by region. 

For example, sheepskin 

vests and wide leather 

belts are typical in the 

Carpathian Mountains. 

The elaborate 

embroidery of both 

men’s and women’s 

wear serves to identify 

the wearer’s gender, 

age, and origin (Photo: Ukrainians in traditional costumes pose 

with members of the USAFE Jazz Band).

Men’s wear consists of baggy trousers (sharovary) paired with 

a white, embroidered shirt, often worn with a vest or 

embroidered and tasseled waistband. An alternative to the vest 

is the kozhukh, a long, embroidered robe. Additional traditional 

wear includes leather boots and hats made of felt, fur, or wool. 

Dating to the Cossack period (see p. 6-9 of History and Myth), 

the traditional oseledets hairstyle features a lock of hair at the 

top or front of an otherwise shaved head. 

Women’s wear typically consists of a vest and corset over a 

white, embroidered shirt paired with a wraparound skirt and an 

embroidered belt or apron. In the winter months, svyta (fur 

coats) offer an extra layer. Clothing often incorporates red, 

which signifies beauty. Traditional leather boots with curled 

toes are typically painted red, blue, or green. While unmarried 

girls traditionally weave flowers and ribbons into their hair, 

married women wear headscarves. 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Modern: Everyday wear varies by region and age. In general, 

older Ukrainians prefer conservative clothing in dark colors. By

contrast, younger generations typically favor modern European

styles in bright and varied colors. In professional settings, 

Ukrainians tend to wear

suits or skirts and dresses. 

Recreation and Leisure

Ukrainians typically enjoy

spending their leisure time 

with family members and 

friends, gathering frequently 

to socialize or share a meal.

Ukraine’s natural features 

facilitate a variety of outdoor recreation activities. During the 

summer, families typically go camping, swimming, boating, or

rafting in the Black Sea or one of Ukraine’s many rivers. The 

Carpathian Mountains offer a variety of winter sports like skiing 

and snowboarding (Photo: Ski lift in the Carpathian Mountains). 

Holidays and Festivals: Following the end of Communism in 

1991(see p. 16-17 of History and Myth), Ukraine experienced a 

revival of interest in religious celebrations (see p. 4 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Previously repressed traditions and rituals, 

such as a symbolic 12-course vegetarian meal served on 

Christmas Eve and elaborate Easter celebrations, were 

restored. Other Christmas traditions include caroling and 

anticipating the delivery of presents by Ded Moroz and 

Sniguronka (Santa and his snow maiden granddaughter). 

Besides Christmas and Easter, Orthodox Christians celebrate

the Day of the Pentecost and the Baptism of Kyivan Rus, 

commemorating the arrival of Christianity to the region (see p. 

2 of History and Myth). Orthodox Christians celebrate their 

religious holidays some 1-2 weeks later than most other 

Christians (see p. 2 of Time and Space).

Other holidays combine Christian and pagan traditions. For 

example, Ivan Kupala Day commemorates both the Slavic 

pagan goddess of water and the Christian prophet John the 

Baptist. Occurring around the summer solstice, celebrations

include jumping over fires, water fights, and releasing garlands 

of flowers into rivers and streams. Ukrainians also observe 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
numerous secular holidays and events such as Vyshyvanka

Day, which highlights Ukrainian heritage, art, and culture. 

Sports and Games

Ukrainians enjoy a variety of sports and games. Extensive

sports infrastructure built during the Soviet era enables the 

widespread enjoyment of basketball, volleyball, hockey, boxing, 

and swimming. Tennis and martial arts are also increasingly 

popular. Ukrainian athletes have performed well in the 

Olympics, winning medals in gymnastics, boxing, wrestling, 

and track and field, among other sports. Ukrainian gymnast 

Larissa Latyina won 18 medals for the Soviet Union in the 

1950s-60s, becoming the most decorated female athlete in

Olympic history. Figure skater Oksana Baiul became

independent Ukraine’s first Olympic medalist in 1994. The 

Ukrainian Klitschko brothers dominated world boxing for years 

beginning in the late 1990s.

Soccer: Soccer is Ukraine’s most popular sport and national 

pastime. Some 31 clubs make up the Ukrainian football league. 

Ukraine’s most successful 

professional team is Dynamo 

Kyiv, with numerous domestic 

and European titles. 

Games: Chess is a serious 

competitive pastime in Ukraine, 

which has produced some of 

the world’s youngest 

grandmasters. The Cossacks 

(see p. 6 of History and Myth) 

were known for their 

athleticism, horseback skills, and military prowess. Today, 

exhibition groups perform trick horseback riding (pictured), 

gymnastic dancing, and weapons demonstrations based on 

these Cossack traditions. 

