U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Circular 1390

Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of 

Hurricane Sandy—A U.S. Geological Survey Science Plan 

for Support of Restoration and Recovery
Cover. Front photograph: U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientist deploys an acoustic doppler current profiler to measure water 

 velocity profiles in a new inlet formed during Hurricane Sandy on Fire Island, New York. Photograph by USGS.

Background image: NASA’s Terra satellite acquired this image of Hurricane Sandy off the southeastern United States, 

 October 28, 2012. Image courtesy of NASA (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=79548).
Meeting the Science Needs of the 

Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—

A U.S. Geological Survey Science Plan for 

Support of Restoration and Recovery

By Herbert T. Buxton, Matthew E. Andersen, Michael J. Focazio, John W. Haines, 

Robert A. Hainly, Daniel J. Hippe, and Larry J. Sugarbaker

Circular 1390

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living 

resources, natural hazards, and the environment, visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS.

For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, 

visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod

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Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Suggested citation:

Buxton, H.T., Andersen, M.E., Focazio, M.J., Haines, J.W., Hainly, R.A., Hippe, D.J., and Sugarbaker, L.J., 2013, 

Meeting the science needs of the Nation in the wake of Hurricane Sandy—A U.S. Geological Survey science plan for 

support of restoration and recovery: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1390, 26 p., http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1390/.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Buxton, Herbert T.

 Meeting the science needs of the nation in the wake of Hurricane Sandy : a U.S. Geological Survey science plan for 

 support of restoration and recovery / by Herbert T. Buxton, Matthew E. Andersen, Michael J. Focazio, John W. 

 Haines, Robert A. Hainly, Daniel J. Hippe, and Larry J. Sugarbaker.

 pages cm. -- (Circular / U.S. Geological Survey ; 1390)

 ISBN 978-1-4113-3634-6 (alkaline paper)

1. Hurricane Sandy, 2012. 2. Hurricanes--Research--United States. 3. Hurricanes--Environmental aspects--United 

States. 4. Geological Survey (U.S.)--Planning. 5. Science and state--United States. 6. Hurricane damage--Middle 

Atlantic States. 7. Hurricane damage--Northeastern States. 8. Emergency management--Middle Atlantic States. 9. 

Emergency management--Northeastern States. I. Anderson, Matthew E. II. Focazio, Michael J. III. Title.

 QC945.B89 2013

 551.55’2--dc23

 2013026646
iii

Dr. Asbury H. (Abby) Sallenger 

(1949–2013)

This science plan benefited tremendously from 

the long-term efforts of Dr. Asbury H. Sallenger, a 

research scientist with the U.S Geological Survey 

who was committed to improving our understand-

ing of the processes that affect our coastlines, 

their natural ability to protect coastal communities 

and ecosystems, and how we can improve coastal 

resilience and public safety.
iv

Foreword

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) employees have a legacy of responding promptly to natural and 

manmade disasters—providing science to assist emergency responders and to guide management actions for recovery, resilience, and future preparedness. USGS science has supported 

response to earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, wildfires, floods, the World Trade Center 

catastrophe, and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, as well as all the major hurricanes that have 

impacted the United States over the last two decades.

Hurricane Sandy made landfall near Brigantine, New Jersey, late on October 29, 2012. In 

advance of the storm, the USGS Storm Team was already helping to prepare safety officials and 

the public for the impact of the storm by readying real-time tidal and river monitoring stations; 

deploying additional water-level monitoring stations to measure rising ocean levels; characterizing baseline, pre-storm coastal elevations; identifying coastal areas at greater risk of inundation 

and erosion; and declaring a landslide alert in vulnerable areas. During the storm, USGS instruments continued to collect real-time data. After the storm, the Storm Team collected high water 

marks, water-quality samples in downstream reaches of major rivers, and aerial photographs 

and elevations of the post-storm coastline. 

On November 2nd, I commissioned the USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Team to coordinate continuing USGS activities with stakeholders and other agencies and to develop a science plan for 

continued data collection and analysis that would guide recovery and restoration efforts. This 

document is that science plan. As we implement this science plan, we are committed to being 

responsive to stakeholder needs, promptly sharing our science to achieve improved coastal 

resilience, and improving our capabilities to respond to the next hurricane.

In the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, we saw pictures of the coastal devastation that reduced 

neighborhoods to rubble. We heard stories of brave firemen, policemen, neighbors, and other 

rescuers who helped frightened residents flee rising waters and burning buildings. People who 

could not help personally gave through the Red Cross. Certainly, this was a national tragedy 

that brought out the best in people. My personal heroes of Hurricane Sandy include the men 

and women of the USGS who worked tirelessly in the days ahead of the storm’s landfall and, as 

the floodwaters retreated, continued to create and issue predictions of coastal impacts, deploy 

scientific instrumentation, and collect ephemeral data documenting the storm’s impact. These 

efforts give us hope that our preparation for and response to the next superstorm will reduce the 

death toll, decrease the economic impact, and mitigate the loss of natural resources.

Suzette M. Kimball

Acting Director
v

Contents

Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................iv

Executive Summary.......................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................3

Background............................................................................................................................................3

USGS Roles and Responsibilities.......................................................................................................4

Immediate USGS Storm Response ....................................................................................................4

USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan......................................................................................................11

Theme 1: Coastal Topographic and Bathymetric Data to Support Hurricane Impact 

Assessment and Response .................................................................................................12

Stakeholder Science Needs ....................................................................................................12

USGS Contributions...................................................................................................................12

Theme 2: Impacts to Coastal Beaches and Barriers ....................................................................13

Stakeholder Science Needs ....................................................................................................14

USGS Contributions...................................................................................................................15

Theme 3: Impacts of Storm Surge, Including Disturbed Estuarine and Bay Hydrology .........16

Stakeholder Science Needs ....................................................................................................16

USGS Contributions...................................................................................................................16

Theme 4: Impacts on Environmental Quality, Including Exposure to Chemical and 

Microbial Contaminants.......................................................................................................18

Stakeholder Science Needs ....................................................................................................18

USGS Contributions...................................................................................................................18

Theme 5: Impacts to Coastal Ecosystems, Habitats, and Fish and Wildlife..............................20

Stakeholder Science Needs ....................................................................................................20

USGS Contributions...................................................................................................................21

Stakeholder Coordination and Communication......................................................................................22

Information Management and Accessibility...........................................................................................24

References....................................................................................................................................................25

Additional Information

USGS Roles and Responsibilities Related to Disasters...........................................................................5

USGS Contributions in Response to Recent Hurricanes.........................................................................7

Characterizing Persisting Threats to Environmental Quality................................................................19
vi

Figures

1. Satellite image of Hurricane Sandy on October 28 at 9:02 a.m. Eastern Daylight

Time, about a day and one-half before Hurricane Sandy made landfall on the 

New Jersey coast.........................................................................................................................3

2. Map showing forecast of the probability of collision (wave erosion of dune fronts),

overwash (waves wash over dunes and transport sand inland), and inundation

(beach and dunes are completely submerged with potential inlet formation) along

the sandy beaches of Long Island, New York..........................................................................6

3. U.S. Geological Survey oblique aerial photography depicting examples created by

Hurricane Sandy of collision in a typical post-storm beach in undeveloped areas,

central Fire Island, New York; overwash into marsh in eastern Fire Island, New

York; and inundation (inlet formation) in a breach in eastern Fire Island, New York ........6

4. Photographs showing permanent real-time water-level monitoring station,

Barnegat Bay, at Waretown, New Jersey, before and after Hurricane Sandy..................9

5. Photograph showing a U.S. Geological Surveyscientist recovering a stormtide

water-level sensor along the Hudson River in Hoboken, New Jersey................................9

6. Diagrams showing comparison of pre- and post-storm elevation maps at

Mantoloking, New Jersey before and after Hurricane Sandy, and elevation

difference.....................................................................................................................................10

7. Aerial photographs of the Mantoloking area of New Jersey .............................................10

8. Diagram depicting types of hurricane forces and impacts, and reflecting the

organization and integration of the U.S. Geological Survey science response to

Hurricane Sandy .........................................................................................................................11

9. Map showing the Federal Emergency Management Agency Modeling Task Force

Hurricane Sandy Impact Analysis is being used as a guide for resource

investments in science to support recovery and resilience, including where to

conduct additional post-storm lidar elevation surveys........................................................13

10. Images showing comparison of forecasts of the probability of coastal impacts

(collision, overwash, and inundation) for portions of Fire Island, New York, due 

to a storm like Hurricane Sandy...............................................................................................14

11. Map showing peak stormtide elevations compiled from deployed storm surge

sensors and high-water marks identified and surveyed immediately post storm...........16

12. Photographs showing U.S. Geological Survey scientists taking an acoustic

measuring flow velocity profile in new inlet formed during Hurricane Sandy on 

Fire Island, New York .................................................................................................................17

13. Photograph showing a U.S. Geological Survey scientist taking a reading at a 

Rod Surface Elevation Table and establishing adjacent marker horizons........................21

14. Maps showing an existing U.S. Geological Survey model of flow and water quality

in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, was used to predict the impact of inlet formation

during Hurricane Sandy on residence time of water within the bay; pre-inlet

formation; and post-inlet formation .........................................................................................23
Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of 

Hurricane Sandy—A U.S. Geological Survey Science Plan 

for Support of Restoration and Recovery

Executive Summary

In late October 2012, Hurricane Sandy moved up the 

eastern seaboard of the United States, merged with two other 

substantial low pressure systems, and came ashore during a 

spring high tide. Landfall of the resulting 1,000-mile-wide 

superstorm was centered on the New Jersey coastline, one of 

the most populous regions of the Nation, delivering hurricaneforce winds, storm tides exceeding 19 feet, driving rain, and 

plummeting temperatures. Hurricane Sandy resulted in 72 

direct fatalities in the mid-Atlantic and northeastern United 

States, and widespread and substantial physical, environmental, ecological, social, and economic impacts; preliminary 

U.S. damage estimates are near $50 billion. Alterations to the 

coastline throughout the impacted area significantly increased 

the region’s vulnerability to future storm events, posing new 

risks to communities and ecosystems. The legacy of debris and 

disturbance is a potential persisting threat to environmental 

quality. The disruption of natural ecosystems puts the health 

and recovery of local habitats and the associated wildlife at 

risk. Furthermore, efforts to design coastal communities for 

long-term resilience are hampered by a lack of understanding 

of potential trends in the frequency and intensity of tropical 

storms.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) serves the Nation 

by providing reliable scientific information to describe and 

understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property 

from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and 

mineral resources; and enhance and protect our quality of life. 

