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Regulatory

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Departments of 

Agriculture

New Pest Response 

Guidelines

Khapra Beetle
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New Pest Response Guidelines

Khapra Beetle

10/19/09

New Pest Response Guidelines: Khapra Beetle was prepared by Jeffrey N. L.

Stibick, USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Emergency and Domestic Programs, 4700 River

Road, Unit 134, Riverdale, Maryland and edited by Patricia S. Michalak,

USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Manuals Unit, Frederick, Maryland.

Cite this report as follows: Stibick, J. 2007. New Pest Response Guidelines: Khapra

Beetle. USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Emergency and Domestic Programs, Riverdale,

Maryland. [http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/

online_manuals.shtml]

 R. L. Dunkle

Richard Dunkle, Deputy Administrator

USDA–APHIS–PPQ

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Joel Floyd

4700 River Road

Unit 137

Riverdale, Maryland 20737

Telephone: 310/734?4396

Joel.P.Floyd@aphis.usda.gov

Date

October 24, 2007

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle i

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

1

Credits

Contributors

Dr. Frank Arthur, USDA–APHIS–GMPRC, Manhattan, Kansas

Dr. Alan V. Barak, USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Otis Pest Survey, Detection, and

Exclusion Laboratory, Otis ANGB, Massachusetts

Dr. Dale Meyerdirk, USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Biological Control, Unit 135,

Riverdale, Maryland

Images

Cover

Wheat Products—Keith Weller, USDA–Agricultural Research Service [http:/

/www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/photos/]

Khapra Beetle on Wheat—Al Barak, USDA–APHIS–PPQ–CPHST

Khapra Beetle—Ken Gray Photograph Collection, Oregon State University,

courtesy of G. Fisher
Images

ii Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle iii

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

1

Contents

Credits page 1-i

Contributors i

Images i

Contents page 1-iii

Introduction page 1-1

Introduction 1

Pest Status 1

Disclaimers and Document Comprehension 2

Contacts 3

Initiating an Emergency Pest Response Program 3

Program Safety 4

Support for Program Decision Making 5

Pest Information page 2-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1

Classification 1

History and Distribution 1

Ecological Range 3

Hosts 4

Damage 4

Biology 5

Reproduction 7

Development 8

Survey Procedures page 3-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1

Detection Survey  2

Delimiting Survey 3

Traceback and Trace Forward Investigation 3

Monitoring Survey 4

Survey Tools 4

Handling Specimens 13

Orientation of Survey Personnel 13

Identification page 4-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1
iv Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Authorities 1

Keys to Dermestidae 3

Characteristics 5

Similar Species 10

Collection, Rearing and Preparation of Specimens 12

Screening 14

Shipping 14

Determination of Infestation 14

Regulatory Procedures page 5-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1

Instructions to Officers 1

Regulated Articles 2

Pest Risk Appraisal 3

Regulatory Action 3

Regulated Establishments 6

Use of Pesticides 6

Approved Regulatory Treatments 6

Principal Activities 7

Removing Quarantines 8

Orientation of Regulatory Personnel 8

Regulatory Records 8

Control page 6-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1

Eradication 3

Nonemergency Control 5

Environmental Regulation page 7-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1

Disclaimer 2

National Environmental Policy Act 2

Environmental Monitoring 3

Biological Assessment 3

Pathways page 8-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1

History 1

Dissemination 2

Countries of Origin 3

Destinations 3
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle v

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Risk of Establishment 4

Glossary page 9-1

References page 1-1

Forms page A-1

List of Forms 1

PPQ 391 Specimens For Determination 2

PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification 4

Resources page B-1

Hosts page C-1

Historical Survey Images page D-1

Technical Control page E-1

Contents 1

Introduction 1

Pesticide Resistance 1

Conventional Treatment 2

Alternative Treatment 6

Cultural Control 7

Biological Control 8

Other Strategies 10
vi Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 1-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

1 Chapter 1 1

Introduction

Contents

Introduction page 1‐1

Pest Status page 1‐1

Disclaimers and Document Comprehension page 1‐2

Contacts page 1‐3

Initiating an Emergency Pest Response Program page 1‐3

Program Safety page 1‐4

Support for Program Decision Making page 1‐5

Introduction

Use New Pest Response Guidelines: Khapra Beetle as a guide when designing a

program to detect, monitor, control, contain, or eradicate an infestation of this

pest. If khapra beetle is detected in the United States, PPQ personnel will

produce a site‐specific action plan based on the Guidelines. State agriculture

department personnel and others concerned with developing local survey or

control programs will find the Guidelines useful in developing an action plan

for the khapra beetle.

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)–Animal and Plant Health

Inspection Service (APHIS)–Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ)

developed this guide through discussion, consultation, or agreement with

staff at USDA–Agricultural Research Service (ARS), universities, industries,

and State departments of agriculture.

The Guidelines will be updated as new information becomes available. Specific

emergency programs should be based on information available at the time of

the incident.

Pest Status

The khapra beetle is one of the world’s most destructive pests of grain

products and seeds. Populations of this pest can build rapidly in a short time

under hot, dry conditions. Grain damage, depending on existing conditions,

often reaches 30%; up to 70% damage has been reported. Khapra beetle has

earned a reputation as a dirty feeder, since it damages more kernels that it

consumes. Feeding and contamination by khapra beetles results in the

following changes to grain: weight loss, reduction in grade, and quality

damage of processed products (USDA–APHIS–PPQ, 1983).
Chapter 1

Disclaimers and Document Comprehension

1-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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Khapra beetle earned the attention of USDA early in the 20th century. In 1953,

an extensive infestation was found in California, which may have been

present since 1946. Subsequent detection and delimiting surveys revealed its

presence in Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas, as well as in Mexico

in the states of Baja California, Chihuahua, Jalisco and Sonora (USDA–ARS,

1959). The infestation was finally eradicated in 1966 (USDA–APHIS–PPQ,

1983).

Other infestations were discovered in isolated areas of California, Maryland,

Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas in 1980. These

were eradicated by 1983 (USDA–APHIS–PPQ, 1983). PPQ developed an

action plan during this time to aid in program efforts (USDA–APHIS–PPQ,

1982). An infestation was also discovered in Owings Mills, Maryland, in 1997,

but it was a localized infestation that was quickly eradicated.

Pasek (1998) rated the pest risk potential of khapra beetle as high. For pests

with this rating, specific phytosanitary measures are strongly recommended.

Port‐of‐entry inspection is not considered sufficient to provide phytosanitary

security. Detailed examination and choice of appropriate sanitary and

phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk should be undertaken as part of

the pest risk management phase.

Disclaimers and Document Comprehension

This document is not intended to be complete and exhaustive. It provides a

foundation, based upon the literature available, to assist further work. Some

key articles were not available at the time of writing, and not all specialists

and members of the research community were consulted for their advice.

Search recent literature and Web sites frequently, since material is updated

periodically.

Commercial Suppliers

References to commercial suppliers or products should not be construed as an

endorsement of the company or product by USDA.
Chapter 1

Contacts

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 1-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Contacts

When an emergency program for the pest has been implemented, its success

depends on the cooperation, assistance, and understanding of other involved

groups. The appropriate liaison and information officers should distribute

news of program progress and developments to interest groups, including:

◆ Other Federal, State, county, and municipal agricultural officials

◆ Grower groups (such as specific commodity or industry groups)

◆ Commercial interests

◆ Academic entities with agricultural interests

◆ Land‐grant universities with Cooperative Extension Services

◆ State and local law enforcement officials

◆ Public health agencies

◆ National, State and local news media

◆ The public

Initiating an Emergency Pest Response Program

An emergency pest response program or incident response consists of

detection and delimitation, and may be followed by programs in regulation,

containment, eradication and/or control.

If a newly detected exotic or imminent pest threat lacks a current New Pest

Response Guidelines for reference, the New Pest Advisory Group (NPAG)

evaluates the pest. After assessing the risk to U.S. plant health and consulting

with experts and regulatory personnel, NPAG makes a recommendation to

PPQ management for a course of action.

Follow this sequence in any order when initiating an emergency pest response

program:

 1. A new or reintroduced pest is discovered and reported.

 2. The pest is examined and pre‐identified by regional or area identifier

(See Identification on  page 4‐1).

 3. Pest identity is confirmed by national taxonomic authority recognized

by the USDA–APHIS–PPQ National Identification system.

 4. Existing Guidelines are consulted or new NPAG is assembled to evaluate

the pest.

 5. Depending on the urgency, official notifications are made to the

National Plant Board, cooperators, and trading partners.
Chapter 1

Program Safety

1-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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 6. A delimiting survey is conducted at site of detection (See Survey

Procedures on  page 3‐1).

 7. An Incident Assessment Team may be sent to evaluate the site.

 8. A recommendation is made, based on the assessment of surveys, other

data, and recommendation of the Incident Assessment Team and/or an

NPAG, as follows (See Regulatory Procedures on  page 5‐1 and Control

on  page 6‐1):

❖ Take no action.

❖ Regulate the pest.

❖ Contain the pest.

❖ Suppress the pest.

❖ Eradicate the pest.

 9. State Departments of Agriculture are consulted.

 10. If appropriate, a control strategy is selected (See Control on  page 6‐1).

 11. A PPQ Deputy Administrator authorizes a response.

 12. A command post is selected and the Incident Command System is

implemented.

 13. State Departments of Agriculture cooperate with parallel actions using a

unified command.

 14. Traceback/trace forward investigations are conducted (See Survey

Procedures on  page 3‐1).

 15. Field identification procedures are standardized.

 16. Data reporting is standardized.

 17. Regulatory actions are taken (See Regulatory Procedures on  page 5‐1).

 18. Environmental assessments are completed as necessary (See

Environmental Regulation on  page 7‐1).

 19. Treatment is applied for required pest generational time.

 20. Environmental monitoring is conducted, if appropriate.

 21. Pest monitoring surveys are conducted to evaluate program success.

 22. Programs are designed for eradication, containment, or long‐term use.

Program Safety

Safety of the public and program personnel has priority in program planning

and training, and throughout operations. Safety officers and supervisors must

enforce on‐the‐job safety procedures.
Chapter 1

Support for Program Decision Making

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 1-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Support for Program Decision Making

The USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Center for Plant Health, Science and Technology

(CPHST) provides technical support to emergency pest response program

directors concerning risk assessments, survey methods, control strategies,

regulatory treatments, and other aspects of pest response programs.
Chapter 1

Support for Program Decision Making

1-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 2-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

2 Chapter 2 1

Pest Information

Contents

Introduction page 2‐1

Classification page 2‐1

History and Distribution page 2‐1

Ecological Range page 2‐3

Hosts page 2‐4

Damage page 2‐4

Biology page 2‐5

Reproduction page 2‐7

Development page 2‐8

Introduction

Use the Pest Information chapter to learn more about the classification, history,

host range, and biology, of the khapra beetle.

Classification

Use Table 2‐1 as an aid to the classification of khapra beetle.

History and Distribution

Khapra beetle is apparently native to India (Rahman et al., 1945). Hinton

(1945) reported that it was distributed in India, Ceylon, Malaya, Europe,

(former) U.S.S.R., China, Japan, Korea, Philippines, Australia, and

TABLE 2-1. Classification of Khapra Beetle

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insecta

Order Coleoptera

Family Dermestidae

Species Trogoderma granarium

Common name khapra beetle

Easily confused with the following 

beetles

Other Trogoderma and dermestids
Chapter 2

History and Distribution

2-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Madagascar, and had become established in most of those countries. It was

discovered in stored guinea corn in Nigeria in 1948, and may have been

present in stored groundnuts as early as 1944 (Howe, 1952; Pasek, 1998).

In North America, khapra beetle was found in Mexico but failed to become

established. In the United States, khapra beetle has been detected in Arizona,

California, New Mexico, and Texas; it was eradicated from those sites. The

beetle was detected at a Connecticut residence in 2006; control activities were

conducted, and monitoring was scheduled for 2007 (EPPO, 2006).

Quarantine Regulations

Current quarantine regulations for the United States recognize 25 countries as

harboring endemic populations of khapra beetle: Afghanistan, Algeria,

Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Cyprus, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Mali,

Mauritania, Morocco, Myanmar, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,

Senegal, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey (USDA–APHIS–PPQ

2003).

World Distribution and Status

EPPO (2006) provided the following update on the distribution and status of

khapra beetle:

Established In—Algeria, Austria, Cyprus, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Libya,

Morocco, Spain, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey (southeastern), United

Kingdom (protected environments only).

Found But Not Established In—Belgium, Denmark, Germany (protected

environments only), Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Russia.

Intercepted Only In—Hungary, Italy.
Chapter 2

Ecological Range

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 2-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Ecological Range

Khapra beetle is unlikely to become established in most climates in the

United States. However, it is able to survive almost anywhere in storage

facilities that are protected from cold environments.

Favorable Climates in the United States

The following States have the greatest potential for establishment of khapra

beetle due to their warm climates (Figure 2‐1 on page 2‐3):

◆ Arizona

◆ California

◆ Kansas

◆ New Mexico

◆ Oklahoma

◆ Texas

According to some reports (Howe & Lindgren, 1957; Pasek, 2004), the

following States are at less risk for establishment of khapra beetle:

◆ Utah

◆ Nevada

In Storage

Khapra beetle is able to survive almost anywhere in storage facilities that are

protected from cold environments. Storage facilities can be artificially heated,

or become much warmer when insect activity causes the temperature to rise

(Howe and Lindgren, 1957).

FIGURE 2-1 United States Climates Favorable for Development of Khapra Beetle
Chapter 2

Hosts

2-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Hosts

Khapra beetle prefers grain and cereal products, particularly wheat, barley,

oats, rye, maize, rice, flour, malt, and noodles. Given a choice of rye, wheat,

and oats, khapra beetle prefers wheat. This pest will feed on almost any dried

plant or animal matter, including dog food, dried orange pulp, bread, and

dried coconuts (Hinton, 1945; Szito, 2005).

Khapra beetle can feed on products with as little as 2% moisture content, and

can develop on animal matter such as dead mice, dried blood, and dried

insects (Pasek, 1998).

Grocery commodities that can serve as hosts include bread, dried coconuts,

cornmeal, crackers, white and whole wheat flour, hominy grits, baby cereals,

pearl barley, and wheat germ (Szito, 2005).

Damage

Infestation affects grain quality as well as quantity. Infestation of commodities

with khapra beetle can lead to the following consequences:

◆ Economic loss of valuable grain or other domestic or export products

◆ Lowered quality of products due to contamination

◆ Costs associated with prevention and treatment

◆ Consumer health risks when exposed to products contaminated with

insect parts

In India, khapra beetle infests about 5% of stored grains, but can affect an

entire bin or lot under heavy infestation (Pasek, 1998).

Economic

In the United States, infestation can result in the loss of export markets. If

khapra beetle became established in the United States, other countries would

likely place restrictions on imports of U.S. grain, cereal products, or seed. For

example, exports of coarse grains to countries outside the current restricted

area averaged $5.8 billion per year in the period 1993–1997 (Mason, 2002).

Grain Quality

Khapra beetle is a dirty feeder because it damages more grain kernels than it

consumes. The larvae contaminate grain with body parts and setae.
Chapter 2

Biology

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 2-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Severe infestations can make grain unpalatable or unmarketable (Figure 2‐2).

Heavy infestations of larvae can reduce the host to frass (USDA, 1982).

Feeding activity reduces plant material to crude fat, sugar, starch, protein, and

nitrogen. Feeding also results in an increase in moisture, crude fiber, and total

protein content (Mason, 2002).

Prevention and Treatment

The cost of prevention and treatment associated with khapra beetle can be

great.

Health Risks

Like many beetles in this family, the body of the immature stage has barbed

hairs that can contaminate grain (Figure 4‐6 on page 4‐7). Exposure to grain

contaminated with hairs can lead to dermal and gastric health hazards. The

hairs can cause skin irritation in people handling heavily infested grain

(Mason, 2002; Barak, 1995). If swallowed, consumers can experience ulcerative

colitis. This is particularly distressing for young children, who develop

vomiting and diarrhea, and refuse food (Bennett, 2003; Anon., 2001).

Biology

The optimum conditions for development of khapra beetle do not correspond

well with its geographical distribution, which indicates a preference for hot,

dry areas. Where conditions are more humid, khapra beetle may not be able to

compete with other beetle species which typically have a higher reproductive

potential and shorter life cycle.

FIGURE 2-2 Adults, Larvae and Cast Skins of

Khapra Beetle in Grain [Image courtesy of

R. Hodges, Natural Resources Institute, UK]
Chapter 2

Biology

2-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Larvae

Khapra beetle larvae are characterized by two genetic types: larvae that are

able to undergo a facultative diapause, and those that are unable to do so. The

types are indistinguishable from each other and can only be separated by

adverse conditions (CABI, 2005).

Capable of 

Diapause

In the absence of food, diapausing larvae are stimulated to diapause by

adverse conditions, such as extremes of temperature, humidity and crowding.

Without food, diapausing larvae may survive about nine months. With food,

they may live for six years. In this state of very low metabolic activity, they are

extremely resistant to the effect of contact insecticides or fumigants and

complete disinfestation may thus be difficult.

Diapausing larvae will pupate in response to a considerable temperature

shock—such as a much lower temperature for at least one month, followed by

a return to a warm temperature. Larvae respond similarly to the introduction

of fresh food.

Diapause seems to assist the larvae in surviving adverse conditions. It may

also promote dispersal, as diapausing larvae are frequently found on movable

objects or transport equipment such as sacks and trucks (CABI, 2005).

Incapable of 

Diapause

When almost mature, the nondiapausing type of khapra beetle larvae leave

their food and seek out a refuge such as a crevice in a store (Burges, 1963).

Their respiration rate drops to an extremely low level. Large numbers of

larvae in this condition may be found together and, although they are

inactive, will seek a new refuge if disturbed. The larvae molt periodically with

hardly any increase in the rate of respiration. The larvae also feed

occasionally; their respiration returns to normal during this time (CABI, 2005).

Adult

Adult females die soon after oviposition is complete. The adult males live 1–4

days longer (Howe, 1952). Adults are usually short‐lived, but have been

known to survive several months or years at temperatures below 16o

C

(USDA, 1982). Under optimal conditions, khapra beetle can sustain a

population increase of 12.5 times per month. For that reason, populations can

build up rapidly in a short time under hot, dry conditions. They can survive in

colder climates in heated situations such as warehouses, food plants, and

grain storage. Khapra beetle is primarily active at dusk (Howe, 1952).

Adults possess wings, but are not known to fly (Howe, 1952). The pest is

spread mostly by man in commerce and trade, and in personal luggage.