Music

Traditional: Traditional Ukrainian music utilizes a variety of 

folk instruments, such as the basolya (similar to a cello), the 

bandura (a lute with up to 68 strings), the volynka (a type of 

bagpipes), and the trembita (an Alpine horn up to 10 ft long).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Centuries ago, kobzari or singers traveled from town-to-town 

performing folk songs and dumas, epic songs about the past, 

mythical deeds, and current events. Following a loved one’s 

death, Ukrainian women traditionally 

sang the holosinnia an expression of

grief that included ritual wailing. Many 

of these ancient traditions were 

banned during the Soviet period (see 

p. 12-16 of History and Myth) (Photo: 

A musician with a traditional oseledets

hairstyle plays a bandura). 

Considered the father of Ukrainian 

music, 19th-century composer Mykola 

Lyseko used music to define a distinct 

Ukrainian national identity in a time of 

Russian occupation (see p. 10-11 of 

History and Myth). Utilizing the sounds and rhythms of 

Ukrainian folk music, Lyseko composed songs and folk operas 

that helped build a common cultural identity distinct from that of 

Russia. A contemporary of Lysenko, Mykola Leontovych is 

known for his choral compositions, notably the Christmas 

favorite “Carol of the Bells.”

Modern: During the Soviet era, Ukrainian-language music 

often accompanied resistance activities (see p. 15 of History 

and Myth). Following independence, music continued to 

support political movements. For example, during the 2004 

Orange Revolution (see p. 18 of History and Myth), popular 

rock and hip-hop bands performed for protesters, with the song 

“Razom nas bahato” (Together we are many, we can’t be 

defeated) by the band GreenJolly becoming a popular protest 

song. Today, Ukrainians enjoy the full range of international 

pop, rock, hip-hop, and other styles. 

Dance 

Traditional dances vary by region but are typically high energy

and fast paced. For example, Ukraine’s national dance, the 

Hopak, evolved from exercises performed by Cossack soldiers 

(see p. 16 of History and Myth). Often featuring both men and 

women today, the dance includes acrobatic jumps and spins

performed by male dancers that appear improvised yet are 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
highly choreographed. Another well-known group of dances 

comes from the Hutsul people of the Carpathian Mountains. 

Characterized by stamping and intricate footwork, these 

dances also incorporate vertical movement (Photo: Ukrainian 

dancers). 

Theater and Cinema

An early form of Ukrainian 

theater was the Vertep, a 

puppet performance

dating to the late 16th 

century. With a standard 

set of characters

operated by a puppet 

master, a Vertep performance typically included a reenactment 

of the Nativity with interludes depicting everyday life, local 

news, or satire. Today, costumes representing Vertep

characters are popular among Christmas carolers, while some 

modern theaters re-create the Vertep with live actors.

During the Soviet era, theater and film were mostly limited to

state-supported “Socialist Realism,” an artistic tradition 

intended to glorify the industrial worker and farmer. Some 

artists objected to the Soviet constraints, producing works in 

other styles that brought them into conflict with the Soviet 

regime. Today, some Ukrainian films reexamine moments of 

the country’s tumultuous history. For example, Oles Yanchuk’s 

1991 film Holod 33 depicts the devastating famine caused by 

Soviet leader Stalin that killed millions of Ukrainians in 1933 

(see p. 13 of History and Myth). Some contemporary films have 

received international acclaim. For example, Oles Sanin’s 2003 

film Mamay portraying the forbidden love of a Cossack man 

and a Tatar woman became the first Ukrainian film nominated 

for an Academy Award. 

Literature 

Ukraine’s oldest literary forms consist of orally-transmitted 

poems, myths, and legends (see p. 21 of History and Myth), 

while sermons and heroic epics comprise the oldest written 

pieces. Compiled around 1133, the Kyiv Chronicle gives a 

history of the early Eastern Slavs, while providing insight into 

the political and cultural life of Kyivan Rus (see p. 2 of History 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
and Myth). The 17th-18th centuries were a golden age for 

Ukrainian poetry, with secular verses focusing on emotions, 

politics, and national themes, while spiritual versions were 

often delivered in song. Historical chronicles, notably those

describing the struggles of the Cossacks (see p. 6-9 of History 

and Myth), were also developed during this period.

The 19th century brought a blossoming of Ukrainian literature 

that accompanied the rise of Ukrainian nationalism (see p. 11

of History and Myth). Poet and playwright Ivan Kotliarevsky 

produced the first literary work in the modern Ukrainian 

language, which was a reworking of Virgil’s Aeneid set among 

the Cossacks. Ukraine’s most admired poet and symbol of 

national consciousness was Taras Schevchenko (see p. 11 of 

History and Myth), who is remembered for his musical verses 

about politics. In the first decades of the Soviet era, many 

authors were deported or jailed for their failure to conform to

the ideals of “Socialist Realism.” With the 1960s growth of the 

dissident movement (see p. 11 of History and Myth), literary 

works became more diverse. With independence, literary 

freedom returned to Ukraine, inspiring poets, essayists, and

novelists to explore an array 

of topics.