The USGS has played an important role in the response to 

a wide range of natural and human-caused disasters and has 

responded to every major hurricane for almost two decades. 

USGS information, expertise, and capabilities provide a 

significant scientific resource to disaster responders, resource 

managers, and the public. 

Before the landfall of Hurricane Sandy, the USGS provided forecasts of potential coastal change; collected oblique 

aerial photography of pre-storm coastal morphology; deployed 

storm-surge sensors, rapid-deployment streamgages, wave 

sensors, and barometric pressure sensors; conducted Light 

Detection And Ranging (lidar) aerial topographic surveys 

of coastal beaches, barriers, and communities; and issued a 

landslide alert for landslide prone areas. During the storm 

Tidal Telemetry Networks in New York and New Jersey 

provided real-time quality-assured information from fixed 

stations to emergency responders on water levels in bays and 

inlets. Long-term network and rapid-deployment real-time 

streamgages and water-quality monitors provided information 

on river levels and changes in water quality including salinity. Immediately after the storm, the USGS serviced real-time 

instrumentation, retrieved data from over 140 storm-surge 

sensors, and collected other essential environmental data, 

including more than 830 high-water marks that identified the 

extent and elevation above land surface of the storm surge. 

Post-storm lidar surveys documented storm impacts to coastal 

barriers informing response and recovery and providing a new 

baseline to assess vulnerability of the reconfigured coast. The 

USGS Hazard Data Distribution System served storm related 

information from many agencies on the Internet on a daily 

basis. USGS data and information on Hurricane Sandy are 

accessible through the Internet at www.usgs.gov/sandy. 

This science plan was developed immediately following 

Hurricane Sandy to coordinate continuing USGS activities 

with other agencies and to guide continued data collection 

and analysis to ensure support for recovery and restoration 

efforts. The data, information, and tools that are produced by 

implementing this plan will: (1) further characterize impacts 

and changes, (2) guide mitigation and restoration of impacted 

communities and ecosystems, (3) inform a redevelopment 

strategy aimed at developing resilient coastal communities and 

ecosystems, (4) improve preparedness and responsiveness to 

the next hurricane or similar coastal disaster, and (5) enable 

improved hazard assessment, response, and recovery for future 

storms along the hurricane prone shoreline of the United 

States.

By Herbert T. Buxton, Matthew E. Andersen, Michael J. Focazio, John W. Haines, Robert A. Hainly, Daniel J. 

Hippe, and Larry J. Sugarbaker
2 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

The activities outlined in this plan are organized in five 

themes based on impact types and information needs. These 

USGS science themes are:

• Theme 1: Coastal topography and bathymetry.

• Theme 2: Impacts to coastal beaches and barriers. 

• Theme 3: Impacts of storm surge and estuarine and bay 

hydrology. 

• Theme 4: Impacts on environmental quality and persisting contaminant exposures. 

• Theme 5: Impacts to coastal ecosystems, habitats, and 

fish and wildlife. 

Communication with partners and stakeholders regarding 

science needs is essential for successful implementation of this 

plan. The best science has limited utility unless it is effectively 

disseminated and used to inform the highest priority decisions. 

Therefore a major emphasis in the implementation of this plan 

will be on interacting with stakeholders to better understand 

their specific data and information needs, to define the best 

way to make information available, and to support applications of USGS science and expertise to decisionmaking. The 

USGS can play an important supporting role to local, State, 

and Tribal governments, as well as to other Federal agencies 

by providing scientific information on the factors that affect 

the impacts of, and coastal vulnerability to, large storms and 

other coastal disasters. The USGS also can help ensure that 

real-time and other data-collection networks are nationally 

consistent and suitable for integrated assessment and prediction of storm behavior and impact.

Hurricane Sandy data and science products will be documented, made easily accessible, and archived. An integrated 

data and information delivery system will be developed that 

provides “one-stop” accessibility to all USGS information 

relevant to recovery and restoration from Hurricane Sandy and 

resiliency and preparedness to future storms. Users of USGS 

information will be consulted to ensure that ease of access, 

usability of the information delivery system, and technical 

support enhance application to management decisionmaking. 

U.S. Geological Survey scientist uses a global positioning 

system to survey the elevation of a high-water mark 

at Liberty State Park in Jersey City, New Jersey, after 

Hurricane Sandy (photograph by Crystal Hammer, 

U.S. Geological Survey).
Introduction 3

Introduction

Background

In late October 2012, after inflicting substantial damage 

to property and resources, and more than 60 fatalities in the 

Caribbean, Hurricane Sandy moved up the eastern seaboard of 

the United States (fig. 1). It merged with two other significant 

low pressure systems from the north before turning west and 

coming ashore during a full moon and the associated spring 

high tide. Landfall of the resulting 1,100-mile-wide superstorm was centered on the New Jersey coastline, delivering 

hurricane-force winds, storm tides exceeding 19 feet, driving rain, and plummeting temperatures. Hurricane Sandy hit 

one of the most populous regions of the Nation, and resulted 

in 72 direct1 fatalities in the mid-Atlantic and northeastern 

1

 “Direct” fatalities result from events directly related to storm surge, rough 

seas, freshwater floods, lightning, and wind. Deaths occurring from factors 

such as heart attacks, house fires, electrocutions from downed power lines, 

vehicle accidents on wet roads, and so forth, are considered “indirect” deaths.

“Atlantic tropical cyclone variability is closely correlated with tropical Atlantic climate variability on 

a broad range of time-scales. A major challenge in 

detecting past trends in various measures of tropical cyclone activity is the need to identify the causal 

factors underpinning the observed Atlantic climate 

variability, which is required to separate tropical 

cyclone variability into naturally and anthropogenically forced constituents. Even when regional 

climate variability can be attributed to anthropogenic causes, the question of how tropical cyclones 

respond to such variability remains.” 

Burkett and Davidson, 2012, p. 28.

“USGS science has been instrumental in helping 

communities use zoning and building standards 

to mitigate earthquake losses and in the prediction of volcanic activity to keep people and property out of harm’s way, ... I have every reason 

to expect that a focus on science related to hurricanes will have a similar return on investment. 

Perhaps, with the help of some compelling science, Hurricane Sandy will be another catalyst 

for helping coastal residents in hurricane country 

learn how to live more safely near the ocean.” 

Marcia McNutt, Former Director, U.S. Geological 

Survey.

Figure 1. Satellite image of Hurricane Sandy on 

October 28 at 9:02 a.m. Eastern Daylight Time, 

about a day and one-half before Hurricane 

Sandy made landfall on the New Jersey 

coast. Image from National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration (NASA) 

Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellite (GOES) 

Project.

United States, and widespread and substantial physical, 

environmental, ecological, social, and economic impacts; 

preliminary U.S. damage estimates are near $50 billion 

(Blake and others, 2013). Hurricane Sandy caused severe 

loss of property as a result of severe winds, storm surge, 

and the associated coastal flooding; dramatically altered 

the physical structure of barrier islands, coastlines, dunes 

and berms, and coastal vegetation; and significantly altered 

natural ecosystems, including National Parks and National 

Wildlife Refuges. Although the impacts to coastal areas 

were severe, riverine-based inland flooding was much 

less than anticipated as a result of inland precipitation in 

amounts less than forecast. The alterations to the current coastline throughout the impacted area significantly 

increased the region’s vulnerability to future storm events, 

posing new risks to communities and ecosystems. The 

legacy of debris and disturbance is a potential persisting 

threat to environmental quality. The disruption of natural 

ecosystems puts the recovery of local habitats and associated wildlife in question. Furthermore, efforts to design 

coastal communities for long-term resilience are hampered 

by a lack of understanding of potential trends in the frequency and intensity of tropical storms. 
Many ocean front homes were destroyed or severely damaged 

during Hurricane Sandy. The photograph shows what remains 

of houses in the community of Davis Park on Fire Island, New 

York (photograph by Cheryl Hapke, U.S. Geological Survey). See 

photographs taken before and after Hurricane Sandy along the 

coasts of New York and New Jersey at http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/

hurricanes/sandy/photo-comparisons/.

4 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

USGS Roles and Responsibilities

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) serves the Nation by 

providing reliable scientific information to describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral 

resources; and enhance and protect our quality of life (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 2013a). The USGS has played a significant 

role in the response to a wide range of natural and anthropogenic disasters including hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic 

eruptions, floods, droughts, wildfires, industrial accidents, acts 

of terrorism (the World Trade Center catastrophe), and pandemics (avian influenza). The USGS has responded to every 

major hurricane for almost two decades, including Hurricane 

Katrina, and continually is improving USGS pre- and poststorm response. The USGS can play an important supporting 

role to local, State, and Tribal governments, as well as to other 

Federal agencies by providing scientific information on the 

factors that affect the impacts of, and coastal vulnerability to, 

large storms and other coastal disasters. The USGS also can 

help ensure that real-time and other data-collection networks 

are nationally consistent and suitable for integrated assessment 

and prediction of storm behavior and impact. USGS information, expertise, and capabilities provide a significant scientific 

resource to disaster responders, resource managers, and the 

public.

