GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

CIRCULAR 601-G 

Real-Estate Lakes 

REAL-ESTATE LAKES 
Real-estate lakes can increase the value and enjoyment of our urban outdoors. (Photograph by William A. Graham.) 
Real-Estate Lakes 

By David A. Rickert and Andrew M. Spieker 

WATER IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 

G E 0 l 0 G I C A l S U R V E Y C I R C U l A R 601-G 

Washington J 9 7J 
United States Department of the Interior 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary 

Geological Survey 

H. William Menard, Director 

First printing 1971 {1972) 

Second a·nd third printings 1972 

Fourth printing 1978 

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey 

1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, Va. 22202 
FOREWORD 

Urbanization-the concentration of people in urban areas and the 

consequent expansion of these areas-is a chara~teristic of our time. It has 

brought with it a host of new or aggravated problems that often make new 

demands on our natural resources and our physical environment. Problems 

involving water as a vital resource and a powerful environmental agent are 

among the most critical. These problems include the maintenance of both 

the quantity and quality of our water supply for consumption, for 

recreation, and general welfare and the alleviation of hazards caused by 

floods, drainage, erosion, and sedimentation. 

A prerequisite to anticipating, recognizing, and coping intelligently with 

these problems is an adequate base of information. This series of reports is 

intended to show the relevance of water facts to water problems of urban 

areas and to examine the adequacy of the existing base of water information. 

0!5 ,;(_ :/dh'ld~h) 

E. L. Hendricks, 

Chief Hydrologist 

CONTENTS 

Page Page 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G1 Planning of real·estate lakes-Continued 

Types and characteristics of real-estate lakes-What is Local or onsite considerations-Continued 

a real-estate lake? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Storm drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G8 

How real-estate lakes are made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Flooding and water-level maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

Purposes and uses of real-estate lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Jurisdictional, safety, and "people problems" . . . . . 9 

Climate and geography influence locations . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Management of real-estate lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 

Planning of real-estate lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 

Regional considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Soil sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 

"Blue-green" development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

Reclaiming abandoned quarries and Eutrophication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

pits-sequential development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Nature of the process.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

Polluted streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Control of nutrient sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

Site selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Treating the effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Local or onsite considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Sanitary quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Incompatibility of uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

Erosion and sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 "People problems" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

The problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Model for real-estate lake planning and management . . . . . 17 

Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Hydrologic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

Sediment disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

Debris and trash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

Domestic sewage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Selected references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Figure 1. Sediment accumulation, the most common problem of real-estate lakes, can turn lakes into mudflats . . . . . . . . . . . . G6 

2. Nutrients from sewage effluent contribute to the growth of aquatic weeds and greatly accelerate the aging of 

a lake................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 

3. Sediment removal is expensive; at Lake Barcroft, in Virginia, over one-third of a million dollars was spent in just 

10 years.................................................................................. 11 

4. Eutrophication-the process of aging by ecological change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

5. Hypothetical curve of eutrophication showing the effect of artificial enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

6. Schematic diagram of the concentration of DDT residues being passed along a simple food chain. The concentration 

increases with each link and is highest in the ultimate carnivore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

7. Schematic diagram of a basic lake planning and management model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

VII 

Water in the Urban Environment 

Real-Estate Lakes 

By David A. Rickert and Andrew M. Spieker 

INTRODUCTION 

Since the dawn of civilW!tion waterfront land has 

been an irresistible attraction to man. Throughout history he has sought out locations fronting on oceans, 

rivers, and lakes. Originally sought for proximity .to 

water supply and transportation, such locations are now 

sought more for their esthetic qualities and for recreation. Usable natural waterfront property is limited, however, and the more desirable sites in many of our urban 

areas have already been taken. The lack of available 

waterfront sites has led to the creation of many artificial 

bodies of water. 

The rapid suburbanization that has characterized 

urban growth in America since the end of World War II, 

together with increasing affluence and le-isure time, has 

created a ready market for waterfront property. Accordingly, lake-centered subdivisions and developments dot 

the suburban landscape in many of our major urban 

areas. Literally thousands of lakes surrounded by homes 

have materialized during this period of rapid growth. 

Recently, several "new town" communities have been 

planned around this lake-centered concept. 

A lake can be either an asset or a liaoility to a community. A clean, clear, attractively landscaped lake is a 

definite asset, whereas a weed-choked, foul-smelling 

mudhole is a distinct liability. The urban environment 

poses both problems and imaginative opportunities in 

the development of lakes. Creation of a lake causes 

changes in all aspects of the environment. Hydrologic 

systems and ecological patterns are usually most severely 

altered. The developer should be aware of the potential 

changes; it is not sufficient merely to build a dam across 

a stream or to dig a hole in the ground. Development of 

Gl 

a successful lake requires careful planning for site selection and design, followed by thorough and cc ntinual 

management. 

The purpose of this report is to describe the characteristics of real-estate lakes, to pinpoint potential pmblems, 

and to suggest possible planning and management guidelines for their solution. It is not intended as a construction manual nor is it intended to supplant on-site 

engineering planning. Rather, the report is an a'lpraisal 

of the wide range of potential water and water-related 

problems that arise in making real-estate lakes attractive 

visually and functional environmentally. It is wr:tten to 

acquaint developers, property owners, and citizen groups 

with these problems so that they may be more knowledgeable in seeking adequate planning. and engfneering 

advice. The report should also be useful to vario·.ts regulatory agencies because it relates lake problems to basic 

hydrologic components. 

Most of the general information in this rep'lrt was 

obtained from the 47 district offices of the: Water 

Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey. Detailed information on specific hydrologic problems came largely 

from a continuing study of the effects urbanization has 

had on real-estate lakes. Additional detailed info .. mation 

was provided by several short-term studies conducted by 

local Survey offices expressly for this report. 

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF 

REAL-EST ATE LAKES-WHAT IS A 

REAL-ESTATE LAKE? 

A real-estate lake, for the purposes of this rrport, is 

any body of water in the urban environment cr~ated or 

d~veloped for the enhancement of real-estate value. Most 
real-estate lakes were built in conjunction with urban 

development. Some, however, were in existence long 

before they became surrounded by urbanization. Many 

farm ponds have become real-estate lakes as urban 

sprawl has engulfed agricultural land. Water-supply reservoirs have on occasion been converted into real-estate 

lakes. Lake Barcroft in Fairfax County, Va., was formerly a reservoir for the Alexandria municipal water 

supply. In 1950 its usc for water supply was discontinued, and it was sold to a developer. The lake is now 

surrounded by high-quality residences, some of them 

valued at more than $100,000. 

Real-estate lakes may range in size from small ponds 

of an acre or less to considerably larger lakes, some 

measuring several hundred acres in area. The most 

common sizes range from 5 to 50 acres. Typical lakes are 

surrounded by single-family dwellings, usually on 

quarter-acre or half-acre lots, but some lakes are surrounded by a mixture of single-family units, townhouses, and apartments. Lake Anne at Reston, Va .. and 

Lake Kittamaqundi at Columbia, Md., are built as the 

focus of town activity and are surrounded by residential 

and commercial developments. 

A few real-estate lake developments are rather unusual 

departures from the common methods of development. 

The Washingtonian, a development north of Rockville, 

Md., consists of a high-rise apartment building located 

beside a small lake that is in the middle of a golf course. 

Four Lakes, an apartment complex west of Lisle, Ill., is 

built around four abandoned limestone quarries. The 

lakes are used for swimming, boating, and water skiing in 

summer and for ice skating in winter. 

HOW REAL-ESTATE LAKES ARE MADE 

A lake can be created by either of two means, or by a 

combination of the two. The most common way i~ to 

impound a stream with a dam. An impoundment requires some topographic relief, either natural or artificial 

(relief can be created in flat terrain by diking and 

filling). Impounded lakes abound in the suburbs of many 

cities which have humid climates and rolling or hilly 

terrains. This type of artificial lake is very common in 

the Washington-Baltimore area. 

In areas where terrain is flat and the water table is 

high, lakes can be created by excavating below the w~ter 

table. Many lakes have been developed from borrow lpits 

used for fill in highway construction or from abanddned 

gravel pits and rock quarries. Excavated lakes are most 

common in the flat glaciated terrain of the Midwest jand 

in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. · 

PURPOSES AND USES OF REALESTATE LAKES 

Real-estate lakes are created for three basic reasons: 

property value enhancement, esthetic attractiveness, 1and 

water-oriented recreation. In a sense the first reason 

underlies the other two. When any dev~~loper plans and 

builds a lake, he does so basically to increase the value of 

his property. Its value is increased largely as a result of 

.the added attractiveness and recreational opportunities. 

Furthermore, a lakeside residence has a certain "status 

value" in our society. 

Lakefront property indeed does have a higher monetary value than nonlakefront property (David, 1968). At 

Lakewood, a development near Des Moines, Iowa, for 

example, typical lake front homes sold for $25,000 to 

$35,000, and most of them were clo"e to the higher 

figure; similar homes located away from the lake sold for 

$17,500 to $25,000. The value or-a lakeside location to 

both the developer and the resident is self evident. 