Arts and Crafts

Ukraine has a rich tradition

of decorative arts and 

crafts, such as embroidery,

woodcarving, and ceramics. 

Since the 12th century, 

Ukrainians have been creating religious icons, which are small 

paintings of Biblical figures or events. Today, these religious 

icons are prominently in Ukranian homes. Similarly, Ukraine’s 

many historical churches feature precious frescoes and 

mosiacs. While associated today with Easter, the Ukrainian art 

of egg decoration originated as a pre-Christian spring 

celebation of new life and renewal. Repressed during the 

Soviet era, egg painting has recently experienced a 

resurgence. Ukrainians decorate both boiled eggs (krashanka) 

and hollow shells (psyanka) by using wax to draw patterns on 

the eggs, then dipping them in dyes to reveal intricate designs 

(pictured) that differ by region and town. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Ukrainians like to socialize with family and friends, often 

gathering for meals at home or in cafes and restaurants. Meals 

typically include lightly 

seasoned, hearty dishes 

prepared from seasonal, 

local ingredients (Photo: 

Potatoes with butter and 

dill).

Dining Customs

Ukrainians typically 

supplement 3 daily meals 

with light snacks throughout the day. While breakfast was

traditionally the largest meal, lunch and dinner are more

substantial today.

Most visits to the home are usually arranged in advance, 

though close friends and relatives may drop by unannounced. 

Visitors may bring flowers or sweets for the hostess, a bottle of 

alcohol for the host, or toys for the children. Guests typically

remove their shoes upon entering the home and replace them 

with slippers, usually provided by the hosts. In most families, 

women take great pride in preparing the meal, using few preprepared ingredients and seldom referencing cookbooks. On 

special occasions in particular, dinners often consist of multiple 

courses and last several hours. 

Hosts usually serve their guests first, beginning with the eldest 

or most honored guest. While dining, Ukrainians keep their 

hands on the table rather than their laps and avoid placing their 

elbows on the table. After guests finish their portions, hosts 

offer additional servings. Generally, guests accept second 

helpings to avoid offending the host and must decline several

offers of additional servings if they do not want more. Alcoholic 

beverages are prominent during most meals. The host usually 

offers the first toast, often made with vodka. All diners then 

toast frequently, generally maintaining eye contact when 

clinking glasses. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet

Ukrainian cuisine reflects the nation’s unique geography, fertile 

soil (see p. 4 of Economics and Resources) and history of 

foreign influence. Demonstrating elements of Russian, Polish, 

German, and Turkish culinary traditions, dishes vary by region 

but generally are characterized by rich, locally harvested 

ingredients that are simply 

seasoned with pepper, 

salt, garlic, and various 

herbs like dill, chives, and 

parsley (Photo: Ukrainians 

present bread to US 

servicemen).

Fresh bread, which 

Ukrainians typically

purchase daily, accompanies most meals. While Ukrainians 

enjoy a wide variety of bread types, one of the most common is 

a dark and dense rye loaf made from a sourdough starter. Pork 

and beef are the most popular protein, followed closely by fish, 

chicken, and lamb. Meats are typically stewed, boiled, or baked 

and served alongside starches like potatoes, pasta, and rice. 

Fish is often smoked or salted. Common staples include 

buckwheat (kasha), oats, millet, and wheat flour made into 

crepes and various dumplings. Yogurt, cheese, milk, sour 

cream, and other dairy products also feature prominently in 

many dishes. 

Ukrainians consume a variety of native vegetables such as

mushrooms, squash, peppers, cucumbers, cabbage, green 

onions, and carrots. Popular fruits include apples, pears, 

berries, plums, cherries, and melons, among others. Because 

many fruits and vegetables are available only in the summer 

and fall, families often pickle or preserve them for consumption

during the winter months. 

Meals and Popular Dishes

Breakfast (snidanok) is usually a light meal, consisting of fruit, 

cheese, bread, or a pastry served with coffee, tea, or milk. Both 

lunch (obid) and dinner (vecheria) typically consist of a thick 

stew or soup followed by a main course of meat or fish paired 

with a starch and vegetables. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
In urban areas, workers may bring a packed lunch from home 

or purchase a meal from a café or office cafeteria. On 

weekends and special occasions, meals tend to be hearty and 

incorporate a variety of appetizers, salads, or soups served 

alongside meat, chicken, or fish with potatoes, kasha, or other 

starch. 