Immediate USGS Storm Response

Recognizing the significant threats posed by Hurricane 

Sandy, the USGS mobilized before the storm’s landfall and 

initiated data gathering and research to support the Nation’s 

scientific needs (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013b). Before and 

during the storm, the USGS provided forecasts of potential 

coastal change (figs. 2 and 3); collected oblique aerial photography of pre-storm coastal morphology (land and submerged 

elevations); conducted lidar aerial topographic surveys of 

“The data provided by the USGS tide gages that 

were placed along the Connecticut coastline 

prior to the landfall of Hurricane Sandy provided 

extremely valuable information on tide levels during 

the storm. The data downloaded from the USGS 

gages after Hurricane Sandy has greatly aided 

Connecticut in determining the return frequency 

for a hurricane like Sandy and also confirmed that 

Sandy was a record-breaking storm for much of the 

coastline. In addition, this data will help local planners and architects during the rebuilding process to 

mitigate losses from future storm events.” 

Douglas Glowacki, Emergency Management 

Program Specialist, Connecticut Department of 

Emergency Services and Public Protection.

coastal beaches, barriers, and communities; and issued a 

landslide alert for landslide prone areas in Maryland, Delaware, northeastern Virginia, and southern Pennsylvania as a 

result of forecasts of heavy rainfalls (U.S. Geological Survey, 

2013c). In addition, the USGS deployed 143 storm-surge sensors, 8 rapid-deployment streamgages, 9 wave sensors, and 

63 barometric pressure sensors. Tidal Telemetry Networks in 

New York and New Jersey (supported by partnerships with 

stakeholders and maintained and operated by the USGS) and 

rapid-deployment streamgages provided real-time information from 46 locations along and near the coast to emergency 

responders about rising coastal water levels in bays and inlets 

and the associated threat to emergency evacuation routes. 

Real-time streamgages provided information on river levels 

rising as a result of inland flooding and storm tide. Real-time 

water-quality monitors provided information on basic changes 

in water quality, including encroachment of saline waters.
Introduction 5

USGS Roles and Responsibilities Related to Disasters

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) issues warnings of potential volcanic hazards 

to emergency-management authorities and the public in threatened areas. Noxious 

volcanic gas emissions have caused widespread lung problems. Airborne ash clouds 

have disrupted the health, lives, and businesses of hundreds of thousands of people; 

caused millions of dollars of aircraft damage; and nearly brought down passenger 

flights. The photograph (USGS) shows the Redoubt Eruption, 2009.

The USGS provides information products for earthquake loss reduction, including 

hazard and risk assessments, comprehensive real-time earthquake monitoring, and 

public outreach. The graphic shows an Internet-based, interactive earthquake mapping tool that enables the public to map recent earthquakes. The size of the square 

is proportional to the intensity of the earthquake, and on this map range in intensity 

from 2.5 to 7.8 on the Richter Scale. The earthquake mapping tool is available on the 

Internet at http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/.

USGS is assessing the potential environmental health threats associated with wildfires. Hazardous materials released to the environment when buildings and other 

structures burn can pose a health risk from contaminant exposures in air, soil, and 

water. The photograph (USGS) shows USGS scientists collecting samples of ash and 

burned soil after the 2010 Fourmile Canyon Fire, near Boulder, Colorado.

The USGS responded to the Deepwater Horizon well failure in April 2010 in numerous ways, including identifying chemical and biological changes that may have been 

caused by the arrival of crude oil product and the associated health risks. The photograph, courtesy of Shane Stocks, USGS, shows USGS scientists collecting samples 

at beach sites in the Gulf of Mexico. Samples collected before and after petroleumassociated product arrived on shore were analyzed for inorganic and organic chemicals, benthic invertebrates, and oil and microorganism fingerprints.

Beginning in April 26, 2012, the Boise River reached flood stage. The photograph 

shows USGS hydrologic technicians installing a rapid deployment streamgage on 

the U.S. Highway 95 bridge near Parma, Idaho. Three rapid deployment streamgages 

were installed on bridges on the Boise River (near Eagle, Star, and Parma). These 

streamgages provided additional information on water levels and streamflow to emergency response teams in ungaged areas. Photograph courtesy of Tim Merrick, USGS.

The USGS plays an important role in understanding the role of migratory and other 

wild birds in the epidemiology of Avian Influenza. USGS scientists and their partners 

use satellite telemetry to track movements of waterfowl and shorebirds to help monitor migration patterns of wild birds and the associated potential pathways for the 

spread of Avian Influenza. The photograph, courtesy of John Takekawa, USGS, shows 

a bar-headed goose (Anser indicus) being released in Koonthankulum Sanctuary, 

India, equipped with a miniaturized global positioning system satellite transmitter.
A

B

C

6 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

Figure 2. Forecast of the probability of collision (wave erosion of dune fronts), overwash (waves wash over dunes and 

transport sand inland), and inundation (beach and dunes are completely submerged with potential inlet formation) along 

the sandy beaches of Long Island, New York (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013d). Figure 3 provides photographs of examples 

of collision, overwash, and inundation.

Figure 3. U.S. Geological Survey oblique aerial photography depicting 

examples created by Hurricane Sandy of A, collision in a typical post-storm 

beach in undeveloped areas, central Fire Island, New York; B, overwash into 

marsh in eastern Fire Island, New York; and C, inundation (inlet formation) in a 

breach in eastern Fire Island, New York.

Probability of coastal 

erosion, in percent

EXPLANATION

0 to 10

>10 to 20

>20 to 30

>30 to 40

>40 to 50

>50 to 60

>60 to 70

>70 to 80

>80 to 90

>90 to 100
Introduction 7

USGS Contributions in Response to Recent Hurricanes

Hurricanes generate powerful storm surges, waves, and currents capable 

of moving large amounts of sand, destroying buildings and infrastructure, 

and reshaping our Nation’s coastline. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) hurricane science focuses on understanding the magnitude and variability 

of the impacts of hurricanes and extreme storms on the coastal barriers 

and communities of the United States. The USGS provides capabilities for 

monitoring storm surges; assessing hurricane damage; quantifying the 

processes that control inundation and erosion; improving capabilities to 

forecast, and forecasting coastal change resulting from severe storms; 

and providing information to support emergency response and management of coastal infrastructure, natural resources, and public safety.

Oblique aerial photographs of Chandeleur Islands before and after 

Hurricane Isaac. The yellow arrow in each image points to the same 

feature. The view is looking west from over the Gulf of Mexico across 

the oil-protection berm in the pre-Isaac photo to a remnant part of the 

Chandeleur Islands (arrow). The berm in this area appears to have 

completely eroded during Isaac.

Lidar topographic mapping for a portion of Core Banks, North Carolina, before 

(August 11–15, 2009) and after (August 28, 2011) Hurricane Irene shows changes 

caused by the storm. In these images, the Atlantic Ocean is on the bottom, 

and color shading indicates elevation—from red which indicates topographic 

highs to blue which indicates topographic lows. The difference image shows 

over 1 meter of vertical erosion in the beaches that were breached. Here, red 

indicates maximum erosion. Areas shaded in orange and red on the seaward 

side of the islands indicate wide-spread shoreline retreat. Blue shows areas of 

maximum accretion, such as overwash deposits where waves and surge have 

moved sand landward.

August 8, 2012: Pre-Hurricane Isaac

September 2, 2012: Post-Hurricane Isaac

Flooding from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in August and September 2005 left 

behind thick accumulations of sediments on streets, lawns, parking lots, and 

other surfaces in the greater New Orleans and Slidell, Louisiana, area. Concerns that contamination by pathogens and chemicals in these sediments might 

pose a health risk motivated USGS to characterize contamination in these 

hurricane flood sediments (Plumlee and 

others, 2007). The photograph (USGS) 

shows a USGS scientist collecting sediment data for chemical and microbiological analysis. Data on lead concentrations in sediments were used to 

inform emergency responders, cleanup 

workers, and local residents of possible 

exposure risks. Also, benzopyrene and 

to a lesser extent the organochlorine 

pesticide dieldrin were measured 

above U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency soil-screening criteria.

Pre-storm

Post-storm

Difference
0 1 2 3 MILES

Base from Esri World Street Layer, 2013 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS

U.S. Geological Survey

streamgaging station 

01311143

8 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

Data from real-time monitor Hog Island Channel 

at Island Park, New York (U.S. Geological Survey 

station 01311143), showing A, water elevation; and 

B, turbidity. The impact of Hurricane Sandy late of 

October 29, 2012 is readily apparent.

In the immediate aftermath of the storm, over 160 USGS 

personnel from offices across the Nation (including Georgia, 

South Carolina, North Carolina, and Ohio) were deployed 

to collect essential environmental data and service datacollection instrumentation (figs. 4 and 5). Over 830 high-water 

marks were identified, defining the extent and depth of the 

storm surge, and helping to quantify the factors that control 

inundation and to improve storm-surge models that will help 

prepare for future storms and guide redevelopment efforts. 

River water-quality samples were collected by field crews to 

identify potentially harmful changes in water quality. Poststorm lidar surveys from North Carolina to New York documented storm impacts to coastal barriers informing response 

and recovery, and providing a baseline to assess vulnerability 

of the reconfigured coast (fig. 6). Imagery products including satellite remote sensing and aerial photography from 

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) and the Civil Air Patrol were posted promptly on the 

USGS Hazard Data Distribution System (HDDS) on a daily 

basis (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013e) (fig. 7). USGS data 

and information are accessible as soon as available from the 

Internet (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013d). The USGS Coastal 

Storm Team responsible for immediate post-storm response 

was deactivated on November 6, 2012. On November 2nd, 

the Director formed a Science Team to coordinate continuing 

USGS activities with other agencies and to develop a science 

plan for continued data collection and analysis intended to 

help guide recovery and restoration efforts. This document is 

that science plan.

“The coastal impact assessment products provided by the USGS have been a critical resource 

for us on the Federal team to help identify and 

prioritize impact-related data collection, issue 

identification and resource evaluation.” 

Sandy Eslinger, NOAA, and Coastal Coordinator 

for the New York Interagency Natural and Cultural 

Resources Recovery Team.