However, adults and larvae can be spread for short distances by actively

crawling larvae, birds, other insects, and especially by wind (Lindgren et al.,

1955 in Howe, 1952). Their natural habitat seems to be in areas with large

pecan, walnut, acorn and other nut trees (Anon., 2005).
Chapter 2

Reproduction

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 2-7

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Reproduction

Completion of the life cycle usually lasts 4–6 weeks, but can last up to three

years depending on temperature, available food supply, and potential for

diapause. There are usually 4–5 generations per year, but there can be as many

as 12 under optimum conditions.

Virgin females secrete a pheromone that attracts virgin males and, to a lesser

extent, mated males and other females. Reproduction sites may be established

in this way. Female khapra beetles need only to mate once.

Oviposition

After copulation, oviposition commences immediately at 40oC and lasts 3–4

days. At 25o

C, there is a preoviposition period of 2–3 days and oviposition

may extend over 12 days. The abdomen of the female is distended by its eggs

and several segments may extend beyond the elytra; the abdomen returns to

normal as oviposition takes place. Temperatures between 25–40o

C seem to

have little or no effect on the average number of eggs laid, which is

approximately 35 per female (Howe, 1952; CABI, 2004).

Each female usually deposits about 50 eggs in its lifetime. At temperatures

above 32o

C this number may go up to 100 eggs per female. Eggs are deposited

loosely and usually singly in host material and also in grooves or cracks

formed by the removal of the fried shoots at the ends of the grain. Hatching

usually takes place in 1–2 weeks (Hadaway, 1956).

Larval Development

Larval development does not occur at temperatures below 21oC, but can

proceed at very low humidity such as 25o

C and 2% RH. Development is most

rapid in hot, humid environments, taking about 18 days at 35o

C and 73% RH.

Under these conditions, the average number of larval molts is four for males

and five for females, although this is highly variable (CABI, 2004).

Pupation

The larvae leave diapause and pupate if subjected to a considerable

temperature shock (i.e., a much lower temperature for at least one month,

followed by a return to warm conditions). A similar but less effective stimulus

is the introduction of fresh food.

The pupa usually remains inside the skin of the final‐instar larva. Pupal

development is unaffected by humidity and varies in length from five days at

25o

C to three days at 40oC. On adult emergence, the pupal skin is pushed to

the posterior end of the larval skin; the adult remains within the larval skin for

a day or more (CABI, 2004).
Chapter 2

Development

2-8 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Adult Emergence

When the adults have fully emerged, copulation can take place immediately

(CABI, 2004). Sexual maturity is usually reached 2 days after emergence

(USDA, 1982).

Development

Temperature is one of the most important factors influencing the development

of all insect life stages and this is true for khapra beetle as well. However,

because khapra beetle is a pest in controlled environments, its development

will not restrict program actions nor influence the selection and success of

eradication treatments, the duration of trapping activities and regulatory

functions. It is unlikely that estimates will have to be made of its survival

outside storage environments.

Degree Day Value

To predict the development of khapra beetle outside the storage environment,

use site‐specific temperature data in a tool known as the degree day value.

Use degree day values for the following actions:

◆ Predicting emergence of adults

◆ Determining the time to began trapping

◆ Monitoring cycles of generation during a season

◆ Monitoring the effect of eradication or suppression measures

Degree day values are based on the developmental threshold temperature of

an insect and are species typical. Threshold temperatures can represent either

upper or lower limitations, and may be measurements of air or soil

temperature, depending on where the insect lives.

To determine degree day values for any pest, use the formulas (Formulas)

below. Or, you can use an online interface (NAPPFAST) or utility (U of CA

IPM) below.

Formulas Developmental values for khapra beetle in the following table can be useful

when predicting the development of this pest.
Chapter 2

Development

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 2-9

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Use Equation 1 or Equation 2 (below) to calculate degree day values

(Hadaway, 1956):

NAPPFAST In a joint venture, APHIS, North Carolina State University, and the

information technology company ZedX, Inc., have developed a new internet

tool known as NAPPFAST. NAPPFAST uses weather, climate and soil data to

model pest development. The models supply the predictive pest mapping

needs of the Cooperative Agricultural Pests (CAPS) program. In addition, the

models produce potential establishment maps for exotic pests, which

supports the risk assessment activities of the Pest Epidemiology Risk

Assessment Laboratory (PERAL). Access the graphical user interface at the

NAPPFAST Web site.

U of CA IPM Use the Degree‐day Utility (DDU) available online from University of

California, Integrated Pest Management Programs, to determine degree day

values for khapra beetle as well as other pests. Access the utility at the

University of California Web site.

TABLE 2-2 Developmental Values for Khapra Beetle

Minimum temperature for development 200C

Maximum temperature for development 40o

C

Maximum preoviposition period1 3 days

Maximum oviposition period1 12 days

Maximum egg development1 10 days

Maximum female larval development1 47 days

Maximum male larval development1 39 days

1 At constant temperature of 25oC and relative humidity of 50%

Equation 1 Degree Days = [(Average Daily Temp.) – (Developmental Threshold)]

Equation 2 Degree Days = [(Max. Temp. + Min. Temp.)/2] – (Developmental Threshold)

Address http://www.nappfast.org/index.htm

Address http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/WEATHER
Chapter 2

Development

2-10 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 3-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

3 Chapter 3 1

Survey Procedures

Contents

Introduction page 3‐1

Detection Survey page 3‐2

Delimiting Survey page 3‐3

Traceback and Trace Forward Investigation page 3‐3

Monitoring Survey page 3‐4

Survey Tools page 3‐4

Handling Specimens page 3‐13

Orientation of Survey Personnel page 3‐13

Introduction

Use the Survey Procedures chapter as a guide to conducting a pest survey for

khapra beetle.

The purpose of a survey is to determine the extent and means of pest

dispersal. Surveys are also used to assess the effectiveness of treatments. Use

detection and delimiting surveys to detect and delimit khapra beetle. Use a

monitoring survey to measure the effectiveness of applied treatments on the

pest population. Use Table 3‐1 and the following sections to learn more about

survey procedures.
Chapter 3

Detection Survey 

3-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Before initiating survey and control activities in the United States, a national

authority recognized by USDA–APHIS–PPQ–National Identification Service

must verify the identity of this pest. See Authorities on  page 4‐1 for more

information.

Detection Survey 

Use a detection survey to determine if khapra beetle exists in an area. Conduct

a detection survey by using visual inspection and trapping of all properties

capable of supporting a khapra beetle infestation. For more information on

visual inspection and trapping, see Survey Tools on  page 3‐4.

Priorities

Some types of properties are more likely to harbor khapra beetle. Inspect

properties within an area according to the following order of importance

(USDA–AMS–Stored Products Insect Branch, 1959):

 1. Distributors

 2. Grain dealers

 3. Feed lots

 4. Users

 5. Farm storages

 6. Stands of pecan, acorn, walnut, pistachio and other nut trees

Frequency of 

Inspection

If resources permit, distributors and grain dealers should be inspected two

times each year. All other establishments, including nut tree stands, should be

inspected once each year.

TABLE 3-1 Survey Methods for Khapra Beetle

If: Then use this survey method:

You are unsure that the 

pest is present

Detection Survey on page 3-2. Use visual inspection and/or 

traps to capture specimens. Place traps, carry out debris/

product sampling and inspect plants at suspect location. 

Consult with Authorities on page 4-1 to confirm your 

identification.

You know the pest is 

present and you need to 

define its geographic 

location

Delimiting Survey on page 3-3. Use traps and debris/product 

sampling at specific locations and densities to capture 

specimens according to the plan outlined below. Use Traceback 

and Trace Forward Investigation on page 3-3 to delimit areas 

of infestation. Consult with Authorities on page 4-1 to confirm 

your identification.

You have applied a 

control and need to 

measure its 

effectiveness

Monitoring Survey on page 3-4. Use visual inspection, debris/

product sampling and/or traps to capture specimens. Place 

traps and inspect host plants at suspect locations. Consult with 

Authorities on page 4-1 to confirm your identification.
Chapter 3

Delimiting Survey

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 3-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Delimiting Survey

After an area, establishment, or premises has been determined to be infested

with khapra beetle, use a delimiting survey to establish the extent of the

infestation. Use the findings from the survey to determine the type and extent

of control measures to apply (Table 3‐2). Conduct visual inspection and

trapping of all properties capable of supporting an infestation of khapra

beetle. For more information on visual inspection and trapping, see Survey

Tools on  page 3‐4.

If surrounding buildings pose a hazard because of the proximity or their use,

inspect them in order to delimit the extent of the infestation in the area.

Traceback and Trace Forward Investigation

Use a traceback investigation to locate the source of an introduction after

khapra beetle has been detected. Traceback investigations help to determine if

an isolated detection is spurious, or if it is evidence of an established

population.

If an infestation of khapra beetle is confirmed, start tracking all incoming and

outgoing commodities and compose a priority list of secondary location

warranting inspections. Use the survey tools in this chapter when surveying

secondary locations, and for follow up surveys after the initial inspection or

treatment of the original find (USDA–APHIS–PPQ, 1981).

Develop secondary inspection lists to include distribution outlets supplied

from the infested property and other similar or related businesses that may be

infested. Notify State cooperators of high risk khapra beetle premises in their

respective States, based on the sight inspection lists that have been prepared.

TABLE 3-2 Delimitation Survey for Khapra Beetle

If you find: In an area that is: Take this action:

And supplement 

with:

One or more live 

specimens

Apparently in the 

original premises or 

area

Initiate delimiting 

survey in and around 

premises up to 1⁄2 

mile off

In other premises or 

areas

Initiate delimiting 

survey in the other 

premises or areas.

Delimiting survey 

along roads, 

highways, footpaths, 

or other connections 

between infested 

areas and use tracebackward
Chapter 3

Monitoring Survey

3-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Monitoring Survey

Conduct a monitoring survey in any area where treatments were applied, and

repeat at prescribed intervals. Conduct monitoring surveys as follows:

◆ Use PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification on  page A‐4 to notify the

owner of this inspection requirement prior to conducting treatments.

◆ Inspection will verify the success of the treatment by not less than three

inspections made of the entire property over a period of one year.

◆ In the northeast United States and other cool regions, inspections must

extend through two summer seasons, with inspections made at times

when khapra beetle activity would most likely occur.

◆ At least 90 days shall elapse between each official inspection, and the

last inspection shall be made within 30 days of the date release will be

effected.

Carry out all inspections in accordance with methods outlined in Survey

Tools on  page 3‐4.

Survey Tools

Use visual inspection and trapping as tools to survey for khapra beetle.

Visual Inspection

Begin inspection on arrival at the premises or location. Check exit and entry

areas, as well as any storage locations on the premises. Observe the movement

of products, containers, or people handling such products, which could have

been exposed to khapra beetle.

Be alert for cartons, sacks, debris, woodwork, cracks, loose plaster, loose paint,

and other such hiding places. Rodent bait stations with grain or cereal and

other such traps should be carefully inspected.

Collect milled products or debris from areas such as cracks and cervices of

bins or silos or wherever grain is stored or vacuumed, such as in farm

buildings, homes, stores, etc. This visual inspection is to be carried on as part

of other collecting and trapping activities.

Source Information in this section was revised from the following source: 

USDA–APHIS–PPQ. 1981. Khapra Beetle Program Manual, Trogoderma

granarium (Everts). Complete Revision October, 1981: 1-25.

Source Information in this section was revised from the following source, unless 

noted: USDA–APHIS–PPQ. 1981. Khapra Beetle Program Manual, 

Trogoderma granarium (Everts). Complete Revision October, 1981: 1-25.
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 3-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Light infestations are very difficult to find, and may require repeated

inspections. Dirty grain and dockage are attractive to the khapra beetle;

conversely, sanitary conditions are a deterrent (USDA–ARS, 1959).

In bulk storage where heavy infestations occur, the larvae tend to congregate

in the surface grain and on or near the walls. In empty bins and warehouses,

likely places to find larvae are in or on ledges, cracks in the floor or walls, old

cartons, rags, sacks, newspapers, and scrap lumber, or other debris. Elevator

tunnels also serve as hiding places for the larvae. In the inspection of sacked

material, the ears and seams of bags are likely hiding places to examine.

Inspections should be performed at the time of year when insects are active. In

areas where khapra beetle cannot survive outside warehouses, conduct

surveys indoors in stored grains or other foods.

In areas where khapra beetle can survive outdoors, it will be least active in hot

summer months—for example, in Arizona or southern California. Likewise,

during the cold months in States to the north, inspections will not be as

productive as during the months of warmer temperatures.

Limit outdoor surveys to known hosts of khapra beetle, especially the nut

trees such as pecan and walnut. If an area within the regulated area has such

trees, they should be regularly inspected and fallen nuts and other debris

collected and examined for khapra beetle.

Records Survey records and data recording formats should be standardized. Maintain

survey records, noting the premises and areas surveyed, sites trapped, dates,

locations and hosts, materials or storage situations in which the pest was

found. Survey records should be entered into the National Agriculture Survey

Information System (NAPIS).

Least Risk Areas at low risk for khapra beetle infestation include well lighted areas or

areas where sun can penetrate. Also at low risk are areas which are moist or

where debris is covered with mold.
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

3-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Greatest Risk Areas with inadequate sanitation, low light levels, or cracks and crevices, are

at the greatest risk. Mature larvae tend to crawl upward, so places located

high up should be checked as well as those locations lower down (Table 3‐3).

TABLE 3-3 Areas at Greatest Risk of Infestation by Khapra Beetle1

1 USDA–ARS (1959)

Indoors Outdoors

◆ Walls, ledges, corners, shelves, and window sills or other places 

where dead insects of any kind may accumulate

◆ Cracks in floors or walls

◆ Paint scales, cartons, rags, sacks, old papers, scrap lumber, and 

piles of debris

◆ Elevator tunnels, pits and stairwells

◆ Sacked and packed materials [Check seams of bags and sacks.]

◆ Food storage, preparation, and eating areas

◆ Concrete and wood construction joints

◆ Cleaning devices, such as bag or spice cleaning machines, 

unused on premises and any debris removed from such devices

◆ Rat or mouse bait stations

◆ Equipment used to handle or process food

◆ Sidewalk and wall 

cracks

◆ Debris, garbage, or 

litter

◆ Frequently traveled 

pathways, 

especially if 

suspect goods are 

transported 

thereon

◆ Leaf litter

◆ Garages, storage 

sheds

◆ Movable loading 

platforms

◆ Stands of nearby 

nut trees
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 3-7

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Sample Collection Prior to inspecting, divide large structures into smaller units for survey

purposes. Inspection time will vary, depending on the type, location, layout,

use and management of a given facility, the inspector’s skill, and other factors.

Follow these guidelines on proper inspection procedure:

Important Place all debris samples in separate bags labeled with the location and 

collector. Suspect skins, larvae, pupae or adult beetles should be placed in 

vials.

◆ Use a portable hand or bench type vacuum cleaner equipped with a 

shoulder strap and smooth-walled hose to remove suspect material 

from corners, cracks, and crevices.

◆At each location, warehouse, or subunit, clean the vacuum cleaner 

and hose, and replace the vacuum bag.

◆Place each used vacuum bag in a plastic bag.

◆ Use a brush to sweep out corners, cracks, under containers, etc. A 

sturdy probe or knife may be used to break away areas near cracks (as 

in concrete walls) to facilitate examination.

◆ Inspect every room of the premises, emphasizing those used for storage 

of host material, shipping and packing materials, coffee rooms and 

other places where food might be kept. Untidy areas or areas where 

refuse is kept for lengthy periods should also be carefully inspected

◆ Inspect the perimeter of the premises, particularly areas in or near exit 

points which are likely pathways for movement of suspect materials, 

and any outside storage or trash areas.

◆ Bulk grain storage areas should be thoroughly inspected. Larvae tend to 

congregate in the surface grain and on or near walls, especially when 

heavy infestations occur. Stored material, such as grains, should be 

sifted carefully.

◆ During inspection, any suspect skins, larvae, pupae or adult beetles 

should be placed in vials. Specimens from different portions of a 

building must be kept in separate vials and identified by the portion 

where found and whether they are dead or alive. It may be necessary to 

warm the specimens to determine if they are alive.
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

3-8 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Premise 

Inspections

Follow these guidelines when inspecting premises:

◆ Inspectors will locate and survey premises for which their work unit is

responsible that receive or distribute cargo potentially infested with

khapra beetle.

◆ If practical, initial inspection and survey will be conducted of all

premises. This will be done according to the inspection techniques

previously described. Limitations of personnel and other resources will

require prioritizing premises according to khapra beetle risk and

inspecting high priority premises first.

◆ Premises that receive direct shipments of khapra beetle cargo are

considered high risk and should be inspected at least semiannually.

◆ Premises that receive manufactured or processed khapra beetle cargo

are considered low risk and should be inspected at least annually.

◆ Inspectors will notify State personnel of high risk khapra beetle

premises in their respective States.

◆ Inspectors will be responsible for monitoring containerized khapra

beetle cargo moving in and out of their respective work unit area

(example: interstate trucking terminals, transfer points for vans, etc.).

◆ Trapping will be done according to instructions in the following section.

◆ Inspectors will survey premises when climatic conditions for

establishment of an infestation are most ideal (for example, during

summer months in northern areas).

Outdoor 

Inspections

Follow these guidelines when inspecting outdoors:

◆ Inspections of the outdoor locations listed above around premises are

mandatory, following survey guidelines as given above.

◆ The locations of nearby stands of pecan, acorn, walnut, pistachio and

other nut trees must be charted and a visual inspection made of the

debris under such trees. Any fallen nuts should be collected for close

examination.

◆ Any other nearby hosts should also be examined, especially for

decaying material on them or under them.

◆ Do not search beyond 1⁄2‐mile of any infested area or facility and then

only if suspect hosts are in the area.
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 3-9

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Trapping

Use the vertical wall‐mount trap inside and outside structures, or on hosts

such as nut trees, to trap crawling khapra beetle larvae. If other Trogoderma

spp. are present, use aerial traps in addition to vertical wall‐mount traps. The

aerial traps will exclude khapra beetle, since it does not fly. See Diversion of

Common Warehouse Beetle below. See Resources on  page B‐1 to locate trap

suppliers.

Contact Alan V. Barak with any questions concerning trapping.   

Diversion of 

Common 

Warehouse 

Beetle

The common warehouse beetle (Trogoderma variable) is a strong flyer. If it is

abundant, its numbers may overwhelm the vertical wall‐mount traps meant to

trap khapra beetle. Use aerial sticky traps to resolve this problem by diverting

the common warehouse beetle. Trogoderma spp. caught in aerial sticky traps

cannot be khapra beetle (since it does not fly), eliminating the need for further

identification.