Popular dishes include holubtsi (stewed cabbage leaves 

stuffed with ground meat and rice and topped with a creamy 

tomato sauce); borsch (a hearty soup of cabbage, beets, 

potatoes, carrots, and meat, served hot or cold and garnished 

with sour cream); varenyky (Ukraine’s national dish consisting 

of large dumplings stuffed with minced meat, cheese, potatoes, 

or mushrooms and typically smothered with fried onions and 

sour cream); salo (sliced pork fat, served raw or fried as a 

snack with bread and salt or as a meal alongside potatoes); 

and balyk (smoked pork tenderloin). For dessert, Ukrainians 

enjoy fresh fruit, kompot (fruit stewed with sugar), and various 

cakes and pastries, such 

as sweet varenyky stuffed 

with berries or fruits. 

Beverages 

Ukrainians enjoy coffee or 

tea, often served with 

sugar and lemon (pictured), 

throughout the day. Other 

popular non-alcoholic 

beverages include fresh fruit juices and kvas, a lightlycarbonated, fermented drink made from black bread. Alcohol is 

inexpensive and widely available. In addition to beer and wine, 

popular varieties include horilka (vodka), distilled from grain or 

potatoes and flavored with honey, fruits, chili peppers or other 

spices. Samogon (homemade vodka) is also popular, but may 

be laced with dangerous ingredients to increase its potency. 

Eating Out

During the communist era (see p. 12-16 of History and Myth), 

economic difficulties prevented most Ukrainians from dining 

out. Today, urban Ukrainians increasingly socialize at 

restaurants and bars, particularly on special occasions. By 

contrast, rural residents generally dine at home. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Serving primarily Ukrainian and European cuisine, restaurants 

range from upscale establishments to small, casual eateries 

offering inexpensive and hearty meals. In large urban areas, 

international fast food restaurants are also popular. Street 

vendors sell fresh fruits, kvas, and a variety of light snacks, 

such as pirozhki (fried dough filled with meat, potatoes, or 

seasoned cabbage). While restaurants automatically add a 

10% surcharge to the bill, some waiters may expect an extra tip 

for good service. 

Health Overview

While Ukrainians’ overall health has improved in recent years, 

many health indicators fall short of US and European

standards. For example, maternal mortality dropped from 46 to 

24 deaths per 100,000 live births between 1990-2015, yet it

remains significantly higher than rates in both the US (14) and 

EU (8). Moreover, life expectancy at birth increased only 

slightly during this same period, from 70 to 71 years, remaining

below the US and EU averages of 79 and 81 years, 

respectively. Further, infant mortality (the proportion of infants 

who die before age 1) 

reduced from 17 to about 

8 deaths per 1,000 live 

births, yet remains more 

than double the EU 

average of 4. 

Although Ukrainians

generally have access to 

free healthcare, existing 

health services fail to 

properly prevent, detect, and treat diseases. Quality of care 

dimishes considerably in rural areas and varies between 

private and public facilities (Photo: A rural market). 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills that are derived from a native population’s beliefs, 

experiences, and theories. Traditional Ukrainian medicine 

centers on the use of home remedies, notably herbal and other 

natural non-surgical methods, to identify and treat illnesses. 

Ukraine has a rich history of traditional medicine. Plants with 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
healing properties feature prominently in Ukrainian folklore, and 

those knowledgeable in the application of such remedies 

enjoyed special status in early Ukrainian society. Many of the 

region’s residents relied on alternative therapies during the 

tumultuous 20th century, when war and political conflict (see p. 

12-16 of History and Myth) resulted in often acute shortages of 

modern medicines. 

Today, many Ukrainians

continue to supplement 

modern treatments with 

traditional therapies. 

Some Ukrainians collect 

or grow their own 

medicinal plants, while 

merchants in both urban 

and rural areas commonly sell herbal remedies. Popular 

therapies include periwinkle, belladonna, and lily of the valley 

to treat cardiovascular disorders; juniper, wormwood, and 

shrub aloe to cure skin diseases; rosemary, mint, and caraway 

to treat gastrointestinal ailments; and pastes of stinging nettle, 

yarrow, and viburnum (pictured) as coagulants to stop 

bleeding. 

Modern Healthcare System

Ukraine’s Ministry of Health regulates the national healthcare 

system, which provides all Ukrainian citizens and registered 

long-term residents free universal healthcare. Ukraine’s 

national health insurance scheme is funded by government, 

private, and employee contributions and covers most medical 

services and procedures. These include preventive care, 

treatment by specialists, emergency services, prescription 

medicine, maternal care and childbirth, and rehabilitation. 

Unemployed or retired Ukrainians must also contribute to the 

national insurance fund, though their payments are 

considerably smaller than those of job-holders.

Despite increased government investment in healthcare over 

the last several decades, Ukraine’s healthcare system remains

in significant disrepair. Inefficient allocation and use of 

resources has left public hospitals outdated, understaffed, illequipped, and overcrowded. Quality of care further diminishes 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
in rural areas, where small, often dilapidated clinics offer limited 

medical procedures and are largely ill-prepared to meet rural 

dwellers’ needs (Photo: US Army medical personnel listen to a 

Ukrainian Ministry of 

Defense doctor during a 

tour of a military hospital 

in Lviv).