“USGS efforts to measure pre- and post-storm 

Sandy water levels in the bays and water velocity in the breach at Old Inlet has been a help in 

answering questions regarding the impact of 

breaches through the barrier islands. The USGS 

has also been helpful in flying lidar to demonstrate 

storm impacts and measuring high-water marks 

on the mainland, which will allow us to understand 

the flooding impact...so that we can use [this 

information] to help define the areas that were 

compromised and follow with identification of 

assets at risk and options for risk reduction.” 

Fred Anders, New York Department of State, 

Division of Coastal Resources.

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

-2

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

A

B

Elevation of water surface, in

feet above National Geodetic

Vertical Datum of 1929

Oct. 25,

2012

Oct. 26,

2012

Nov. 1,

2012

Oct. 31,

2012

Oct. 30,

2012

Oct. 29,

2012

Oct. 28,

2012

Oct. 27,

2012

Turbidity, in formazin nephelometric units
Introduction 9

Figure 4. Photographs showing permanent real-time water-level monitoring station, Barnegat Bay, at Waretown, New Jersey, 

A, before and B, after Hurricane Sandy (U.S. Geological Survey). The New Jersey and New York Tidal Telemetry Networks have 38 fixed 

stations in estuaries and bays, and are supported jointly by the U.S. Geological Survey and other Federal, State, and local governments.

Figure 5. A U.S. Geological Survey scientist recovering a 

stormtide water-level sensor along the Hudson River in Hoboken, 

New Jersey (photograph by Kerry A. Caslow, U.S. Geological 

Survey).

A. Before Hurricane Sandy B. After Hurricane Sandy
A

B

10 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

Figure 7. Aerial photographs of the Mantoloking area of New 

Jersey, taken A, before; and B, immediately following Hurricane 

Sandy, showing dramatic storm damage, coastal erosion, and inlet 

formation (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

2013). The post-storm photograph was taken before restoration 

activities had begun.

Figure 6. Comparison of pre- and post-storm elevation maps 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2013b) at Mantoloking, New Jersey 

before and after Hurricane Sandy (top and center panels 

respectively); the bottom panel shows elevation difference. Storm 

surge and waves eroded the beach and dunes and a breach cut 

through the approximately 250-meter-wide island, destroying 

houses and roads (see fig. 7). Overwash deposition occurred in 

many areas. This lidar survey was conducted immediately after 

the storm before the breach had been filled.
USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan 11

USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan

This plan supplements USGS response activities before 

and immediately after Hurricane Sandy. The data, information, 

and tools that are produced will: 

1. Further characterize impacts and changes, 

2. Guide mitigation and restoration of impacted communities and ecosystems, 

3. Inform a redevelopment strategy aimed at developing 

resilient coastal communities and ecosystems, 

4. Improve preparedness and responsiveness to the next hurricane or similar coastal disaster, and 

5. Enable improved hazard assessment, response, and recovery for future storms along the hurricane prone shoreline 

of the United States.

The activities outlined in this plan are organized in five 

themes based on impact types and information needs. Each 

theme, below, is introduced, followed by the stakeholder 

scientific needs and the USGS contributions to those needs. 

These USGS science themes are:

Theme 1: Coastal topography and bathymetry.

Theme 2: Impacts to coastal beaches and barriers. 

Theme 3: Impacts of storm surge and estuarine and 

bay hydrology. 

Theme 4: Impacts on environmental quality and 

persisting contaminant exposures. 

Theme 5: Impacts to coastal ecosystems, habitats, 

and fish and wildlife.

Hurricane forces and impacts are depicted in figure 8, 

which also reflects the organization and integration of USGS 

science activities in response to Hurricane Sandy as represented in these science themes. Improved coastal topographic 

and bathymetric data (theme 1) are fundamental to assessing 

and addressing the impacts described in themes 2 through 

5. These data provide an essential baseline for all hurricane 

impacts and the corresponding assessment and restoration. 

Themes 2 through 5 describe storm impacts that require 

characterization, process understanding, and development 

of forecasting capabilities to assess alternative restoration 

strategies. Studies associated with these four impact-related 

themes build upon each other; will draw on data, information, 

and knowledge from other themes; and will require coordination of scientists with expertise in each of the theme areas. For 

example, characterizing and assessing the impacts of storm 

surge will build on knowledge of coastal morphology. Defining impacts on environmental quality will rely on assessments 

and models of the redeposition of debris and disturbed contaminants and persisting changes in water circulation patterns. 

Finally, making an integrated assessment of the total effects of 

Hurricane Sandy on ecosystems will build on the information 

Figure 8. Types of hurricane forces and impacts, and reflecting the organization and integration of the U.S. Geological Survey 

science response to Hurricane Sandy.

Impacts

Extent, duration, and

intensity of the storm

surge, wind, and

precipitation

Forces

Physical impacts on

natural and built coastal

environments

Impacts of contaminant

mobilization on

environmental quality

Impacts on coastal

ecosystems—habitat

integrity, fish, and wildlife
12 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

and knowledge gained across all other themes, requiring an 

understanding of the interacting processes and factors. 

The contributions associated with each theme in the following sections were developed with input from other Federal 

agencies and stakeholders with which USGS commonly has 

longstanding relationships and ongoing cooperative science 

activities. More information is provided on stakeholder coordination later in this plan. The full effect of USGS efforts will be 

realized through coordination with other Federal agencies, and 

State, Tribal, and local governments, which will be engaged to 

ensure effective translation of USGS information and products 

to mitigation, restoration, and preparedness decisionmaking. 

USGS Science activities will receive input from the 

Department of Interior Strategic Sciences Group (SSG), 

formed by the Secretary in January 2012 to provide rapid, 

interdisciplinary scientific assessments during environmental 

crises or disasters affecting America’s natural resources. The 

SSG deployed a crisis science team to support the Hurricane 

Sandy Rebuilding Task Force and will help ensure that recovery efforts undertaken by the Department of the Interior (DOI) 

and its bureaus will be guided by the best available science 

and lessons learned from past events, including the Deepwater 

Horizon oil spill and Hurricane Katrina. 

Theme 1: Coastal Topographic and Bathymetric 

Data to Support Hurricane Impact Assessment 

and Response

The fundamental lesson of Hurricane Sandy, and prior 

catastrophic hurricanes, is that storm vulnerability is first and 

foremost a consequence of coastal elevation. The height at 

which infrastructure, resources, and communities sit in relation to average tides and water levels, storm waves, surge, and 

flood waters determines their exposure to overwhelmingly 

powerful damaging forces. Reliable, accurate, and accessible 

elevation information are priorities for communities anticipating impacts and preparing response strategies. Post-storm elevation also is critical for design of resilient and cost-efficient 

post-storm redevelopment. 

A key milestone in the National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan (National Ocean Council, 2012) calls for describing coastal and marine elevation throughout the United States 

and for improving coastal change analysis. The USGS 3D 

Elevation Program (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013f) initiative 

identifies the ambitious goal of improving the elevation data 

for the Nation to respond to governmental and private sector 

requirements. USGS will use the structure of the USGS 3D 

Elevation Program to advance the goal of improved elevation data leading, in part, to more resilient communities and 

improved natural landscape functions. Through improved 

information management and integrated information-access 

systems, this critical information will be readily and immediately available to address the long-term Hurricane Sandy 

response needs and for future use regardless of the need.

Stakeholder Science Needs

The U.S. Atlantic and Gulf coasts are vulnerable to hurricane impacts and lack the comprehensive integrated onshore/

offshore baseline elevation data required to fully support 

hazard mitigation policies, redevelopment planning, and emergency preparedness and disaster response. These baseline data 

need to be accurate, up-to-date, and readily available before a 

devastating hurricane impacts one of these coastal areas. PostHurricane Sandy data are needed to guide recovery activities, 

to assess impacts, to forecast increased coastal vulnerability, 

and to establish the new baseline for future events and decisions. Lidar elevation data are used to create advanced and 

highly precise elevation profiles of the coastal and near shore 

areas. Bathymetric lidar data are used to map changes in water 

depth in waterways and shallow bays, estuaries, and coastal 

areas. Lidar provides consistent and highly accurate information that is fundamental to numerous stakeholder needs.

The following Hurricane Sandy response needs will be 

directly supported with lidar based products:

• Assessment of coastal erosion, landscape change, and 

vulnerability;

• Assessment of effectiveness of infrastructure and natural features such as sand dunes for protecting built and 

natural landscapes;

• Design of restoration, redevelopment, and protection 

projects, including supporting building code development;

• Prediction of future hurricane storm surge and coastal 

and inland flooding;

• Assessment of persisting environmental threats from 

debris and disturbed contaminants;

• Inventory and assessment of wetland and agricultural 

land resources;

• Development of strategies for climate change adaptation from sea-level rise and other effects; and

• Assessments of dune, forest, and wetland benthic structure and ecosystem physical vulnerability.

USGS Contributions

Topographic surveys (lidar) for impact area assessment 

and reconstruction.—Post-Sandy elevation data within the 

Hurricane Sandy designated impact area will be collected 

where data do not exist or where existing data do not meet 

recovery, mitigation, and assessment requirements for priority watershed and ecosystem analyses. The new data will be 

integrated with other existing data and made available through 

the 3D Elevation Program. New data will be processed into 

improved elevation models. Areas with direct impacts and in 
Hurricane Sandy county

impact analysis

EXPLANATION

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

0 50 100 150 MILES

0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan 13

need of data to complete assessments and to support reconstruction activities will be priority targets for new surveys. 

The topographic surveys (lidar) will target coastal and directimpact areas (fig. 9). The Coastal National Elevation Dataset 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2013g) project builds bathymetric 

elevation data models and integrates them with the topographic elevation data models.

Establish a Hurricane Sandy Region Coastal National 

Elevation Database (CoNED).—Topographic and bathymetric (topobathymetric) elevation data from multiple sources 

will be processed and combined with the National Elevation 

Dataset to create a seamless and integrated CoNED within 

the Hurricane Sandy impact area. A regional topobathymetric 

elevation database (CoNED) and derivative products for the 

entire Hurricane Sandy impact region will be constructed. 

