Food Safety of Farm-Raised Game

PhotoDisc

Venison, antelope, American elk, boar, pheasant, and other game animals are now farm raised in the UnitedStates. For an increasing number of restaurants and home diners, game meats are becoming more commonplace.

States require restaurants to only serve game that has been slaughtered and dressed under inspection. This can be

accomplished under voluntary USDA FSIS inspection or equivalent foreign inspection. The Hotline receives inquiries

about these food animal species. Included here are answers to questions about game animals.

What is game?

Background on

“Venison” Game

Animals

Food Safety Information

United States Department of Agriculture

Food Safety and Inspection Service

Game from Farm to Table

USDA Meat & Poultry Hotline

1-888-MPHotline

(1-888-674-6854)

The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) is the public health

agency in the U.S. Department of Agriculture responsible for ensuring

that the nation’s commercial supply of meat, poultry, and egg products

is safe, wholesome, and correctly labeled and packaged.

Game are wild animals and birds. Farm-raised game are originally wild

species of animals and birds that are now being raised domestically for

sale under voluntary USDA inspection. The U.S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) has jurisdiction over imported game. Large native

game animals living in America include antelope, buffalo, bear, caribou,

deer, elk, moose, reindeer, and wild boar. Elsewhere in the world, even

rarer varieties eaten by humans are camel, elephant, kangaroo, wild

goats, wild sheep, zebra, and other species.

Small game animals include alligator, rabbit, squirrel, beaver, muskrat,

opossum, raccoon, armadillo, porcupine, and other species.

Game birds include grouse, guineafowl, partridge, squab (young pigeon),

quail, pheasant, ratites (emu, ostrich, and rhea), wild ducks, wild geese,

wild turkey, and other species. Rock Cornish hens — thought by many

consumers to be game birds — are actually young domesticated chickens.

Ratites and squabs are now under mandatory USDA inspection.

NOTE: Game species raised on farms under appropriate regulations can be

sold. Wild game species that can be legally hunted under Federal or State

regulatory authority cannot be sold, but can be harvested for personal

consumption. If you have questions about the harvest of wild game

species, contact your State fish and wildlife agencies, or the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service for Federal regulations on migratory species.

In culinary terms, “venison” can be meat from deer, elk, moose, caribou,

antelope, and pronghorn. However, when this meat is offered for sale, the

name of the specific animal must be specified on the package label.

Deer live in woodlands all over Europe, Asia, northern Africa and America.

There are many deer species of various sizes but all the males grow

antlers. The meat is lean and has a gamey flavor that can be made milder

if soaked overnight.

Elk meat tastes like mild (almost sweet) beef, with only a very faint

venison flavor. Elk can be substituted equally for venison in most standard

venison recipes. Elk are from North America, Europe, and Asia.

Moose is the largest member of the venison family standing about 6 1/2 feet

at the shoulder. It’s native from North America. The meat is similar to elk.
Other Game Animals

Game Birds

Food Safety Information 2

Game from Farm to Table

Caribou (reindeer) are slightly larger than white-tailed deer. Both males

and females have antlers. The meat is somewhat sweeter than other

venison. They live primarily in North America and Siberia.

Antelope are currently farmed in Texas, where black buck and nilgai

antelope, native to Africa, are allowed to roam on huge preserves. Males

are called bucks, bulls, or stags; females, does or cows; and unweaned

young are fawns or calves. Antelope meat is leaner, but similar in taste,

to that of deer.

Pronghorn (once classified as “antelope”) is the last survivor of a species

native to North America, with the largest herd in Wyoming. Pronghorn

meat is leaner, but similar in taste, to that of deer.

Bison (buffalo) is native to North America. Once about 60 million in

number, bison were hunted almost to extinction by the 1890’s. Currently

there are more than 150,000 animals being raised across North America

today. Bison is said to have a sweeter, richer flavor than beef.

Musk-ox is a heavy-set, shaggy-coated wild ox that lives in northern

North America, the Arctic islands, and Greenland. The meat tastes similar

to buffalo.

Collared Peccary (javelina) is a hoofed animal native to parts of Mexico,

South America, and the southwest U.S. A substitute is fresh pork.

Rabbits sold for consumption in the U.S. are not North American

cottontails, but are usually either crosses between New Zealand and

Belgian varieties, Chinese rabbits, or Scottish hares.

Wild boars, along with feral (wild) hogs, are found in 23 states in the

U.S. and are estimated to number over 2 million. Like our domestic swine,

these animals are not native to North America, but were originally

brought over from other continents. Originally domesticated and then

released into the wild, these animals are now hybrids.

While some states have limited hunting seasons, most states consider

them a nuisance and encourage hunting them for personal consumption.

The game bird industry in the U.S. raises millions of birds for sale to

restaurants and direct to consumers. These include up to 10 million

pheasants, 37 million quail (including 12 million Bobwhite), 4 million

Chukar partridges, 1 million Mallard ducks, 200,000 wild turkeys, and

several other bird species.

Wild Ducks - The Chinese were the first to raise wild ducks domestically

for food. Today’s domestic wild ducks are descendants of either the

Muscovy or Mallard species. America’s Long Island ducks are offspring of

Pekin ducks (a variety of Mallard) brought from China in the late 1800’s. A

young duck or duckling (usually under 8 weeks of age) has dark, tender

meat and weighs about 3 1/2 to 5 pounds. A mature duck is usually over

6 months of age and has tougher meat.

Goose - Geese were farm-raised in ancient Egypt, China, and India.

Today’s goose weighs between 5 and 18 pounds. A young bird of either

sex (“goose” is the female of the species; “gander,” the male) has tender

meat, while a mature goose of either sex has tougher meat.

Guineafowl - This relative of the chicken and partridge, sometimes called

a guinea hen or African pheasant, was thought to originate in Guinea,

West Africa. A young guineafowl, about 11 weeks old, has tender meat,
Are game animals

inspected by USDA?

Game from Farm to Table

Food Safety Information 3

while a mature bird has tougher meat. Female guinea fowl are more

tender than males. The meat is light red and slightly dry with a mild

gamey flavor. Due to their small size - about 2 to 3 pounds, including

giblets, guinea fowl are usually sold whole.

Partridge — There are no native partridge species in the United States.

Most partridge in the market are from European or African varieties. The

Grey partridge, a European species, was imported from Hungary and

raised in England. Found as far away as the Middle East, this variety is

sometimes called Hungarian partridge. Chukar is a partridge species from

India.

Pheasant - Originally from Asia, the female of this medium-size game bird

(weighing about 3 pounds) has more tender, plump, and juicy meat than

the male, which weighs about 5 pounds. Young birds can be roasted, but

older birds need moist heat because their flesh is drier and leaner.

Quail - American quail are known regionally by various names: Bobwhite,

partridge, and quail (blue, California, mountain and Montezuma).

American quail nest on the ground and are not related to the European

quail of the partridge family. A ready-to-cook quail weighs about 3 to 7

ounces, including the giblets. Due to their small size, they are usually

roasted and served whole. The meat is dark, but mild flavored.

Ratites - This family of flightless birds has small wings and flat

breastbones. Ostrich, emu (“E-mew”) and rhea (“REE-ah”) are members

of this family. Ostrich is native to Africa; emu, to Australia; and rhea, to

South America — particularly the grasslands of Argentina. The meat looks

like beef and the flavor is similar but a little sweeter. For more information,

see: www.fsis.usda.gov/Fact_Sheets/Ratites_Emu_Ostrich_Rhea/index.asp.

Squab or Pigeon - This species originated in the Middle East and Asia,

and is one of the oldest birds known to man. A squab is a young,

immature pigeon about 4 weeks old. Because it is too young to fly, the

meat is very tender. Squabs usually weigh about 12 to 16 ounces,

including giblets, and have dark, delicately flavored meat. They are

usually stuffed whole and roasted. A pigeon has been allowed to mature

and has tougher meat than a squab.

Wild Turkeys - Turkey is one of North America’s native birds. The name

“turkey” was originally applied to an African bird, now known as the

guineafowl, which was believed to have originated in Turkey. When the

Europeans came upon the American turkey, they thought it was the same

bird as the African guinea fowl, and so gave it the name turkey, although

the two species are quite distinct. Compared to their domestic

counterparts, wild turkeys are leaner, less meaty, not as tender, and have

a stronger flavor.

Some game animals are inspected by USDA and others by the FDA.

USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has mandatory

inspection authority over all food products from cattle, sheep, swine,

goats, horses, mules, and other equines, chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese,

guineas, ratites (emu, ostrich, and rhea), and squab. This includes

processed products containing more than 3 percent raw meat or 2

percent or more cooked poultry meat.

Additionally, FSIS does voluntary inspection of reindeer, elk, deer,

antelope, water buffalo, bison, migratory water fowl (birds that swim such

as ducks and geese), game birds, and

rabbits.
Are hormones and

antibiotics used in game

animal production?

What foodborne bacteria

are associated with

game?

Game from Farm to Table

Food Safety Information 4

How are game farm

taised?

FDA has jurisdiction over imported game not covered by the Federal meat

and poultry inspection laws. Meat and poultry exported from another

country must meet all safety standards applied to foods produced in the

United States, and this must be verified annually.

Game animals are either raised on farms or ranches. If ranch raised, the

animals are allowed to roam at will over hundreds of acres, foraging off

foliage. Farm-raised game live in more confined outdoor areas and are

fed grains such as wheat, alfalfa, or corn. What the animal eats can

affect the taste of the meat.

Game bird species are raised separately from each other. Some birds

consider birds from other species as intruders and will kill them.

The chicks need a clean, healthy environment, free of predators and

parasites, with lots of clean, fresh water, fresh air, and feed. They are

kept in warm buildings with floors covered with litter made of pine

shavings, rice or peanut hulls, sugarcane fiber, and ground corncobs.

Game birds are fed a diet similar to domestic poultry, typically a low-fat

mix which is higher in protein than that fed to chickens. The feed may

contain corn, alfalfa meal, wheat, soybean, meat bone scrap, whey, fish

meal, and a vitamin-mineral mix. The FDA regulates animal feed.

When they are a few weeks old, game birds may be transferred to flight

cages, typically 130-feet long, 12-feet wide, and 6-feet high, with a floor

cover of natural vegetation. There they must be protected from weather

extremes, predators, people, and themselves. Access to a shed protects

them from the elements.

Hormones are not used in raising game birds or game animals; however,

antibiotics may be used.

Wild birds and waterfowl are susceptible to many diseases and

parasites, especially where large numbers are being raised in relatively

small areas. The FDA approves medications that can be used to treat

food animals. Very few drugs have been approved for game birds. Those

approved are administered in their feed or water. The drugs are either

antibiotics or anti-parasitics.

The FDA has strict guidelines for the use of drugs in animal production. If

a drug is given, it must be used according to its labeling. Almost all these

drugs require a “withdrawal” period — usually up to 5 days — from the

time it is administered until it is legal to slaughter the animal or bird. This

is so residues will not be in the meat. FSIS randomly samples the meat

at slaughter and tests for any drug residues.

As with any perishable meat, poultry, or fish, harmful bacteria, such as

Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157:H7, can be found on raw or

undercooked game. They live in the intestinal tracts of game, livestock,

poultry, dogs, cats, and other warm-blooded animals, and must be eaten

to cause illness.

There are about 2,000 serotypes of Salmonella bacteria; they are found

in all game—both warm- and cold-blooded—including birds, mammals,

reptiles and amphibians.

E. coli (including E. coli O157:H7 and other serotypes) can colonize in the

intestines of animals, which can contaminate muscle meat at slaughter.

E. coli O157:H7 is a rare strain found in ruminates, including deer. The

enterohemorrhagic E. coli produce a “Shiga toxin” that causes cell
Are game “red” or

“white” meat?

What does “natural”

mean?

Game from Farm to Table

Food Safety Information 5

How does game meat

differ from domestic

meat?

damage and may lead to Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS), which can

cause kidney failure in the very young. A similar illness, thrombotic

thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), may occur in adults.

Bacteria multiply rapidly in the “Danger Zone” — temperatures between

40 and 140 °F. Cross-contamination can occur if raw meat or its juices

come in contact with cooked foods or foods that will be eaten raw, such

as salad. Freezing does not kill bacteria. Cooking to a safe minimum

internal temperature kills bacteria.

Because their diets and activity levels are not the same as that of

domestic animals and poultry, the meat of farm-raised game animals has

a different flavor—stronger than domesticated species and milder than

wild game. The factors that determine the meat’s quality include the age

of the animal (younger animals are more tender), the animal’s diet, and

the time of year the animal was harvested. (The best is in the fall, after a

plentiful spring and summer feeding.)

Equally important is how the animal was handled in the field. The animal

should be eviscerated within an hour of harvest, and the meat

refrigerated within a few hours. Meat is damaged (and sometimes ruined)

if it is not dressed, transported, and chilled properly.

In general, wild game is less tender than meat from domestic animals

because the wild animals get more exercise and have less fat. Any fat is

generally bad tasting and should be removed. For maximum tenderness,

most game meat should be cooked slowly and not overdone. It can be

cooked with moist heat by braising or with dry heat by roasting. Ways to

keep game moist include basting, larding, or barding (see “Cooking

Methods”).

Game birds are poultry and considered “white” meat. Because they are

birds of flight, however, the breast meat is darker than domestic chicken

and turkey (which stand a lot, but do little, if any, flying). This is because

more oxygen is needed by muscles doing work, and the oxygen is

delivered to those muscles by the red cells in the blood.

All game mammals are “red” meat. One of the proteins in meat,

myoglobin, holds the oxygen in the muscle, and gives the meat a darker

color.

All fresh meat can qualify as “natural.”

Products labeled “natural” cannot contain any artificial flavor or flavoring,

coloring ingredient, chemical preservative, or any other artificial or

synthetic ingredient. The product and its ingredients cannot be more than

minimally processed (ground, for example). All products claiming to be

“natural” should be accompanied by a brief statement explaining what is

meant by the term “natural.”

Product dating is not required by Federal regulations except for infant

formula and most baby food. However, many stores and processors may

voluntarily date packages of raw game or processed game products.

If a calendar date is shown, there must be a phrase explaining the

meaning of the date. It’s not important if a date expires after freezing

game because all foods stay safe while properly frozen.

Food Product Dating
Cooking Methods

Safe Thawing

How Do You Reduce the

“Gamey” Flavor?

Game from Farm to Table

Food Safety Information 6

How is Game Handled

Safely?

Quantity to Buy

FRESH GAME. Because the demand is not as high as for domestic meats,

game is usually sold frozen in supermarkets. However, fresh game is

sometimes available. Always select the meat just before checking out at

the register. Put fresh game in a disposable plastic bag (if available) to

contain any leakage that could cross-contaminate cooked foods or

produce. Make the grocery store your last stop before going home.

At home, refrigerate game immediately at 40 °F or below. Cook or freeze

(0 °F) game birds and ground game within 1 or 2 days; game animals,

within 3 to 5 days. If kept frozen continuously, it will be safe indefinitely.

READY-PREPARED GAME. If picking up cooked game or other fully- cooked

product from a restaurant or other foodservice outlet, be sure it is either

hot or cold when you pick it up. Use hot food within 2 hours or cut it into

several pieces and refrigerate in shallow, covered containers. Eat either

cold or reheated to 165 °F. It is safe to freeze ready-prepared game. For

recommended storage times, see the chart.

When buying large whole game birds, allow about 1 to 1 1/2 pounds of

raw product per person. For small game birds, such as quail, two whole

birds per serving may be necessary. Raw boneless meat yields about 3

servings per pound after cooking. Estimate 3 to 4 ounces per person for

fully-cooked products.

The distinct game flavor of either birds or animals will be milder after

soaking the meat overnight in the refrigerator in either a salt or vinegar

solution.

· Salt solution - one tablespoon per quart of cold water

· Vinegar solution - one cup per quart of cold water

Use enough solution to cover the game completely. Discard the solution

after soaking.

You can also marinate game to give it a savory flavor or to tenderize it.

Always marinate it in the refrigerator (1 to 2 days for birds; 3 to 5 days

for game animals). Boil used marinade before basting meat as it cooks or

using as a sauce on the cooked meat. Discard any uncooked leftover

marinade.

The tenderness of a particular cut of game is similar to the corresponding

cut of domestically-raised meat or poultry. For example, a “chuck roast” is

less tender than the “tenderloin.” All game tends to be leaner than that

of domesticated animals, which have been bred for tenderness and fat

marbling. Overcooking can toughen game. You can use moist heat, basting, and larding or barding (inserting slivers of fat or wrapping in bacon)

to help keep the meat tender during cooking. Fast searing over high heat

can also work for smaller cuts, such as tenderloin medallions or rib chops.

There are three safe ways to thaw frozen game: in the refrigerator, in

cold water, and in the microwave. Never thaw on the counter. Whole birds

or ground meat may take 1 to 2 days or longer to thaw in the

refrigerator; roasts, several days. Once the meat thaws, it will be safe in

the refrigerator an additional day or two before cooking. Meat and poultry

thawed in the refrigerator may be safely refrozen without cooking it first.

To thaw game in cold water, do not remove store packaging. Be sure the

packaging is airtight or put it in a leak-proof bag. Submerge the product in

cold water, changing the water every 30 minutes. A whole game bird (3 to

4 pounds) or package of parts should defrost in 2 to 3 hours; larger

amounts of game may take 4 to 6 hours.
Game from Farm to Table

Food Safety Information 7

Partial Cooking

Can safely-cooked game

be pink?

When microwave-defrosting game, plan to cook it immediately after

thawing because some areas of the meat may become warm and begin to

cook during microwaving. Holding partially cooked food is not

recommended because any bacteria present would not have been

destroyed.

Foods defrosted in the microwave or by the cold water method should be

cooked before refreezing.

Never brown or partially cook game to refrigerate and finish cooking later

because any bacteria present would not have been destroyed. It is safe

to partially pre-cook or microwave game immediately before transferring it

to a hot grill or other cooking appliance to finish cooking.

Cooked muscle meats can be pink even when the meat has reached a

safe internal temperature. If fresh game has reached 160 °F throughout,

even though it may still be pink in the center, it should be safe. The pink

color can be due to the cooking method, smoking, or added ingredients

such as marinades. Cook ground meats and other cuts of game meat

such as chops, steaks, and roasts to 160 °F to ensure destruction of

foodborne bacteria and parasites. For tenderness, tough meats should

be held at 160 °F longer or even cooked to higher temperatures. This will

melt the tough connective tissue (collagen) producing fork-tender meats.
TYPE OF GAME

GAME BIRDS:

Whole bird, 4 to 6 lbs.(Do

not stuff.)

Breast or parts

Whole small birds

GAME ANIMALS:

Rib Roast, bone in

 4 to 6 lbs.

Rib Roast, boneless rolled

 4 to 6 lbs.

Chuck Roast, Brisket

 3 to 4 lbs.

Round or Rump Roast

 2 1/2 to 4 lbs.

Whole leg (boar, deer)

 6 to 8 lbs.

Tenderloin

 whole, 4 to 6 lbs.

 half, 2 to 3 lbs.

Steaks, 3/4-inch thick

Ground meat patties

Meat loaf, 1 to 2 lbs.

Stew or Shank Cross Cuts

1 to 1 1/2-inch thick

Ribs, 4 inches

APPROXIMATE GAME COOKING TIMES

Whole game birds are safe cooked to a minimum internal temperature of 165 °F as measured with a food thermometer.

Check the internal temperature in the innermost part of the thigh and wing and the thickest part of the breast. For reasons

of personal preference, consumers may choose to cook poultry to higher temperatures. Ground meats and other cuts of

game meat should reach 160 °F. Approximate cooking times for use in meal planning are given on the chart below.

ROAST

350 °F

30 to 35 min./lb.

350 °F

1 to 1 1/4 hrs.

350 °F

45 min.

325 °F

27 to 30 min./lb.

32 to 38 min./lb.

Not

recommended

325 °F

35 to 40 min./lb.

375 °F, 2 hours

425 °F, 45 to 60

min. total

425 °F, 45 to 60

min. total

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

350 °F

60 to 90 min.

Not

recommended

375 °F

20 min.

GRILL/FRY

Direct heat

Not preferred

20 to 40 min.

30 min.

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

18 to 25 min./

lb.

Not

recommended

12 to 15 min./

side

10 to 12 min./

side

6 to 7 min./side

6 to 8 min./side

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

8 to 10 min./

side

SMOKE

Indirect heat*

2 1/2 hours

2 hours

1 to 1 1/2 hrs.

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Several hours

2 1/2 to 3 hours

3 to 4 hours

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

BRAISE/STEW

In liquid; covered

Not preferred

60 to 75 min.

45 to 60 min.

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

325 °F

2 to 3 hours

325 °F

2 to 3 hours

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

recommended

Not

applicable

Not

applicable

Cover with liquid;

simmer 2 to 3 hours

Parboil 1 hour; then

grill or roast

Game from Farm to Table

Food Safety Information 8
Food Safety Questions?

HOME STORAGE OF GAME

 PRODUCT REFRIGERATOR 40 °F FREEZER 0 °F

Fresh game birds

Fresh game animal meat

Fresh organ meat

 (liver, heart, kidney, or tongue)

Cooked game; soups, stews, or

casseroles containing them

Leftover takeout or restaurant food

Smoked game, Vacuum-sealed

 After opening

Canned game products

(paté, soup, stew, etc.)

Before opening, 2 to 5 years in pantry.

1 to 2 days

3 to 5 days

1 to 2 days

3 to 4 days

3 to 4 days

2 weeks (or 1 week after

“use-by” date)

 7 days

3 to 4 days after opening

6 months

6 to 9 months

6 months

2 to 3 months

2 to 3 months

1 to 2 months

1 to 2 months

2 to 3 months after

opening

Game from Farm to Table

The USDA is an equal opportunity

 provider and employer.

Revised May 2011

Call the USDA Meat & Poultry Hotline

Send E-mail questions to MPHotline.fsis@usda.gov.

FSIS encourages the reprint and distribution of this publication for food safety

purposes. However, the included image from PhotoDisc, used under license, is

protected by the copyright laws of the U.S., Canada, and elsewhere, and may

not be saved or downloaded except for printing of this publication.

Ask Karen!

FSIS’ automated response

system can provide food safety

information

24/7 and a

live chat

during

Hotline

hours.

If you have a question

about meat, poultry,

or egg products, call

the USDA Meat and

Poultry Hotline

toll free at

1-888-MPHotline

(1-888-674-6854)

The hotline is open

year-round

 Monday through Friday from 10

a.m. to 4 p.m. ET (English

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Recorded food safety

messages are available

24 hours a day. Check

out the

FSIS Web site at

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