While healthcare is 

technically free, corruption 

permeates the system. 

Patients must often pay 

bribes to receive even

basic services such as examinations by physicians, medical 

tests, hospital stays, and medical procedures. Consequently, 

adequate healthcare is inaccessible to many Ukrainians. In 

fact, in a recent survey, over 90% of Ukrainians indicated they 

could not afford certain treatments or medicines due to the 

prominence of these “informal payments.” 

While low public-sector wages compel some healthcare 

providers to supplement their incomes with bribes, they also

force many of Ukraine’s finest physicians to reject public-sector 

employment and seek opportunities in the private sector or 

elsewhere in Europe. Private facilities offer higher quality care

and address the public sector’s gaps in service but only the 

wealthy can afford them. Significantly, Ukraine’s aging 

population and rising proportion of retirees is likely to add 

substantial strain to the nation’s already faltering healthcare 

system in the coming decades. While the Ukrainian 

government and international observers have called for reforms 

to end the healthcare paralysis, recent political volatility and an 

ongoing internal conflict (see p. 6-7 and 14 of Political and 

Social Relations) have stalled progress. 

Health Challenges

As in most developed countries with aging populations, noncommunicable “lifestyle” diseases – cardiovascular and 

respiratory illnesses, cancer, diabetes, and liver disease – 

account for about 90% of deaths. Preventable “external 

causes” such as accidents, suicides, and drug use result in 

about 6% of all deaths, the same as the US rate. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Communicable diseases such as tuberculosis and hepatitis 

cause about 4% of all deaths. About 1% of the population is 

HIV positive, Europe’s highest rate. With less than 50% of 

children vaccinated in 2014, Ukraine’s immunization rate is one 

of Europe’s lowest and leaves Ukrainians increasingly 

vulnerable to vaccine-preventable 

diseases, such as measles, rubella, 

mump, and tetanus (Photo: A US 

Peace Corps volunteer speaks to 

Ukrainian high school students about 

HIV/AIDS in 2012). 

Significantly, the average life 

expectancy of Ukrainian men is 12

years less than the EU and 10 years 

less than the US averages. While life 

expectancy gaps are less pronounced

among Ukrainian women, they also 

suffer from comparatively shorter life 

spans than women living elsewhere in Europe and the US. 

Experts attribute these stark differences to Ukrainians’ 

unhealthy lifestyle habits. These include unbalanced diets, high 

rates of alcohol and tobacco use, reduced physical activity, and 

the inability of Ukraine’s healthcare system to prevent and treat

diseases. Unhealthy habits have also led to rising obesity. As 

of 2016, about 24% of Ukrainian adults are obese, slightly 

higher than the EU average 

of 22% yet lower than the 

US rate 33% (Photo: An 

elderly man sells antiques 

alongside a road).

Some Ukrainian cities 

remain heavily polluted as a 

result of unrestrained 

industrial development 

during and after the Soviet

era (see p. 12-16 of History and Myth and p. 4 of Political and 

Social Relations). In highly industrialized regions, toxic 

discharge continues to contaminate soil, water, and air, 

causing disproportionately high rates of respiratory and other 

pollution-related diseases. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, the area of modern-day Ukraine had an agrarian 

and trade-based economy, first emerging as an important 

regional center during the medieval Kyivan Rus period (see p. 

2 of History and Myth). In subsequent centuries, Ukraine 

became a major supplier of agricultural products to its Polish 

and Russian rulers (see p. 4-11 of History and Myth). In the 

19th century, Ukraine began to exploit its significant coal 

deposits and industrialize, although the country’s economy 

remained focused on agriculture.

Soviet rule in the early 20th century brought more rapid 

industrialization. For example, of the 1,500 industrial plants 

constructed in the USSR from 1928-33, 400 were in Ukraine. 

Industrialization activities centered in Eastern Ukraine, the site 

of the country’s 

significant mineral 

wealth, and where 

Soviet authorities 

believed factories 

would be less

susceptible to potential 

German or Polish 

attack (Photo: Kyiv and the Dnieper River).

Along with industrialization, central planning mandated 

agricultural collectivization, which forced peasants to work on 

communal farms and sell their goods to the state. Harsh

agricultural policies in the early 1930s caused a devastating 

famine that killed millions (see p. 13 of History and Myth).

Ukraine continued to industrialize until World War II, when the 

German invasion devastated the country, leaving just 20% of 

industrial and 15% of agricultural equipment intact (see p. 13-

14 of History and Myth). By 1950, Ukraine’s industrial capacity 

had recovered, although agricultural output did not return to 

pre-war levels until the 1960s. Nevertheless, Ukraine emerged 

as one of the USSR’s most productive republics, contributing 

1/4 of its total agricultural output and a significant portion of its 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
industrial production. Also during this period, the Soviets 

encouraged ethnic Russians to relocate to Eastern Ukraine’s 

industrial centers (see p. 14 of History and Myth).