Derivative products include (1) a Hurricane Sandy sub-region 

elevation dataset with enhanced vertical accuracy within lowlying extreme inundation hazard zones, (2) high-resolution 

bare earth lidar datasets over vulnerable urbanized zones, (3) a 

multi-temporal topobathymetric database over geomorphically 

dynamic coastal sub regions, (4) hydrologically enforced and 

corrected topographic datasets for selected major river basins, 

and (5) maps that depict Hurricane Sandy impact region data 

gaps in elevation dataset coverage, age, and quality to guide 

coordinated interagency investments in coastal mapping.

Delivery systems for hazards, topographic, and bathymetric elevation data.—Hurricane Sandy data delivery capabilities 

will be improved to support requirements for hazards data and 

for new data collections to be delivered through the HDDS 

and the 3D Elevation Program applications. The HDDS model 

outputs and real-time data feeds will be used to provide rapid 

situational awareness. The HDDS area of interest model will 

employ geospatial analytics to identify those areas (for example, bridges, dams, critical infrastructure, and highly populated 

areas) that may warrant satellite monitoring. Post-event disaster imagery planning and acquisition for the HDDS will be 

expedited by combining near real-time hazard impact assessments with knowledge about populated areas. Data collection 

areas will be targeted during events. Aerial imagery, lidar, 

and other data can be quickly acquired. Overall, the result 

will be efficient and informed tasking of limited resources. 

The second component of this project will include 3D Elevation Program system improvements to provide access to raw 

lidar data and elevation data products from The National Map 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2013h) and the National Elevation 

Dataset. These data support immediate analysis of impacts to 

coastal and inland areas, for planning recovery and mitigation 

activities and for supporting site level engineering. 

Theme 2: Impacts to Coastal Beaches and 

Barriers

The Nation’s coast is fringed by beaches, dunes, barrier 

islands, wetlands, and bluffs. These natural coastal barriers 

provide the first defense to storm impacts and are critical factors to assessing the vulnerability of adjacent lands, waters, 

living resources, and people. The ability of these barriers 

to provide critical benefits and services, and to mitigate the 

impact of future storms, erosion, and sea-level rise, are critical 

determinants of storm impacts and should inform decisions on 

recovery and rebuilding.

Barrier islands line about one-half the U.S. coast, including most of the region impacted by Hurricane Sandy. The 

evolution of these landforms is affected by natural processes, 

human development and other actions, natural trends such as 

climate change and sea-level rise, and storm events, such as 

Hurricane Sandy. From North Carolina, through New York 

and Massachusetts, Sandy’s waves and surge eroded and 

overtopped protective dunes and beaches; transported sand 

(overwash) inland across roads, wetlands, and property; and 

breached barrier islands, thereby isolating communities. The 

post-Sandy barrier system is vastly different than that which 

existed prior to the storm. The “new” barrier landscape that 

will determine our vulnerability to future storms is yet to be 

established and will depend largely on actions taken in the 

coming months and years through the recovery and rebuilding 

phases. The Hurricane Sandy impact region includes developed and undeveloped areas, highly urbanized and commercial properties, infrastructure critical to human protection 

and economic viability, and natural systems that help protect 

Figure 9. The Federal Emergency Management Agency 

Modeling Task Force Hurricane Sandy Impact Analysis is 

being used as a guide for resource investments in science to 

support recovery and resilience, including where to conduct 

additional post-storm lidar elevation surveys (Federal Emergency 

Management Agency, 2013).
Probability of coastal

erosion, in percent

EXPLANATION

0 to 10

>10 to 20

>20 to 30

>30 to 40

>40 to 50

>50 to 60

>60 to 70

>70 to 80

>80 to 90

>90 to 100

Collision

Overwash

Inundation

Collision

Overwash

Inundation

A

B

14 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

development and environmental capital, such as National 

Parks and National Wildlife Refuges. The USGS has a 

sustained national program to understand and forecast the vulnerability of coastal beaches, wetlands, and barrier islands to 

storm impacts and the other factors that affect their evolution.

Stakeholder Science Needs

Emergency responders and coastal managers need assessments of the potential impacts of future storms on coastal 

beaches and barriers, access to credible forecasts of the effects 

of recovery and mitigation actions and future development on 

coastal vulnerability and resilience, and knowledge to identify 

the areas most vulnerable to impacts of future storms so as 

to effectively direct response and recovery resources before 

and in the immediate aftermath of storms. Forecasts of coastal 

vulnerability of a generic storm similar to Hurricane Sandy 

done immediately before Hurricane Sandy, and shortly after 

Figure 10. Comparison of forecasts of the probability of coastal 

impacts (collision, overwash, and inundation) for portions of Fire 

Island, New York, due to a storm like Hurricane Sandy; A, made 

prior to Hurricane Sandy using pre-storm coastal topography 

and bathymetry; and B, made shortly after Hurricane Sandy using 

post-storm coastal topography and bathymetry (U.S. Geological 

Survey, 2013d). The pre-storm forecast indicated that 20 percent 

of the shoreline was likely to overwash, with a narrow band of 

shoreline vulnerable to inundation. After the loss of protective 

dunes, beaches, and vegetation, the post-storm forecast shows 

that 70 percent of the shoreline is now likely to overwash. The 

area vulnerable to inundation also increased substantially.

the storm using post-storm coastal topography and bathymetry 

are compared in figure 10. The results indicate significant 

increase in coastal vulnerability after the storm. In order to 

make effective decisions coastal managers and planners need 

knowledge of the current and future extent, configuration, and 

evolution of coastal barrier systems to understand how coastal 

vulnerability evolves as a consequence of barrier response to 

future storms and sea-level rise, and the information and tools 

to evaluate the efficacy and sustainability of alternative barrier 

development, post-storm recovery, and engineering scenarios. 

Recognizing that coastal barriers impact the vulnerability 

and health of adjacent resources and communities, coastal 

managers and planners need information and tools to protect 

and preserve the health and resilience of coastal landscapes, 

waters, communities, resources, and habitats impacted by the 

condition of coastal barriers. This information can be used to 

ensure that management strategies for coastal resources reflect 

the influence and likely future state of coastal barriers and to 
USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan 15

support decisions on the management of beach and barrier systems consistent with objectives for the broader interconnected 

coastal system. Coastal managers need to know how offshore 

sand mining, changes in the physical structure of islands and 

coastlines, and changes in coastal vegetation will affect vulnerability to future storms and sea-level changes.

USGS Contributions

Pre- and post-storm mapping of coastal impacts and 

vulnerability.—The USGS will process all available topography and bathymetry data collected by the USGS. The information will be used to assess coastal impacts, to provide digital 

interpretive products that document coastal change (overwash 

and debris distribution, dune/beach loss, physical habitat 

modification, channel migration and elevation change), and 

to characterize the post-storm condition of coastal resources. 

Improvements in existing hardware and software will ensure 

that capacity for rapid provision of data, products, and assessments is enhanced prior to future storm events. 

Develop coastal impact forecast models.—The USGS 

will provide updated vulnerability assessments of mid-Atlantic 

and northeastern United States beaches to future impacts from 

“model” storms, and identify areas vulnerable to extreme, 

potentially catastrophic, erosion during landfall. Historic rates 

of shoreline retreat will be updated and the impact of previous storms on the beaches in the region, including magnitudes 

of shoreline, dune, and beach erosion, will be quantified. The 

efficacy of proposed and alternative rebuilding efforts (such as 

dune restoration) will be evaluated. The data from Hurricane 

Sandy and past storms will be used to improve the accuracy 

and impact of the coastal change forecasts. National Climate 

Assessment scenarios for future sea-level rise will be incorporated into vulnerability assessments. Social, economic, 

and infrastructure/critical facility elements will be added to 

assessments to facilitate dialogue on societal risk and decision 

making to reduce risk.

Provide web access and delivery of coastal impact 

assessments and data.—The USGS will create an online portal 

for data and tools to assess coastal change vulnerability and 

apply USGS data and analyses to immediate and specific 

needs. The portal will provide direct access for coastal stakeholders to assessments of potential storm and sea-level change 

impacts on our Nation’s coasts, as well as tools to assess rates 

of shoreline change and probabilities of erosion during storms 

and because of long-term sea-level rise. The USGS Digital 

Shoreline Analysis System (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013i), 

the community-standard for estimating rates of shoreline 

change, will serve as the framework for an expanded coastal 

change hazards portal. 

Coastal wetland physical change assessment.—Existing 

USGS coastal vulnerability assessments and forecasts will 

be enhanced to include wetland-dominated coastlines present 

along coastal barriers and bays, increasing the availability of 

decision-support tools for restoration and recovery of coastal 

ecosystems and adjacent communities and infrastructure. 

Linking coastal processes and vulnerability, Fire Island 

regional study.—The USGS will conduct targeted studies on 

the Fire Island barrier system to (1) quantify how offshore 

sand resources suitable for recovery efforts were impacted 

by Hurricane Sandy; (2) monitor ocean currents, waves and 

sediment transport; (3) collect geophysical data to assess 

sediment availability for post-storm recovery; (4) establish 

linkages between nearshore geology, ocean processes, and 

island response; and (5) build models that predict the coastal 

response to oceanographic forcing, assess vulnerability of 

natural and built portions of the barrier system, and predict 

barrier island evolution. 

Linking coastal processes and vulnerability, Assateague 

Island regional study.—The USGS will map the regional geologic framework and identify the physical processes governing the evolution of the Delmarva coastal system, including 

valuable DOI assets that experienced significant Hurricane 

Sandy impacts. Activities include assessment of (1) coastal 

and estuarine shoreline erosion; (2) formation, quantity, and 

potential consequences of using offshore sand for beach and 

dune restoration; (3) factors that affect barrier island and inlet 

stability and estuarine water circulation; (4) sea-level change 

history and future impacts on barrier islands, beaches, and 

wetlands; (5) coastal habitat extent and quality; and (6) models 

describing sediment erosion, transport, and deposition, and 

coastal vulnerability as a consequence of storm events, longterm sea-level rise, and management actions.