A clear, blue lake surrounded by green forest and 

grass can be one of the most visually pleasing features·of 

the urban and suburban landscape. A lake provides a 

pleasing accent in the suburban .enviro'1ment, and with 

resourceful planning, it is possible to c~eate a lake with 

esthetic quality even in the urban environment. 

Water-oriented recreation has becc'lle increasingly 

popular in recent years as a result of incre-asing affluence 

and leisure time. Swimming, boating, fishing, and, in the 

winter. ice skating are some of the activities that lure 

potential homeowners to lake-centered communities. 

Because these activities are not always compatible, however, conflicts may develop which require some sort of 

control. In fact, intensive recreational use, such as large 

numbers of motorboats on a small lake, can detract from 

the very esthetic values which attracted many homeowners in the first place. 

CLIMATE AND GEOGRAPHY 

INFLUENCE LOCATIONS 

Real-estate lakes are not found in all parts of the 

United States. As a rule, they are confmed to the more 

humid parts of the country, that is, to those areas which 

receive an average of 30 or more inches of rainfall 

annually. They are virtually nonexistant in the arid 

Southwest. The greatest concentration is in the East and 

Midwest. Some are found on the West Coast. 

The few real-estate lakes found in California and other 

semiarid to arid environments are largely excavated 

water-table lakes. Impounded lakes are rare in these 

areas because of the scarcity of perenrial streams. Any 

impounded real-estate lake in such a climatic environment would probably be dry for more than half the 

year. Lake Lag unit a, an impounded lake of about ISO 

acres on Los Trancos Creek, Starford University 

Campus, Palo Alto, Calif., fills during the rainy winter 

season-from about December to March. During the 

spring it is used for such recreational activities as canoeing and sunbathing and hiking. By su~mcr, the lake is 

dry. Lake Lagunita is not, strictly ~peaki11g, a real-estate 

lake, but its regimen illustrates tl''! problems of 

G2 
impounded lakes in semiarid to arid areas having a pronounced pattern of seasonal rainfall. 

The abundance of natural lakes in certain areas of the 

United States, especially in northern New England, 

upper New York State, northern Michigan, Wisconsin, 

Minnesota, and Florida, provides sufficient natural lakes 

for real-estate development, so artificial lakes are seldom 

needed. Florida, however, also has an abundance of artificial lakes that have been built to fill the need created 

by the Floridian life style, which places heavy emphasis 

on recreation and the outdoor life. 

PLANNING OF REAL-ESTATE LAKES 

A successful real-estate lake requires (I) careful 

planning prior to construction and (2) thorough management after it is built. Unless planning and management 

are well conceived and coordinated, problems will inevitably develop. 

The more important planning considerations for realestate lakes are discussed as two categories: (1) regional 

and (2) locaL or onsite. 

REGIONAL CONSIDERATlONS 

"BLUE-GREEN" DEVELOPMENT 

In most conventional urban developments, the land is 

stripped of much of its vegetation and divided into rectangular lots in a regular grid pattern. This method of 

development obliterates many of the smaller natural 

drainage channels, and they must be replaced by enclosed storm sewers. While the storm sewers are generally adequate to handle the runoff from minor and 

moderate storms, the sewers overflow during the occasional severe storm and flood streets and basements. 

Planners and engineers have come to recognize that 

preserving the natural drainage is in many places preferable to replacing it with enclosed storm sewers, for the 

natural channels can accommodate more runoff during 

extreme storms than the artificial storm drainage. Also, 

as a result of increasing concern over quality of the environment, urban planners have been breaking away 

from the former patterns of development. Many now 

advocate the preservation of as much as possible of the 

natural environment-in particular, the trees, the 

natural ground cover, and natural drainage patterns. The 

preservation of open space to break the monotony of 

urban sprawl is becoming more commonly used in urban 

design. 

The concept of "blue-green" development not only 

enhances the quality of the urban environment, but at 

the same time provides for more effective storm drainage. "Blue-green" development is the "planned integration of permanent water areas in open spaces, w~th provision for flood storage" (Jones, 1967, p. 60). Rather 

than constructing large artificial drainage charnels in 

urbanizing areas, the developer preserves the natural 

drainage channels and flood plains and creates artificial 

lakes by impoundment or by a combination of irrpoundment and excavation. These lakes serve the purroses of 

providing recreation, an esthetically pleasing environment, and space for the temporary storage of storm runoff. Temporary storage eases the demand on stormdrainage capacity and often results in systems which are 

considerably less costly than those designed l~;' conventional means. 

Use of the "blue-green" concept in new communities 

affords numerous opportunities for developers to plan 

lake-centered residential developments. By thus .coordinating real-estate lake developments with the natural 

drainage system, the developer may avoid manr of the 

potential pitfalls of unplanned or haphazard lake development. 

RECLAIMING ABANDONED QUARRIES AND P:TSSEQUENTIAL DEVELOPMENT 

Bulk construction materials such as earthfill, crushed 

rock aggregate, and sand and gravel are in great demand 

in urban areas. The cost of these bulk materials hcreases 

greatly if they must be hauled long distances. Lo'lg hauls 

are becoming increasingly common, however, because 

valuable deposits are being covered by urban development and are thus lost for use. s~nd and gravel are 

particularly scarce in some areas. 

Urbanization can take place without the loss of these 

construction materials if thoughtful planning precedes 

development. The appropriate planning stn'tegy is 

known as sequential use of land, and real-estate lakes can 

play an important role in its realization. An abandoned 

pit or quarry is an eyesore and detracts from land 

values in its vicinity. In areas where the water table is 

near the land surface, these abandoned pits contain 

water. With landscaping and a little imagination, they 

can be converted into esthetically pleasing real-estate 

lakes, and the surrounding land can be devek"Jed for 

urban use. If sequential use of land is ap·Jlied, a 

developer can first profit from sale of the construction 

materials and then profit from selling the land for residential development. Thus sequential land deve 1

0pment 

should be a desirable investment. 

A regional appraisal of mineral resources and ground 

water should be made prior to sequential land development in order to facilitate the effectiveness of such 

development. Areas underlain by recoverable 

G3 
construction materials and areas with a high water table 

need to be defined. Areas where these two characteristics coincide will be suited for sequential land use ending 

in real-estate lake development. 

POLLUTED STREAMS 

A real-estate Jake, to be successful, must be estheticaUy pleasing and must provide opportunity for recreation. Thus the water must be of good quality and free of 

harmful pollutants. It follows that the source of water 

for itppoundment in the Jake must be relatively pure and 

uncontaminated. Polluted streams cannot be developed 

into successful real-estate Jakes. In fact, Jakes- serve as 

traps for nutrients and sediments, so the very development of a lake on a polluted stream will serve to intensify the degree of pollution. Pesticides and toxic 

metals are a further concern, for these materials are concentrated by adsorption on sediments and by biological 

magnification in the food chains. 

In an urbanized area, a pollutional survey is necessary 

to determine which streams are suitable for real-estate 

Jake development. A regional survey of a watershed 

should be made to locate the sources-both existing 

and potential-of pollution. Streams which receive 

significant quantities of sewage effluent ar~ obviously 

poor choices for development of real-estate lakes. Similarly, streams which receive large quantities of storm 

runoff from heavily urbanized areas may also be poor 

choices. If an urban area contains waste-generating industries and a high population density, the storm runoff 

to streams may be more heavily poJJuted than sewage 

effluent and sometimes even more polluted than raw 

sewage. Suburban and rural streams which drain heavily 

fertilized croplands and lawns are also poor choices. for 

lake development. Streams which are suspect should be 

studied in detail to determine the level of nutrient 

loading. 

A further regional consideration is the future development potential of the area above the lake site. Intense 

urban development at a future date would probably contribute pollution to the lake. The undesirable deterioration might lead to costly management or possibly result 

in loss of the lake for the intended purposes of esthetics 

and recreation. 

SITE SE LECfiON 

Site selection is perhaps the most important planrling 

consideration in the development of a lake-centered 

community. Drainage area should be adequate to su~ply 

the necessary water, and relief and slope should be sufficient to provide an appropriate depth and surface a~ea. 

G4 

Also of prime consideration is the esthetic appeal of the 

site. Hilly, wooded areas or those with exceptional panoramic views are especiaJJy desirable. 

It is impossible to set adequate rule-0f-thumb guidelines for the size of drainage area needed to sustain an 

artificial lake. The minimum satisfactory size from place 

to place depends upon such factors as rainfall, topography, geology, and soils. For example, in the humid 

climate of North Carolina, a lake cove·ing 5 to 7 acres 

generally requires a supporting drainage area of 25 to 30 

acres; a ratio of about 5 to 1 (Burby, 1967). However, in 

parts of the Piedmont in Virginia, a ratio as high as 20 to 

1 is sometimes necessary. Much larger ratios are required 

in less humid areas. 