In the 1970s-80s, Ukraine’s economy stagnated, as coal 

mining and iron production slowed and agriculture output 

decreased due to drought and inefficient central planning. 

Meanwhile, shelter was inadequate, with over a million 

Ukrainian families on a wait-list for housing in 1974.

Following Ukraine’s 1991 independence, the transition to a 

liberal free-market economy was difficult. New policies lifting

price controls and initiating privatization led to hyperinflation, 

and an economic contraction of about 60% between 1990-2000 

plunged many Ukrainians into poverty. Driven by Foreign Direct 

Investment (FDI) and a strong industrial sector, the economy 

began a rapid recovery in 

the early 2000s. From 

2000-07, Ukraine’s GDP 

grew some 24% a year

(Photo: Ukrainian farmers 

in a wheat field).

This growth ended in 2008 

when internal instability 

(see p. 18 of History and 

Myth) plus a global financial crisis caused a 15% drop in GDP.

In exchange for a bailout by the International Monetary Fund 

(IMF), the Ukrainian government implemented several reforms, 

and the economy began to improve.

In 2014, Russia’s annexation of Crimea and support of a 

separatist uprising in Eastern Ukraine (see p. 19-20 of History 

and Myth) severely impacted the economy, causing a 

contraction of about 50% between 2013-15. Although Russia’s 

2015 suspension of its free-trade agreement with Ukraine was 

a serious blow to the already weak economy, the impact was 

lessened by a free-trade deal with the European Union (EU) 

that went into effect in 2016. 

Ukraine’s currency then underwent a severe devaluation, 

making the country’s exports more competitive and making a 

living more difficult for average Ukrainians, who found their 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
purchasing power significantly reduced. A $17.5 billion aid 

package from the IMF helped to prop up the economy. 

Today, Ukraine seems to be recovering from this economic 

crisis. Led by a larger than normal harvest and growth in the 

manufacturing, construction, domestic trade, and transport 

subsectors, economic growth measured 2.3% in 2016 and is 

projected to reach 4% by 2019. 

Nevertheless, weak global demand for Ukrainian exports, 

especially manufactured goods, could hinder long-term 

recovery. Other threats to recovery include corruption (an 

international ranking places Ukraine 131st out of 176 of the 

most countries), domination by oligarchs (see p. 17 of History 

and Myth – in 2016, the 10 richest Ukrainians controlled some

13% of the country’s GDP), and the prevalence of the “shadow” 

economy (untaxed and unregulated businesses). The most 

serious threat to Ukraine’s economy remains the prospect of 

continued conflict in the country’s industrial center located in 

Eastern Ukraine, (see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations).

Services

Accounting for about 60% of GDP and 69% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest component of Ukraine’s economy.

Key services include tourism, financial services, health, 

education, information technology, and transportation.

Tourism: Once a major contributor to the economy, Ukraine’s 

tourism subsector was devastated by the outbreak of hostilities 

with Russia in 2014, 

especially the annexation 

of Crimea, an important 

tourist destination. Before 

2014, some 25 million 

tourists visited Ukraine 

annually, yet by 2016, 

that number had reduced 

by almost 1/2. Today, 

tourists visit such 

attractions as the Carpathian Mountains, the capital of Kyiv, 

and the seaside resort of Odesa, but until conflict with Russia 

ceases, the sub-sector is unlikely to make a full recovery 

(Photo: Ukrainian-built passenger ship). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for 27% of GDP and 27% of the labor force. 

The most significant sub-sectors are manufacturing, coal 

mining, and food processing. The sector has been particularly 

hard hit by conflict from separatists in the Donbas region (see 

p. 14 of Political and Social Relations), home to most of 

Ukraine’s heavy industry. Since spring 2017, the Ukrainian 

government has blockaded coal and steel shipments from 

rebel-held territories.

Manufacturing: This sub-sector has experienced a steady 

decline since the early 1990s, when it represented some 43% 

of GDP. Today, manufacturing comprises about 14% of 

Ukraine’s GDP and focuses on shipbuilding, machinery, and 

transport equipment. Light manufacturing includes food 

processing and textiles. Ukraine is the world’s 10th largest 

weapons exporter. 

Mining: Ukraine is a major producer of coal, iron, and steel, 

much of which is exported. In 2016, Ukraine was the world’s

5th largest exporter of iron ore, the 10th largest steel producer, 

and the 15th largest producer of coal. Ukraine’s mining industry 

has been hit hard by the conflicts in the Donbas region. About 

1/2 of Ukraine’s mines are in separatist-controlled areas, 

causing coal production to reduce by 1/2 since 2013. 