Use a sticky aerial trap such as the Pherocon II or any diamond‐, delta‐, or

wing‐shaped trap to capture the common warehouse beetle. Fit the trap with a

pheromone lure, and hang it high in the open headspace of the building. Use

one aerial trap per 2,500–5,000 sq ft or one for every 5–6 khapra beetle wall

traps. Dispose of traps when they are full.

To further reduce the number of common warehouse beetles captured in

vertical wall‐mount traps indoors, install sticky aerial traps outdoors near a

premises.

Assembled Wall 

Mount Traps

Trécé Inc., Salinas, CA, will supply APHIS with trap kits. Khapra beetle trap

kits include six vertical wall‐mount traps, one Storgard II aerial sticky trap,

and all septum‐type lures. The traps should arrive fully assembled. See Trap

Supplies on  page B‐1 for more information.

Wall Mount Traps 

Requiring 

Assembly

Older vertical wall‐mount traps, used prior to 2007, require assembly of the

following parts:

◆ Corrugated paper housing

Address Alan V. Barak

Otis Methods Development Center

Building 1398

Otis ANGB, MA 02542

Telephone: 508/563-9303 x216

FAX: 508/564-4398

al.barak@aphis.usda.gov

Source Information in this section was revised from the following source, unless 

noted: Barak, A. 2004. Khapra Beetle Trapping Instructions. 

USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Cooperative Agriculture Pest Survey (CAPS) Fact Sheet 

34. Sponsored by Center for Environmental and Regulatory Information 

Systems, Purdue University. [http://ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/khb/

topics/trap-instruct.html]
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

3-10 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

◆ Die‐cut cardboard jacket with 1‐inch tape

◆ Clear plastic collection tray

◆ Khapra beetle pheromone lure

◆ Wheat germ (ground, raw wheat germ is now the preferred bait

material

To assemble wall‐mount traps, follow the instructions in Assembly

Instructions    on  page 3‐11.
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 3-11

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Assembly 

Instructions 

  

◆

Step 1

 A. Grasp the jacket at each end; fold at the hinges so that the shiny or printed side 

faces out.

 B. Insert the tab into the slot from the outside and carefully lock each side. The tab 

will point to the top of the trap on the inside, when properly closed. Set the jacket 

aside.

Step 2

 A. Strip the cutouts from the corrugated piece. Lay the housing flat, faced side up.

 B. Remove the pheromone lure from its packet. Remove the release paper, and stick 

the lure on the face surface of the downward projecting center tab in the second 

section.

Step 3

 A. Fold the housing in half, corrugations out.

 B. Hold the section with the pheromone lure in the palm of the hand and insert a 

plastic tray into the housing in the cutout just below the pheromone lure, pushing 

in until the tray is centered.

Step 4

 A. Fold the end sections of the housing over the inner sections, holding the tray and 

lure so that the faced surfaces are on the outside.

 B. Pinch the hinged corners of the housing to keep it folded.

 C. Slide the housing, with tray and lure, into the folded jacket, with the lure facing the 

front of the trap (the front has the locking tab).

Step 5

 A. Lay the assembled trap flat with the perforated flaps up. Bend the narrow top and 

bottom flaps outward at about a 45° angle. Avoid excessive bending.

 B. Remove the narrow strips at the edges of the two vertical back flaps and bend 

them out 45° as well.

 C. Apply a piece of mounting tape to the back of the trap so that the tape is centered 

between the back flaps, and with the top edge of the tape about 1/8 inch below 

the hinge of the top flap.

Step 6

 A. Holding the trap upright, slide out the housing and use a disposable spoon to add 

ground wheat germ to the plastic tray, to a depth of about 2–3 mm, so tray is only 

1/4 to 1/3 full. Do not overfill trap trays, as this would negate the escape-proof 

feature and allow insects to escape.

 B. Remove the backing from the mounting tape and stick the trap to any vertical 

surface. To help the tape stick better, partially slide out the housing, insert two 

fingers inside the jacket and apply pressure against the mounting tape from the 

inside. If surfaces are very rough, apply a second tape sticker below the first. If 

the surface is dusty or loose, clean off as necessary. Remember to mark the 

trays and traps so that the trap location is precisely known.
Chapter 3

Survey Tools

3-12 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Placement Place traps around the inside of exterior walls and along interior walls of

structures under investigation. Pay special attention to cracks in the walls.

Cracks may serve as pathways for insect movement. If possible, place a trap

over a wall crack if one is found.

Areas to Avoid—Avoid areas easily affected by activities such as sweeping or

foot traffic. Avoid very oily or damp locations.

Height—Place the trap at any height, as well as at floor level, as long as it is

attached to a vertical surface. Mount the trap high enough to be easily

serviced (about 2 feet off the floor). Larvae have been trapped as high as 20

feet on walls within buildings; traps should be kept at least above broom

height to avoid trap loss.

Density—Allow 25–40 feet between traps. Or, base placement of traps on the

layout of buildings. The more traps that are set, the greater the chance of

finding khapra beetle, if present. However, if there are too many buildings

and travel is a problem, half of the locations can be trapped in alternate years.

This way, a building can be more intensively trapped, thus increasing the

chances of finding khapra beetle.

Records Use a permanent, alcohol‐proof marker to mark each trap with an

identification number. Record the location of each trap.

Monitoring Traps should be checked every 1–2 weeks at a minimum, primarily for the

sake of obtaining specimens in good condition.

Optimal 

Temperature

Begin trapping when the warm season starts and average temperatures are

above 70oF in the trapping environment. At ports where temperatures remain

warm, or in heated environments, use practical judgment to determine if

temperatures are warm enough. In more temperate areas, conduct surveys

between mid‐May through mid‐September. Exceptions are heated

warehouses, food storage and processing areas, dwellings, and other

environments which are heated. These may be surveyed with traps at any

time.

Servicing Transfer the contents (wheat germ and insects) into a vial for inspection and

rearing out in a lab. Used, transparent film canisters work well. Small

resealable plastic bags work well for collecting dishes and trays. Or, place the

entire dish, with contents, into a vial and then replace with a new tray. The

traps are supplied with two plastic traps per trap. Used trays can be washed

and re‐used. Or, put the tray and contents into a small resealable plastic bag

(supplied with the trap kits) and then replace the tray. Bag and contents must

be labeled.

Traps should be checked every 1–2 weeks. When checking a trap for the last

time and removing it, place the complete trap in a resealable plastic bag. Later,

the trap can be firmly tapped over a tray to dislodge any insects that may be

present.
Chapter 3

Handling Specimens

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 3-13

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Upon returning to a secure lab, examine and immediately remove adults and

large larvae. The food material can be retained in the vial or bag for several

days or weeks until the small larvae have grown large enough to identify.

Outdoor Trapping Place traps in any outdoor location where khapra beetle activity is detected or

travel between locations is known or suspected. Use the section Greatest Risk

on  page 3‐6 as a guide. Generally, only one or two traps per location should

suffice. The vertical wall mount trap may be used against a vertical surface

such as a wall or tree, whichever is more suitable. Do not go more than 1⁄2 mile

away from an infested premises or verified location for khapra beetle, and

only where possible khapra beetle hosts might be found.

Interpretation of 

Trap Catch

Larvae—Larvae are less mobile than adults, and more difficult to catch in

traps. The presence of larvae in traps is significant. Trapping one larva has

50–100 times the significance of trapping a single adult. As with other

Trogoderma spp., if one larva is trapped, be alarmed. Trapping of two or more,

or if one location produces consecutive larval catches, this indicates a

potential problem.

Adults—Adults are more mobile than larvae, and much easier to catch in

traps. Adults may be absent from traps set at the site of the infestation.

Handling Specimens

See Collection, Rearing and Preparation of Specimens on  page 4‐12 for

information on handling specimens.

Orientation of Survey Personnel

Experienced personnel should train their replacements. Adequate training on

survey techniques and procedures will likely require three working days.

Important Take immediate action if one or more khapra beetle of any life stage, or 

exuviae, are trapped (pers. comm. Barak, 2007).
Chapter 3

Orientation of Survey Personnel

3-14 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

4 Chapter 4 1

Identification

Contents

Introduction page 4‐1

Authorities page 4‐1

Keys to Dermestidae page 4‐3

Characteristics page 4‐5

Similar Species page 4‐10

Collection, Rearing and Preparation of Specimens page 4‐12

Screening page 4‐14

Shipping page 4‐14

Determination of Infestation page 4‐14

Introduction

Use the Identification chapter as a guide to recognizing the khapra beetle and

its relatives. Accurate identification of the pest is pivotal to assessing its

potential risk, developing a survey strategy, and determining the level and

manner of control.

Authorities

Qualified State, county, or cooperating university personnel can screen and

perform tentative identification of suspected khapra beetle specimens. Before

survey and control activities are initiated in the United States, a specialist

recognized by USDA–APHIS–PPQ–National Identification Services (NIS)

must verify the first detection of khapra beetle.

Specimens for Screening

Send specimens for screening to your local port or area identifier. Find names

of identifiers in Appendix G of the PPQ Manual for Agricultural Clearance (http:/

/www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ports/mac.shtml).
Chapter 4

Authorities

4-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Routine Surveys

For suspect Trogoderma granarium specimens encountered in routine survey

activity, submit specimens marked Prompt to Chuck Brodel.

Suspect Domestic Infestations

For suspect domestic infestations and new State or national records, submit

speciments marked Urgent and send to USDA–Systematic Entomology

Laboratory.

To inquire about the progress of samples marked Urgent contact the

USDA–APHIS–PPQ–National Identification Services.

Address Chuck Brodel

Coleoptera Identification Specialist

USDA–APHIS–PPQ

Plant Inspection Station

3500 NW. 62nd Avenue

P.O. Box 59-2136

Miami, FL 33159

Address USDA–Systematic Entomology Laboratory

National Museum of Natural History

NHB 168

10th & Constitution Ave., NW

Washington, DC 20004

Address USDA–APHIS–PPQ–National Identification Services

Telephone: 301-734-8758
Chapter 4

Keys to Dermestidae

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Keys to Dermestidae

Use Abridged Key for Larvae in the Family Dermestidae on  page 4‐3 to

identify larvae, and pupae inside cast larval skins, in the family Dermestidae.

Use Abridged Key for Adults in the Family Dermestidae on  page 4‐4 to

identify adults. Since larvae are more readily found than adult khapra beetles,

the key for larvae will likely be most useful. The egg has too few characters to

be useful for identification purposes, except in association with the adult or

larva.

Abridged Key for Larvae in the Family Dermestidae

TABLE 4-1 Abridged Key for Larvae to Genus Level1

1 Gorham (1991); Kiselyova (2002); Beal (1961)

If larva with this character: Then:

1. Urogomphi absent Go to 2

Urogomphi present Dermestes

2. Each tergum with a row of course spiny, club-shaped setae along 

posterior margin and a cluster of spiny, sharp-pointed setae on each 

side

Thylodrias

Each tergum with club-shaped spiny setae absent, spiny, 

sharp-pointed setae may be present

Go to 3

3. Hastisetae present Go to 4

Hastisetae absent Go to 7

4. Hastisetal tufts inserted on islands in membrane behind strongly 

curved posterior margins of abdominal segments, 5, 6, and 7

Anthrenus

Hastisetal tufts inserted on tergal plates Go to 5

5. Hastisetal tufts inserted on tergal plates Trogoderma

Hastisetal tufts inserted on each side of intersegmental membrane 

behind the abdominal tergum only

Cryptorhopalum

6. Hastisetal tufts inserted on each side of intersegmental membrane 

behind the abdominal tergum only

Cryptorhopalum

Hastisetal tufts inserted on each side of intersegmental membranes 

behind the abdominal tergites of 7 and 8 only, each tergite with a 

single line of large spicisetae and fine spicisetae behind these

Orphinus

7. Body setae broad and flattened Novelsis

Body setae narrow Attagenus
Chapter 4

Keys to Dermestidae

4-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Abridged Key for Adults in the Family Dermestidae

TABLE 4-2 Abridged Key for Adults to Genus Level1

1 Arnett (1963)

If adult with this character: Then:

1. Antennae with apical club Go to 2

Antennae filiform Thylodrias

2. Head with median ocellus Go to 3

Head without median ocellus Dermestes

3. First segment of hind tarsi much shorter than second segment Go to 4

First segment of hind tarsi as long or longer than second Go to 5

4. Segments of antennal club compact Attagenus

Segments loosely joined (Southwest United States) Novelsis

5. Body covered with flattened scales Anthrenus

Body covered with hairs Go to 6

6. Antennal club of three segments Trogoderma

Antennal club of two segments Go to 7

7. Antennal club oval, penultimate segment longer than last segment Cryptorhopalum

Antennal club nearly circular; terminal segment largest Orphinus
Chapter 4

Characteristics

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Characteristics

Eggs

Eggs of the khapra beetle (Figure 4‐3) share the following characteristics:

◆ Color initially milky‐white, later pale‐yellowish

◆ Shape typically cylindrical; one end rounded, the other more pointed

◆ Pointed end bearing a number of spine‐like projections, broader at the

base and tapering distally

◆ Size 0.7 mm long and 0.25 mm broad (EPPO, 2004)

FIGURE 4-3 Egg of Khapra Beetle

[Courtesy of Hadaway (1956)]
Chapter 4

Characteristics

4-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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Larvae

Use the following characters to distinguish larvae of the khapra beetle from

other dermestid species (Kingsolver, 1991):

◆ Setae of first antennal segment almost completely encircling segment

and reaching or surpassing apex of segment two

◆ Distal sensory cup with four papillae (Figure 4‐4)

◆ Antecostal suture of abdominal segment eight usually absent or weak

and interrupted at several points (Figure 4‐5)

◆ Hastisetae (spearheaded setae) present, inserted on tergal plates

◆ No urogomphi on last abdominal segment   

FIGURE 4-4 Left: Distal Sensory Cup with Four Papillae, as with Khapra Beetle; 

Right: Cup with Six Papillae, Unlike Khapra Beetle [Images Courtesy of A. Barak, 

USDA–APHIS]

FIGURE 4-5 Left: Weak or Absent Antecostal Suture, as with Khapra Beetle;

Right: Strong Antecostal Suture, as with T. glabrum [Images Courtesy of A. Barak, 

USDA–APHIS]
Chapter 4

Characteristics

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-7

Emergency and Domestic Programs

The following characters are useful for recognizing the larval stage of the

khapra beetle:

◆ Total length of 1st instar larva is 1.6–1.8 mm, a little more than half of

which consists of a long tail, made up of a number of hairs borne on the

last abdominal segment. The tail consists of two groups of long simple

hairs, borne on the 9th abdominal segment (Figure 4‐7).

◆ Body width is 0.25–3.0 mm.

◆ Color is uniformly yellowish‐white, except for the head and body hairs,

which are brown.

◆ Head bears a short antenna of three segments.

◆ Two kinds of body hairs are present:

❖ Simple hairs, in which the shaft bears many small, stiff, upwardly

directed processes. Simple hairs are scattered over the dorsal surface

of the head and body segments.

❖ Barbed hairs, in which the shaft is constricted at regular intervals,

and in which the apex consists of a barbed head. The head is as long

as the combined lengths of four of the preceding segments. Barbed

hairs are found in pairs of tufts, borne on certain abdominal tergites.

FIGURE 4-6 Hastisetae Typical of Trogoderma [Left Image Courtesy Of A. Barak, 

USDA–APHIS]

FIGURE 4-7 Mature Larva of Khapra Beetle

[Image Courtesy of Bennett (2003)]
Chapter 4

Characteristics

4-8 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

As the larva increases in size, the color changes progressively from the pale

yellowish‐white of the first instar to a golden or reddish‐brown. The density

of the body hairs increases, but the hairs and the tail become much shorter in

proportion to the length and breadth of the larval body. In the 4th instar, the

hairs give the appearance of four dark transverse bands.

A conspicuous feature of khapra beetle infestation is masses of hairy larvae

and their cast skins (EPPO, 2004).

Pupae

At the last ecdysis, the larval skin splits, but the pupa remains within this skin

for the whole of its life. Pupae of the khapra beetle have the following

characters:

◆ Pupal type exarate

◆ Male smaller than the female, average lengths being 3.5 mm and 5 mm,

respectively (EPPO, 2004)

FIGURE 4-8 Pupal Stage of Khapra Beetle

[Image Courtesy of Lindgren et al. (1955)]
Chapter 4

Characteristics

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-9

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Adults

The following characters are useful for recognizing the adult stage of the

khapra beetle (EPPO, 2004):

◆ Body shape broad, oblong‐oval

◆ Size about 1.6–3.0 mm long by 0.9 mm wide; females slightly larger

◆ Color of males brown to black, with indistinct reddish‐brown markings

on the elytra; color of females lighter

◆ Head small and usually deflexed

◆ Antenna short, thick, and clubbed, 11‐segmented

◆ Antennal cavity not visible in anterior view, posterior margin marked

by a fine, transverse carina

◆ Median ocellus present between the eyes

◆ Elytron unicolorous or vaguely mottled, but without a clearly defined

pattern

◆ Hind coxae concave to receive femur, posterior margin curved or

sinuate

◆ First segment of hind tarsus longer than second segment

◆ Anteromedial metasternal margin without nipple‐like projection in

middle

FIGURE 4-9 Adult Stage of Khapra Beetle

[Image Courtesy of Bennett (2003)]
Chapter 4

Similar Species

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Similar Species

The khapra beetle is easily confused with the warehouse beetle, European

larger carpet beetle, and the glabrous carpet beetle.

Warehouse Beetle

In the United States, the khapra beetle is most likely to be confused with the

warehouse beetle (Trogoderma variabile) (Barak, pers.comm.).

European Larger Carpet Beetle

The European larger carpet beetle (Trogoderma versicolor) (ELCB) is similar in

appearance to khapra beetle. The two species are found under similar

conditions, but usually the population density of ELCB is small compared

with khapra beetle. Adults of ELCB are considerably larger (2.0–5.0 mm long)

than adult khapra beetles. Their ground color is black mottled with reddish

brown, covered with gray and light brown scale‐like hairs forming a distinct

pattern on the elytra.

FIGURE 4-10 Warehouse Beetle (Trogoderma variabile) Adult (Left) and Larva 

[Images Courtesy of Steve Jacobs, Pennsylvania State University [http://

www.ento.psu.edu/imagegallery/beetles-2.htm]]

FIGURE 4-11 European Larger Carpet Beetle (Trogoderma versicolor) Adult and 

Elytron Pattern [Right Image Courtesy of Kingsolver (1991)]
Chapter 4

Similar Species

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-11

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Glabrous Carpet Beetle

Another dermestid that may be mistaken for khapra beetle is the glabrous

carpet beetle (Trogoderma glabrum) (GCB). In the larval stage, GCB population

density increases in grain at a rate similar to khapra beetle

(USDA–AMS–Stored Products Insect Branch, 1959).

FIGURE 4-12 Glabrous Carpet Beetle (Trogoderma glabrum) Adult and Elytron 

Pattern [Right Image Courtesy of Kingsolver (1991)]
Chapter 4

Collection, Rearing and Preparation of Specimens

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Collection, Rearing and Preparation of Specimens

Rearing

In most situations, collected specimens will not need to be reared out, because

late‐instar larvae, pupae and adults can be submitted for examination and

identification. However, if eggs or young larvae are collected as part of a

survey effort, these may need to be reared, especially in the absence of any

identifiable adults or older larvae.

Sample Preparation

Collected Debris Collect milled products and debris from areas such as cracks and cervices of

bins, silos, or wherever grain is stored in homes or stores. Use the following

procedure to prepare the milled products and debris before extracting the

pests (Girish et al., 1972).

Important Always rear suspect khapra beetle eggs and larvae in a quarantine facility 

with proper APHIS permits and containment. Maintain optimum temperature 

and humidity.

Step 1 Prepare a supersaturated solution of sodium chloride.

Step 2 Mix the milled products and debris with the solution.

Step 3 Remove the scum; mix scum with tap water.

Step 4 Centrifuge the scum water for 5 minutes at 2000 revolutions/min.

Eggs and heavy particles will settle at the bottom of the tube.

Step 5 Drain the liquid, then remove the heavy particles for examination

under a microscope.

Step 6 Inspect for eggs, larvae and adults, then consult Table 4‐3 on

page 4‐13 for additional instructions that vary with life stage.
Chapter 4

Collection, Rearing and Preparation of Specimens

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-13

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Larvae Collected 

in Traps

Use the following procedure to prepare larvae, collected in traps, for

identification.

TABLE 4-3 Decision Table for Preparation of Khapra Beetle Specimens

If the following life stage is present: Then follow this procedure:

Eggs 1. Prepare a vial containing 10 grams of 

fresh wheat flour enriched with dried 

yeast; mix with the scum.

2. Store vial under optimum conditions for 

egg hatch for 10 days.

3. Retain until larvae develop to a stage that 

can be identified.

4. Proceed as with Larvae (below).

Young larvae 1. Decant.

2. Retain until larvae develop to a stage that 

can be identified.

3. Proceed as with Larvae (below).

Larvae 1. Decant.

2. Boil mature larvae in water for 1–2 min.

3. Place in properly labelled vial filled with 

79% alcohol.

4. Submit for identification.

Adults 1. Decant.

2. Place in properly labelled vial filled with 

79% alcohol.

3. Submit for identification.

Step 1 Place food material from each trap in a separate, labeled vial.

Step 2 In the laboratory, remove adults and large, older larvae and place in

separate, labeled vial(s) of 79% alcohol for identification.

Step 3 Use a collection vial or bag to retain the remainder of the food

material for several days or weeks, until small larvae have been reared to a

size suitable for identification.

Step 4 Remove remaining larvae; boil in water for 1–2 min.

Step 5 Place boiled larvae in a properly labeled vial of 79% alcohol.

Step 6 Submit for identification.
Chapter 4

Screening

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Emergency and Domestic Programs

Vial and Label Always submit reared or collected adults and larvae for identification in

properly labeled vials of 79% alcohol. Use an alcohol‐proof, permanent

marker or pencil to record information on a label; place the label inside the

vial.

Include the following information on the label:

◆ Date of collection

◆ Identification number

◆ Initials of the collector

◆ Exact location and address where found

◆ Life stage of the specimen

◆ Dead or alive status

◆ Circumstances in which specimen was found

Screening

If necessary, separate material that does not fit the preliminary identification

profile and note the differences before shipping.

Shipping

Double box and ship specimens with at least 2 inches of padding around each

sample.

Include PPQ 391 Specimens For Determination on  page A‐2 marked Urgent

with all specimens. See Specimens for Screening on  page 4‐1, Routine

Surveys on  page 4‐2, and Suspect Domestic Infestations on  page 4‐2 for

additional information.

Determination of Infestation

A premise or area will tentatively be considered infested when the inspector

has recovered at least one live adult or larval khapra beetle suspect from the

premise or area or its contents.

Only on Imported Articles

If the infestation is found only on imported articles which have been in the

building or area for a short period of time, and intense inspection fails to

uncover more khapra beetle in or on the premises or area itself, then only the

contents on which the infestation was found will be considered to be infested.

If there is uncertainty as to whether the premises or area should be considered

infested, there should be consultation with staff before making the
Chapter 4

Determination of Infestation

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 4-15

Emergency and Domestic Programs

determination. When such a determination is made, the suspect material must

be forwarded for positive identification and the owner of the premises or area

must be notified about the suspected infestation and be advised of the nature

of the situation and any subsequent actions which may ensue. Discovery of

cast skins alone will not be considered to be evidence of an infestation on

premises (USDA–APHIS–PPQ, 1981).

Determination by Area Identifier

A tentative determination for khapra beetle may also be made by the area

identifier, in which case the procedures are the same as above. The responsible

State official and the APHIS–State Plant Health Director (SPHD) should be

notified when khapra beetle is identified by the area identifier prior to

forwarding suspect specimen for final identification (USDA–APHIS–PPQ,

1981).

Identification of the specimens is confirmed by personnel at the Systematic

Entomology Laboratory. The infestation is then confirmed and appropriate

steps taken, including immediate quarantine measures (USDA–APHIS–PPQ,

1981).
Chapter 4

Determination of Infestation

4-16 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 5-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

5 Chapter 5 1

Regulatory Procedures

Contents

Introduction page 5‐1

Instructions to Officers page 5‐1

Regulated Articles page 5‐2

Pest Risk Appraisal page 5‐3

Regulatory Action page 5‐3

Regulated Establishments page 5‐6

Use of Pesticides page 5‐6

Approved Regulatory Treatments page 5‐6

Principal Activities page 5‐7

Removing Quarantines page 5‐8

Orientation of Regulatory Personnel page 5‐8

Regulatory Records page 5‐8

Introduction

Use the Regulatory Procedures chapter to learn about the rules that must be

followed by regulatory personnel when conducting pest survey and control

programs.

Instructions to Officers

Officers must follow instructions for regulatory treatments or other

procedures when authorizing the movement of regulated articles.

Understanding the instructions and procedures is essential when explaining

procedures to persons interested in moving articles affected by the quarantine

and regulations. Only authorized treatments can be used in accordance with

labeling restrictions.

Find instructions for regulatory treatments in PPQ Treatment Manual (http://

www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ports/treatment.shtml).

If a regulatory treatment does not appear in the manual, the proposed

treatment will be reviewed and tested by CPHST treatment specialists.

Issuing an Emergency Action Notification

PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification on  page A‐4 can be issued pending

positive identification or further instruction from the USDA–APHIS–PPQ

Deputy Administrator.
Chapter 5

Regulated Articles

5-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

If necessary, the Deputy Administrator will issue a letter directing PPQ field

offices to initiate a specific emergency action under the Plant Protection Act of

2000 until emergency regulations can be published in the Federal Register.

Emergency 

Quarantine 

Action

The Plant Protection Act of 2000 provides for authority for emergency

quarantine action. This provision is for interstate regulatory action only.

Intrastate regulatory action is provided under State authority. However, if the

Secretary of Agriculture determines that an extraordinary emergency exists

and that the measures taken by the State are inadequate, USDA can take

intrastate regulatory action provided that the governor of the State has been

consulted and a notice has been published in the Federal Register. If intrastate

action cannot or will not be taken by a State, PPQ might find it necessary to

quarantine an entire State.

Access to 

Private Property

PPQ works in conjunction with State departments of agriculture to conduct

surveys, enforce regulations, and take control actions. PPQ employees must

have permission of the property owner before accessing private property. If an

extraordinary emergency is declared or if a warrant is obtained, PPQ can enter

private property without owner permission. PPQ prefers to work with the

State to facilitate access when permission is denied; however, each State

government has varying authorities regarding accessing private property. A

General Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) exists between PPQ and

each State. PPQ officers must have permission of the owner before accessing

private property. For clarification, check with your State plant health director

(SPHD) or State plant regulatory official (SPRO) in the affected State.

Regulated Articles

Regulated articles include the following commodities:

◆ Grains and grain products (including but not limited to barley, corn,

oats, wheat, whether moved as such or an ingredient in other products)

◆ Dried seeds and seed products of field and vegetable crops (including,

but not limited to alfalfa seed, cotton seed, cottonseed meal and cake,

flaxseed, sorghum seed, soybean meal, pinto beans, and black‐eyed

peas)

◆ Pecan, acorns, walnuts, pistachio and other nuts from trees or other

debris from under hosts

◆ Used bags and bagging (including but not limited to those made of

burlap or cotton)

◆ Dried milk, dried blood, fish meal, meat and bone meal, and dried

animal hides

◆ Any other products, articles, or means of conveyance, of any character

whatsoever, when it is determined by an inspector that they present a

hazard of spread of khapra beetle and the person in possession thereof

has been so notified
Chapter 5

Pest Risk Appraisal

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 5-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Pest Risk Appraisal

In applying safeguards, the officer should consider the pest risk in the

particular commodity or material at hand. The appraisal should include the

character of the actual or suspected khapra beetle infestation, its possible

mobility and the ecological conditions of the immediate area (APHIS, 1981).

Regulatory Action

Regulatory action will be required if one or more live specimens of Trogoderma

granarium in any stage of development are collected under such circumstances

that the specimen(s) obviously originated in the premises or area.

After an initial suspect positive detection, an Emergency Action Notification

(PPQ Form 523) may be issued to hold articles or facilities, pending positive

identification or further instruction from the USDA–APHIS–PPQ Deputy

Administrator. If necessary, the Deputy Administrator will issue a letter

directing PPQ field offices to initiate specific emergency action under the

Plant Protection Act of 2000 until emergency regulations can be published in

the Federal Register.

The Plant Protection Act of 2000 (Statute 7 USC 7701‐7758) provides for

authority for emergency quarantine action. This provision is for interstate

regulatory action only; intrastate regulatory action is provided under State

authority. State departments of agriculture normally work in conjunction with

Federal actions by issuing their own parallel hold orders and quarantines for

intrastate movement. However, if the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture determines

that an extraordinary emergency exists and that the measures taken by the

State are inadequate, USDA can take intrastate regulatory action provided

that the governor of the State has been consulted and a notice has been

published in the Federal Register. If intrastate action cannot or will not be taken

by a State, PPQ may find it necessary to quarantine an entire State.

Cooperation with State Departments of Agriculture

PPQ works in conjunction with State departments of agriculture to conduct

surveys, enforce regulations, and take control actions. PPQ employees must

have permission of the property owner before entering private property.

Under certain situations during a declared extraordinary emergency or if a

warrant is obtained, PPQ can enter private property in the absence of owner

permission. PPQ prefers to work with the State to facilitate access when

permission is denied, however each State government has varying authorities

regarding entering private property. A General Memorandum of

Understanding (MOU) exists between PPQ and each State that specifies

various areas here PPQ and the State department of agriculture cooperate. For

clarification, check with your State Plant Health Director (SPHD) or State

Plant Regulatory Official (SPRO) in the affected State.
Chapter 5

Regulatory Action

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Emergency and Domestic Programs

Cooperation with Tribal Governments

PPQ works with Federally Recognized Indian tribes to conduct surveys,

enforce regulations and take control actions. Each tribe stands as a separate

governmental entity (sovereign nation) with powers and authorities similar to

State governments. Permission is required to enter and access Tribal lands.

Executive Order 13175, Consultation and Coordination with Indian and Tribal

Governments, States that agencies must consult with Indian Tribal

governments about actions that may have substantial direct effects on tribes.

Whether an action is substantial and direct is determined by the tribes. Effects

are not limited to current Tribal land boundaries (reservations) and may

include effects on off‐reservation land or resources which tribes customarily

use or even effects on historic or sacred sites in States where tribes no longer

exist.

Consultation is a specialized form of communication and coordination

between the Federal government and Tribal government. Consultation must

be conducted early in the development of a regulatory action to ensure that

tribes have opportunity to identify resources which may be affected by the

action and to recommend the best ways to take actions on Tribal lands or

affecting Tribal resources. Communication with Tribal leadership follows

special communication protocols.

For additional information, contact PPQ’s Tribal Liaison. To determine if there

are Federally Recognized Tribes in a State, contact the State plant health

director. To determine if there are sacred or historic sites in an area, contact the

State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO).

Emergency Action Notification

Issue PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification on  page A‐4 requiring the

holding of articles and treatment or other approved handling procedures. The

EANs or comparable State notifications are issued by field personnel to the

property owners or managers of all establishments handling, moving, or

processing articles capable of spreading khapra beetle. A notification may be

issued pending positive identification and/or further instruction from the

Deputy Administrator.

Description of Regulated Area

Prepare a description of the regulated area with support documents with

cooperators and provide to the Regulatory Services staff for publication in the

Federal Register with emergency regulations under the Federal Plant

Protection Act of 2000.
Chapter 5

Regulatory Action

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 5-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Necessary 

Information

Collect necessary information about the infestation (USDA–APHIS–PPQ,

1981), including the following:

Possible source(s) of infestation—

◆ What types of cargo are handled by the premises?

◆ What is the country of origin of the cargo?

◆ What is the cargo receiving route?

❖ Direct route cargo is cargo shipped direct from a foreign source to

importers premises.

❖ Indirect route cargo is cargo shipped from one importersʹ premises

in the continental United States to another premise in the United

States for processing.

Processing of cargo—

◆ Is cargo processed on the premises?

◆ Is cargo sold in unmanufactured lots to other premises?

◆ What are names and address of other premises?

Disposition of burlap or other bagging used as containers or wrapping—

◆ Obtain names and addresses of companies to which bagging is sold.

Storage facilities, processing locations, or other types of receiving locations 

other than the immediate premises—

◆ List the locations

Structural Details—

◆ Is construction wood, masonry, metal, other?

◆ How large are premises (in cubic feet)?

◆ Is a ventilation system present and functioning?

◆ Is a drainage system present and functioning?

◆ Is the building segregated or attached to other structures?

Location of the structure—

◆ Is the location rural, urban or city?

◆ What is the population density?

◆ What is the nature of businesses in the surrounding area?

List of distribution outlets that premises deal with—

◆ Wholesalers

◆ Retailers

◆ Small Stores

◆ Other
Chapter 5

Regulated Establishments

5-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Secondary 

Inspection List

Compose a list of businesses which should be inspected as a result of this

infestation. Distribution outlets and other potentially infested properties

should be included on this list (APHIS, 1981). Include the following types of

premises:

◆ High priority secondary premises are those premises receiving raw

goods or unprocessed material from infested premises.

◆ Low priority secondary premises are those premises receiving

manufactured or processed material from the infested premises.

Notification Officers will notify their work unit supervisor of all information and details

gathered. Further chain of command notifications are handled by the

supervisor.

Regulated Establishments

Field personnel will attempt to detect the pest within the regulated area at all

establishments where regulated articles are sold, grown, handled, moved, or

processed. Establishments that might be involved are distributors, grain

dealers, feed lots, user, farm storage and any other establishments that handle

regulated articles. Surveys may be set up at establishments deemed to be at

risk by project personnel. Wherever possible, money and manpower

permitting, distributors and grain dealers should be inspected two times per

year. All others should be inspected once per year. Service traps weekly if

insect catches are high and biweekly if trap catches are low. Alternately, hosts

near or at the establishment may be visually surveyed or trapped at two sites.

Use of Pesticides

PPQ Treatment Manual (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/

manuals/ports/treatment.shtml) and this document identify the authorized

chemicals, and describe the methods and rates of application, and any special

application instructions. Concurrence by PPQ is necessary before using any

other pesticide or procedure for regulatory purposes. See Control on  

page 6‐1 for more information on use of pesticides.

Approved Regulatory Treatments

Approved regulatory treatments appropriate for this pest are determined by

program management or a Technical Advisory Committee in conjunction

with the USDA‐CPHST. Check PPQ Treatment Manual (http://

www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ports/treatment.shtml)

for current recommendations.
Chapter 5

Principal Activities

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 5-7

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Principal Activities

The degree of regulatory activity required depends, among many other

factors, on the degree of the infestation. For example, it may not be necessary

to check all establishments throughout the regulated area if there is no contact

with the infested premises in any way. However, if the infestation is heavy,

mandatory checks of all establishments may be necessary.

Principle activities for conducting a regulatory program to contain khapra

beetle include the following:

◆ Advise regulated industries of required treatment procedures.

◆ Carry out surveys of regulated establishments.

◆ Supervise, monitor, and certify commodity treatments of commercial

lots of regulated articles.

◆ Make regulatory visits to:

❖ Distributors

❖ Grain Dealers

❖ Feed Lots

❖ Users

❖ Farm Storage

❖ Any other establishments that handle regulated articles.

◆ Monitor the movement of waste material to and from landfills to ensure

adequate disposal of regulated articles.

◆ Monitor the movement of regulated articles through major airports,

seaports, and other transportation centers.

◆ Observe major highways, roads, and footpaths and quarantine

boundaries for movement of host materials.

◆ Compete a pest risk appraisal for each of the premises, areas and

commodities involved.

◆ Carry out a comprehensive study of the infestation and as much

relevant detail as possible, including:

❖ Source

❖ Processing of cargo

❖ Disposition of packing material

❖ Storage facilities

❖ Structural details

❖ Location

❖ Distribution outlets
Chapter 5

Removing Quarantines

5-8 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

◆ Compose a secondary inspection list from the above study.

◆ Notify work unit supervisor of all information and details that have

been gathered.

Removing Quarantines

Project managers identify and remove premises and areas from quarantine

requirements after the khapra beetle is declared eradicated from that premises

or area. Eradication is assumed when sufficient time, equal to three years after

the last specimen at a premises or area, has been found.

Orientation of Regulatory Personnel

Initially, program personnel will be limited to those already trained or

experienced. Experienced individuals train their replacements. A training

period of three working days should be sufficient for the orderly transfer of

these functions.

Regulatory Records

Maintain standardized regulatory records and database(s) in sufficient detail

to carry out an effective, efficient, and responsible regulatory program.
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 6-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

6 Chapter 6 1

Control

Contents

Introduction page 6-1

Eradication page 6-3

Nonemergency Control page 6-5

Introduction

The Control chapter provides information about methods used to eradicate or

manage an infestation of khapra beetle. Consider all possible methods of

control before beginning a program. Eradication is the first priority if khapra

beetle has been introduced. See Technical Control on  page E‐1 for additional

information on methods of control.

Laws Pertaining to Pesticide Use

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) authorizes

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to regulate pesticides. All

persons using and applying pesticides should understand the laws pertaining

to pesticide use and application. The following are provisions of FIFRA that

are most pertinent to emergency pest control programs:

◆ Restricted use pesticides must be applied by a certified applicator

◆ Use of any pesticide inconsistent with the label is prohibited

◆ Violations can result in heavy fines and/or imprisonment

States may register pesticides on a limited basis for local needs according to

the following Sections:

◆ Section 18—EPA administrators may exempt Federal or State agencies

from FIFRA if it is determined that emergency conditions exist that

require such exemptions

◆ Section 24—A State may provide registration for additional uses of

federally registered pesticides formulated for distribution and use

within that State to meet special local needs in accordance with the

purposes of this act

TABLE 6-1 Decision Table to Eradicate or Control Khapra Beetle

If: Then:

You want to eradicate the pest GO TO Eradication on page 6-3h

You want to control the pest GO TO Nonemergency Control on page 6-5

You need additional resources GO TO Technical Control on page E-1
Chapter 6

Introduction

6-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

For additional information concerning exemptions, see the PPQ Emergency

Programs Manual, Section 14 (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/

plants/manuals/emergency/downloads/epm.pdf). Contact staff at

Environmental Compliance (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/regulations/

compliance/environmental_guidance.shtml) to assure that any pesticide being

considered as part of an eradication program conforms to pesticide use

requirements. Obtain all required environmental documentation before

beginning.

Environmental Monitoring

Environmental monitoring is an important consideration in all programs.

Contact staff at Environmental Compliance (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/

regulations/compliance/environmental_guidance.shtml) to learn if

environmental monitoring is required. Environmental Compliance staff may

evaluate environmental impact by monitoring the following:

◆ Water, to detect insecticide levels resulting from direct application,

leaching, and runoff

◆ Soil, to determine insecticide levels and residues

◆ Foliage, to identify residues

◆ Non‐target organisms before, during and after applications and post

treatments, to determine impact of pesticides

Treatment Duration

Monitor the success of the program for at least one life cycle after the

termination of eradication measures.

Insecticide Efficacy

It may be necessary to test live members of the khapra beetle population in

order to determine the degree of resistance to various treatments. Employ

those treatments to which the pest population has no resistance. Personnel

must provide data for assessment of application methods against the target

pest.

Orientation of Personnel

Experienced personnel will train their replacements. A training period of

three days should be sufficient for training.

Records

Program personnel must maintain records and maps noting the locations of

all detections, the number and type of treatments, and the materials and

formulations used in each treated area.
Chapter 6

Eradication

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 6-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Eradication

Stored foodstuffs are the most likely commodities to require control measures

against the khapra beetle. In the PPQ Treatment Manual (http://

www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ports/treatment.shtml),

control measures are organized in the following groups:

◆ Sacked or packaged commodities

◆ Bulk commodities

◆ Used sacks and bagging

◆ Seed treatment

◆ Debris and transport vehicles

Control measures will be required less often in the following situations:

◆ On nut trees including oak, acorn, walnut, and others

◆ On peanuts

◆ On pathways near infected structures

◆ In vehicles or other shipping containers

Infested structures or shipping containers will often require fumigation.

Cracks and crevices within some structures, such as houses and secondary

structures at lesser risk, can be treated with an insecticide.

See Technical Control on  page E‐1 for more information on control of khapra

beetle.

Defining the Treatment Area

Once a decision has been made to eradicate the khapra beetle, use the PPQ

Treatment Manual (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/

manuals/ports/treatment.shtml) to define the treatment area.

Treatment Options

Authorized 

Treatments

Fumigation with methyl bromide is the most effective treatment. However,

alternative treatments are authorized if the treatment will result in the

eradication of khapra beetle.

All treatments with methyl bromide for khapra beetle are currently under

quarantine exemption. These uses must be recorded and reported in

accordance with applicable regulations for such exemptions. Any food or feed

Important Treatments should be complete and thorough, resulting in 100% eradication, 

or followed by other treatments which will effect 100% eradication of the 

khapra beetle population.
Chapter 6

Eradication

6-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

commodities involved in the methyl bromide treatments must be sampled for

residue analysis. See Technical Control on  page E‐1 for treatment

alternatives to methyl bromide.

Authorized Treatments—Authorized treatments may include any of the

following:

◆ Fumigation

◆ Application of recommended fumigants

◆ Insecticides

◆ Treatment of surfaces with pesticides

◆ Supplemental actions

Authorized Fumigants and Pesticides—Authorized fumigants and pesticides

may include the following:

◆ Phosphine

◆ Methyl bromide

◆ Malathion

◆ Permethrin

Treatments are explained in more detail in PPQ Treatment Manual (http://

www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/online_manuals.shtml).

A Section 18 exemption may be necessary when using permethrin. Also see

Laws Pertaining to Pesticide Use on  page 6‐1 for more information on

Section 18 exemptions.

Fumigations—Infested structures and equipment can be fumigated with

methyl bromide. See the PPQ Treatment Manual (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/

import_export/plants/manuals/online_manuals.shtml) more information.

When using methyl bromide, follow these guidelines:

◆ Conduct fumigation after all openings in a structure are sealed with

masking tape, putty, polyethylene, or other materials as needs indicate.

◆ Cover with a tarp and fumigate shipping or storage containers

separately when required.

◆ Cover with a tarp and fumigate stationary equipment separately.

◆ Also see Phosphine on  page E‐2

Other Treatments—Malathion or permethrin may be used where it is

desirable not to fumigate. Use any of the following variations:

◆ Crack and crevice treatment

◆ High pressure treatment

◆ High pressure broadcast treatment
Chapter 6

Nonemergency Control

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 6-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Heat treatments may be applied to certain commodities. Irradiation

treatments may also be applied to commodities approved for such treatments.

Supplemental Actions—Use the following actions to supplement treatments:

◆ Extensive trapping

◆ Cleaning and sanitation

◆ Treatment of outside surfaces

◆ Extensive repeated inspection program

Nonemergency Control

See Technical Control on  page E‐1 for more information on nonemergency

control.

Application of Cultural Controls

Cultural control may be subject to obtaining environmental documentation

under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and the Endangered

Species Act (ESA). Check with the program manager to make sure such

documentation is in order. The following cultural controls can be effective and

are necessary in most situations:

◆ Sanitation

◆ Inspect/Clean Vehicles

The following cultural controls offer can be ineffective, but may work in some

situations:

◆ Host destruction (very limited at best)

◆ Flooding surrounding surface area (very limited)

Application of Biological Controls

Effective biological control has not been developed for control of khapra

beetle. See Biological Control on  page E‐8 for information concerning

planning a biological control program when effective organisms become

available.
Chapter 6

Nonemergency Control

6-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 7-1

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Khapra Beetle

1

7 Chapter 7 1

Environmental 

Regulation

Contents

Introduction page 7‐1

Disclaimer page 7‐2

National Environmental Policy Act page 7‐2

Environmental Monitoring page 7‐3

Biological Assessment page 7‐3

Introduction

A key element in designing a program or an emergency response is

consultation with Environmental Services (ES), a unit of APHIS’ Policy and

Program Development Staff (PPD). ES prepares environmental

documentation such as environmental impact statements (EIS) and

environmental assessments (EA) to aid in program operational decisions, as

well as endangered species consultation. ES also coordinates pesticide

registration and approvals for APHIS pest control and eradication programs,

ensuring that registrations and approvals meet program use needs and

conform to pesticide use requirements.

Environmental Compliance

Environmental 

Monitoring, 

Categorical 

Exclusions

Environmental Services

FIFRA, ESA, 

Environmental 

Assessments

Address USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Emergency and Domestic Programs

Environmental Compliance

4700 River Road, Unit 150

Riverdale, MD 20737

Telephone: 301-734-8247

Address USDA–APHIS–Policy and Program Development

Environmental Services

4700 River Road, Unit 149

Riverdale, MD 20737

Telephone: 301-734-8565
Chapter 7

Disclaimer

7-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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Disclaimer

All uses of pesticides must be registered or approved by appropriate Federal,

State, or Tribal agencies before application. Pesticide labels might not reflect

all State or local restrictions. Read and abide by the label, including labeling

that has been approved for the particular State or locality. Comply with all

Federal, State, Tribal, and local laws and regulations relating to the use of the

pesticides. APHIS program staffs are responsible for their compliance with

applicable environmental regulations. See Laws Pertaining to Pesticide Use

on  page 6‐1 for more information.

National Environmental Policy Act

Agencies should prepare an environmental assessment or environmental

impact statement concurrently and integrated with environmental impact

analyses, surveys, and studies required by the Fish and Wildlife Coordination

Act, National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, Endangered Species Act, and

other laws and executive orders. Environmental document prepared to

comply with other acts also may be incorporated into National Environmental

Policy Act (NEPA) documents as part of the NEPA process.

Categorical Exclusions

Categorical exclusions are categories of actions that do not have a significant

effect on the quality of the human environment and for which neither an EA

nor an EIS is generally required.

APHIS managers are encouraged to use categorical exclusions where

appropriate to reduce paperwork and speed the decision making process.

Proposed actions are subject to sufficient environmental review to determine

whether they fall within the broadly defined categories. Each time a specific

CE is used, the required review must be done. An EA may be prepared for

proposed actions otherwise excluded when the manager determines that the

action may have potential to significantly affect the environment or an EA

would be helpful in planning or decision making.

Environmental Impact Statements

An environmental impact statement is a detailed statement that must be

included in every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation and

other major Federal actions that significantly affect the quality of the human

environment. The primary purpose of an EIS is to serve as an action‐forcing

device to insure that the policies and goals defined in the NEPA are infused

into the ongoing programs and actions of the Federal government. Generally,

EISs are prepared when Federal agencies recognize that their actions have the

potential for significant environmental effects (adverse or beneficial), or when

an environmental assessment leads to a finding of potential significant

impact.
Chapter 7

Environmental Monitoring

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 7-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

APHIS prepares EISs for administrative proceedings that establish broad scale

significant impact‐generating strategies, methods, or techniques such as

large‐scale aerial pesticide applications. This can include contingency or

emergency strategies that are comprehensive in scope or long‐range plans

with potential for significant environmental impact. APHIS also prepares

programmatic EISs to examine strategies and options for dealing with issues

with important implications for the maintenance and enhancement of

environmental quality.

Environmental Assessments

An environmental assessment is a concise public document that briefly

provides sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare

an EIS or finding of no significant impact (FONSI). An EA aids an agencyʹs

compliance with the NEPA when no EIS is necessary and facilitates the

preparation of an EIS when necessary. Generally, an EA leads to a FONSI or an

EIS, but it could also lead to abandonment of a proposed action.

The content of an EA must include brief discussions of the need, alternatives,

and potential environmental impacts of the proposal a list of agencies and

persons consulted.

Environmental Monitoring

PPQ requests assistance from ES before PPQ personnel or funding are used

for control operations. Additionally, program staff should consult with the

PPQ–EP–ISPM–Environmental Monitoring staff to determine if an

environmental monitoring plan is required for the operation. State, regional,

and national program managers determine counties where treatments may be

needed.

Program personnel should evaluate the success of biological control agents

and herbicide treatments used in eradication or suppression of the target

FNW or host weeds and avoid damage to non‐target plants.

Biological Assessment

A biological assessment (BA) is an analysis of the effects that a Federal agency

action may have on listed or proposed endangered or threatened species and

designated critical habitat. The Endangered Species Act (ESA) requires this

analysis if the proposed action may affect a listed species. In such a case

consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) or the National

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is required. Federal agencies are required to

insure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out is not likely to

jeopardize listed species or result in adverse modification of designated

critical habitat.
Chapter 7

Biological Assessment

7-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 8-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

8 Chapter 8 1

Pathways

Contents

Introduction page 8‐1

History page 8‐1

Dissemination page 8‐2

Countries of Origin page 8‐3

Destinations page 8‐3

Risk of Establishment page 8‐4

Introduction

The Pathways chapter provides information on the interceptions of khapra

beetle at U.S. Ports.

History

Prior to 1957

Khapra beetle was found in California in 1953. Products containing the pest

were destined for 24 States. The beetle could easily have become established

in seven of the States: Arizona, California, Kansas, New Mexico, Nevada,

Oklahoma and Texas (Howe & Lindgren, 1957). Khapra beetle was

intercepted 42 times during the period 1954–1957.

Period 1985–2005

Khapra beetle was intercepted in the United States 456 times during the

period 1985–January 2005.

Period 

1985–1998

During the period 1985–1998, almost all intercepted cargo containing khapra

beetle arrived through airports (63%) and maritime ports (36%). Less than 1%

arrived at land border crossings and plant inspections stations.

Sources Information in this chapter was compiled from the following sources, unless 

noted otherwise:

Pasek, J.E. 1998. USDA Pest Risk Assessment: Khapra Beetle. Sponsored 

by CERIS, Purdue University. [http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/

khb/freg/khb98pra.html]

Touhey, P. 2005. Trogoderma granarium. Personal Report to J. Stibick on 

Interceptions in the PIN 309 Reports: 4 pp.
Chapter 8

Dissemination

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At airports, interceptions were primarily in baggage. At maritime ports,

interceptions were primarily in general cargo and stores. The greatest number

of airport interceptions occurred at Houston, which accounted for nearly

one‐half of the khapra beetle finds. In Houston, 78% of the interceptions were

found at the airport; 22% were found at the maritime port.

Eighty‐eight percent of the airport interceptions occurred in passenger

baggage on more than 75 hosts. The majority of khapra beetle interceptions

occurred in shipments of seeds from forty different plant species, although

other plant materials (flowers, fruits, and spices) also served as hosts.

Cucurbits and rice accounted for 18% and 14%, respectively, of all

interceptions of khapra beetle in this time period.

Period 

1999–2005

Proportions remained almost the same through 2005. However, interception

of khapra beetle in rice increased to 18%.

Dissemination

Movement of khapra beetle into the United States can be aided by travel,

commerce, or natural means.

Travel

Travel of khapra beetle to the United States requires either of the following:

◆ Transport of items on which they rest

◆ Shipment of infested products

The great frequency of foreign interceptions indicates that khapra beetle has a

high risk of establishment in the United States. Since 1985, at least 70% of U.S.

interceptions were from international airline passenger baggage. During the

period 1985–1998, 55% of interceptions occurred in baggage.

Commerce

During the period 1985–1998, only two interceptions were from ships or other

sources; the rest were from airports. General cargo accounted for 25%, almost

all from airports and ships. The rest were from permit cargo (5%) and

maritime stores (14%). Airport mail, maritime holds, and miscellaneous

accounted for 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1.25%, respectively.

Natural

Originating in Asia, Africa and other parts of the Far East and the

Mediterranean, khapra beetle is unable to reach the United States by natural

means. The adult does not fly, but can walk and climb. Adults and larvae can

be spread naturally for short distances by crawling. Adults and larvae are also

transported on birds, other insects, and wind currents. Other methods of air

transport have not been studied (Lindgren et al., 1955).
Chapter 8

Countries of Origin

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 8-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Countries of Origin

India, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Pakistan

1985–1998 Khapra beetle was intercepted 380 times during the period 1985–1998. Most

interceptions occurred in cargo originating in countries in Southwest Asia.

Four countries accounted for 79% of interceptions in that period: India, Saudi

Arabia, Iran and Pakistan. India accounted for 34% of the interceptions. Saudi

Arabia had 22%, Iran had 14%, and Pakistan had 9% of the interceptions. The

four countries have endemic populations of khapra beetle; 303 interceptions

originated in the countries.

1999–2005 During the period 1999–2005, the combined number of interceptions

originating in India, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Pakistan decreased (from 79% in

1985–1998) to 62%. The rate decreased in each country except Iran, where the

number of interceptions remained unchanged.

Other Countries

Khapra beetle was intercepted 77 times from 31 other countries. Most of the

countries, including those in Europe and one in Mexico, reported only one or

two interceptions in the period. Exceptions were from countries adjoining

those considered to be infested: Kuwait (12), Jordan (9), United Arab Emirates

(4), and China (3).

Instances of only one or two interceptions from countries not known to have

populations of khapra beetle may reflect cases where contamination from

shipment to or from infested countries occurred prior to arrival in the United

States. Or, the origin of small quantities of infested material in passenger

baggage may be uncertain.

Destinations

Approximately one‐half of the interceptions were found at nine ports in areas

where khapra beetle could establish itself. Ports in Houston and San Francisco

lead with the most finds; they also provide favorable climates for the

establishment of khapra beetle.

Ports in Dallas, TX (14), and Los Angeles (12) followed, with Port Arthur, TX

(6), San Pedro, CA (1), San Diego, CA (1), Corpus Christi, TX (1), and Denver,

Colorado (1) trailing behind. All of the ports are in susceptible areas.
Chapter 8

Risk of Establishment

8-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Based on the biology and host range of khapra beetle, this indicates an

extremely high risk of establishment in the United States.

Risk of Establishment

According to a rating of pest risk used by Pasek (1998), the likelihood of

introduction of khapra beetle to the United States is high. The following

factors were considered to determine the rating.

Quantity of Commodity Imported

Rice—an important host material of khapra beetle—is imported in great

quantities from India, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. During the period

1994–1996, over 26,000 metric tons were imported each year.

Untreated seeds are a potential source of khapra beetle, too. For example,

commercial shipments of cucurbit seeds require fumigation. But, small

quantities of untreated cucurbit seeds and other host materials can be carried

in passenger baggage. Information on the quantity of such material is

unavailable.

Surviving Post-harvest Treatment

Fumigation with methyl bromide is very effective. However, many potential

hosts of khapra beetle can be imported without mandatory fumigation. Also,

commodities and associated products or packaging often become infested

following harvest while stored in grain facilities or warehouses or during

transit in infested containers or vessels.

Surviving Shipment

Khapra beetle is highly likely to survive shipment. It thrives in stored grains,

especially in hot, dry conditions. It does especially well in cracked or broken

grain, which is common in seed that has been harvested or jostled in

TABLE 8-1. Interceptions of Khapra Beetle at United States Ports of Entry, 

1985-2005

Port Of Entry Number Of Interceptions

Houston, Texas 199

San Francisco, California 25

Dallas, Texas 14

Los Angeles, California 12

Port Arthur, Texas 6

San Pedro, California 1

San Diego, California 1

Corpus Christi, Texas 1

Denver, Colorado 1

Total 260
Chapter 8

Risk of Establishment

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle 8-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

containers. It can remain dormant for several years under less than ideal

conditions, and can live through temperatures less than 350o

F for at least short

periods.

Detection at Port of Entry

Current methods of detecting khapra beetle rely almost entirely on visual

inspection. This can be difficult due to the small size of the pest. Adults are

about 1.8 to 3 mm long and about half as wide; adults comprise less than 2%

of all stages present. Larvae are smaller (1.6 to 6 mm long), depending on sex

and age. Eggs and early instars may be nearly imperceptible and are scattered

through host material, while adult and diapausing larvae tend to hide in

cracks and crevices and other dark places. All stages can be transported in a

variety of materials such as bagging, clothing, household good and vehicles,

making it difficult to determine where to inspect for this pest.

Moving to Suitable Habitat

Khapra beetle arriving in permit cargo would likely find suitable habitat upon

arrival at grain or food storage facilities and processing plants, which are

controlled environments. Khapra beetle arriving in small quantities such as

passenger baggage, would likely find suitable environments in people’s

homes. Khapra beetle in general cargo, holds or stores could be moved to

warehouses or other buildings which may provide protected environments.

Finding Suitable Hosts

Khapra beetle arriving in commercial shipments of permit cargo would find

ample grain or other plant hosts available in grain and food storage facilities

or processing plants. Khapra beetle arriving in passenger baggage or stores

would be less likely to find suitable hosts, but could become established if

placed with other foods in pantries or kitchens. If khapra beetle larvae are

stored in general warehouses, they may survive if the contents of those

facilities ever include host material, as they can survive for several years

without food until conditions become suitable for further development.
Chapter 8

Risk of Establishment

8-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

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October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle Glossary-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

2

Glossary

APHIS. Animal and Plant Health

Inspection Service.

array. Arrangement of traps within

and around an establishment or

location.

block. Unit of a detection survey in

which all survey activities are

conducted.

backtrack. Trace the possible

movement of khapra beetle infested

materials to determine the extent of

the infestation. See also traceback.

buffer. Survey area that is beyond

the targeted area to one‐half mile

beyond.

cast skin. Exuvium of khapra beetle

larva.

commodities. Materials regulated by

the quarantine; packaged in sacks,

multi‐walled paper bags, shipping

cartons, or other containers not

containing a non‐permeable layer

such as polyethylene or cellophane

film, wax paper, or tar; or such hosts

as wheat, barley, shelled corn, milo,

mixed feeds; or used sacks, debris; or

any seed regulated by the

quarantine.

detection, confirmed. Positive

identification by a recognized expert.

crepuscular. Active in the twilight

hours.

day degree. Measure of

physiological time using the

accumulation of heat units (degrees)

above an insect’s developmental

threshold for a 24‐hour period.

delimiting survey. Determination of

the extent of an infestation in an area

where an exotic species has been

detected. The survey will include

adjacent structures and those

establishments, conveyances, and

containers that might have received

infested material or been the source

of infested material.

detection. Collection of any life stage

of an exotic species.

detection survey. Activity conducted

in a susceptible area not known to be

infested with khapra beetle.

developmental threshold.

Minimum or maximum

temperatures that support

physiological development for a

species.

diurnal. Active during the day.

eclosion. Leaving the egg or the

terminal molt into an adult.

epicenter. Initial site of an infestion.

eradication. Elimination of khapra

beetle through the application of

approved treatments; declared after

three years from the date of the last

specimen find.

establishment. Infested premises.
Glossary-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

distributor. Establishment engaged

in assembling, collecting, processing,

storing, and further distributing

khapra beetle host commodities to

other establishments for either retail

or wholesale; interstate or intrastate.

distributor, wholesale.

Establishment engaged in

redistributing to retail outlets, selling

to jobbers or retailers rather than

consumers.

dealer, used bag. Establishment

engaged in collecting, cleaning,

repairing, storing, and/or selling

burlap or cloth bags.

distributor, bonded warehouse at

port. Establishment receiving

imports of khapra beetle host

materials form foreign countries.

distributor, retail. Establishment

engaged in selling commodities

direct to the consumer.

dealer, grain. Engaged in buying,

selling, storing, or transporting

grain; interstate or intrastate.

entomopathogen. Induces illness in

insects; includes baculoviruses,

nematodes and fungi. May be

species‐specific; cause no collateral

infection of other organisms.

feed lot. Engaged in feeding

livestock.

user. Includes chicken ranches,

rabbit ranches, dairies, hog farms,

race tracks, riding academies, pet

shops, nurseries, farms, ranches and

residences.

farm storage. Farm structure used

primarily for storage of grain, grain

products, and seed. May be a crib,

bin, silo or other structure of any

kind.

exotic. Organism or pest species not

native to or historically resident in

North America.

fumigation. Application of an

approved insecticidal chemical that

enters the target pest’s tracheal

system in volatile form.

generation. Offspring of a parent

population that moves through the

life cycle together.

ground spray. Insecticide application

in droplet form.

hastiseta. Larval body hair in which

the shaft is constricted at regular

intervals; apex consists of a barbed

head. Barbed hairs are found in pairs

of tufts, borne on certain abdominal

segments.

host. Plant or animal products or

by‐products that provide for the

reproduction of the khapra beetle

and any commodity or article with

which it is found commonly

associated; sometimes collected and

retained to rear eggs or larvae.

infestation. Collection of one or

more live specimens in any stage of

development, when collected under

such circumstances that the

specimen obviously originated in the

premises or area.
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle Glossary-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

infested area. Area surrounding a

single detection site at a premises or

a group of premises; may be limited

to just outside the premises but may

extend no further than 1⁄2 mile unless

circumstances such as nearby

premises also are at risk.

monitoring survey. Conducting

surveys in an area that has been

treated, in order to evaluate

effectiveness of treatments.

natural enemy. Living organism

found in a natural community that

kill, weaken, or inhibit the biological

potential of a pest species.

nocturnal. Active at night.

nonmigratory. Species in which

individuals typically do not move far

from their birthplace.

parasites. Natural enemy of a pest

that lives on the host at one or

multiple life stages; sometimes kill,

but usually merely debilitate the

host; often host specific.

parasitoid. Natural enemy of a pest

that lives on the host when

immature, but are free‐living as

adults; always kill the host;

host‐specific or obligate on certain

hosts; able to find hosts effectively

even when host population numbers

are low.

pathogen. Agent, usually microbial,

that induces illness.

phenology. Timing of recurrent

biological events.

predator. Free‐living organisms that

consume substantial numbers of

prey; generally do not prey

exclusively on one target species

over the course of a season. When

population density of host species is

great, predators can be very efficient.

PPQ. Plant Protection and

Quarantine.

regulated area. Any warehouse, mill,

or other premises in which khapra

beetle is found and any surrounding

environs up to 1⁄2 mile designed as a

regulated area in administrative

instructions.

regulated article. Products or other

articles of any character whatsoever,

the movement of which is regulated

by quarantine and regulations

supplemental thereto.

regulatory survey. Detection or

trapping program conducted in and

around establishments or other areas

in which khapra beetle has been

found up to 1⁄2 mile depending on

circumstances.

residential. See urban.

sex pheromone. Chemical substance

that is secreted by an insect to attract

or to advertise reproductive

competence to the opposite sex of the

same species.

survey. See delimiting, detection,

monitoring, regulatory surveys.

traceback. Tracking of all incoming

and outgoing commodities through

records.

traceforward. Composing a priority

list of secondary location warranting

inspections.
Glossary-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

trap, aerial sticky. Attracts flying

insects away from wall‐mounted

traps that catch crawling khapra

beetles.

trap, hanging. Trap for hanging on

walls or other vertical surfaces.

trap, surface. Simple bottle trap

which is placed in corners or on

counter tops; lures and catches

insects with a thick oil.

trap, vertical wall mount. Narrow

boxlike trap which uses a

pheromone and a food lure;

mounted on walls; constructed so

insects can enter but not exit.

treatment, cold. Exposure of a host

product to cold temperatures lethal

to a target pest.

urban. Area containing a number of

multiple or single family dwellings.

USDA. United States Department of

Agriculture.

visual examination. Examination of

premises or areas for eggs, larvae,

pupae, cocoons, cast skins or other

evidence that a particular insect

species is present.
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle References-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

3

References

Al‐Kirshi, A.G.S. 1999. Untersuchungen zur biologischen Bekämpfung von

Trogoderma granarium Everts, Trogoderma angustum (Solier) und Anthrenus

verbasci L. (Coleoptera, Dermestidae) mit dem Larvalparasitoiden Laelius

pedatus (Say) (Hymenptera, Bethylidae). PhD thesis for Doctor of Agriculture,

Humbolt University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany.

Anon. 2001. Bad bugs. Insects that can cause health problems. Pest Notes 3(8):

20‐21.

Anon. 2005. Khapra Beetle: Description, Biology and Control of Khapra

Beetles. Promotional Web site. [http://www.pestproducts.com/

Khapra‐beetles.htm]

Arnett, R.H. 1963. The Beetles of the United States. The Catholic University of

America Press, Washington, D.C.: 1‐1112.

Arthur, F. 2001. Tempo® Research. Fumigants & Pheromones 60: 5.

Barak, A. 1995. Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts.

USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Cooperative Agriculture Pest Survey (CAPS) Fact Sheet

37. Sponsored by Center for Environmental and Regulatory Information

Systems, Purdue University. [http://ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/khb/facts/

txt]

Barak, A. 2004. Khapra Beetle Trapping Instructions.

USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Cooperative Agriculture Pest Survey (CAPS) Fact Sheet

34. Sponsored by Center for Environmental and Regulatory Information

Systems, Purdue University. [http://ceris.purdue.edu/]

Barak, Al. Personal Communication: USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Otis Pest Survey,

Detection and Exclusion Laboratory, Otis ANGB, Massachusetts)

Beal, R.S., Jr. 1961. Coleoptera: Dermestidae. Insects of Micronesia 16(3):

109‐131.

Bennett, S.M. 2003. Trogoderma granarium (Khapra Beetle).

Borah, B. and Chahal, B.S. 1979. Development of resistance in Trogoderma

granarium Everts to phosphine in the Punjab. FAO Plant Prot. Bull. 27(3): 77‐80.
References-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Brower, J.H. 1995. Irradiation of Khapra Beetle as a Quarantine Alternative to

Methyl Bromide Fumigation. 1995 Annual International Research Conference

on Methyl Bromide Alternatives and Emissions Reductions. November 6–9

1995, San Diego, California. Radiation Section. [http://mbao.org/

mbrpro95.html]

CABI. 1997. Crop Protection Compendium International. United Kingdom:

Wallingford.

CABI. 2004. Crop Protection Compendium International. United Kingdom:

Wallingford.

CABI. 2005. Crop Protection Compendium International. United Kingdom:

Wallingford.

Damcevski, K.A. and Annis, P.C. 2000. Does Ethyl Formate Have a Role as a

Rapid Grain Fumigant? Preliminary Findings. In: International Conference on

Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in Stored Products, Fresno,

California, 2000. Fresno Conference Abstracts.

Dyrud, N. J. and Dean Herzfeld. 2001. Private Stored Grain Fumigation

Training Manual. For the Private Pesticide Applicator Certification

Fumigation Endorsement. University of Minnesota Cooperative Extension

Service. [http://www.extension.umn.edu/pesticides/pat/pfum/intro.pdf]

EPPO. 1979. Trogoderma granarium Everts. Data Sheets on Quarantine

Organisms. Paris, France.

EPPO. 1997. Trogoderma granaruim. Data Sheets on Quarantine Pests. Paris,

France.

EPPO. 2006. PQR database (version 4.5). Paris, France: European and

Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. [http://www.eppo.org]

Girish, G.K., R.K. Goyal, P.K. Srivastava and K. Krishnamurthy, K. 1972. An

easy method for detection of the eggs of Tribolium castaneum HBST. and

Trogoderma granarium Everts in milled products/debris. Bull. Grain Technol.

10(2): 97‐99.

French, S. and R.C. Venette. 2005. Mini Risk Assessment, Khapra Beetle,

Trogoderma granarium (Everts). USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Cooperative Agriculture

Pest Survey–Pest Risk Assessment (PRA); 22 pages. [http://is.aphis.usda.gov/

ppq/ep/pestdetection/pra/tgranariumpra.pdf].

Great Lakes Chemical Corporation. 2005. Fumigation Guide. Commodity,

Food, and Feed Fumigation. [http://www.greatlakes.com/]
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle References-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Gorham, J.R. 1991. Insect and Mite Pests in Food, pp. 126‐134. In: Agriculture

Handbook # 655. USDA–ARS and U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services (USDHHS)–Public Health Science (PHS). U.S. Govt. Printing Office;

pp. 126‐134.

Hadaway, A.B. 1956. The biology of the dermestid beetles Trogoderma

granarium Everts and Trogoderma versicolor (Creutz). Bull. of Entomological

Research 46(4): 781‐796.

Henry, J.E. 1981. Natural and applied control of insects by protozoa. Ann. Rev.

Entomol. 26: 49‐83.

Hinton, H.E. 1945. A monograph of the beetles associated with stored

products. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1: 387‐395.

Howe, R.W. 1952. Entomological problems of food storage in northern

Nigeria. Bull. Ent. Res. 43(pt. 1): 111–144.

Howe, R. W., and D.L. Lindgren. 1957. How much can the khapra beetle

spread in the U.S.A.? Jrn. Econ. Ent. 50(9): 374‐375.

Kingsolver, J.M. 1991. Dermestidae, Coleoptera. In: Insect and Mite Pests in

Food. An Illustrated Key. Agriculture Handbook No. 655, Volume 1: 115‐136.

Kiselyova, T. 2002. Description of the larval and pupal stages of

Cryptorhopalum triste LeConte (Coloptera, Dermestridae) with notes on

biology and rearing. The Coleopterists Bulletin 56(1): 41‐49.

Lindgren, D.L., L.E. Vincent, and H.E. Krohne. 1955. The Khapra beetle,

Trogoderma granarium Everts. Hilgardia 24(1): 1‐36.

Marcotte, M. 2001. Control of pests of grains, cereals and pulses by irradiation.

The Food Irradiation Information Web Site: Articles & Publications.

Mason, L.J. 2002. Khapra Beetle. Stored Grain Management. Country Journal

Publishing Co., Decatur, Illinois. Grainnet. [http://www.grainnet.com/info/

articles.html?type=sg&ID=16160]

Mayhew, P. J and H.C.J. Godfray. 1997. Mixed sex allocation strategies in a

parasitoid wasp. Oecologia 110: 218‐221.

Mertins, J. W. 1980. Life history and the behavior of Laelius pedatus, a

gregarious bethylid ectoparasitoid of Anthrenus verbasci. Annals of the

Entomological Society of America 73(6): 686‐693.

Munroe, J.W. 1940. Report on a Survey of the Infestation of Grain by Insects.

Dept. Sci. and Indus. Res. (London): 1‐45.
References-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Nautiyal, P.C. 2003. Groundnut: Post‐Harvest Operations, Chapter XXI;

Post‐harvest Compendium. Information Network on Post‐Harvest Operations

(INPHO), Rome, Italy. [http://www.fao.org/inpho/

isma?i=INPhO&lang=en&p=resources/compend/index.jsp]

Pasek, J.E. 1998. USDA Pest Risk Assessment: Khapra Beetle. Sponsored by

CERIS, Purdue University. [http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/khb/

freg/khb98pra.html]

Pasek, J.E. 2004. USDA Pest Risk Assessment: Khapra Beetle. Sponsored by

CERIS, Purdue University. [http://ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/khp/

freg.khb98pra.html].

Rambeau, M., D. Benitz, S. Dupuis, and P. Ducom, P. 2000. Hydrogen Cyanide

as an Immediate Alternative to Methyl Bromide for Structural Fumigations.

In: Fresno Conference Abstracts, International Conference on Controlled

Atmosphere and Fumigation in Stored Products, Fresno, California, 2000.

Rindner, M., S. Navarro, E.J. Donahaye, R. Dias, A. Azrieli and G. Sabio. 2000.

The Combined Effect of Heat and Carbon Dioxide on Diapausing Larvae of

the khapra Beetle Trogoderma granarium. In: Fresno Conference Abstracts,

International Conference on Controlled Atmosphere and Fumigation in

Stored Products, Fresno, California, 2000.

Sehgal, H.C. Agarwal and M.K.K. Pillai. 1970. Sterilizing Effect of a Dietary

Surplus of Biotin in Trogoderma granarium Everts. Current Science 39(24):

551‐552.

Shulka, A.C., S.K. Shahai, A. Dikshit and V.C. Saksena. 2000. Plant Product as

a Fumigant for the Management of Stored‐Product Pests. Fresno Conference

Abstracts, International Conference on Controlled Atmosphere and

Fumigation in Stored Products, Fresno, California, 2000.

Szito, A. 2006. Trogoderma granarium (insect). Global Invasive Species

Database. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). IUCN Species Survival

Commission. [http://www.issg.org/]

Touhey, P. 2005. Trogoderma granarium. Personal Report to J. Stibick on

Interceptions in the USDA–APHIS–Port Information Network: 4 pp.

Udeaan, A.S. 1990. Susceptibility status of Trogoderma granarium Everts

populations to phosphine in Punjab. Indian J. Ecology 17: 195‐196.

USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Cooperative Agriculture Pest Survey (CAPS). Khapra

Beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts. Fact Sheet 37. Sponsored by Center for

Environmental and Regulatory Information Systems, Purdue University.

[http://ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests/khb/facts/txt]
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle References-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

USDA–APHIS–PPQ. 1981. Khapra Beetle Program Manual, Trogoderma

granarium (Everts). Complete Revision October, 1981: 1‐25.

USDA–APHIS–PPQ. 1982. Action Plan, Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma granarium

Everts. USDA–APHIS–PPQ: 1‐30.

USDA–APHIS–PPQ. 1983. Khapra Beetle. Pests Not Known To Occur in the

United States or of Limited Distribution. APHIS 81‐43, # 30; pp. 1‐11.

USDA–APHIS–PPQ. 2003. Plant Import Nonpropagative Manual:

Miscellaneous and Processed Products. [http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/

manuals/port/port_index.html]

USDA–APHIS–PPQ. 2005. PPQ Treatment Manual. Manuals Unit, Frederick,

Maryland. [http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/

index.shtml]

USDA–ARS. 1959. Khapra Beetle Manual. USDA–ARS–Plant Pest control

Division, Oakland, California: 1‐40.

USDA–AMS–Stored Products Insect Branch. 1959. A Summary of Information

about the khapra Beetle. USDA–ARS–Market Quality Research Division.

Agricultural Marketing Service 390, 1‐11.

Williams, J.O., S.A. Adesuyi, and J. Shejbal. 1980. Susceptibility of the life

stages of Sitophilus zeamais and Trogoderma granarium larvae to nitrogen

atmosphere storage of grains. In: Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Grains,

Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., Amerstdam, Holland: 93‐100.
References-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle A-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

A Appendix A 1

Forms

List of Forms

PPQ 391 Specimens For Determination page A‐2

PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification page A‐4
Appendix A

PPQ 391 Specimens For Determination

A-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

PPQ 391 Specimens For Determination 

FIGURE A-1 Example of PPQ 391 Specimens For Determination [side 1]

This report is authorized by law (7 U.S.C. 147a). While you are not required to respond 

your cooperation is needed to make an accurate record of plant pest conditions. 

FORM APPROVED 

See reverse for additional OMB information. OMB NO. 0579-0010

FOR IIBIII USE 

LOT NO. 

 

PRIORITY 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE 

SPECIMENS FOR DETERMINATION

Instructions: Type or print information requested. Press hard and print legibly 

when handwritten. Item 1 - assign number for each collection beginning with 

year, followed by collector’s initials and collector’s number. Example (collector, 

John J. Dingle): 83-JJD-001. 

Pest Data Section – Complete Items 14, 15 and 16 or 19 or 20 and 21 as 

applicable. Complete Items 17 and 18 if a trap was used. 1. COLLECTION NUMBER 2. DATE 3. SUBMITTING AGENCY

MO DA YR 

 PPQ Other 

4. NAME OF SENDER 

 

5. TYPE OF PROPERTY (Farm, Feedmill, Nursery, etc.) 

 

6. ADDRESS OF SENDER 

 

7. NAME AND ADDRESS OF PROPERTY OR OWNER

 

 

SENDER AND ORIGIN

 ZIP 

INTERCEPTION SITE

 COUNTRY/ 

COUNTY 

8. REASON FOR IDENTIFICATION (“x” ALL Applicable Items)

A. Biological Control (Target Pest Name ) E. Livestock, Domestic Animal Pest 

B. Damaging Crops/Plants F. Possible Immigrant (Explain in REMARKS)

C. Suspected Pest of Regulatory Concern (Explain in REMARKS) G. Survey (Explain in REMARKS)

PURPOSE 

D. Stored Product Pest H. Other (Explain in REMARKS)

9. IF PROMPT OR URGENT IDENTIFICATION IS REQUESTED, PLEASE PROVIDE A BRIEF EXPLANATION UNDER “REMARKS”.

10. HOST INFORMATION 11. QUANTITY OF HOST 

NAME OF HOST (Scientific name when possible) 

 

NUMBER OF 

ACRES/PLANTS 

 

PLANTS AFFECTED (Insert figure and 

indicate Number

 Percent): 

12. PLANT DISTRIBUTION 13. PLANT PARTS AFFECTED

HOST DATA 

LIMITED

SCATTERED

WIDESPREAD

Leaves, Upper Surface 

Leaves, Lower Surface

Petiole

Stem

Trunk/Bark 

Branches

Growing Tips

Roots

Bulbs, Tubers, Corms 

Buds

Flowers

 Fruits or Nuts

Seeds 

14. PEST DISTRIBUTION 15. INSECTS NEMATODES MOLLUSKS

NUMBER 

SUBMITTED LARVAE PUPAE ADULTS CAST SKINS EGGS NYMPHS JUVS. CYSTS 

ALIVE 

FEW

COMMON

ABUNDANT

EXTREME DEAD 16. SAMPLING METHOD 

 

17. TYPE OF TRAP AND LURE

 

18. TRAP NUMBER 

 19. PLANT PATHOLOGY – PLANT SYMPTOMS (“X” one and describe symptoms)

ISOLATED GENERAL 

PEST DATA 

20. WEED DENSITY 

FEW SPOTTY GENERAL 

21. WEED GROWTH STAGE 

SEEDLING VEGETATIVE FLOWERING/FRUITING MATURE 

22. REMARKS 

 

23. TENTATIVE DETERMINATION

 

24. DETERMINATION AND NOTES (Not for Field Use) FOR IIBIII USE

DATE RECEIVED 

 

NO. 

LABEL 

SORTED 

 

PREPARED 

 

DATE ACCEPTED 

 

SIGNATURE DATE RR 

 

 PPQ FORM 391 Previous editions are obsolete. 

 (AUG 02) 

This is a 6-Part form. Copies must be disseminated as follows: 

PART 1 – PPQ PART 2 – RETURN TO SUBMITTER AFTER IDENTIFICATION PART 3 – IIBIII OR FINAL IDENTIFIER 

PART 4 – INTERMEDIATE IDENTIFIER PART 5 – INTERMEDIATE IDENTIFIER PART 6 – RETAINED BY SUBMITTER

State 

Cooperator
Appendix A

PPQ 391 Specimens For Determination

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle A-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

FIGURE A-2 Example of PPQ 391 Specimens for Determination [side 2]

OMB Information 

According to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995, no persons are required to respond to a collection 

of information unless it displays a valid OMB control number. The valid OMB control number for this 

information collection is 0579-0010. The time required to complete this information collection is 

estimated to average .25 hours per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching 

existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the 

collection of information. 

Instructions 

Use PPQ Form 391, Specimens for Determination, for domestic collections (warehouse inspections, 

local and individual collecting, special survey programs, export certification). 

BLOCK INSTRUCTIONS 

1 

1. Assign a number for each collection beginning the year, followed by the 

collector’s initials and collector’s number 

EXAMPLE 

2. Enter the collection number 

2 Enter date 

3 Check block to indicate Agency submitting specimens for identification 

4 Enter name of sender 

5 Enter type of property specimen obtained from (farm, nursery, feedmill, etc.) 

6 Enter address 

7 Enter name and address of property owner 

8A-8L Check all appropriate blocks 

9 Leave Blank 

10 Enter scientific name of host, if possible 

11 Enter quantity of host and plants affected 

12 Check block to indicate distribution of plant 

13 Check appropriate blocks to indicate plant parts affected 

14 Check block to indicate pest distribution 

15 Check appropriate block to indicate type of specimen 

Enter number specimens submitted under appropriate column 

16 Enter sampling method 

17 Enter type of trap and lure 

18 Enter trap number 

19 Enter X in block to indicate isolated or general plant symptoms 

20 Enter X in appropriate block for weed density 

21 Enter X in appropriate block for weed growth stage 

22 Provide a brief explanation if Prompt or URGENT identification is requested 

23 Enter a tentative determination if you made one 

24 Leave blank 

Distribution of PPQ Form 391 

Distribute PPQ Form 391 as follows: 

1. Send Original along with the sample to your Area Identifier. 

2. Retain and file a copy for your records. 

In 2001, Brian K. Long collected his first specimen for determination 

of the year. His first collection number is 01-BLK-001
Appendix A

PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification

A-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

PPQ 523 Emergency Action Notification

FIGURE A-3 Example of PPQ 523 [http://www.aphis.usda.gov/library/forms/pdf/ppq523.pdf]

FORM APPROVED - OMB NO. 0579-0102

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE

PLANT PROTECTION AND QUARANTINE

EMERGENCY ACTION NOTIFICATION

1. PPQ LOCATION

3. NAME AND QUANTITY OF ARTICLE(S) 4. LOCATION OF ARTICLES

5. DESTINATION OF ARTICLES

8. SHIPMENT ID NO.(S)

13. COUNTRY OF ORIGIN

7. NAME OF CARRIER

10. PORT OF LADING 11. DATE OF ARRIVAL

17. AFTER RECEIPT OF THIS NOTIFICATION COMPLETE SPECIFIED ACTION

 WITHIN (Specify No. Hours or No. Days):

18. SIGNATURE OF OFFICER:

 ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF RECEIPT OF EMERGENCY ACTION NOTIFICATION

I hereby acknowledge receipt of the foregoing notification.

SIGNATURE AND TITLE: DATE AND TIME:

19. REVOCATION OF NOTIFICATION

ACTION TAKEN:

SIGNATURE OF OFFICER: DATE:

PPQ FORM 523 (JULY 2002) Previous editions are obsolete.

9. OWNER/CONSIGNEE OF ARTICLES

Name:

Address:

PHONE NO. FAX NO.

SS NO. TAX ID NO.

15. FOREIGN CERTIFICATE NO.

15a. PLACE ISSUED 15b. DATE

Under Sections 411, 412, and 414 of the Plant Protection Act (7 USC 7711, 7712, and 7714) and Sections 10404 through 10407 of the Animal Health Protection Act (7 USC 8303 through 8306), you are hereby notified, as owner or agent of the owner of said carrier, premises, and/or articles, to apply remedial measures for

the pest(s), noxious weeds, and or article(s) specified in Item 12, in a manner satisfactory to and under the supervision of an Agriculture Officer. Remedial

measures shall be in accordance with the action specified in Item 16 and shall be completed within the time specified in Item 17.

AFTER RECEIPT OF THIS NOTIFICATION, ARTICLES AND/OR CARRIERS HEREIN DESIGNATED MUST NOT BE MOVED EXCEPT AS DIRECTED BY AN AGRICULTURE OFFICER. THE LOCAL OFFICER MAY BE CONTACTED AT:

Should the owner or owner's agent fail to comply with this order within the time specified below, USDA is authorized to recover from the owner or

agent cost of any care, handling, application of remedial measures, disposal, or other action incurred in connection with the remedial action,

destruction, or removal.

6. SHIPPER

12. ID OF PEST(S), NOXIOUS WEEDS, OR ARTICLE(S)

16. ACTION REQUIRED

TREATMENT:

RE-EXPORTATION:

DESTRUCTION:

OTHER:

SERIAL NO.

According to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995, no persons are required to respond to a collection of information unless it displays a valid OMB control number. The valid OMB control number for this

information is 0579-0102. The time required to complete this information collection is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources,

gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information.

2. DATE ISSUED

14. GROWER NO.

12a. PEST ID NO. 12b. DATE INTERCEPTED
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle B-1

APHIS Plant Health Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

B Appendix B 1

Resources

Trap Supplies

Vertical Wall Mount Trap and 

Pherocon II Aerial Sticky Trap—

Trécé Incorporated

7569 Highway 28 West

P.O. Box 129

Adair, Oklahoma 74330

T: (831) 758‐0204

Order Center: (866) 785‐1313

F: (918) 785‐3063

E: custserv@trece.com

[ http://www.trece.com ]

Yellow Delta Trap—

ISCA Technologies, Inc.

P.O. Box 5266

Riverside, CA, 92521

T: (909) 686‐5008

F: (815) 346‐1722

[ http://www.iscatech.com/exec/

index.htm ]

Entomology Supplies—

Great Lakes IPM, Inc.

10220 Church Road

Vestaburg, MI 48891‐9746

T: 1‐800‐235‐0285

F:(989) 268‐5311

[ http://www.greatlakesipm.com/ ]

Scentry Biologicals, Inc.

610 Central Avenue

Billings, Montana 59102

(406) 245‐3016 (800) 735‐5323

F: (406) 245‐2790

Email: scentry@imt.net

[ http://www.scentry.com/ ]

BioQuip Products, Inc.

2321 Gladwick Street

Rancho Dominguez, CA 90220

T: (310) 667‐8800

[ http://www.bioquip.com/ ]

Wards Natural Science

PO Box 92912

Rochester, NY 14692‐9012

T: 800‐962‐2660

[ http://www.wardsci.com/ ]

Carolina Biological Supply Co.

2700 York Road

Burlington, NC 27215‐3398

T: (800)334‐5551

[ http://www.carolina.com/ ]

Beneficial Organisms

Cornell University—Weedon, C.R.,

A.M. Shelton, Y. Li, and M.P.

Hoffmann. Biological Control: A

Guide to Natural Enemies in North

America. [ http:/www.

nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/ ]

Association of Natural Biocontrol

Producers

10202 Cowan Heights Drive

Santa Ana, CA 92705

T: (714) 544‐8295

[ http://www.anbp.org/ ]

North Carolina State University—

Biological Control Virtual

Information Center. Center for IPM.

North Carolina State University.

[http://cipm.ncsu.edu/ent/

biocontrol/ ]
Appendix B

B-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

APHIS Plant Health Programs

Predicting Insect Development

University of California Statewide

Integrated Pest Management

Program 2003 [ http://

www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/WEATHER ]

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

U.S. Department of Commerce

NAPPFAST

[http://www.nappfast.org/

index.htm]

Local Cooperative Extension Service

Private, State, university, or industry

sources

Cornell University

Weedon, C.R., A.M. Shelton, Y. Li,

and M.P. Hoffmann. Biological

Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies

in North America. [ http://

www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/

biocontrol/ ]

Insecticides

Methyl Bromide Meth-O-Gas® Q—

Great Lakes IPM, Inc.

10220 Church Road

Vestaburg, Mi 48891‐9746

T: (989) 268‐5693 / (989) 268‐5911

F: (989) 268‐5311

Neem—

M/S RYM EXPORTS

Administrative Office:

1, Apollo Chambers,

Mogra Lane, Andheri (e)

Mumbai–400069, India

T: +91 22 30956539, 28210025

F: +91 22 56991480

E: info@neemfromindia.com

Tempo SC Ultra (Cyfluthrin)—

Professional Pest Control Products

6920 Pine Forest Road

Pensacola, Florida 32526

T: 1‐800‐434‐4555

E: pest@pestproducts.com

Bayer Environmental Science

95 Chestnut Ridge Road

Montvale, NJ 07645

[ http://www.bayerprocentral.com ]

Phosphine—

DEGESCH America, Inc.

Gardex Chemicals, Ltd.

P. O. Box 116 7 Meridian Road

Weyers Cave, Virginia 24486

T: 540‐234‐9281/800‐330‐2525

F: 540‐234‐8225

Northwest Wholesale Incorporated

P.O. Box 1659

1567 Wenatchee Ave.

Wenatchee, WA 98801

T: 509‐662‐2141, 800‐872‐2501

Morris Grain Company

1121 Atlantic Ave

Morris, Minnesota 56267

E: mgc@hometownsolutions.net
Appendix B

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle B-3

APHIS Plant Health Programs

Fumigation Equipment

Power Plastics Ltd.

Station Road, Thirsk,

North Yorkshire, YO7 1PZ

United Kingdom

T: 44(0)870 850 8067

F: 44(0)870 850 8068

E: sales@powerplastics.co.uk

Uniweld Products Customer Service

2850 Ravenswood Road

Fort Lauderdale, FL 33312 ‐ 4994

E: info@uniweld.com

AFC International, Inc.

PO Box 894, DeMotte, IN 46310

715 SW Almond St., Ste. C

DeMotte, IN 46310

E: sales@afcintl.com

Miscellaneous

National Grain and Feed Association

1250 Eye St., N.W., Suite 1003

Washington, D.C. 20005‐3922

T: (202)289‐0873

F: (202)289‐5388

E: ngfa@ngfa.org

Environmental Compliance

Environmental Monitoring, 

Categorical Exclusions—

USDA–APHIS–PPQ–Emergency and

Domestic Programs

Environmental Compliance

4700 River Road, Unit 150

Riverdale, MD 20737

Telephone: 301‐734‐8247

Environmental Services

FIFRA, ESA, Environmental 

Assessments—

USDA–APHIS–Policy and Program

Development

Environmental Services

4700 River Road, Unit 149

Riverdale, MD 20737

Telephone: 301‐734‐8565
Appendix B

B-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

APHIS Plant Health Programs
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle C-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

C Appendix C 1

Hosts

TABLE C-1 Preferred Hosts of Khapra Beetle

Common name Scientific name Reference

Almond Prunus dulcis Szito, 2005

Barley Hordeum vulgare Hinton, 1945; Lindgren et 

al., 1955; Szito, 2005

Coconut Cocos nucifera Lindgren et al., 1955

Corn Zea mays Hinton, 1945; Lindgren et 

al., 1955; Szito, 2005

Cowpea Vigna unguiculata Szito, 2005

Garbanzo Cicer arietinum Szito, 2005

Gram Vigna radiata Lindgren et al., 1955

Oat Avena sativa Hinton, 1945; Szito, 2005

Pea, garden Pisum sativum Szito, 2005

Peanut Arachis hypogaea Szito, 2005

Pecan Carya illinoinensis Anon., 2005: Szito, 2005

Pistachio Pistacia spp. Lindgren et al., 1955

Beans Various Lindgren et al., 1955

Peas Various Lindgren et al., 1955

Lentil Lens culinaris Lindgren et al., 1955; Szito, 

2005

Oak Quercus spp. Anon., 2005

Rice Oryza sativa Hinton; Lindgren et al., 

1955; Szito, 2005

Rye Secale cereale Hinton, 1945

Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Lindgren et al., 1955; Szito, 

2005

Soybean Glycine max Szito, 2005

Walnut Juglans spp. Lindgren et al., 1955, Anon., 

2005; Szito, 2005

Wheat Triticum aestivum Hinton, 1945; Lindgren et 

al., 1955; Szito, 2005
Appendix C

C-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

TABLE C-2 Other Hosts of Khapra Beetle

Common Name Scientific Name Reference

Alfalfa Medicago sativa subsp. 

sativa

Szito, 2005

Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus Szito, 2005

Linseed Linum usitatissimum Munroe, 1940

Raisin Vitis spp. Szito, 2005

TABLE C-3 Potential Hosts of Khapra Beetle

Oak Ash Beech

Basswood Birch Black cherry

Black walnut Black butternut Cottonwood

Elm Hackberry Hickory

Holly Locust Magnolia

Maple Poplar Red alder

Royal paulownia Sassafras Sweetgum

Sycamore Tupelo Willow

Yellow poplar
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle D-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

D Appendix D 1

Historical Survey 

Images 1

 

1 Source: USDA–ARS. 1959. Khapra Beetle Manual. USDA–ARS–Plant Pest control Division, Oakland, California: 1-40.

FIGURE D-1 Khapra Beetle Larvae and 

Adults on Burlap

FIGURE D-2 Sifting Bulk Grain in Search 

of Khapra Beetle

FIGURE D-3 Khapra Beetle Larvae in 

Cement Block

FIGURE D-4 Probing Cracks in Concrete 

Wall for Khapra Beetle
Appendix D

D-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

 

 

 

FIGURE D-5 Examining Seams of Sacks 

for Larvae

FIGURE D-6 Concrete and Wood 

Construction Joints offer Good Hiding 

Places for Khapra Beetle

FIGURE D-7 Larval Entry Holes in Bag of 

Soup Mix

FIGURE D-8 Examining Packaged and 

Bulk Pet Foods in Local Pet Stores
Appendix D

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle D-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

FIGURE D-9 Larval Entry Holes in Bag of 

Soup Mix

FIGURE D-10 Examining Floor Area 

Outside Grain Storage Warehouse

FIGURE D-11 Examining Grain Storage 

Bulkhead Supports
Appendix D

D-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs
October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle E-1

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Khapra Beetle

1

E Appendix E 1

Technical Control

Contents

Introduction page E‐1

Pesticide Resistance page E‐1

Conventional Treatment page E‐2

Alternative Treatment page E‐6

Cultural Control page E‐7

Biological Control page E‐8

Other Strategies page E‐10

Introduction

Use Appendix E Technical Control as a source of additional information

concerning the control of khapra beetle. Review Introduction on  page 6‐1

before applying any control measure.

Pesticide Resistance

Khapra beetle shows signs of resistance to some common pesticides such as

phosphine and malathion, probably due to overuse and improper fumigation

procedures or other factors (Pasek, 1998). Khapra beetle is highly resistant to

the contact insecticides in general use; even lethal doses are very slow to kill

this pest. Khapra beetle is highly resistant to DDT, and mixtures containing

Valone (isovaleryl indandione), with pyrethrins or gamma‐BHC, have only

moderate synergism even with refined kerosene as the spray carrier (Lingren

et al., 1955).

Methyl Bromide

Some claims of methyl bromide resistance have been made (Nautiyal, 2003),

but have not been verified. Of greater concern is the role of methyl bromide as

an ozone depleter: it may one day curtail the use of this pesticide.

Permethrin

Resistance to permethrin has not been reported.

Malathion

Khapra beetle developed resistance to malathion in Tunisia by 1967 (Pasek,

1998). Cufluthrin, a synthetic pyrethroid, may be substituted for malathion.
Appendix E

Conventional Treatment

E-2 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Phosphine

An early study found that Khapra beetle larval mortality in a resistant strain

in India averaged 5–12% compared to 84–94% in a susceptible strain (Borah &

Chahal, 1979). More recently, resistance ratios to phosphine fumigation in

India have ranged from 10–47.9 (Udeann, 1990).

Conventional Treatment

When using any treatment, follow all instructions in PPQ Treatment Manual

(http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/ports/

treatment.shtml).The Manual covers chemical treatments, and the following

fumigations:

◆ Bulk

◆ Container

◆ Tarpaulin

The Manual does not cover structural fumigation. If structural fumigation is

required or urgently advised, consult the following publication, provided all

clearances are given.

Primary Fumigants

Methyl Bromide Methyl bromide will remain the primary treatment in the United States except

when pesticide resistance, or proximity to human populations, makes its use

obsolete.

Phosphine Where it is impractical to fumigate with methyl bromide, phosphine may be

used. Treatment with phosphine requires more time to kill target pests,

compared to methyl bromide (3–7 days vs. 2–24 hours, respectively). Longer

treatment time will lead to greater overall costs.

Other Fumigants

The following fumigants are potential replacements for methyl bromide and

phosphine in the event that resistance is encountered.

Sulfuryl Fluoride Currently, sulfuryl fluoride (Vikane®) is not approved as a fumigant by

USDA. However, sulfuryl fluoride is commonly used to control pests of

stored products. Check with staff at USDA–Center for Plant Health Science

and Technology (CPHST) to determine if treatment schedules are available for

this compoundʹs use on structures or other infested items.

Publication University of Minnesota Extension Service Manual on Private Stored Grain 

Fumigation Training Manual, 2001.
Appendix E

Conventional Treatment

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle E-3

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Ethylene Oxide Ethylene oxide (EO) treatment was approved for treatment of khapra beetle in

spice in 1981, but was not added to the PPQ Treatment Manual at that time

since a Notice of Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration of EO was issued in

the Federal Register in 1978. An EPA review would need to be completed prior

to its use (McNally, Acting Director, PPQ–National Program Planning Staff,

July 21, 1981, pers. comm.).

Ethyl Formate Currently, ethyl formate is not approved as a fumigant by USDA. Ethyl

formate is used as a fumigant in Australia on dried fruit. Recently, the

usefulness of this fumigant in disinfesting stored commodities was

re‐evaluated. Ethyl formate has a very rapid action and this property could

make it useful in rapid disinfestation.

The response of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) adults to ethyl formate in a sealed system

in preliminary experiments was studied. Sitophilus oryzae is generally one of

the more difficult stored‐product beetles to kill by fumigation. The insects

were exposed to three different dosages of ethyl formate for a range of

exposure times with a 50% filling ratio of wheat. Ethyl formate required a very

short time to kill all adults for the range of concentrations and times studied.

Exposures of 12 minutes and 2 hours achieved 100% mortality for

concentrations of 340 and 210 g/m3

, respectively. For 130 g/m3, an exposure of

3 hours achieved 94% mortality. These results are consistent with the

requirements for a potential replacement for methyl bromide as a rapid

disinfestant.

Ethyl formate has the advantages of rapid loss from the gaseous phase and

breakdown by the grain. The high flammability of ethyl formate, which may

make its application a potential problem, can be significantly reduced by its

application in water. The rapid kill makes ethyl formate suitable for

treatments in conditions where long‐term gas retention is not possible, for

example, the disinfestation of machinery, work‐spaces and surfaces

(Damcevski and Annis, 2000).

Hydrogen 

Cyanide

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is not currently approved as a fumigant by the

USDA. Hydrogen cyanide was used as the fumigant of choice for mills in the

first part of the last century, and was then replaced by methyl bromide.

Consequently, it should now be re‐evaluated as a potential alternative to

methyl bromide. However, knowledge about HCNʹs efficacy as a fumigant is

outdated and does not conform to the notion of concentration time (Ct)

product.

Rambeau et al. (2000) conducted a study to determine the biological efficacy of

HCN in terms of Ct product for the different stages of three of the most

prevalent species infesting mills and food manufacturing premises, the

confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum), the red flour beetle (Tribolium

castaneum), and the Indianmeal moth (Plodia interpunctella). In addition, the

granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius) was studied in the adult stage only, since

this is the only stage present in mills.
Appendix E

Conventional Treatment

E-4 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Two series of trials were carried out: one consisted of dose‐trials to define the

relationship between Ct product and insect mortality without presence of a

rearing medium; the other consisted of trials in which inserts were placed at

different depths in flour to measure HCN efficacy in penetrating residual

heaps of flour.

The findings on the different stages of each species (eggs, young larvae, old

larvae, pupae and adults) show that the Ct product required to obtain a LD90

ranged from 1–4 g.h/m3

, according to developmental stage, this being very

low when compared to methyl bromide. Nevertheless, in contrast to methyl

bromide, large differences were found between the species as shown in the

high tolerance of granary weevils to HCN. The poor penetration of HCN into

flour is due to significant sorption. Consequently, to be effective against T.

confusum adults buried in flour, a Ct product as high as 60 and 100 g.h/m3 is

required to kill this species at depths of 10 and 15 cm, though it does not kill S.

granarius.

In practice, the Ct product needed to kill all stages of these major mill and

food factory pests should be around 10 g.h/m3

, though to obtain HCN

penetration and kill insects at a depth of about 10 cm in flour heaps, the

prevailing Ct products should be around 60 g.h/m3

. This implies that the

corresponding initial dose should be 5 g.h/m3

, taking into account the

presence of minor leaks.

Nitrogen Gas Nitrogen is not currently approved as a fumigant by USDA. However, it

might be a good alternative to methyl bromide. In Williams et al. (1980), all

khapra beetle larvae were killed in a five day exposure time period.

Heat Heat treatment is approved by the USDA as a nonchemical treatment for

those commodities, such as feeds and milled products, that can be heated as

part of the processing procedure, or other commodities that can be subjected

to heat.

Dosage Schedule—The commodity shall be considered free from live khapra

beetles if it reaches 1800

F during any part of its processing, or if it is held at

1500

F or above for a total of 7 minutes. The commodity must move through, or

be turned over in the heating chamber, or otherwise manipulated to insure

that all parts of it reach the required temperature (USDA–ARS, 1959).

Heat + CO2 This treatment has not been approved by USDA. This combination treatment

permits a lower heat level, thus allowing additional commodities to be

processed. At 1130

F, with a CO2 concentration of 90%, the exposure time is 7.8

hours (Rindner et al., 2000).

Irradiation USDA has not approved treatment with irradiation. However, irradiation has

several advantages over fumigation as a quarantine treatment, some of which

are general in nature and some of which are peculiar to the khapra beetle. The

major advantage of irradiation over fumigation is that a lethal dose can

usually be delivered in minutes, or at the most an hour or two, depending on
Appendix E

Conventional Treatment

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle E-5

Emergency and Domestic Programs

the type, size and configuration of the irradiator and the dose rate. Thus,

when unloading cargo, these could probably be irradiated during the

unloading process (Brower, 1995).

The irradiation of at least one grain or cereal or processed grain product has

been approved by 22 countries with rice being the most commonly approved

cereal. Irradiation at the disinfestation dose prevents grain and cereals from

sprouting, an advantage or disadvantage, depending on final product use.

Like fumigants, irradiation does not confer residual protection from

re‐infestation. Bagged grains or cereals require reasonably good packaging to

prevent re‐infestation (Marcotte, 2001).

Commercial Practice—Grains, cereals and pulses, either in bulk or bagged,

can be irradiated, but several practical barriers to the irradiation of bulk grains

exist. Currently, bagged rice is commercially irradiated in Indonesia. Mixed

cereal products are irradiated in France and South Africa. Both gamma

equipment containing radioisotopes such as cobalt 60 and electron beam

accelerators can be used to disinfest these commodities, depending on

whether the product is available bulk or bagged and other considerations

(Marcotte, 2001).

Sensitivity—Pests and life stages vary in sensitivity to radiation. The bean

weevils (bruchids) seem to be the most sensitive, but the rice, corn and

granary weevils (curculionids) are almost equally sensitive. The sawtooth

grain beetle, the merchant grain beetle and others in this group (cucujids), and

most of the flour beetles (tenebrionids) are intermediate in sensitivity. The

cigarette beetle, and other anobiids, the khapra beetle and other dermestids

and the spider beetles (ptinids) form a series with increasing resistance. The

depressed flour beetle (Palorus subdepressus) Wollaston, a tenebrionid, is the

most resistant stored product beetle. It reproduced after 0.3 kGy (Marcotte,

2001).

Radiation Dose Required—Generally, for commercial applications, the dose of

radiation is chosen to result in the extent of pest control or kill required. For

grains and cereals, a minimum dose of 0.5 kGy will control even the most

resistant beetle (and weevil) species and the immature stages of moths. At this

dose, some resistant adult moths may remain fertile, but their progeny would

be sterile. Irradiation at this dose results in a good quality product with little

or no change in functional properties of the grain or cereal. Higher doses (2–3

kGy) can result in death of more resistant pests within 24 hours, but at this

dose there may be starch changes that affect later food processing

applications. For rice pests, 0.40–0.50 kGy can be used as the minimum dose

for pest control. (Use the lower dose if the pest of concern is rice weevil.) The

recommended maximum dose for rice is 2–3 kGy to prevent quality problems.

Wheat flour is more sensitive to radiation damage, but it is also not usually

infested with anything but pest eggs, the most sensitive life stage. For this

reason, 0.25 kGy is recommended as the minimum dose, with a maximum

dose of 0.75 kGy (Marcotte, 2001).
Appendix E

Alternative Treatment

E-6 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Impact of Irradiation on Product Quality—Irradiation at the doses used for

disinfestation does not affect product quality or the quality of processed foods

made from grains and cereals. Some grains or cereals will show dose related

starch changes at higher doses, so care should be taken to ensure minimum to

maximum dose uniformity is not excessively large (e.g. < 3:1). Irradiated

grains and cereals will not sprout, an advantage or disadvantage depending

on the intended use.

The irradiation of wheat flour at dose ranges higher than 1 kGy is likely to

result in undesirable flavor changes. Several studies reported on nutrient

value effects of grain and cereals and processed products. To summarize,

nutrient effects in mainly carbohydrate foods are well understood. Irradiation

at disinfestation doses does not cause nutritionally significant changes to the

nutrient value of grains and cereals. At higher doses there are some changes to

vitamin content, in the B vitamins particularly (thiamin) and also to Vitamin E

(Marcotte, 2001).

Irradiation only covers bagged and bulked commodities. It does not cover

chamber, container, or structure treatment.

Alternative Treatment

Evaluate the following alternative treatments as needed.

Plant Derived

Lemongrass Oil Shulka et al. (2000) screened some essential oils against the following

stored‐product insects: Rhyzopertha dominica, Trogoderma granarium, Sitophilus

oryzae, Corcyra cephalonica and Ephestia cautella. The oil of lemongrass

(Cymbopogon flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. [Poaceae]) was the strongest toxicant.

This oil required only 6–8 hours to kill insect pests. In addition to its broad

pesticidal spectrum, the oil is thermo‐stable and persisted up to 36 months.

Further tests were conducted along with in vivo investigations. By observing

the maximum phyto‐tolerant concentration, formulations were developed.

Further investigations have been carried out on various toxicological,

organoleptic and pharmacological parameters, to determine the minimum

effective dose of the formulation. A preliminary comparison of some common

characteristic features of the formulated herbal fumigant with some synthetic

fumigants showed that the herbal formulation is superior.

After successful multi‐site trials, Shulka et al. (2000) recommended that the

fumigant formulation of lemongrass oil could be commercialized for the

management of stored‐product pests.

Neem 

(Azadirachta 

indica A.Juss.)

Neem EC—RYM Exports (2005) has claimed that Neem EC is effective against

khapra beetle as well as many other insects. There is some indication that

burning neem leaves will fumigate stored goods, but no details have been

given. The product may be used as a supplemental treatment.
Appendix E

Cultural Control

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle E-7

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Fumigants

Biogas The use of biogas as a fumigant, with methane and carbon dioxide as its main

components, may achieve good results in the control of stored product pests.

It has been successfully tested and has killed 100% of Sitophilus oryzae,

Rhyzopertha dominica, Trogoderma granarium and Tribolium castaneum after six

daysʹ exposure to biogas in PVC bins (Bennett, 2003).

Other Alternatives

Protozoa Mattesia trogodermae—Mattesia trogodermae is a protozoan specific for

species of Trogoderma. It is not pathogenic in certain vertebrates, and is fairly

easy to produce in usable quantities. It may be introduced into Trogoderma

populations by contaminating the males at bait stations and allowing them to

subsequently rejoin the population to eat food, contaminating the food of

other adults and larvae and to be consumed in turn when they die by the

larvae and then contaminating these larvae in turn.

Bait stations may be introduced at various locations in a granary or even

where small populations occur. An alternative is to leave treated food at

various locations where khapra beetle is known to occur.

This approach is still under research and will not eradicate a population, but

will undoubtedly control it (Henry, 1981).

Vitamins Biotin (B-complex vitamin)—In a few insect species, an excess of biotin will

cause a reduction in the fertility of those insects. Tests with khapra beetle

showed that they were indeed adversely affected. High doses of Biotin, such

as 0.5% and 1.0%, inhibited further development of the larvae, ultimately

causing complete mortality.

Exactly how this could be applied in stored product situations is still not clear.

This approach is still under investigation (Sehgal et al.,1970).

Cultural Control

Cultural control may be subject to obtaining environmental documentation

under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and the Endangered

Species Act (ESA). Check with the program manager to make sure such

documentation is in order.

Host Destruction

In situations with a very limited area of infestation, if khapra beetle is present

and persistent in nuts under nut trees or in peanuts, either cultivated or wild,

use the following means to destroy material:

◆ Apply an herbicide to the host.

◆ Disk or plow the host under the soil.
Appendix E

Biological Control

E-8 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

◆ Remove, bury or incinerate the host.

In these cases, all host material must be destroyed completely to avoid

regrowth of the host and subsequent reappearance of nuts or peanuts.

Sanitation

Carry out sanitation in and around structures where hosts are present within

the regulated areas. Sanitation may include the following:

◆ Free the surface area of all debris around structure by raking or

sweeping debris under tarpaulin before treatment.

◆ Harrow or disc the surface area.

◆ Spray the surface area with malathion.

◆ Thoroughly clean inside of structures and dispose of any debris by

burning, discing or burial in an approved landfill.

◆ Inspect vehicles, trucks, wagons, and other vehicles used in and around

structures or used to transport host material to avoid accidental

movement of host material with eggs, larvae, or adults of khapra beetle.

Flooding

Flooding is another control option, if a field or surface area around a property

can be flooded. Water should flood the site for at least two days.

Biological Control

Biological control agents are useful for suppressing pest populations. Some

biological control agents are sufficiently effective to eradicate their host or

prey. Rigorous screening of non‐target organisms needs to be tested in order

to assure safety of release with minimum risk. Proper permitting must be

obtained prior to testing in the United States. Biological control agents can be

effective alone or when used in combination with other control techniques.

They are characterized as predators, parasites, parasitoids or pathogens.

Laelius pedatus

Laelius pedatus is a parasitoid of the khapra beetle. L. pedatus is native to North

America and ranges from the eastern United States, west to Colorado and

south to Mexico, and is known in Brazil (Mertins, 1980). Al‐Kirshi (1999)

studied the efficacy of this parasitoid in controlling khapra beetle, T. angustum

and A. verbasci. The venom of L. pedatus caused 60% larval mortality in khapra

beetle. At a parasitoid: host ratio of 1:25, L. pedatus reduced two populations of
Appendix E

Biological Control

October 19, 2009 Khapra Beetle E-9

Emergency and Domestic Programs

khapra beetle by 75–80% within 6–8 weeks. The wasp was found to penetrate

into wheat and successfully parasitize host larvae of khapra beetle to a depth

of 3 feet.

While these results show promise, Laelius pedatus has not yet become

commercially available. However, there has been some research for

augmentative biological control of pests of stored products and any progress

would need to be looked at if biocontrol options are to be considered for a

program.

Planning a Biological Control Program

Biological control of African and Asian citrus psyllids requires further

investigation to be effective. The following guidelines should be followed

when planning a biological control program:

 1. Identify an effective biological control agent with the potential to

control the target pest or pests.

 2. Locate a reliable source of the biological control agents.

 3. Determine the following:

❖ Release rates

❖ Synchronization with the host

❖ Temperature and other environmental requirements

❖ Appropriate host plants

 4. Coordinate their introduction with other strategies in a pest

management program. For example, identify compatible pesticides and

cultural practices.

FIGURE E-1 Laelius pedatus Laying Eggs on a

Beetle Larva (Mayhew & Godfray, 1997) [Image

courtesy of P.J. Mayhew]
Appendix E

Other Strategies

E-10 Khapra Beetle October 19, 2009

Emergency and Domestic Programs

Other Strategies

Attract and Kill Trapping

Install vertical wall‐mount traps at the rate of one per 10 feet in a structure, or

on every nut bearing tree outdoors. See Trapping on  page 3‐9 for more

information on assembly. At this intensive level, the traps could be considered

a control device and therefore a Section 18 exemption will be needed. See

Laws Pertaining to Pesticide Use on  page 6‐1 for more information on

exemptions.