Estuarine assessment.—The USGS will provide 

(1) topographic-bathymetric maps of estuarine-barrier island 

systems; (2) maps of sediment movement before and after 

storms; (3) maps of pre- and post-storm habitat quality; 

(4) maps of inundation risk under barrier-island breaching 

scenarios; (5) sea-level rise scenario mapping of wetland stability; and (6) assessments of changing ecosystem and coastal 

community vulnerability under future conditions. Specific 

locations and relevant issues include:

• Raritan Bay, New Jersey: Assessment of contaminated 

sediment redistribution,

• Barnegat Bay, New Jersey: Assessment of disturbance 

to seagrass habitat and flushing under storm conditions,

• Great South Bay, New York: Assessment of coastal 

inundation under breaching scenarios, and

• Chincoteague Bay, Maryland/Virginia: Assessment of 

wetland development under storm and sea-level rise 

scenarios.
0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

Peak storm tide,

in feet

EXPLANATION

0.0 to 4.0

4.1 to 6.0

 6.1 to 8.0

8.1 to 12.0

12.1 to 19.5

16 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

Theme 3: Impacts of Storm Surge, Including 

Disturbed Estuarine and Bay Hydrology

The storm surge created by the winds and waves of Hurricane Sandy was the primary driver of coastal community 

destruction and dramatic changes in the coastal and nearcoastal environment. The energy of the surge caused physical 

changes to the landscape and the landward extent of the surge 

transported saline waters, sediment, and debris to ecologically sensitive environments that are rarely impacted by ocean 

effects. Upon approach to the coast, the combination of the 

surge’s arrival with the tide of a full moon created a storm 

tide (the combined rise in water elevation from both tide and 

storm surge) that attained a peak of over 19 feet, an elevation 

not observed in the last 100 years (fig. 11). Although models 

predicting the level of the storm tide at the coast generally 

were accurate, predictions of the extent, depth, and severity of 

the storm tide as it moved inland were based almost entirely 

on topographic features and land surface elevation. The 

observed distribution of the storm tide across the land surface 

was not uniform; in several instances, the impacts of the storm 

tide were higher than expected, illustrating the critical need 

for a better understanding of how storm surge and landscape 

features interact to dissipate or increase storm impacts.

Stakeholder Science Needs

Delivering storm tide monitoring data in an easily 

accessible manner and as rapidly as possible is critical to the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), other 

emergency agencies, and local emergency responders. Realtime information is needed to inform emergency responders 

of inundation of evacuation routes and critical infrastructure. Following an event, processing and delivery of USGS 

quality-assured surge data will allow surge modelers within 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to improve 

forecast and planning models. Emergency managers, first 

responders, and community planners require reliable forecasts 

of the extent, depth, and energy of storm surge as it moves 

inward along the landscape; greatly increased real-time and 

near-real-time situational awareness; and more timely and 

accurate post-storm flood and damage assessments. Coastal 

community planners need better tools to assess flooding risks 

and mitigation strategies. Ocean scientists and engineers need 

substantially improved data on storm surge and other processes to better calibrate storm-surge and water-circulation 

models to improve forecast models and, through them, the 

ability of responders to safeguard life and property. 

USGS Contributions

Storm-surge response and data collection.— Current 

real-time capabilities are available in only a small fraction 

of available sensors. In addition, providing field support and 

deploying USGS sensor equipment from existing USGS 

Storm Tide Center locations in Atlanta, Georgia; Orlando, 

Florida; and Ruston, Louisiana (the existing USGS Storm 

Tide Centers); is challenging during storm events impacting 

the mid-Atlantic and northeastern United States or in situations of multiple impending storms. A Storm Tide Center will 

be established in the northeastern United States with adequate 

equipment and trained staff to improve dramatically the USGS 

response to hurricanes, nor’easters, and other significant 

storms impacting the mid-Atlantic and northeastern United 

States. The USGS will also enhance the national USGS stormsurge support network by increasing the number and mobility 

of water-level and water-quality sensors in staging areas for 

rapid deployment to areas forecast to be vulnerable to storm 

surge, and increase the amount of real-time and near-real-time 

storm-surge data that are available to emergency responders 

by increasing real-time sensors capacity.

Storm tide monitoring networks and data analysis.—

The USGS will refurbish and enhance fixed-station, rapiddeployment, storm tide networks to facilitate more efficient 

deployment and recovery of sensors to support monitoring 

Figure 11. Peak stormtide elevations compiled from deployed 

storm surge sensors and high-water marks identified and 

surveyed immediately post storm. The map was generated using 

the U.S. Geological Survey Hurricane Sandy Storm Tide Mapper, 

an online tool for mapping a range of hurricane-related data and 

information (U.S. Geological Survey, 2013j).
USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan 17

and forecast updates. Fixed-place rapid-deployment storm 

tide monitoring networks will be established using a combination of long-term tide gages and rapid-deployment sensors in 

predetermined locations to measure the extent and magnitude 

of storm tide, wave heights, and meteorological parameters. 

The USGS will (1) pre-establish (including elevation surveying to a datum) fixed-place deployable sensor locations; (2) fill 

gaps in storm tide networks along the United States Atlantic 

coast identified by stakeholders to meet local response data 

needs, and systematically reduce storm-surge forecast model 

uncertainty; (3) establish the capability to deploy rapidly a 

network of sensors to meet water-level, flow, and quality data 

needs, and observe water and wind interaction with built structures and natural features during emergency situations; and 

(4) collect water velocity and directional data during storms in 

selected areas along the coast to improve the definition of bay, 

estuary, and river channel flows.

Storm-surge data recovery and delivery.—The USGS will 

(1) increase the efficiency of data recovery and processing by 

modifying software, procuring rugged data-retrieval hardware, 

Real-Time Network Global Positioning System (RTN GPS) 

surveying equipment, and acquiring wireless connectivity; 

(2) improve data analysis, delivery, and the display system 

used to provide real-time and recovered data to emergency 

responders, community planners, forecasters, modelers, and 

the public; (3) improve the data delivery and display systems 

by developing field crew applications that feed mapper and 

web services directly; and (4) identify high vulnerability areas 

for deployment of real-time water-level and water-quality sensors. Storm-surge data will be linked with GIS tools permitting 

rapid analysis of storm-surge data.

Storm tide data analysis and scientific understanding.—

The USGS will develop maps of flood levels and storm-surge 

inundation near key infrastructure and evacuation routes. 

Using a geographic information system, a tool will be developed to assess current storm-surge network design. The tool 

will be applied to improve the spatial resolution and density 

of storm-surge monitoring locations based on detailed coastal 

geomorphology and desired storm-surge model uncertainty, 

and will be released for use by others with specific local-scale 

concerns. The USGS will collect water level, flow velocity, 

flow direction, bathymetric, and sediment transport data using 

traditional and emerging hydroacoustic techniques in areas 

of concern, including the area of breaches such as at the Fire 

Island National Seashore (fig. 12), and at damaged ecological 

areas, such as at the E.B. Forsythe and Chincoteague National 

Wildlife Refuges, to identify the hydrologic mechanisms 

that caused the damages and assist the National Park Service 

(NPS) and the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) with evaluating the relative effectiveness of alternative restoration plans. 

Figure 12. U.S. Geological Survey scientists taking an acoustic measuring flow velocity profile in new inlet formed during Hurricane 

Sandy on Fire Island, New York (U.S. Geological Survey). The scientists are using a remote control Acoustic Velocity Current Profiler.
18 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

“Given the large scale failures in wastewater 

management, extensive damage to homes, vehicles 

(boats and cars) and businesses, in addition to the 

widespread movement of water and sediment due to 

the storm, it is essential to better understand effects 

of the storm on human health and aquatic life, 

determine if and where remediation is needed and 

help plan for greater resiliency to minimize effects 

from future storms. The work proposed by the 

Department and partners, such as the USGS, related 

to identifying sources of contaminant exposures to 

biota and humans in aquatic environments, bottom 

sediments, soils, and debris, including extending the 

investigation to more persistent contaminants and 

their exposure pathways and receptor organisms, 

will advance this understanding and improve effectiveness in future resiliency planning and managing 

risks from future storms.” 

Jill Lipoti, Ph.D., Director, Division of Water Monitoring and Standards, New Jersey Department of 

Environmental Protection.

Theme 4: Impacts on Environmental Quality, 

Including Exposure to Chemical and Microbial 

Contaminants

Low-elevation coastal areas impacted by storm-surge or 

river-floodwater damage are vulnerable to a range of chemical and microbial contamination issues. Contaminants can be 

mobilized and transported from disturbed sediments and damaged infrastructure and relocated in sediments and waters producing an increased risk of both acute and chronic low-level 

human and ecological exposure. Other potential contamination 

sources include combined sewer overflows; debris from buildings, automobiles, and boats; inundated infrastructure such as 

gas stations, landfills, chemical storage facilities, and hazardous waste sites; and saline water intrusion in estuaries and on 

shorelines. During Hurricane Sandy numerous wastewater 

treatment facilities failed for prolonged periods, releasing raw 

sewage to the environment. Public health agencies advised 

the public to disinfect water and other materials; however, the 

persisting effect of such releases is undetermined, including in 

local recreational waters. Debris from the built environment 

may release toxic materials over prolonged periods. Alteration 

of bay and estuarine hydrodynamics can affect salinity levels, 

fisheries and shellfish habitat, and contaminant exposures. The 

quality of the substantial amount of disturbed sediments in 

terms of legacy contaminants is undefined. 

Stakeholder Science Needs

Resource managers are concerned with the health of 

coastal ecosystems that are sensitive to changes in salinity, 

excess nutrients, and toxic contaminants. Subtle changes in 

environmental quality can affect coastal wetland and bay 

habitats, plant communities, finfish and shellfish populations, 

threatened and endangered species, and reduce the associated 

ecosystem services.

Prioritization of environmental quality mitigation actions 

requires a comprehensive understanding of the contaminants 

mobilized by flooding and erosion during the storm and of 

potential short-term and long-term exposure risks from dusts, 

sediment, and waters. Most immediate recovery activities (for 

example, dewatering infrastructure, moving sand, mud, and 

other storm-related deposits and debris, and dredging) are 

designed to restore routine community functions, and are not 

designed to identify and mitigate risk of long-term contaminant exposures. Stakeholders need to know (1) how effective 

cleanup activities have been in reducing risks of contaminant 

exposures to humans and ecosystems, (2) if these activities 

have inadvertently created contaminant exposure pathways, 

(3) if exposure risks persist, and (4) how the contaminants 

originally were introduced to the environment. Stakeholders, 

including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

Oceans and Coastal Protection Division and National Estuary 

Program, the States of New York and New Jersey, the NPS, 

local governments, and utilities, have requested that the USGS 

undertake environmental contamination assessments in priority impacted estuaries. In some cases, these studies will build 

upon previous or ongoing USGS studies that serve to define 

pre-storm environmental quality. 

Knowledge of the long-term fate and health implications 

of hurricane-induced environmental contamination will inform 

decisions and inform development of appropriate strategies to 

anticipate, remediate, or otherwise respond to the contamination. An understanding of the sources of contaminants from 

Hurricane Sandy will inform redevelopment strategies that 

build resilience to future storms.

USGS Contributions

Ecological contaminant exposures: Characterize persisting risk of ecological exposure to storm-released contaminants 

and water-quality changes in coastal and aquatic environments.—The USGS will characterize sources and movement of 

contaminants, including emerging contaminants and endocrine 

disruptors in priority impacted estuaries, bays, and beaches. 

Studies will focus on high priority ecosystems as identified by 

stakeholders, such as Barnegat Bay, Jamaica Bay, South Shore 

Estuary Reserve Gateway National Recreation Area, Great 

South Bay, and the Peconic Estuary. Sampling sites will be 

identified based on information about redeposition of sediment 

and debris from the built environment from USGS studies 

in themes 1 and 3. Water and sediment chemistry data from 

pre-storm USGS studies will be compiled to define background environmental quality conditions. Ecological toxicity assessments will focus on chronic health endpoints such 
A B

C D

USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan 19

Characterizing Persisting Threats to Environmental Quality

Hurricane Sandy caused significant physical disruption of 

the natural and built environments. Many structures were 

destroyed, releasing contaminants from households and 

businesses, oil tanks, household and commercial chemicals. Numerous wastewater treatment facilities failed 

spilling untreated sewage into coastal waters for extended 

periods of time. The long-term effect of these contaminant 

releases is still unclear. The situation is significantly different from Katrina, which impacted a coastal zone that was 

largely sediment starved. In the northeastern United States, 

there is a need for rapid response to remove sand and 

water from homes, subways and other living areas, however contamination issues remain a concern. 

Impacts on the storm surge had devastating impacts on coastal communities 

potentially releasing contaminants from 

structures and vehicles. Photographs A

and B (before and after Hurricane Sandy) 

show damage to a marina in Normandy 

Beach, New Jersey. Photographs C and 

D (before and after Hurricane Sandy) 

show destruction of coastal structures at 

Lavallette, New Jersey.

The upper photograph shows control measures being taken 

in the Arthur Kill between Staten Island, New York and New 

Jersey, in response to an oil release caused by Hurricane 

Sandy (photograph courtesy of John Minchillo, Associated 

Press). Significant coastal flooding in major metropolitan 

areas can release contaminants to the environment. The 

lower photograph shows cars and debris in a flooded low 

area in New York City. (Photograph courtesy of European 

Pressphoto Agency)
20 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

nearby major urban and metropolitan areas in the Boston to 

Washington D.C. corridor. These habitats support social systems, economic and food security, environmental stability, and 

other ecosystem services.

As the DOI science agency it is essential that the USGS 

provide science to support assessment, response, recovery, and 

increased resiliency of these natural resources. Coastal managers of DOI lands have trust responsibilities under the Federal 

Endangered Species Act and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, as 

well as additional cooperative responsibilities with State and 

local authorities responsible for the protection of native, commercial, and recreationally harvested fish and wildlife species. 

Decision makers need to understand the long-term consequences of hurricane effects on wildlife and their habitats 

in order to effectively develop and implement conservation 

strategies. How animal species fared along the coast during 

Hurricane Sandy, and how their food supplies, habitats, and 

reproductive success may have been impacted, are all questions of importance. The information produced from posthurricane studies conducted by the USGS and partners will 

provide essential baseline and long-term support for coastal 

zone planning, conservation planning, resource management, 

hazard reduction, and risk mitigation in the wake of natural 

disasters such as Hurricane Sandy.

Stakeholder Science Needs

Managers and stakeholders need an integrated assessment 

of the multiple stressors imposed by Hurricane Sandy on the 

condition of coastal ecological resources including the impacts 

on habitat, vegetation, fish, and wildlife resources. The biota 

was exposed to both physical (ocean surge, tide, wind, sediment) and chemical (salinity extremes, pollutants) stressors. 

Resource health and survival will depend on the nature, magnitude, and duration of exposure to these stressors. 

Understanding where and why Hurricane Sandy has 

caused changes is critical information for managers seeking to 

efficiently and effectively protect and restore important coastal 

wetland and forest habitats, and protect trust species, particularly waterfowl and migratory birds. USGS scientists currently 

are conducting plant and animal studies in these environments 

and characterizing the processes that impact them to inform 

habitat restoration and future management. It is highly important to begin these assessments as soon as possible. Given the 

likely physical and chemical damage to wetland environments, 

especially near New Jersey and New York, the spring growing 

season of 2013 may well be in jeopardy, with potential consequences for coastal vulnerability if wetlands are not rejuvenating healthy root systems. 

as endocrine disruption, cancers, and immune suppression. 

Tissue analyses of targeted species also will be conducted to 

assess exposures and impact within the food web. The USGS 

will characterize contaminant cycling from source to mobilization to exposure pathways to biological uptake and effects. 

Modeling analyses will be employed to assess the long-term 

implications of contamination (such as determining if natural 

processes will mitigate contamination), and the overall impact 

on the affected ecosystems. Activities are being coordinated 

with local and state environmental agencies, USEPA, NOAA, 

and the NPS.

Human contaminant exposures: Characterize persisting 

risk of human exposure to storm-released chemical and microbial contaminants in the built environment.—The USGS will 

address human health risks that persist long after the storm. 

Studies will encompass a broad range of contaminant types 

that may persist in the environment into the future as normal 

human activities resume, and the associated potential chronic 

and sublethal effects. Studies will focus on characterizing 

human contaminant exposure pathways and the associated 

environmental media, such as residual sediments and dusts in 

the built environment, recreational waters, beach sediments, 

drinking water, and consumption of affected fish or shellfish. 

Potentially hazardous contaminants released from debris 

from the built environment and from sediments eroded and 

re-deposited by the surge; chemical and microbial contamination released or mobilized due to spills, storm surge, cleanup 

activities, and wastewater releases; or other Sandy-related 

impacts will be characterized. Remote sensing technologies 

will be used to identify and target contamination sites with 

high risk of human exposure. Processes that affect contaminant release (such as leaching from debris), transport and 

persistence (such as contaminant transformation by oxidation, 

volatilization, photo-oxidation, and biodegradation), biological uptake, and chemical fingerprinting to identify specific 

contamination sources will determine the need for mitigation 

actions. Activities are being coordinated with health agencies, 

including USEPA, National Institute of Environmental Health 

Science (NIEHS), and the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention (CDC).

Theme 5: Impacts to Coastal Ecosystems, 

Habitats, and Fish and Wildlife

The DOI is responsible for management of lands and 

species affected by Hurricane Sandy. These include approximately 30 National Wildlife Refuges and 6 National Parks and 

Seashores that provide critical habitat for migratory waterfowl 

and federally listed species; and coastal barriers that protect 

wetlands and coastal communities, and provide recreational 

opportunities for millions of visitors, including those from 
USGS Hurricane Sandy Science Plan 21

USGS Contributions

Assess storm impact to wetland integrity and stability to assist recovery decisions.—The USGS will document 

changes to mid-Atlantic and northeastern United States coastal 

wetlands using data from the Surface Elevation Table (SET) 

network currently maintained by USGS and public and private 

partners (fig. 13). Imagery, data from SETs, and marsh sediment cores will be collected to assess post-storm coastal marsh 

conditions. Trends in coastal lands and vegetation will be 

linked to the processes that contribute to system resilience or 

deterioration (loss of function). The Submergence Vulnerability Index will be used to assess wetland vulnerability to future 

sea-level rise and storm events. Field and remote mapping will 

be used to detect changes in structure and function of wetland marshes and submerged aquatic vegetation, and onset of 

latent wetland changes, such as marsh dieback. Multidecadal 

changes to the mid-Atlantic and northeastern United States 

coastline will be documented. An analysis of wetland processes (such as response to increased salinity) will be used to 

produce improved wetland vulnerability assessments. 

Assess storm impact to waterfowl and migratory birds to 

support conservation.—The USGS will document the impacts 

of Hurricane Sandy on coastal birds using historic and current 

data from the USGS, FWS, and others. Pre-storm and current 

bird population numbers will be defined; study sites will be 

established on public lands to define declining populations of 

secretive marsh and shore birds; radar (NEXRAD) and other 

field data (including satellite telemetry data) on migratory bird 

flight patterns pre- and post-storm will be gathered; changes 

in migratory stop-over habitats will be assessed; habitats, 

food sources, reproductive capacities, and phenology will be 

assessed; seasonal mean bird density will be calculated to 

establish a baseline of bird distributions; and wetland conditions and food supply for bird migration and breeding will be 

documented. Statistical analyses of stopover patterns, trends 

in bird distribution patterns using NEXRAD, and predictive models of the impact of major meteorological events on 

coastal bird migration will be provided.

Assess coast-wide storm impacts to forest habitats in 

National Parks and National Wildlife Refuges.—The USGS 

will delineate and classify coastal forest types and injury 

(based on forest condition, salt burn and mortality, species 

composition, woody debris and wrack deposits, flooding 

extent, and residual soil salinity) across the entire United 

States Atlantic seaboard for the more than 30 DOI National 

Parks and National Wildlife Refuges. Line transect surveys 

will capture degree and expression of windfall and surge 

damage on coastal maritime and tidal freshwater forests of 

the most impacted DOI assets. A coast-wide map product will 

delineate the various forest types and conditions of coastal 

forest affected by tides and storm surges and will be used for 

predicting forest recovery and for assessing and prioritizing 

alternatives for forest restoration. Forest resource vulnerability 

models that integrate climate change projections of increasing 

storm intensities and sea-level rise will be developed. Damage 

probability functions for select tree species will be developed 

and used to identify species tolerant to wind and salinity 

extremes.

Develop data-driven models and ecological monitoring 

networks to support recovery and resilience.—The USGS will 

develop models of storm impacts to vegetation and coastal 

morphology and forecast how alterations in barrier configuration and processes impact the location and health of wetlands 

(marshes and forests), submerged habitats, and ecosystem 

services. Models of impacts on vegetation composition, 

distribution, productivity, and landscape fragmentation will 

be developed. The USGS will provide data standards, visualization and analysis tools, and decision support tools to aid 

scientific research and resource management in the Hurricane 

Sandy impact region by building on existing networks such 

as the Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (LCCs) and the 

Chesapeake Bay Program. The USGS will develop a plan 

with DOI stakeholders to locate and integrate new Surface 

Elevation Table installations to provide an improved strategic 

sampling network for assessing wetland resilience. Forecasting the impacts of future hurricanes/storms will include: trend 

analysis of historical data of northeastern United States hurricanes/storms (intensity, frequency, and duration); numerical simulations of storm surge, salt water intrusion, sediment 

deposition, and erosion caused by future hurricanes/storms; 

and forecasts of the potential impacts of future storms on 

vegetation and morphology for coastal protection planning for 

effective restoration.

Figure 13. A U.S. Geological Survey scientist taking a reading at 

a Rod Surface Elevation Table (RSET) and establishing adjacent 

marker horizons (Don Cahoon, U.S. Geological Survey). The RSET 

is located in a salt marsh in Jamaica Bay, New York.
A U.S. Geological Survey scientist obtaining 

water-surface elevation data relative to a 

known reference elevation and deploying 

a stormtide sensor at SSS-CT-NLD-025 

Poquonock River at Avery Point, Connecticut, 

October 27, 2012 (photograph by Jonathan 

Morrison, U.S. Geological Survey).

22 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

Stakeholder Coordination and Communication

Communication with partners and stakeholders regarding science needs is essential for successful implementation 

of this plan. The USGS is widely acknowledged as a source 

of high-quality, objective, and unbiased scientific information; however, the best science has limited utility unless it is 

effectively disseminated and used to inform the highest priority decisions. A major emphasis in the implementation of this 

plan, therefore, will be on interacting with Federal Agencies; 

State, Tribal and local governments; and non-governmental 

organizations to better understand their specific data and information needs, to define the best way to make USGS products 

available, and to support applications of USGS science and 

expertise to decisionmaking. 

The USGS has coordinated with numerous other Federal 

agencies since before Hurricane Sandy, including FEMA, 

NOAA, USACE, NPS, FWS, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management (BOEM), USEPA, NIEHS, and CDC. Coordination efforts are building upon existing interagency relations, 

networks, and ongoing projects in all five of the USGS science 

themes in this plan. Existing interagency coordinating entities have been utilized by the USGS Sandy Science Team 

to identify priority science needs for inclusion in this plan. 

These entities include the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction 

(USGS co-chair), the Interagency Ocean and Coastal Mapping 

(IOCM) committee, the National Digital Elevation Program 

(NDEP), and the Stormtide Monitoring Workgroup (FEMA, 

NOAA, USACE, and USGS) of the Interagency Coordinating Committee on Hurricanes. The IOCM committee has met 

to develop coordinated plans for processing and delivery of 

merged topographic-bathymetric products. The NDEP coordinates collection of elevation data; members include USGS, 

FEMA, NOAA, DOI agencies, and other major players. The 

group has met multiple times since Hurricane Sandy and will 

continue to coordinate collection of elevation data. Furthermore, the USGS has representatives in both the New York and 

New Jersey Joint Field Offices (JFOs) and those representatives are currently meeting formally with States through the 

NDRF (National Disaster Response Framework) working with 

the DOI representative.

Much of this plan builds upon established stakeholder 

relationships and ongoing cooperative projects with State and 

local stakeholders. Examples include: (1) the New York and 

New Jersey Tidal Telemetry Networks, which is managed by 

the USGS and provides valuable real-time and historical information directly to local emergency managers and the public 

(such as when emergency evacuation routes are inundated); 

(2) studies of coastal processes and barrier island evolution in 

Great South Bay, New York; (3) studies of circulation, salinity, 

and toxic contaminants in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey (fig. 14); 

(4) studies of wetland evolution and sedimentation in coastal 

wetlands through the SET Program with NPS, FWS, The 

Nature Conservancy, and others; and (5) existing collaborative 

development of sea-level rise vulnerability tools with NPS, 

FWS, the LCCs, and Climate Science Centers (CSCs). The 

USGS is involved in many LCC activities and has integrated 

those activities and relationships into this plan. 

The USGS and NOAA are the designated lead agencies 

(Office of Management and Budget, 2010) for topographic 

(USGS) and bathymetric (NOAA) elevation data. These 

activities are being coordinated with other Federal agencies 

collecting and managing elevation data through the National 

Digital Elevation Program steering committee and the NSTC 

Interagency Working Group on Ocean and Coastal Mapping 
A. Residence time: base-case

-74.25 -74.2 -74.15 -74.1 -74.05

39.75

39.8

39.85

39.9

39.95

40

40.05

40.1

B. Residence time: breach-case

-74.25 -74.2 -74.15 -74.1 -74.05

Barnegat

Inlet

Barnegat

Inlet

Breach

location

X

Atlantic

Ocean

Atlantic

Ocean

Seaside

Heights

Seaside

Heights

0

10

20

30

40

Residence

time

(days) Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere-Wave Sediment Transport (COAWST) simulations by Zafer Defne and Neil Ganju, U.S. Geological Survey

Stakeholder Coordination and Communication 23

Figure 14. An existing U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) model of flow and water quality in Barnegat Bay, New 

Jersey, was used to predict the impact of inlet formation during Hurricane Sandy on residence time of water within 

the bay; A, pre-inlet formation; and B, post-inlet formation (Defne and Ganju, 2012). As a member of the Barnegat 

Bay Partnership, the USGS is conducting an investigation of bay circulation, water quality, and sediment quality 

and toxicity. The project supports Governor Christie’s Barnegat Bay 10-Point Action Plan (http://www.state.nj.us/

dep/barnegatbay/). USGS will use existing data from this study to evaluate how Hurricane Sandy impacted the Bay.

(IWG-OCM). A multi-agency (FWS, NPS, NOAA, USACE, 

States and others) coordination activity has been initiated to 

refine post-Sandy data collection priorities. As co-chair of 

the NSTC IWG-OCM, the USGS will ensure additional data 

collection and development of data processing and delivery 

capabilities is coordinated across agencies and reflects DOI 

interests. The USGS will continue to engage DOI bureaus, the 

NDRF response teams, and State agencies to refine specific 

project priorities during implementation.
24 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

Information Management and Accessibility

USGS Hurricane Sandy data and science products will 

be documented, easily accessible, and managed for long-term 

retention. An integrated data and information delivery system 

will be developed that provides “one-stop” accessibility to all 

USGS information relevant to recovery and restoration from 

Hurricane Sandy and resiliency and preparedness to future 

storms. All data and information products from this plan will 

be accessible through the Internet (U.S. Geological Survey, 

2013b), the appropriate technical contacts will be identified 

to enable effective technical support for the use of those data, 

and to gather information on additional data and information needs and how our information can be more effectively 

provided. Users of USGS information will be consulted to 

ensure the ease of access and usability of the delivery system. 

Examples of these data and information include analytical 

model outputs, physical samples and analyses, time series data 

(such as storm-surge elevation data), geo-located site data 

(such as locations and elevations of high-water marks), and 

other event-specific data. 

USGS science centers and other offices will provide for 

the effective management and distribution of these event datasets. Some data are collected to specifications already in place 

and managed as enterprise (Nationally managed) datasets. 

Elevation data (raw and processed, elevation models), imagery 

(large aerial flights), and stream-flow data are examples of 

USGS Nationally managed datasets. These datasets will be 

integrated and archived in USGS national data systems. The 

USGS Community for Data Integration is actively working 

to build a long-term strategy for addressing the complex data 

integration challenges for scientific data.

Boat in New Jersey damaged by Hurricane 

Sandy (photograph by Christopher J. Henry, 

U.S. Geological Survey).
U.S. Geological Survey scientists surveying high-water marks on Ellis Island (left) and Liberty Island (right), New York (photographs by 

Amy Simonson (left), and Michael Noll (right), U.S. Geological Survey).

References 25

References

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Sandy: National Weather Service, Tropical Cyclone Report, 

157 p.

Burkett, V.R., and Davidson, M.A., eds., 2012, Coastal 

impacts, adaptation and vulnerability—A technical input to 

the 2012 National Climate Assessment: Cooperative Report 

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Defne, Z., and Ganju, N.K., 2012, Effect of storm events and 

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26 Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A USGS Science Plan

Publishing support provided by the: 

Rolla Publishing Service Center

For more information concerning this publication, contact: 

USGS Natural Hazards Mission Area 

Mail Stop 905 

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

Reston, Virginia 20192

Or visit the USGS Hurricane Sandy Web site at: 

http://www.usgs.gov/sandy/

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Buxton and others—Meeting the Science Needs of the Nation in the Wake of Hurricane Sandy—A U.S. Geological Survey Science Plan—Circular 1390