Agriculture

Historically the most 

important sector of 

the Ukrainian 

economy, agriculture

today makes up just

14% of GDP and 

employs 6% of the 

labor force. Much of 

Ukraine’s farmland

contains a fertile black soil known as chernozem, which 

contributes to particularly high crop yields. Ukraine is the 

world’s largest exporter of sunflower oil, 3rd largest of barley, 

4th largest of corn, and 6th largest of wheat (Photo: US soldier 

poses with Ukrainian farmer in background). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Fishing: Ukraine’s fishing industry has suffered a steady 

contraction since the early 2000s, due to overfishing in the

Black and Azov seas. The total catch declined from 350,000 

tons in 2000 to just over 200,000 tons in 2013. The 2014 loss 

of Crimea to Russia caused the Ukrainian catch to decrease 

again to under 

100,000 tons in 2015. 

Currency

Introduced in 1996, 

Ukraine’s currency is 

the hryvnia (₴) 

(pictured), issued in 9

banknote values (1, 2, 

5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500) and 1 coin value (1). It subdivides 

into 100 kopiyky, issued in 6 coin values (1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50), 

although 1 and 2 kopiyky coins are rarely used. As of January 

2018, $1 equals ₴28 (₴1 is about 4¢). From 2009-14, the 

currency was pegged to the US dollar at about ₴8 to $1, but as 

part of the IMF’s 2014 fiscal bailout, Ukraine was required to 

decouple the hryvnia from the dollar. 

Foreign Trade

Totaling $37 billion in 2017, Ukraine’s exports consisted of 

metals, fuel and petroleum products; chemicals; machinery and 

transport equipment; and foodstuffs to Russia (10%), Egypt 

(6%), Poland (6%), Turkey (6%), Italy (5%), India (5%), and 

China (5%). In the same year, imports totaled $44 billion and 

comprised fuel and petroleum products; machinery and 

equipment; and chemicals primarily from Russia (13%), China 

(12%), Germany (11%), Belarus (7%), Poland (7%), and the 

US (4%). 

Foreign Aid

In 2017, Ukraine received about $204 million in aid from the 

US, with the majority earmarked for democracy, human rights, 

and governance projects; peace and security initiatives; health; 

and economic development. In 2016, Ukraine received some 

$10 billion in loans to finance economic reforms, much of it 

from multilateral institutions like the IMF. Of that aid, 

approximately $1.5 billion came from the EU, and as of early 

2018, the EU has proposed an extra $1.2 billion in loans. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Despite plans for improvements, much of Ukraine’s physical 

infrastructure remains in poor condition. Ukrainians enjoy a free 

and unrestricted Internet yet face some restrictions to their 

constitutionally-protected freedoms of speech and press. 

Transportation

A minority of Ukrainians use a privately-owned vehicle (POV). 

The majority travel instead by bus, train, streetcar, taxi, bicycle, 

or foot. In urban areas, a public network of buses and streetcars 

(pictured) provides efficient service. In some areas, unofficial 

and unregulated taxis and buses also offer transportation. 

Underground metro systems operate in Kyiv, Kharkiv, and 

Dnipropetrovsk. Trains and buses 

run between large cities and offer 

connections to the rest of Europe, 

though connections to Russia have 

been disrupted by the conflict in 

Eastern Ukraine (see p. 14 of 

Political and Social Relations). 

Ukraine’s location between Europe 

and Russia, with ports on the Black 

Sea and river connections to the 

Baltic Sea, makes the country an 

important trade corridor. 

Accordingly, the government has 

sought to invest in infrastructure to attract foreign capital and 

revitalize the economy. Centered as it is in the Donbas region of 

Eastern Ukraine, the country’s industrial transportation 

infrastructure has been disrupted by the ongoing conflicts there 

(see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations).

Roadways: In 2012, some 99% of Ukraine’s 105,443 mi of 

roads were paved. While highways connect all major cities, 

many roads are in poor condition, especially those beyond urban 

areas. The government plans significant upgrades to the road

system, spending over $750 million in 2017 to repair about 1,250 

mi of roads and budgeting $1.4 billion for such projects in 2018. 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Ukraine has just over 13,500 mi of railways, 

comprising the world’s 12th largest network. Significantly 

improved since the end of the Soviet era, the network is efficient, 

extensive, and connects Ukraine’s towns and cities to 

international destinations. Most recently, the state-owned 

Ukrainian Railways has proposed a capital infusion of $5 billion 

from 2017-2021 to further modernize the entire system.

Ports and Waterways: Ukraine has over 1,000 mi of 

waterways. The main navigable rivers are the Danube (which 

connects Ukraine to 9 countries) and the Dnieper (which also 

flows through Belarus and Russia). These rivers remain 

navigable even through the winter months with the aid of 

icebreakers. Ukraine has some 18 ports on the Black and Azov 

seas, notably Odesa, Mykolaiv, and Mariupol. Since 2014, 

Russia has held the Crimean Peninsula’s Black Sea ports, 

notably Sevastopol and 

Yalta (see p. 19-20 of 

History and Myth). 