The inflow that can be expected at a potential site can 

be computed from data on runoff, p·ecipitation, and 

evapotranspiration. Such data are available from- the U.S. 

Geological Survey, the U.S. Weather Bureau, or the U.S. 

Soil Conservation Service. Real-estate lakes, however, 

need not depend entirely on natural inflow. Lake levels 

can be maintained by supplying water from other 

sources, notably from municipal supplies or from wells. 

To do so, however, may be costly, ani the increase in 

cost must be considered in the plannir~. These aspects 

are discu~ed in more detail in the section "Model For 

Real-Estate Lake Planning fllld Management." 

LOCAL OR ONSITE CONSIDERATIONS 

INCOMPATIBILITY OF USES 

Planning for a real-estate lake should include careful 

consideration of the purposes and use~ of the Jake, for 

some uses may not be compatible wHh others. One 

purpose common to all real-estate Jakes is the creation of 

an esthetically attractive environment. The value of the 

surrounding area is greatly enhanced by the beauty of a 

lake. A lake is a fragile ecosystem, however, and intensive lake use and overdevelopment of sroreline property 

are certain to disrupt the system. Eventually, the ecological disruption will blight the very esthetic qualities 

which initiaJJy induced the overuse. 

From the outset, intended purposes and use of the 

lake need to be identified and ranked in priority. Regulations must then be designed to enforce protection of the 

priority usage. For example, if esthetic appearance is 

important, regulations banning the use of outboard 

motors on boats might be necessary. 

Two-cycle outboard motors are a source of oil and 

gasoline pollution. Once in a lake, a small amount of oil 

can spread into a thin unsightly film ac¥oss an extensive 

area of lake surface. Moderate amounts of petroleum 

products can upset the entire ecological balance of a 
lake. In addition, the noise assault created by outboard 

motors diminishes the esthetic quality of a small lake. 

Some incompatibilities between esthetic quality and 

lake uses arc Jess obvious but far more difficult to reconcile. Fishing is a high priority use for real-estate lakes. 

Fish require food. however, and most new lakes lack the 

biological productivity needed to support a large fish 

population. Plant nutrients in the form of commercial 

fertilizer can be added to a lake to stimulate production 

of the small organisms which fish feed upon. Unfortunately, these same nutrients accelerate eutrophication 

and contribute to the growth of aquatic weeds and unwanted forms of algae. 

Eutrophication is a natural aging process that affects 

every lake from the day of its formation. Real-estate 

lakes. because of their nature and manner of creation, 

are more susceptible to eutrophication than are most 

natural lakes. In fact. much of the work invoived in the 

planning and the management of a real-estate lake is 

devoted to preserving the esthetic quality of the lake. 

Intentional enrichment is incompatible with this goal, 

for enrichment accelerates the aging process and thus 

shortens the time span over which the lake can be maintained in a state of high esthetic quality. 

Not only are esthetic appearance and recreational use 

sometimes incompatible, but several recreational uses of 

real-estate lakes may conflict with each other. Possible 

conflicting uses include boating versus swimming. fishing 

versus water skiing, and motorboating versus canoeing 

and sailing. Planning of desired uses during the design 

and creation of the lake can eliminate many of the 

problems which might arise in later years. 

EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION 

The Problems 

The erosion-sedimentation cycle is the most widespread problem with real-estate lakes. Normal background erosion aggravated by both small- and large-scale 

construction yields a ready supply of transportable sediment in a new development. The rapid increase of sediment carried by streams during land development is 

primarily the result of the earth moving involved in 

grading, road building, and installation of utilities. The 

earthwork is normally done in the most expedient 

manner without concern for loss of material from the 

site or subsequent damage to downstream property. 

After each rainstorm the streams and lakes in most new 

developments are stained by their loads of sediment. The 

greatest amount of sediment is deposited at the times of 

heavy storm runoff. Normal streamflow contributes only 

a small portion of the total sediment load to most realestate lakes. 

468-557 0 - 72 - 2 

Following a rainstorm, a real-estate lake can remain 

muddy for many days. Because the muddy appearance 

reduces the esthetic value of the lake and the selling 

power of the property, it results in a monetary loss. 

Potentially, however, a far greater monetary loss can 

result from sediment deposition. Sediment removal 

operations are costly, but in their absence sediment 

often accumulates to form unsightly mudflats and sometimes accumulates r-apidly enough to fill the entire lake. 

A sediment-choked lake is shown in figure I. When a 

lake reaches this· condition, it may be more of a detriment than an asset to a real-estate community. 

Large lakes in large developments generally have the 

greatest problems with sediment accumulation. The 

drainage area of a large real-estate lake is usually larger 

than the actual development. Riparian rights aside, the 

owners have little means of controlling erosion and sediment on outside property. Even when the entire drainage basin is owned, lakes in the larger developments 

genera.lly have greater sediment problems because of the 

methods usually employed in real-estate lake development. Generally, the larger the development, the larger 

the area graded at one time and the longer the period the 

graded areas are left exposed to the forces of erosion. 

Controls 

Sediment-control planning can encompass a large 

number of separate and integrated concepts. The most 

basic concept, and the one of first importance, is the 

prevention of soil erosion. The most fundamental plan 

for preventing erosion is development zoning based on 

the potential erodibility of the landscape. Erodibility 

maps can be prepared for any area by combining information on landscape slopes with information on the 

properties of the surficial geologic material. Once prepared, the map can be used to assess what type and 

density of development each parcel of land can accommodate without being exposed to severe erosion. In this 

manner, most of the natural landscape can be preserved, 

and rapid sedimentation of the lake can be prevenJed. 

Sedimentation problems during development can be 

greatly reduced by doing a large part of the heavy earthwork prior to construction of the lake. It is generally 

preferable to complete the heavy grading, the installation of sewerlines and gas lines, and the building of 

roads, parking lots, and walkways before the lake is 

created. Initially this practice might reduce the selling 

power of the property, but, in the long run, it should 

provide for a more trouble-free lake and greater property 

value. 

The planning and design of the configuration of land 

around a lake's shoreline is an important factor in preventing sotl erqsion. Gentle slopes are generally 

GS 
Figure I.-Sediment accumulation, the most common problem of real-estate lakes, can turn lakes into mudflats. (Photograph 

courtesy of Soil Conservation Service.) 

preferable , because steep slopes are susceptible to 

erosion by wave action and overland flow. Steep slopes 

are likely to cause both a maintenance problem on the 

banks and a sedimentation problem in the lake. In many 

places the problem of bank erosion can be combated by 

leaving a natural-habitat buffer zone 25-50 feet wide 

around the lake and along all contributing streams. 

Where it is necessary to grade the entire landscape, the 

shoreline and streambanks must be quickly stabilized. A 

steep slope can be maintained by lining it with a hard 

substance, such as concrete or riprap. A gentle slope can 

usually be successfully stabilized with sod. 

Even with the best planning, some types of land 

undergo considerable erosion during development, and 

discharge large quantities of soil into watershed streams. 

In such situations, a major method of sediment control 

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is the construction of sedimentation basins on streams 

above the lake. If properly located and designed, sedimentation basins can greatly reduce the amount of 

sediment which reaches the lake. To provide worthwhile 

results, a basin must be designed large enough and must 

be periodically cleaned to be kept large enough to have 

the needed sediment-trapping capability. Basin design 

must also include proper access for sediment-removal 

equipment. This aspect is often overlooked in the 

planning of these basins. 

A second method of reducing in transit sediment loads 

is the construction of temporary storage basins within 

the storm-drainage system. This method is especially 

important where storm sewers drain large, incompletely 

developed areas. Like the instream basins, the temporary 

storage basins must be carefully designed and 
periodically emptied to provide efficient sediment 

removal. 

In some developments, the combination of zoning, 

onsite, and in transit controls may be insufficient to prevent large quantities of sediment from entering the 

proposed lake. Where this situation is predicted, an inlet 

sedimentation basin may be built at the upstream end of 

the normal pool of the lake. Properly constructed, this 

basin can intercept and remove much of the incoming 

sediment at the point of entry and thereby prevent it 

from accumulating throughout the lake. The primary 

basin is generally excavated to a depth below the 

existing streambed which is sufficient to provide volume 

for 3 or 4 years of accumulation. A secondary basin can 

be constructed farther upstream to remove coarse 

materials from floodflows. · 

Design of an inlake sedimentation basin must include 

provision for periodic excavation by dragline or similar 

equipment. Access for the equipment must be provided, 

and the basin must be narrow enough at all points to be 

accessible for excavation from pre constructed roads. 

The usc of inlakc basins is predicated on the capability of these basins to concentrate sediment where 

removal is relatively easy and inexpensive. If sediment is 

allowed to accumulate throughout the lake, the difficulty and cost of removal will increase sharply. 

Sediment Disposal 

The several types of sedimentation basins can greatly 

; educe the accumulation of sediment within a lake. The 

basms serve only as temporary repositories. so sediment 

disposal areas must be provided. For economy, the 

disposal areas must be as near as practicable to the 

basins. In some developments the sediment can be used 

in certain locations to improve the grading and to reduce 

steep slopes. In other developments, the sediment can be 

used to fill unwanted gullies and ravines. Regardless of 

the type, disposal sites must be located and reserved at 

the time the sedimentation basins are constructed. 

Debris and Trash 

Control and removal of debris and floating trash is of 

considerable importance to the esthetic appearance of a 

real-estate lake and to the sanitary quality of its water. 

As in the case of sedimentation accumulation, preventiorr is of the first importance. Enforcement of antilittering measures and provisions for trash disposal in 

open-space areas must be provided. Roadside and pavement cleanup will also be necessary in shopping centers 

and other heavily used areas. In many areas, prevention 

will not be entirely successful, and a considerable 

quantity of debris will find its way to the headwaters of 

the lake. 

Floating debris may be collected by skimming barriers 

designed to float on the water. The barriers are normally 

positioned to remove the debris just before it enters the 

lake. Where an inlet sedimentation basin is constructed, 

the skimming device is generally located just upstream 

from the basin. Debris retained by the device must be 

regularly collected by maintenance personnel. 

Nonbouyant debris will accumulate throughout the 

lake where an inlet sedimentation basin is not provided. 

If a basin is constructed, most of this debris will collect 

there and be periodically removed with the soil sediment. 

Some lakes will need large capital investments for the 

control of sediment and trash. With proper planning, 

however, the cost of keeping a lake esthetically pleasing 

may be more than returned by the increased value of 

real estate. 

DOMESTIC SEWAGE 

The collection, treatment. and disposal of domestic 

sewage is a major problem in any real-estate development. The problem is particularly acute where a lake is 

involved, because both raw and treated sewage must be 

prevented from entering the lake. 

Raw sewage will despoil a lake by depleting the 

oxygen resources of the water, by adding diseasecarrying organisms which render the water unfit for 

recreation, and by adding plant nutrients which stim-

:Ilate prolific growths of algae and aquatic weeds. 

Standard biological treatment greatly reduces the 

oxygen-consuming power and disease potential of 

sewage. The same treatment, however. removes only a 

small portion of the plant nutrients. Since the treated 

sewage is nutrient laden, it can accelerate the eutrophication and destruction of a lake to nearly the same extent 

as raw sewage. The weed growth shown in figure 2 is 

onlv one of a number of undesirable conditions that 

de;elop when treated sewage is discharged into a lake. 

Sewage is generally treated and disposed by two 

means: individual septic tanks and sewage treatment 

plants. Septic tanks are a distinct hazard in real-estate 

lake developments. Septic tank leachates can enter a lake 

directly through surface or subsurface seepage and indirectly through stream or ground-water flow. Even in 

low density developments built on soil that is highly 

suitable for septic tanks, some effluent from septic tanks 

may eventually reach the lake. Septic tank effluents are 

so nutrient laden that once seepage enters a lake, the 

process of eutrophication is greatly accelerated and the 

lake is quickly despoiled. Hasler and Ingersol (1969) 

note the unfortunate case of Cochran Lake in the northern Wisconsin wilds. In 10 years, septic tank leachate 

from cottages reduced Cochran Lake from a pure gem to 

a 300-acre caidron of pea soup. 

A real-estate lake is most effectively protected if 

sewagt: is disposed of through a municipal sewerage 

system. Great care is required, however, in the location 

and construction of the sewer lines. A leaky, poorly 

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Figure 2.-Nutrients from sewage effluent contribute to the growth of aquatic weeds and greatly accelerate the aging of a lake. 

designed system can quickly lead to severe pollution of 

the lake. Combined sanitary and storm-sewer systems 

represent a potential hazard in real-estate lake-developments. Even if normal overflow is designed to circumvent the lake, heavy runoff may cause overflow at 

junctions and manholes, possibly spewing untreated 

sewage in to the lake. 

Where circumstances permit, the lo~al sewerage 

system should be tied into a large regional system which 

has a central treatment plant. This manner of final 

disposal dispenses with the difficult tasks of locatil)g, 

constructing, and effectively operating a new and often 

small sewage treatment plant. To be completely suitable, 

a location for a new treatment plant should be downstream from the lake, or in another drainage basin, and 

at a site where the receiving stream can safely assimilate 

the treated sewage. Each State has recently adopted a 

new and fairly stringent code of water-quality criter a. 

These codes will greatly limit the number of small 

streams into which sewage effluent can be legally discharged. Therefore, future urban planning will probably 

call for regionalized sewerage systems in which trektment plants are constructed only on the rivers and larger 

streams which have fairly high and consistent flows. To 

comply with the water pollution laws, more and more 

real-estate lake developments will have to dispose of 

their sewage through these regional systems. 

STORM DRAINAGE 

Storm runoff can be as potent a source of pollution as 

domestic sewage. Runoff from an urban area typically 

contains oils, fertilizers, pesticides, animal droppings, 

and many other wastes which result from community 

living. Roads and parking lots for high density housing 

are a prime source of oils and other petroleum based 

pollutants. Partly. completed developments are a source 

of copious quantities of sediment. If the storm-drainage 

system leads to the lake, various amounts of these contaminants will enter the lake and may seriously degrade 

its quality. Thus, from the standpoint of water quality, 

it would seem preferable to plan and design the stormdrainage system to circumvent the lake. 

The diversion of storm drainage to prevent pollution, 

however, will mean that less water is available to 

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maintain the lake. Thus the cure could be worse than the 

disease. Even though in some areas the storm-drainage 

water will not be needed, in others the water will be 

essential for the mere development of a lake. 

In the remaining areas the need for the water will be 

somewhere between the two extremes. In these locations, the decision to use or not to use storm-drainage 

water will be difficult to reach. Usc of the water will 

reduce the cost of water-level maintenance, but will also 

necessitate the periodic cleaning of roads and parking 

Jots to reduce the pollution load entering the lake. Even 

with cleaning, it is possible that the contaminants which 

remain will eventually lead to noticeable pollution of the 

lake. Some of these conflicting aspects are further discussed in the section "Model for Real-Estate Lake 

Planning and Management." 

FLOODING AND WATER-LEVEL MAINTENANCE 

Any lake, especially an impounded one, is likely to 

experience high levels of water during times of intense 

rainfall. This potential for lakefront flooding must be 

anticipated and accommodated in the design of the outlet structures. Where water is to be disr:harged over a 

concrete dam, lakefront flooding can be minimized by 

designing a wide spillway. Where water is to be discharged through a standpipe, flooding can be reduced by 

emplacement of auxiliary spillways at a level slightly 

higher than the standpipe. Flooding could also be 

reduced by designing the outlet structures to permit a 

water-level drawdown. With this potential, the lake level 

could be lowered somewhat when large storms are predicted for the area. 

Property damage from flooding can be minimized 

through the judicious location of houses. In rolling or 

hilly terrains, houses can be built sufficiently high above 

lake level that flood damage is unlikely. In flat terrain, 

flood damage is more difficult to prevent; basement 

flooding is a particularly bothersome problem. Houses 

should not be built where the flood hazard is large and 

cannot be managed. 

Water-level recessions in a real-estate lake can decrease 

the esthetic and recreational value of the lake and 

thereby diminish property values within the community. 

In many locations, water-level lowering can be prevented 

merely through the selection of a drainage area of sufficient size to sustain the lake. In some locations, however, the maintenance of a desired water level will 

require planning and design for inflow au_gmentation. 

Any technique of supplying additional water represents an additional cost in the development and 

management of a lake. If the estimated amount of water 

required for lake-level maintenance is small, and rather 

infrequently required, augmentation from wells and 

municipal supplies may be suitable. However, if large 

amounts of water will frequently be require~t. other 

sou·rces of augmentation should be explored. For some 

developments, it might be possible to divert large quantities of water from a nearby non tributary strean. 

Design of outflow structures to permit controlled 

lowering of lake stage is a desirable feature in any realestate lake. Many lakes will need periodic drawdown to 

permit dredging and shoreline maintenance. In the 

northern latitudes, it may be desirable to drop the lake 

stage during winter to prevent ice damage, w'"'ich can 

occur during ice conditions and also during ice breakup. 

In the development of a real-estate lake the cost 

factor may limit the design for drawdown to one fixed 

level. In this situation, the level should be selected only 

after thorough consideration of all possible purposes for 

dra';Vdown. The final decision should also be tempered 

by a realization of the degree to which drawdown will 

temporarily diminish the landscape's esthetic appeal. 

JURISDICTIONAL, SAFETY, AND "PEOPLE PROBLEMS" 

Not all the problems of planning and developing realestate lakes arc of an environmental natur~~- Many 

prob !ems can arise over jurisdictional rights, safety 

regulations, and the general attitude of the pecnle concerning the lake. In fact, in the absence of anticipation 

and planning, the people-oriented problems can, at 

times, far outweigh the environmental problems. 

Decision on what portion of the community will have 

lake access is an important aspect of lake planning. The 

greater the number of people with access, the more 

restrictive the regulations on lake usc may ha,·e to be. 

For example, a large real-estate lake might be able to 

accommodate powerboats if the number of people with 

lake privileges is small. On the other hand, if tl- ~ en tire 

community has lake rights, powerboat use may te out of 

the question. 

jurisdictional rights to the lake may vary from open 

use for the entire community to exclusive use by shoreline owners. Open use is usually handled by planning a 

"green space" around the entire perimeter of the lake. 

All residents are then given equal access to the lake and 

to all of its facilities. This right is guaranteed through 

zoning or through deeding the lake and adjacent "green 

space'' area to a community organization. When properly incorporated and administered, deeding has the 

same desirable effects as zoning regulations. 

Deed restrictions are the common method o* regulation when lake privileges are given only to peo'Jle who 

own lakefront property. In many lakes, a combination 

of private and community access is practiced. A fairly 

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large part of the perimeter of the lake may be open to 

community access, or perhaps only a small funnel access 

is made available. In the funnel access procedure, the 

nonriparian members of the community become part 

owners of a small access tract and therby gain legal 

access to the Ia ke. 

All gradations can exist between open community and 

exclusive access. Cases exist where lake use is restricted 

to a definite residential subdivision or to a few of a large 

number of subdivisions. In other cases, lake privileges are 

granted to all homeowners but denied to renters. 

Most of the potential safety problems of a real-estate 

lake can be eliminated through anticipation and planning. Safety in recreation requires consideration of 

swimming, boating, and ice skating. If swimming is 

permitted, constant checks are required on the sanitary 

quality of the water. In addition, regulations are needed 

to specify whether swimming is restricted to designated 

beaches or is penni tted anywhere on the lake and to 

state the length of the swimming season. 

Safety regulations for boating revolve about the initial 

and highly important decision of whether or not to 

permit powerboat use. This decision requires close consideration of lake size, the number of people with lake 

privileges, and the priority of environmental esthetics. 

Where powerboats are permitted, the community usually 

sets regulations on maximum boat size and on speed 

limits and decides whether or not water skiing is 

allowed. 

Safety planning for ice skating will eliminate the 

dangers of thin ice. Potential accidents are prevented in 

some communities by permitting skating activities only 

after designated, qualified individuals have inspected the 

ice surface. 

Real-estate-lake "people problems" include the lit;tering of the lake and general access land with trash and the 

lack of concern by the community for preserving the 

quality of the lake. Where these problems prevail, community pride and a sense of participation are lacking. 

Community pride can be fostered by educating people 

about the nature of the lake and introducing people to 

the many enjoyments it can provide. 

Lack of a sense of participation is most prevalent in 

those developments which restrict lake access to a small 

proportion of the community. Most individuals, once 

denied lake access, are less interested in how their 

actions affect the long-term quality of the lake. These 

people find little reason to care if the runoff from their 

parking lots and lawns and the flow in the stream adjoining their properties will eventually pollute the lake. Thus, 

fostering a sense of participation requires careful consideration during the planning of jurisdictional right$ to 

lake use. 

MANAGEMENT OF REAL-ESTATE LAKES 

In almost all aspects of life, mana.<?ement is truly 

successful only if it is preceded by propr.r planning. This 

fact has time and time again become regretably clear in 

the development of real-estate lakes. No amount of 

management can save a lake if the major physical 

systems are misdesigned at the outset. Preservation of a 

lake depends more upon good planning and practical 

land zoning than upon the more frequently considered 

management control aspects. 

Lake management, however, does rJay a vital and 

necessary role. Proper management can lessen the 

number and magnitude of problems that arise from 

minor mistakes in planning. Moreover, ev~n well planned 

lakes require constant management in o .. der to be maintained at a desirable level of physical, chemical, and 

esthetic quality. 

SEDIMENTATION 

SOIL SEDlMENT 

Most sediment problems in real-estate lakes arise 

directly or indirectly from construction activities. Areas 

under active construction are usually the largest contributors of sediment to lakes. However, the erosion of 

improperly stabilized surfaces, such as hillsides, streambanks, and shorelines, can also contribute large amounts 

of sediment, and in addition they simultaneously despoil 

the esthetic quality of the landscape. 

The effect of construction on sedime'lt production is 

well documented by experience at Lake Barcroft in 

Fairfax County, Va. During the pre-urb:mization period 

from 1915 to 1945, about 120 acre-feet of sediment was 

deposited in the lake. On a yearly brsis this amount 

equals 19 cubic feet per acre of drainage area. Between 

1945 and 19 55, however, urbanizatic n rocketed the 

sediment accumulation to 160 acre-fe,.~t, equal to 75 

cubic feet per acre per year. During the 1945-55 period, 

9.5 square miles of the watershed was urbanized. With 

allowances for erosion on the remaining land, each 

square mile that passed through the co'lstruction cycle 

contributed about 17 acre-feet of sedirrf!nt to the lake. 

The basic principle of sediment-control management 

is the complete stabilization of soil particles or, at least, 

the containment of eroded particles en an individual 

development site. Once sediment is in transit, the 

processes of erosion accelerate, and the costs of control 

rapidly increase. Complete sediment control during 

development is impossible, but the seve·ity of problems 

can be lessened by minimizing the potential for erosion. 

This management concept involves minimizing both the 

areal extent that is laid bare to erosionrl forces and the 

GIO 
length of time that the land is exposed. Developmental 

practices to achieve this goal include the leaving of 

vegetation in place until just before construction, the 

disturbance of only as much area as is needed at one 

time, the early installation of storm drains, and the 

restabilization of the land surface as quickly as possible. 

Immediate stabilization of natural channels, hillsides, 

and road banks is of the utmost importance. Most natural 

channels can be stabilized with grass through seeding or 

sodding, but some channels may require stone or 

concrete linings. Gentle slopes can usually be stabilized 

by the simple seeding of grass. Likewise, most steep 

slopes can be stabilized with grass, but many will also 

require mechanical protection from erosion until the 

grass is established. Techniques for mechanical protection include the use of straw mulch, light asphalt sprays, 

and jute matting. 

During construction, the use of sediment traps on 

individual sites is a vital step in sediment control. If 

properly located and sized, sediment traps effectively 

hold the flow of overland water long enough to settle a 

large part of the suspended soil particles. Sediment traps 

keep soil on the individual site and out of the drainageways where it is much more difficult to manage. 

Once sediment reaches a stream, control procedures 

increase in cost and decrease in efficiency. However, in 

many drainage areas, sedimentation basins on streams 

above the lake may be quite effective in reducing the 

potential contribution of sediment. As mentioned in the 

section on planning, sedimentation basins should be constructed prior to creation of the lake. However, if 

necessity dictates, these basins may be built at any point 

during the life of a lake. 

Although active construction contributes the largest 

amount of sediment, shoreline erosion is the second 

largest source of sediment in a real-estate lake. Even with 

the best planning, shoreline erosion can easily occur. 

Such erosion can seriously blight the landscape and lead 

to the creation of shoreline mudflats. These mudflats are 

unsightly and greatly interfere with recreation. Constant 

surveillance and maintenance are required to keep shoreline erosion to an acceptable level. In many places 

incipient erosion can be suitably stabilized with grass. 

Particularly troublesome areas may require the addition 

of a considerable amount of riprap or, if erosion is 

severe, the building of concrete walls. 

Once sediment reaches the lake, the cost of 

management increases sharply. Hopefully, if the rate of 

sedimentation is high, the problem will have been 

envisioned during planning, and a sedimentation basin 

will exist where the stream enters the lake. Management 

can then focus on maintenance of the basin, which must 

be emptied periodically. 

In the absence of an inlet basin, sediment will 

accumulate throughout the lake. Then the real headaches begin. As sediment deposits build up, the esthetic 

quality of the lake is impaired and potential recreational 

use of the lake is diminished. Management of the 

problem may require sediment removal from many areas 

of the lake. Unfortunately, nearshore areas, such as 

coves, are often virtually inaccessible to heavy equipment. Open-water areas often require the building of 

underwater roads in order to place the dragline and to 

move the sediment hauling trucks. 

Thus, in the absence of proper planning, the 

management of sediment problems can be very expensive. This point is well illustrated by the case of Lake 

Barcroft. During the first 10 years of development as a 

real-estate lake, about one-third of a million dollars was 

spent for sediment removal (fig. 3). Today, afte~ the 

expenditure of even more money, the lake still has 

numerous sediment problems. 

LEAVES 

Not only soil particles, but leaves can cause sediment 

problems in real-estate lakes. In forests most leaves 

remain in the vicinity of where they originally fall, 

ultimately decomposing and adding to the forest litter. 

In contrast, in a real-estate lake development, the leaves 

fall on lawns, roadways, and parking lots. Very often a 

large portion of these leaves ends up in the streams and 

storm-drainage ~ystems. The lake then becomes the final 

settling place of the leaves as they are deposited in a 

Figure 3.-Sediment removal is expensive; at Lake Barcroft, in 

Virginia, over one-third of a million dollars was spent in just 

10 years. (Photograph courtesy of Soil Conservation Service.) 

Gll 
mixture with soil sediment. Where the volume of leaves 

reaching the lake is large, the deposition may rapidly fill 

the discharge areas of the stream. Rapid filling and clogging is often especially bad in developments where the 

storm-drainage system is routed to the lake. 

Good management practices can minimize the deposition of leaves in a real-estate lake . Periodic cleaning of 

parking lots and roadways during autumn can greatly 

reduce the potential loading. On individual properties, 

leaves will decompose if lefi in place , but if raked , they 

should be disposed of in such a manner that they will 

never reach the lake . This rules out the disposal of leaves 

along streambanks and drainage ways. 

EUTROPHICATION 

NATURE OF THE PROCESS 

Eutrophication is a natural aging process which affects 

every lake and dooms it to eventual extinction. 

Eutrophication of a lake consists of the gradual progression from one life stage to another based upon increases 

in the degree of nourishment. Enrichment and sedimentation are the principal contributors to the aging process. 

As described by Greeson (1969): 

Newly formed, 

nonfertile lake 

The shore vegetation and higher aquatic plants utilize part of 

the inflowing nutrients, grow abundantly, and, in turn, trap the 

sediments. The lake gradually fills in, becoming shallower by the 

accumulation of plants and sediments on the bottom and smaller 

by the invasion of shore vegetation, and eventually becomes dry 

land. The extinction of a lake is, therefore, a result of enrichment, productivity, decay, and sedimentation. 

The sequence of events leading to the extinction of a 

lake are summarized in figure 4. 

Under natural conditions, eutrophication is a slow 

process, but artificial enrichment resulting from man's 

activities can accelerate it to the degree that only a few 

years are needed for the complete destruction of a lake . 

The hastening of eutrophication by artificial enrichment 

is portrayed in figure 5. 

Some real-estate lakes have been marred by a prolific 

growth of algae within I year of development. A dense 

algal growth or bloom is usually the first visual indication that a lake is in ecological trouble . A bloom imparts 

a greenish-yellow or brownish color to the water and 

often physically hinders swimming, boating, and fishing 

in the lake . The decay of dead algal cells may release 

materials with disagreeable odors to the water. Of 

greater importance is the fact that the decay process 

consumes life-giving oxygen. Thus, the decomposition of 

Figure 4.-Eutrophication-the process of aging by ecological change. (Modified from Greeson, 1969.) 

GI2 
r 

,_--

/ 01:: 

~ I Effect of artifici.g_l ..... 

..... / enrichment cc ~ 

~ u 

u ...... 

cc r 01:: I z ~ 

cc V') 

<.!) ~ 01:: ::...:: I 

0 cc I Natural eutrophication ...... ...... 0 ...... z I 0 

0 cc ..... I ~ 

01:: u cc I :::t 

Q ..... 0 z 01:: I 0- ~ 

01:: .. ~ 

0-

RELATIVE AGE OF LAKE 

Figure 5.-Hypothetical curve of eutrophication showing the effect of artificial enrichment. (Modified from Hasler, 1947.) 

dead cells in large blooms may substantially reduce the nutrient cleansing may be slow, and complete re~overy is 

oxygen level of the lake. Moderate reductions in the usually impossible. Furthermore, where seepage has 

oxygen level, if sustained for several days, will result in badly polluted a lake, worthwhile improverr~nt will 

numerous disruptions in lake ecology. Severe depletions generally require the complete banning of septic tanks 

of oxygen often result in fish kills. and their replacement with a sewerage system. 

CONTROL OF NUTRIENT SOURCES 

Although nutrient enrichment of a real-estate lake is 

inevitable, careful management can usually prevent it 

from occurring at a rapid rate. To be successful, a 

program for eutrophication control must minimize the 

potential nutrient contributions from both acute and 

chronic sources. Acute sources are those which can 

rapidly add large quantities of nutrients to the lake; the 

main sources are poorly operating sewage disposal 

systems. Chronic sources are those which continually 

add small quantities of nutrients to the lake. Chronic 

sources usually result from the normal day-to-day and 

year-to-year activities of urban living. 

The most frequent acute source of nutrients is septic 

tank seepage. Many older real-estate lake communities 

disposed of sewage exclusively through septic tank 

systems. The systems were often unwisely located, 

poorly designed, and improperly installed. Nutrients 

from many of these systems quickly reached the lakes 

and resulted in massive growths of algae. 

A seepage-contaminated lake can usually be improved 

in quality if the flow of nutrients is stopped. However, 

since a lake entraps nutrients, the process of recovery or 

Planning is the key to effective eutrophication 

control. From this standpoint, the use of septk tanks is 

not recommended for real-estate lake com:'llunities. 

However, if septic tanks are already installed and the 

systems are properly located and designed, periodic 

inspection of performance may prevent large c~Jantities 

of nutrients from entering the lake.lf faulty sy~tems are 

detected, immediate redesign is necessary. 

Rapid eutrophication of a lake can also be caused by 

nutrient influx from a stormwater-drainage system. In 

this case, the rate of nutrient enrichment can br. reduced 

through a coordinated program to periodieally clean the 

roads and parking lots which contribute to tl'~ stormwater flow. The stormwater pollution problem can be 

entirely solved, however, only by rerouting the drainage 

system to circumvent the lake. This action is not always 

possible, because the stormflow may be needed to maintain the desired water level of the lake. See par~ from a 

faulty sewerage system is another potential cause of 

rapid eutrophication. This problem requires qu:,~k repair 

or relocation of the sewer pipes in order to protect the 

lake. 

Lawn fertilizer is the most prevalent chronic source of 

nutrients in real-estate lake developments. Aftrr a heavy 

G13 
storm, water will flow overland into streams or directly 

into the lake. As it passes over fertilized lawns and 

around fertilized shrubs, the water becomes charged 

with nutrients and eventually carries them into the lake. 

Nutrient influx from lawn fertilizer can never be 

entirely controlled, but it can be minimized. Most homeowners have a tendency to overfertilize their lawns. For 

a given soil type each section of lawn and each shrub has 

an exact fertilizer requirement for optimum growth. 

These requirements can be routinely determined at low 

cost to the public by many universities and governmental agencies. 

It is possible for a concerned community to help 

preserve its lake by developing a fertilizer control program. The first step is a determination of the fertilizer 

requirements of the entire community. The second step 

is a program of community-wide application of fertilizer 

to insure that only those amounts actually needed are 

applied. The program can also seek to minimize the total 

fertilizer requirements of the development. This goal is 

attained, first, by keeping as much of the open space as 

possible in natural habitat, and second, through the 

planting of altered landscape with grasses and shrubs 

which have low fertilizer needs. 

0 the r chronic nutrient sources are leaves and 

nutrient-rich sediments. The amounts of these materials 

which enter the lake can be minimized by controlling 

the sources. Some of the possible measures for sediment 

and leaf control are discussed in the section "Sedimentation." 

TREATING THE EFFECf 

Prev.enting the development of undesirable conditions 

is the goal of eutrophication control. However, in lakes 

where massive algal blooms already occur, it is sometimes necessary to treat this effect of eutrophication at 

the same time that attempts are being made to control 

the nutrient sources. The most common method; of 

treatment is the application of copper sulfate (CuS04}, a 

chemical which kills the algae. Algal blooms are caused 

by an over abundance of the wrong kinds of algae. 

Copper sulfate can control the growth of these specieS of 

algae, but its addition to water also causes undesirable 

effects. 

Nonselectivity in toxic effect is the major problem 

.caused by the use of CuS04. The chemical kills almost 

all forms of plankton, not merely the massive growths of 

undesirable forms which constitute an algal bloom. 

Because plankton are vital links in the food chains, their 

mass destruction results in less food for the fish population. Fish normally do not feed upon the species of algae 

which predominate during blooms. If these species w~re 

used as food, fish would be the ideal control for algal 

blooms. i 

A second problem with CuS04 is the buildup I of 

copper concentration in bottom sediments. This accumulation can cause the concentration of copper in water 

to remain high throughout the year. If this condition 

arises, algaecidal effects of the copper may become a 

permanent feature of the lake. 

The use of CuS04 is a stopgap mea~liTe, for as the 

dead algae cells undergo decay, large quantities of nutrients are recycled to the water. Quite often the recycled 

nutrients stimulate a new bloom as soon as weather condifions are favorable and the copper C')ncentration of 

the water has decreased below the algaecidal level. ln 

any event, most of the nutrients are entrapped by the 

lake and are held available for future algal growth. 

Because algal blooms are cyclic, r.xtremely large 

blooms are usually of short duration. Thus, CuS04 can 

be regarded as an extreme measure, to be used only 

when a bloom is becoming prolific enough to be intolerable even for a short period of time. Algal blooms can be 

prevented or limited permanently only by minimizing 

the nutrient influx. 

SANITARY QUALITY 

The sanitary quality of water is determined on the 

basis of tests for indicator bacteria. Whr.n the indicator 

bacteria are present in concentrations above certain 

levels, it is probable that the water also contains diseasecausing bacteria. 

Under current law., each State is fre~ to define the 

levels of indicator bacteria which constitute health 

hazards for different uses of water. For rr.creational uses, 

most States define two categories of stan1ards according 

to the degree of bodily contact with the water. The 

category of primary contact uses includes swimming, 

diving, water skiing, and dabbling by children. These 

uses involve considerable risk of ingesting water in quantities sufficient to impose a health hazard. The category 

of secondary' contact includes fishing, boating, and other 

activities in which contact with water is rHher incidental 

or accidental. 

Lakes used for swimming must be continually tested 

and found tq meet those standards established for 

primary contact recreation. Furthermo~e, even if the 

lake is intended only for fishing and boat:ng, it is usually 

impossible to keep the many children in a development 

from playing in the water. In this light, a goal of meeting 

the primary contact standards would r"ovide a much 

greater assurance of public health than merely meeting 

the secondary contact standards. 

In a lake development the possible sources of sanitary 

contamination are stormwater drainage, sewer overflow, 

seepages from faulty sewerlines, and septic tanks and, if 

planning has been very poor, sewage t~eatment pla{lt 

effluent. In the last case, the contamination is best 

stopped by rerouting the effluent. If s~epage from a 

faulty sewerline is a problem, partial reiuilding of the 

line will probably be required. Similarly, if contamination is coming from septic tank seepage, the 

faulty systems will have to be redesigned and rebuilt or 

entirely replaceQ with a sewerage system. 

GI4 
When the source of contamination is either sewer 

overflow or stormwater drainage, some management 

options are available. These sources of contamination are 

intermittent. Furthermore, disease-causing bacteria fare 

poorly in most surface waters and generally die rapidly. 

If testing shows that these intermittent sources are contaminating a lake for only a few weeks of the year, a 

management decision could be made simply to live with 

the situation, provided the community can accept the 

fact that the lake will be periodically closed to recreation. Alternatively, of course, a sewerline could be 

partially rebuilt and a stormwater drainage system could 

be rerouted. 

PESTICIDES 

Lakes act as highly efficient traps for persistent 

pesticides. Once a pesticide, such as DDT, enters a lake it 

accumulates in the sediments and in biological food 

chains. 

A food chain within a lake begins with the plant life 

and progresses upward to the largest carnivorous fish. 

Biological accumulation of DDT throughout the chain is 

often capable of magnifying many thousandfold the 

initial concentration in the water. The concentration of 

DDT residues in a simple food chain is shown schematically in figure 6. Even small amounts of DDT in the 

water of a lake may present a potential threat to the 

ecosystem of the lake. Furthermore, if recreational 

fishing is pursued, both the food chain and the high 

pesticide concentrations are extended to man. 

Recently, (I 970), the U.S. Geological Survey began 

testing for pesticides in a few real-estate lakes. Results 

are inconclusive as yet, but one lake was found in which 

monthly sampling has shown the surface water to 

contain measureable concentrations of DDT. When the 

DDT was initially noted, a survey was conducted to 

determine the possible sources of the pesticide. A small 

portion of the drainage basin lies outside the real-estate 

community, but no pesticides were being applied on the 

outside land. Appreciable contributions from rainfall 

were also ruled out because analyses from a second realestate lake, 1 mile away but in a currently undeveloped 

basin, showed a complete absence of DDT. Thus, it was 

tentatively concluded that the source of DDT was the 

application of the pesticide within the real-estate lake 

community. 

Because very few real-estate lakes have been analyzed 

for pesticides. no one knows how common the condition 

described may be. The studies suggest, however, that 

some real-estate lakes may be endangered by pesticide 

contamination. 

If concerned, a real-estate lake community can easily 

develop a pesticide-management program. Ideally, the 

basic goal of such a program would be to minimize the 

use of pesticides, especially the persistent or so-called 

hard pesticides such as DDT. The need for pesticide 

use in the community can be reduced from the outset by 

leaving as much of the open land as possible in its 

natural habitat. All vegetation undergoes periodic pest 

infestation, but generally the native plants arr. more 

resistant to attack than are nonindigenous plants. Pesticides are rarely needed to protect the shrubs and trees in 

natural wooded areas. In contrast, large doses of 

chemical disease and pest controls are usually rr.quired 

to maintain grass in a desirable and pleasing condition. 

Where the natural habitat must be disturbed, land')wners 

can be alerted to plant the grasses, shrubs, awl trees 

which have wide resistance to the pests most common 

in the local area. 

A community program can also seek to eliminate or at 

least minimize the use of insecticides for mosqui•o control. The major keys to natural control of mosquitoes 

are a weed-free lake and shoreline and the absence of 

organic pollution such as septic tank seepage. Large 

growths of aquatic and shoreline weeds are an open 

invitation to the breeding of mosquitoes. A we~d-free 

lake and shoreline discourages female mosquitoes from 

depositing eggs and, at the same time, permits easy 

access of predators to any eggs that are laid. The control 

of weeds also decreases the amount of vegetable matter 

and, thereby, the food supply for bottom dwelling 

insects such as blind mosquitoes and midges. These 

insects, although nonbiting, are nuisances in man~· areas. 

Aquatic weed growth can be limited in a lake through 

design to minimize the amount of shallow water. Rooted 

aquatic plants usually grow poorly at water depths 

greater than 2--3 feet. Lake management for weed 

control may involve periodic cutting of shoreline weeds 

and periodic dredging to maintain designed water depths 

in the nearshore areas. Costs incurred in the natural 

control of mosquitos are usually minimal compan~d with 

the relief provided from large scale infestations end the 

consequent need for pesticides. 

Regardless of the purpose, if pesticides must l',~ used 

in a lake community, the pesticide should be s~lected 

with great care and applied sparingly. If spraying is 

necessary over a large area, it should be done by a person 

who is very knowledgeable in the art. 

"PEOPLE PROBLEMS" 

To foster full and proper use of a real-estate lake, 

some communities have hired an individual who is 

trained in both planning and ecology. This individual 

generally develops educational programs on lake and 

community environment, while providing professional 

planning expertise to all management programs related 

to the environment. 

Perhaps the most difficult task of the plannerecologist is persuading people to cooperate in o .. der to 

implement the management programs. Lack of cooperation is sometimes a roadblock to extremely imp'"lrtant, 

hydrologically sound programs. More often, however, 

the lack of cooperation manifests itself in such nagging 

problems as litter and trash. 

GIS 
FOOD CHAIN 

CARNIVORE 

p ~ 

HERBIVORE 

d 

. . . . . . ... 

. . . . 

· ... 

. . . . . 

.. 

,• 

D 

( 

••• 

••• 

• 

EXPLANATION 

Living material 

Losses through 

respiration and 

excretior 

DDT 

.. . 

Figure 6.-Schematic diagram of the concentration of DDT residues being passed along a simple food chain. The concentration 

increases with each link and is highest in the ultimate carnivore. (Modified from Woodwell, 1967.) 

Gl6 
Littering of the lake, shoreline, and tributaries is a 

"people problem" which requires constant consideration. Where public concern is lacking, a shoreline quickly 

becomes littered with paper, bottles, and cans. Some of 

this trash is thoughtlessly discarded in place, but much 

of it is usually blown or washed from nearby lawns and 

parking lots. 

Planner-ecologists generally attempt to cope with the 

litter problem thrqugh education, the providing of litter 

cans, and where necessary, the funding of a regular 

cleanup program. People are informed of the consequences of thoughtless actions through pamphlets and 

community newspapers. Litter cans, ample in both size 

and number, are strategically located and regularly 

emptied. 

Where the previous measures are insufficient, a regular 

cleanup program is usually scheduled for the shoreline 

and for the lawns and parking lots from which litter 

reaches the shoreline. In a few communities where the 

litter problem has been particularly severe, bans have 

been passed on the sale of nonreturnable containers. 

Shoreline esthetic appearance related to private construction and landscaping is another of the "people 

problems." Poorly styled or unkept structures, along 

with poorly landscaped areas, can drastically reduce the 

esthetic quality of the lake. The planner-ecologist 

usually attempts to deal with this problem by persuading 

the community to adopt firm guidelines on the location, 

style, and upkeep of shoreline structures and on the 

general style of landscaping permited. 

MODEL FOR REAL-ESTATE LAKE 

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 

It is often difficult to determine if local hydrologic 

conditions can maintain a real-estate lake in a desired 

quantitative and qualitative form. Furthermore, if it is 

decided that a lake can be developed, it is practically 

impossible to estimate the costs of management alternatives. 

Some guidelines, however, are available. One such 

guideline is a model for lake planning and management 

developed by the Geological Survey. This model 

provides for computerized study of local hydrologic 

conditions relevant to answering questions such as the 

following: 

1. For a fixed dollar investment, what is the maximum 

size lake that can be supported by existing hydrologic 

conditions? 

2. For a given lake size, what is the minimum cost 

required to maintain the lake under existing hydrologic conditions? 

The model also permits statistical analysis of the various 

hydrologic components to assess their relative importance on investment decisions. 

Water quality is potentially an important aspect of the 

model, for it may be possible to maintain a lake of a 

given size, yet not satisfy the desired quality requirements. The model is written to accept water quality 

inputs and to provide cost analysis for the manag~ment 

of quality problems. Unfortunately, our present knowledge of the water quality aspects of lake management is 

very incomplete. We are still unable 1o d~fine accurately 

several of the cause and effect relationships of lake 

eutrophication. We still lack sufficient data to es+ablish 

good cost estimates for management alternatives cf sediment control. Thus, until science can suitably define the 

problems and provide the necessary data, the ouality 

components of the model will serve only to stimulate 

organized thinking. For the near future, at lea~t, the 

model will be used almost exclusively for the pl~n~ing 

and management of lake hydrology. 

HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS 

Potential sources of water inflow into a real-estate 

lake would include precipitation falling directly on the 

lake, influent tributary streams, storm runoff re.aching 

the lake as overland flow and interflow, runoff from a 

storm-drainage system, and seepage from the groundwater reservoir. Possible categories of water mmoval 

would include evaporation from the lake surface, transpiration by aquatic and shoreline vegetation, discharge 

to streams, and seepage into the ground-water reservoir. 

These inflows and removals are schematically shown 

in figure 7. Also shown are components for hyd·ologic 

management and inputs for potential control of water 

quality. 

The parameters required for use of the modd must 

initially be estimated from several sets of hyd~otogic 

data, with consideration given to the costs of management systems and the topography of the proposed basin. 

Model parameters for inflows and outflows can be 

obtained from actual historical data and from engineering estimates. In many cases, suitable historir.al data 

may be available for streamflow, precipitation, and 

evaporation, while estimates will have to be used for net 

seepage and the several forms of runoff. Model parameters for the management systems are based on cost 

estimates for initial development and for yearly operation under various sets of hydrologic conditions. 

Standard topographic maps are suitable for calcnlations 

of most basin parameters. 

When the necessary model parameters have been 

estimated, flow generating programs are used to synthesize sequences of either inflows or outflows for an 

GI7 
Precipitation 

Cost of 

Preventing Pollution 

from Entering 

the lake 

I---, 

Influent Tributary I I 

Streams :z 

Runoff- Overland Flow I g I 

and lnterflowl : 

1 

___ ...,., 

Runoff- 0 

Storm Drainage System! Q.. '-----~ L__J 

Evapotranspiration 

Discharge to Streams 

--------, r---, 

I Treatment I 

System 

___ L-__:-:] 

0 utlet on 

Flood and 

Draw down 

Cost of 

Water Quality 

Improvement 

Cost of Outflow 

Regulation 

Wells (or) 

Municipal 

Supply Cost of Inflow 

Augmentation Seepage Controls 

Figure 7.-Schematic diagram of a basic lake planning and manageme-nt model. 

idealized lake. The lake size is computed from an area to 

volume curve. For any condition, either natural or 

regulated, the lake area is defined on the basis of the 

long-term volume difference between incoming and outgoing flows. 

The model permits rapid testing of various regulatory 

schemes to determine answers to management questions. 

Inflow augmentation and outflow regulation are the 

model components which provide flexibility for hydrologic management. In determining the need and (or) 

design of these systems, the cost of augmentation must 

be balanced against estimated costs for low water levels, 

while the cost of regulation must be balanced against 

estimated costs of flooding. In essence, the model '1will 

provide the user with a series of possible tradeoffs 

between development-operation costs and propertydamage-land-devaluation costs. · 

The model also provides lake size and management 

cost analyses to help the planner decide whether or not 

to route the storm-drainage system to the lake. Unfortunately, at present this decision must be based entirely on 

hydrologic factors. We presently lack the information to 

quantify the pollution load potential of storm-system 

runoff in real-estate-lake communities. Thus, a decision 

to route storm drainage to the lake must be tempered by 

the knowledge that the water may rapidly pollute :the 

lake if proper control measures are not used. A furlher 

point of difficulty is that costs of control measures, are 

also unknown at this time. ' 

Another difficult-to-measure parameter is the water 

loss from the transpiration portion of evapotranspiration. This component of water removal is, neverthe~ess, 

amenable to at least partial management. Control of 

aquatic vegetation will reduce transpiration within the 

lake, while selection and control of shore vegetation will 

reduce the terrestrial loss of water drawn from the lake. 

Hopefully, in the future, there will l:~ some way to 

estimate the quantity of water that can be saved through 

these various management practices. 

WATER QUALITY 

The water quality components in figure 7 are 

portrayed in dashed lines to indicate they represent a 

potential, rather than a possible imme<iiate use of the 

model. Polluting substances would enter the lake 

primarily through the tributary streams, runoff from 

overland flow and interflow, and runoff from a stormdrainage system. The figure thus graohically demonstrates the sources of pollution that r .. e important to 

consider in planning a real-estate lake. In summary form, 

the development of a successful lake requires that tributary streams be unpolluted, overland fow be relatively 

free of fertilizer nutrients and pesticides, interflow be 

free of septic tank discharge, and storm drainage, if 

routed to the lake, be free of gross pollution. 

Polluting substances can also enter a lake from springs 

and direct precipitation. That the amo•mt of pollution 

from these sources is low is fortunate, because the 

sources are virtually uncontrollable. ':"reated and untreated sewage are not considered as inflows in the 

model since discharges of this type would most certainly 

cause severe troubles in the managem~nt of any realestate lake. 

Treatment for water-quality improvement (shown in 

fig. 7) is a potential component of any lake management 

model. Treatments currently in use zre dredging for 

removal of sediment and spray fountaim which beautify 

a lake while aerating the water. Although cost comparison estimates are unavailable, sophisti~ated treatment 

systems will probably cost far more than preventing 

pollution from initially entering a lake. 

GIS 
Thus, in a real-estate lake, the key to good water 

quality is careful planning and management to keep 

potential pollutants from entering the water. 

CONCLUSIONS 

A real-estate lake can be either an asset or a liability. 

With proper planning and management, it can enhance 

the esthetic quality of the landscape, provide wateroriented recreation, and increase the property value of 

the surrounding land. With poor planning and management, a lake can become a weed-choked, foul-smelling 

mudhole. 

Proper planning is the key to success in the development of real-estate lakes. The basis for this proper 

planning is a thorough knowledge of the hydrology of 

lakes combined with an anticipation of the problems 

that may arise in their development and use. On this 

basis, preliminary planning can pinpoint the potential 

problems of lake development and can provide an assessment of their potential severity. This assessment of 

problems permits a realistic estimate of the total cost of 

developing a real-estate lake, rather than simply the cost 

of construction. In the long run, time and money can be 

saved by preventing or minimizing problems at the outset and by eliminating those areas where combined construction and maintenance costs would be economically 

prohibitive. 

Management of real-estate lakes can be truly successful only if preceded by proper planning. No amount 

of management can save a lake if major hydrologic components are misdesigned at the outset. Proper management can, however, lessen the number and magnitude of 

problems that arise from minor mistakes and omissions. 

Moreover, even well planned lakes require constant 

management to be maintained at a desirable level of 

physical, chemical, and esthetic quality. 

To be successful, the development of a real-estate 

lake requires the advice and guidance of experts. The 

necessary planning and management insights can 1:'~ fully 

obtained only through consultation with local e"'lvironmental planners and engineers. The earlier these experts 

are consulted, the more problem free the establishment 

and use of a Jake will be. 

SELECTED REFERENCES 

Burby, R.J., 1967, Lake-oriented subdivisions in North 

Carolina: Decision Factors and Policy Implications for Urban 

Growth Patterns, Part I - Developer Decisions, Chapel Hill, 

N.C., Water Resources Research Institute Univ. North Carolina, Rept. 9, 177 p. 

David, E.L., 1968, Lakeshore property values, A guide to public 

investment in recreation, Water Resources Researc'l, v. 4, 

no. 4, p. 697-707. 

Greeson, P.E., 1969, Lake eutrophication-a natural process: 

Water Resources Bulletin, v. 5, no. 4, p. 16-30. 

Hasler, A.D., 194 7, Eutrophication of lakes by domestic 

drainage: Ecology, v. 28, no. 4, p. 383-395. 

Hasler, A.D., and Ingersoll, B., 1968, Dwindling lakes: Natural 

History, v. 77, no. 9, p. 8-19. 

Jones, D.E., Jr., 1967, Urban hydrology-a redirectio'l: Civil 

Engineering-ASCE, v. 37, no. 8, p. 58-62. 

Wood well, G.M., 196 7, Toxic substances and ecological cycles: 

Scientific American, v. 216, no. 3, p. 24-31. 

Gl9 

tr. S. GOVERN~IENT PHII'\TING OFFICT : 1'172 0- 4fiR-557 

935·<'192