Airways: Ukraine has 187 

airports, 108 with paved 

runways. The largest, 

Kyiv’s Boryspil 

International Airport,

served over 10 million 

passengers in 2017. The national carrier, Ukraine International 

Airlines, offers flights to Europe, the Middle East, the US, and 

Asia (Photo: Ukraine International Airlines plane). 

Energy

Ukraine remains highly dependent on nuclear energy despite the 

devastating 1986 Chernobyl accident (see p. 16 of History and 

Myth). With 15 reactors in 4 locations and 2 more reactors under 

construction, Ukraine receives more than 1/2 of its electricity 

from nuclear power and generates the remainder from fossil 

fuels or hydroelectric and other renewable sources. Ukraine 

produces a surplus of electricity that it exports to neighboring

countries. Ukraine aims to increase the share of renewables in 

electricity production to 25% by 2035. As part of this strategy, 

the government has pursued joint investment projects with 

China. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Since independence, Ukraine has purchased natural gas from 

Russia, which uses pipelines across Ukrainian territory to 

transport its natural gas to other European customers. In 2014, 

however, Russia severed all gas exports to Ukraine over a 

payment dispute that was aggravated by the Russian 

annexation of Crimea (see p. 19-20 of History and Myth). While 

a European Union (EU)-brokered deal eventually restored gas 

shipments, Russia stopped them again in 2015 over nonpayment. As of early 2018, Ukraine buys no natural gas from 

Russia. Instead, it is encouraging investment to develop its own 

natural gas industry, while importing gas from EU members. 

Meanwhile, Russia continues to transport gas through Ukrainian 

territory to the EU in the interim of constructing new pipelines 

that circumvent Ukraine. 

(Photo: Former US 

Ambassador Geoffrey

Pyatt visits a Ukrainian 

gas pipeline). 

Media

While Ukraine’s 

constitution protects 

freedom of speech and 

press and specific laws regulate the media and protect 

journalists, the government has restricted these rights. Recent 

legislation banned the use of Communist and Nazi symbols, 

while prohibiting statements that promote war, instigate racial or 

religious conflict, or support Russian aggression. In 2017, the 

government consolidated several publicly-owned TV channels 

into a single public television broadcaster in an attempt to 

centralize and better control state-owned media. 

Ukraine’s ongoing conflict with Russia has negatively impacted

media freedom in various ways. To hinder Russian propaganda 

efforts, Ukrainian authorities frequently block Russian TV 

broadcasts; ban movies, songs, and shows; and prohibit 

Russian journalists from working in Ukraine. The Ukrainian 

government also sanctions, fines, or imprisons journalists and 

citizens who criticize Ukraine’s role in the Donbas regional

conflict (see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations). Some 

observers speculate that the government has even instigated

attacks against pro-Russian journalists. 

T

& 

ECHNOLOGY

MATERIAL
The ownership of Ukraine’s media is concentrated in the hands 

of oligarchs (see p. 17 of History and Myth), who use their power 

to influence reporting by encouraging journalists to engage in 

self-censorship. Likewise, some journalists accept payments for 

favorable reports, a widespread practice known as jeansa. The 

Ukrainian government has sought to combat the oligarchs’ 

control of the media, most recently with a 2014 law requiring

media companies to publicly divulge their ownership (Photo: US 

Army Lt Gen Mark Hertling 

and his Ukrainian 

counterpart conduct a 

press conference).

Print Media: The 

Ukrainian press includes

local and national 

periodicals printed in 

multiple languages. The 

largest newspaper is the Ukrainian-language Ekspres, popular 

in Western Ukraine. Other prominent newspapers include the 

Russian-language Fakty I Kommentarii, KP, and Seyodnya. A 

2015 law required all print media owned by the government to 

be privatized, though the transition is ongoing.

Radio and TV: The state-owned National Public Broadcasting 

Company of Ukraine operates various popular radio stations and 

TV channels, while several politically powerful individuals have

their own private broadcasters. For example, current President 

Petro Poroshenko owns the TV station 5 Kanal. A 2016 law 

stipulates that 30% of radio stations’ playlists and 60% of TV 

news programs must be in Ukrainian.

Telecommunications

Ukraine has a modern telecommunications network. As of 2016, 

Ukraine had about 19 landline and 128 mobile phone 

subscriptions per 100 people. 

Internet: Despite the relatively low cost of Internet access, only 

about 63% of Ukrainians use the Internet regularly. Most people 

access the Internet from home or work, although increasing 

numbers of Ukrainians utilize smartphones. Since 2017, the 

government has instructed Internet providers to block some 

Russian sites it deems contrary to Ukrainian interests.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL