2010 Report of the Rigid and 

Flexible Foams Technical 

Options Committee (FTOC)

Montreal Protocol on Substances

that Deplete the Ozone Layer 

Celebrating 25 years of success in 2012

2010 Assessment
MONTREAL PROTOCOL 

ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE 

THE OZONE LAYER 

UNEP

2010 REPORT OF THE

RIGID AND FLEXIBLE FOAMS TECHNICAL OPTIONS 

COMMITTEE

2010 ASSESSMENT REPORT 

 

iii 

UNEP

REPORT OF THE

RIGID AND FLEXIBLE FOAMS TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE

2010 ASSESSMENT REPORT
 

iv 

Montreal Protocol 

On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 

Report of the 

UNEP Rigid and Flexible Foams Technical Options Committee 

2010 Assessment 

ASSESSMENT REPORT

The text of this report is composed in Times New Roman. 

Co-ordination: Rigid and Flexible Foams Technical Options Committee

Reproduction: Ozone Secretariat, UNEP 

Date: May 2011 

Under certain conditions, printed copies of this report are available from: 

UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 

Ozone Secretariat, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya 

This document is also available in portable document format from the UNEP Ozone 

Secretariat's website: 

http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Panels/TEAP/Reports/FTOC/

No copyright involved. This publication may be freely copied, abstracted and cited, with 

acknowledgement of the source of the material.

ISBN: 978-9966-20-003-7 
 

v 

DISCLAIMER 

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Technology and Economic 

Assessment Panel (TEAP) co-chairs and members, the Technical Options Committee, 

chairs, co-chairs and members, the TEAP Task Forces co-chairs and members and the 

companies and organisations that employ them do not endorse the performance, 

worker safety, or environmental acceptability of any of the technical options discussed. 

Every industrial operation requires consideration of worker safety and proper disposal 

of contaminants and waste products. Moreover, as work continues - including 

additional toxicity evaluation - more information on health, environmental and safety 

effects of alternatives and replacements will become available for use in selecting 

among the options discussed in this document. 

UNEP, the TEAP co-chairs and members, the Technical Options Committee, chairs, 

co-chairs and members and the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel Task 

Forces co-chairs and members, in furnishing or distributing this information, do not 

make any warranty or representation, either express or implied, with respect to the 

accuracy, completeness, or utility; nor do they assume any liability of any kind 

whatsoever resulting from the use or reliance upon any information, material, or 

procedure contained herein, including but not limited to any claims regarding health, 

safety, environmental effect or fate, efficacy, or performance, made by the source of 

information. 

Mention of any company, association, or product in this document is for information 

purposes only and does not constitute a recommendation of any such company, 

association, or product, either express or implied by UNEP, the Technology and 

Economic Assessment Panel co-chairs or members, the Technical Options Committee 

chairs, co-chairs or members, the TEAP Task Forces co-chairs or members or the 

companies or organisations that employ them. 

 

vii 

2010 RIGID AND FLEXIBLE FOAMS REPORT 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 Page

 

1) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES – 1 

2) FOREWORD 1 

3) CHAPTER 1 – TRANSITIONAL STATUS 3 

4) CHAPTER 2 – TECHNICAL OPTIONS 40 

5) CHAPTER 3 – BANKS AND RECOVERY OPTIONS 56 

Appendices

 APPENDIX 1 – REVIEW OF ALTERNATIVE BLOWING AGENTS A1 – 1 

 APPENDIX 2 – ALLOCATION OF COUNTRIES TO REGIONS A2 – 1 

 APPENDIX 3 – UNEP FOAMS TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE A3 – 1 
 

ES - 1 

2010 RIGID AND FLEXIBLE FOAMS REPORT 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Executive Summary 

E.1 Introduction 

Not since the initial decision to phase-out CFCs in the early 1990s has the foam sector 

faced a period of such uncertainty. Although a large proportion of the industry has previously 

settled on hydrocarbons or CO2 (water) as their blowing agent of choice, there are increasing 

pressures to improve the thermal performance of foams – primarily in the appliance sector, but 

also in some construction and transport applications. Coupled with this, there are pressures to 

limit future use of saturated hydrofluorocarbons (s-HFCs) because of their high global warming 

potential, and to phase these down where possible. Finally, there is the time-certain schedule for 

phasing out HCFC use in Article 5 countries, but substantial uncertainties remain about the 

optimal choice of alternatives. These three trends are placing unparalleled stresses on the sector 

and there is a significant divergence of opinion at this time about the most appropriate way 

forward, particularly as there are a growing number of emerging alternatives to consider. The 

following sections provide further background on the issues being faced. 

E. 2 Foam Market Dynamics 

Growth in thermal insulation foams continues to be driven by increasing energy 

efficiency requirements in appliances, transport and buildings. Space constraints in the built 

environment (e.g. cavity dimensions) have driven dramatic shifts from fibrous products to foam 

products in some localised markets to meet the required thermal performance. However, fibre 

has largely maintained its share through growth in the residential refurbishment sector where 

cost is a prime issue. An additional downward trend on foam use in non-Article 5 countries has 

been the on-going shift of appliance and refrigerated equipment manufacture to other regions 

where costs of manufacture are lower. The latest extension of a graph for Western Europe shown 

in previous reports (see overleaf) indicates that this combination of factors has led to only a small 

net shift to the overall foam/fibre balance despite the turbulence of individual sectors. 

Nonetheless, the same region saw overall growth in thermal insulation sales to the 

domestic and commercial building sector of over 20% in the period between 2001 and 2008 

despite the impact of the global downturn in 2008, thereby driving demand for appropriate 

blowing agents. This is likely to be representative of other non-Article 5 regions responding to 

the parallel drivers of climate change policy and energy security. 

In Article 5 countries, the growth in demand for thermal insulation has been even starker 

than for non-Article 5 countries in view of the increasing manufacturing base for global 

appliances and the recognition that energy efficient buildings have a major contribution to make 

in combating climate change for Article 5 countries. As an example, the use of PU Spray Foam 
 

ES - 2 

in China is understood to have grown to 70,000-80,000 tonnes, making it already the second 

largest market in the world for PU Spray Foam, with only the United States market larger. 

66.5% 62.0% 59.5% 59.2%

32.0% 36.6% 39.2% 39.7%

1.5% 1.4% 1.3% 1.1%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1990 1995 2001 2008

Market Share

Year

Variation of Insulation by Product Type (1990-2008) in Western Europe

Other

Cellular polymer

Fibrous

Source; IAL 

E.3 Transitional Status 

As of 2010, HCFC phase-out is virtually complete in all non-Article 5 countries, with 

XPS in North America being the last major sector to make the transition. In this instance, the 

technology choice has been saturated HFCs, reflecting the demanding product range and process 

requirements that the XPS industry has in the region. Experience from this transition has made 

the industry wary about committing to any further transitions in the medium term, since proving 

emerging alternatives in these applications will involve substantial further effort. As shown in 

the graph below, the main growth in blowing agent use between 2005 and 2008 had occurred 

with hydrocarbons, although there was also some additional use of HFCs. By contrast, only a 

very marginal further decline in HCFC use had taken place, highlighting the fact that the XPS 

sector in North America was not able to address its usage of HCFCs in the period to 2008, but 

was able to do so prior to the phase-out deadline in 2010. 
 

ES - 3 

‐120000

‐100000

‐80000

‐60000

‐40000

‐20000

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

CFC HCFC HFC HC CFC HCFC HFC HC

Developed Developing

Changes in Blowing Agent Consumption (toones)

Changes in Blowing Agent Use by Type/Region

Changes in Blowing Agent Use 2001‐2005 compared with  2001‐2008

2001‐2005

2001‐2008

In Article 5 countries, the phase-out of remaining CFC use has been completed with the 

main replacement for these residual applications being HCFCs. Growth has also continued in 

hydrocarbon use, largely driven by a further increase in the appliance manufacturing base in 

these regions. 

Overall, the comparison between 2001-2005 and 2001-2008 time periods illustrates that 

the changes in the last four years have been relatively moderate compared with those of the 

previous four years. 

Although hydrocarbons continue to be the primary solution in non-Article 5 countries, 

there is pressure in some sectors to further optimise these solutions by blending. While 

cyclopentane continues to play an important role in optimising blend performance, other 

components such as unsaturated HFCs (u-HFCs or HFOs) and methyl formate are also being 

assessed at this time. Early work on unsaturated HFCs suggests that they deliver better thermal 

performance than their saturated counterparts, although toxicological work remains to be 

completed for those substances yet to be commercialised. In the interim, there is evidence that 

some enterprises manufacturing appliances in developing countries are already blending 

saturated HFCs with hydrocarbons to meet energy requirements. 

Decisions need to be made at short notice within HCFC Phase-out Management Plans 

(HPMPs) on the choice of alternative to HCFCs in Article 5 countries. The prioritisation of 

‘worst first’ embodied within Decision XIX/6 puts a strong focus on dealing with HCFC-141b 
 

ES - 4 

applications in the early phases of implementation. Nevertheless, some countries are finding it 

easier to manage their compliance issues by phasing the foam sector transitions according to the 

ease with which projects can be implemented and the magnitude of their impact. Shortfalls are 

then being made up from other sectors. 

 

E.4 Likely Future Scenarios 

In general terms, the future technology selections in both Article 5 and non-Article 5 

countries continue to be uncertain. This makes it particularly difficult to forecast the precise 

blowing agent mix in the period to 2020 and the impact that this may have on bank composition 

at that time. 

As noted above, HCFC phase-out in Article 5 countries continues to be a serious source 

of unease. In several sectors, particularly in rigid PU foams, previously identified low-GWP 

alternatives to HCFCs have yet to be fully proven in the field or require high investments. This is 

particularly important since many of the enterprises expected to take up these technologies are 

small medium enterprises (SMEs) and have little, if any, internal capacity to optimise 

formulations. There is evidence that measures to manage flammability for methyl formate may 

require system houses to reformulate with more compatible polyols in order to reduce the risk. 

However, in a limited number of cases it may be more productive to blend methyl formate in the 

isocyanate component to obtain the required foam properties whilst avoiding flammable blends.

There continues to be a need to characterise the performance of foams made from lowGWP alternatives in the range of applications envisaged. This is an on-going exercise, but is 

particularly important for technologies that do not have a significant history of use in non-Article 

5 countries. The role of the Pilot Projects sponsored under the Multilateral Fund are especially 

relevant here and the work of UNDP on methyl formate, for example, has already cleared the 

way for wider use in the flexible moulded and integral skin sectors with potential for others to 

follow. 

In non-Article 5 countries, the primary future interest is in further improving energy 

efficiency. However, an additional pressure may arise from proposals to see the phase-down in 

use of saturated HFCs. Apart from initiatives signalled under the Montreal Protocol itself, there 

is growing interest in seeing such a measure as part of the re-cast F-Gas Regulation in Europe. 

This may serve to strengthen research efforts in non-Article 5 countries towards low-GWP 

solutions and, in particular, towards the intelligent use of blends. There may be added spin-offs 

for Article 5 countries from this work, but these are unlikely to emerge in time for incorporation 

within relevant HPMPs. 

For the immediate challenge of phasing out HCFC-reliance in Article 5 countries, there 

are a number of obstacles. The time pressure to resolve these only serves to add to the 

complexity of the situation and it may be that a number of not fully proven solutions need to be 

adopted in the short-term, with the potential downside risk to enterprises and investors alike. 

Another consequence could be that enterprises choose to minimise their risks by choosing 

proven, but sub-optimal, technology solutions (e.g. high GWP or less energy efficient solutions) 

with the intent of making a second conversion when more appropriate solutions have become 

established. 
 

ES - 5 

 

E.5 Banks, Emissions and Destruction 

The management of ODS banks in appliance foams is currently being addressed by a 

variety of regulatory and voluntary frameworks and using a range of fully automated, semiautomated and manual technologies. Although there is evidence to suggest that fully automated 

approaches provide the most comprehensive recovery potential, the relevant cost-abatement 

curves would suggest that some semi-automated processes will have a place in the on-going 

management of ODS banks, particularly in areas where population densities are low or 

investment is restricted. 

Efforts have been made to further characterise foam inventories in a number of regions. 

The flow of ODS-containing foams into the demolition waste stream from buildings is currently 

low and is likely to remain so for at least the next decade for most product types. Although the 

economics of recovery vary by region and are influenced by wider demolition waste 

management frameworks, even the most favourable circumstances lead to costs of above $100 

per tonne CO2 saved on average. There will be a need for further innovation in the longer-term if 

recovery from this source is going to become economically feasible. 

Considerations will continue into the most appropriate strategies for ODS bank 

management in foams, with particular focus on ensuring that CFC capture from existing 

appliance-based banks is optimised before those opportunities are lost. This may involve the 

need to look at efficient ways of transferring existing technologies from non-Article 5 to Article 

5 environments. The most appropriate funding mechanisms for such action are still under 

discussion, but a conclusion needs to be reached soon if opportunities are going to be grasped. 

Although less emissive than the refrigeration and air conditioning sector, the foam sector 

continues to represent a substantial bank of long-lived ODS which provide opportunities for 

future management. Time pressures for management initiatives vary by sector, but ultimate 

policy decisions will depend on the emerging cost abatement curves on a wide range of other 

ozone layer protection and climate measures. It remains to be seen whether or not the recovery of 

ODS from buildings will become a viable option given the scattered nature of the sources 

involved and the efforts required for recovery. 

E.6 Specific Regional Messages 

Developed Countries 

3⁄4 The growth of appliance foams and blowing agent use will continue broadly with general 

economic drivers, since markets are largely saturated. However, there may continue to be 

shifts in manufacturing location which will influence regional blowing agent consumption 

trends. 

3⁄4 Hydrocarbons are now almost fully optimised for appliances, but the relentless drive for 

energy efficiency is encouraging more focus on cyclo-pentane as a component of blends and, 

beyond that, interest in unsaturated HFCs (HFOs), which themselves are showing better 
 

ES - 6 

potential thermal performance than current liquid HFCs. It may be that there is some switch 

from hydrocarbons to HC/u-HFC blends in future as well as a possible switch in North 

America from liquid HFCs directly to unsaturated HFCs over time depending on the future 

HFC policy in the United States. 

3⁄4 The growth in blowing agent demand for construction applications is driven by energy 

efficiency in new and existing buildings; there has been a slow-down in the construction of 

new buildings because of global recession but retrofitting continues with spray foam and 

other foam products (boards, etc). Nevertheless, growth in the demand for insulation foams 

has been dramatic over the last ten years with changes in market share between foam and 

fibrous insulation over that period, driven by the requirement for increased thicknesses and a 

relatively buoyant construction market. 

3⁄4 Hydrocarbons are the dominant blowing agent in the construction sector, with the exception 

of spray foam where s-HFCs continue to dominate due to safety issues, although there is 

likely to be a further proliferation of blends – perhaps with u-HFCs (HFOs) and/or methyl 

formate – particularly where the thickness requirements for insulation are perceived to be 

becoming unmanageable. 

3⁄4 In extruded polystyrene, the long-term future for blowing agent selection is still unclear, with 

a significant range of technologies in current use. The emergence of u-HFCs (HFOs) may 

prove of interest as a replacement for gaseous HFCs, particularly as a component of blends. 

Pressure for transition is likely to be greater in Europe where the F-Gas Regulation is 

currently under review. However, in North America there are no further plans to make 

transitions in the next 10 years since the transfer to gaseous s-HFCs has only just been 

implemented as of 2010. 

Developing Countries 

3⁄4 Economic growth rates in several key developing countries are likely to drive demand for 

appliances and other consumer goods over the coming years which will be reflected in the 

expected growth in demand for blowing agents. 

3⁄4 Since the appliance market is becoming largely a globalised market, future blowing agent 

selection is largely expected to follow the same patterns as in developed countries. 

3⁄4 Some appliance manufacturers have been or are considering moving from cyclopentane to 

blends of cyclopentane and HFCs to meet emerging energy efficiency standards and to better 

meet existing energy standards for products exported to developed countries. 

3⁄4 Focus on insulation materials for the construction market and, in particular, foam products 

varies substantially by developing country region, influenced primarily by climatic aspects 

and the ability to invest in infra-structure. 

3⁄4 There is evidence of considerable effort to insulate both new and existing buildings in China 

and this has driven demand for PU spray foam as one of the most energy efficient options. 
 

ES - 7 

Substantial growth in EPS/XPS has also been observed. However, in recent years, a few high 

profile fires in cities such as Beijing and Shanghai have resulted in stricter regulations that 

may limit the future use of organic insulation materials for residential buildings. 

3⁄4 There is much less clarity about the choice of blowing agent for the small/medium size 

enterprises in the construction sector and a variety of technology options (including preblended hydrocarbons, methyl formate, CO2(water), liquid s-HFCs and u-HFCs) could all be 

used to some degree. 

3⁄4 Although methyl formate has SNAP approval by the US EPA for PU spray foam 

applications, it is still not clear whether the market will view the flammability issues as 

sufficiently differentiated from hydrocarbons to drive uptake. There is likely to be some use 

of methyl formate in those integral skin applications where CO2(water) is not already 

established. 

3⁄4 Although commercialisation of the various u-HFCs (HFOs) under consideration is likely to 

occur slightly earlier than previously expected (perhaps 2013-2015), these technologies are 

still likely to be too late for the bulk of HCFC-141b transitions. Therefore two-step 

transitions may be necessary to take advantage of their properties. Since the investment costs 

are likely to be minimal for such technologies, a two-step strategy might be appropriate 

where the economics support it. 

3⁄4 Work on ‘three-stream’ technologies for spray foam (e.g. super-critical CO2 and gaseous uHFCs) may allow an earlier transition in some instances, although the investment 

implications are still being assessed. 
 

1

FOREWORD 

DATA AVAILABILITY 

There is no single reference source for the consumption of blowing agents on a global basis. This 

is because most bottom-up quantitative assessments are carried out at country or regional level. 

However, supply-side information is available for some blowing agent types at the global level. 

For example, the fluorocarbon industry has published this data on relevant fluorocarbons at 

hemispherical level through the AFEAS project. However, this activity was recently 

discontinued. There has been an understandable reluctance by blowing agent manufacturers to 

provide supply-side information at greater levels of disaggregation because of disclosing 

valuable confidential information and ultimately the risk of contravening competition law. 

Without a reliable, comprehensive source of data, the Foams Technical Options Committee 

(FTOC) has developed its own set of data based on information gained from a variety of the 

above sources over a period of years. From this a model has been assembled to characterise 

consumption – past, present and future. During each Assessment period, FTOC members are 

encouraged to research information at regional level. However, this is never expected to result in 

a comprehensive picture of usage patterns at any one juncture, but the information gained 

provides a cross-check on the projections contained in the existing FTOC model. Adjustments 

can then be made based on the robustness of the information obtained. 

In this Assessment, the outputs of this process are reported for 2008, which is the latest year for 

which data could be accessed by the Committee. However, anecdotal qualitative information is 

conveyed for the subsequent period to 2010 where this is known. 

The data is reported by blowing agent type and by region, with developed countries being 

divided into four regions and developing countries into the seven. The country allocation is 

provided in Appendix 3. It should be noted that ‘Russia and the Former Soviet countries’ is a 

new designation, which replaces ‘Countries with Economies in Transition (CEIT)’. Although not 

all of these countries would now be classified as ‘developing’ the allocation is maintained in 

order to provide continuity with previous Assessments. 

LEVELS OF CONSENSUS 

 

The Assessment has proved the most challenging to date in which to reach consensus for the 

FTOC. This is partly because there is a high level of uncertainty in the likely success of 

competing alternative blowing agents. This, in turn, arises from the fact that there is little 

previous experience with many of these alternatives in developed countries. With the future of 

some blowing agent options resting in the balance and pressures to make choices in a number of 

developing countries, there has been and understandable culture of claim and counter-claim. The 

FTOC has not been immune from these claims and counter-claims and, in the absence of sound 

scientific evidence or practical experience, it has been impossible to resolve some differences of 

opinion. However, in most instances a strong majority view has emerged. One of the focal points 
 

2

of these differences has been methyl formate technology, which has become something of a 

‘cause célèbre’, since its promotion in some quarters has influenced the funding basis for many 

MLF projects. The FTOC remains sceptical about some of the claims made for the technology, 

but a minority believe that these claims either have been, or can be, substantiated. In dealing with 

this situation, the following statement has been agreed as an appropriate expression of the status: 

Although the majority view of the Committee is that the use of methyl formate  

in rigid foam is unproven, a minority of members  ‐ particularly the protagonists  

of the technology ‐ contest this view, arguing that usage is already occurring or  

has been sanctioned. A further aspect on which there is a discrepancy of view is

over the significance of the flammability issue, with the majority aligning with  

the text of this report. Key areas of dispute are annotated by footnotes.  

The co-chairs of the FTOC advocate that readers approach the relevant sections of this report 

with this caveat in mind. 

 
 

3

CHAPTER 1: TRANSITIONAL STATUS 

POLYURETHANE FOAMS 

RIGID POLYURETHANE FOAM 

NON-CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS 

This sector includes domestic refrigerators and freezers, commercial refrigeration units, water 

heaters and refrigerated transport applications. It does not include miscellaneous non-insulating 

applications. 

REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT AND APPLIANCES 

Developed Countries

 Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 

 - Current market trends 

The manufacture of domestic refrigerators and freezers continues across most of the developed 

world, although there is an increasing shift of production from developed to developing 

countries. Current estimates suggest that the split is now 45%:55%. 

Polyurethane foam continues to dominate the market for refrigerator and freezer insulation, with 

more sophisticated technologies such as vacuum panels still being limited to very specialist 

applications. However, it is noted that one manufacturer [Panasonic] has recently re-introduced a 

model containing such panels into Europe and there is also some continuing use of vacuum 

panels (based on open-celled foams) in Japan for the walls of some models. One of the shortcomings observed with vacuum panels is that they have low thermal inertia when compared to 

foam, which leads to more rapid warm-up in the event of a power outage. 

Further increases in the thermal performance of domestic refrigerators in Europe are expected to 

continue, but it is not yet clear whether this will lead to increased foam use, bearing in mind that 

space is usually at a premium. However, continued trends towards North American styles of 

cabinet refrigerator will permit increased foam usage per unit. In Japan the market is relatively 

static, although showing little sign of decline, partly because the country continues to be a net 

importer of white goods (1.9 million produced versus 4.5 million sold). As in Europe, North 

America will see further increases in energy efficiency requirements over the next five years. In 

the United States of America, the Department of Energy had already set a new rule for domestic 

appliances being manufactured in 2014 and onwards. These requirements are likely to be met by 

a combination of compressor efficiencies, increased foam use and potential changes to the 

blowing agent selection. 
 

4

- Current blowing agent selection

The choice of blowing agent in developed countries as a whole is illustrated in the graph below. 

 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ Dom. Appliances 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

The divide between the North American market and the rest of the developed world continues as 

the domestic appliance industry continues its use of HFC-245fa and, to a lesser extent HFC-134a 

in refrigerators and freezers. With the US Department of Energy continuing to demand 

increasing minimum energy standards across the industry it seems unlikely that the bulk of the 

industry will consider a move out of saturated HFCs until unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) such as 

1234ze(Z) and 1336mzz and other still undisclosed molecules are commercially available. 

However, there are some US manufacturers who have gained experience of manufacturing with 

hydrocarbon in Mexico and may still consider a switch to HCs in the United States as their 

ultimate solution. Indeed, one is already reported to have switched one plant to hydrocarbons. 

 

Meanwhile, in Europe and elsewhere, the experience with hydrocarbons is well established and 

increasing energy efficiency demands continue to be met, partly as a result of on-going 

improvements in hydrocarbon technologies. It is therefore likely that European manufacturers 

will stay with their choice for the foreseeable future, even though there is some interest in 

evaluating unsaturated HFCs – particularly where these are exhibiting superior thermal 

performance. In Japan, the market is fully settled on hydrocarbons with cyclo-pentane and 

cyclo/iso blends being amongst the blowing agents of choice. 
 

5

 Other Appliances 

- Current Market Trends 

This sector covers a number of product types including water heaters, vending machines, display 

cabinets and commercial freezers. The widespread use of vending machines across the hotel 

industry in the United States and their relative size, makes the North American market for foams 

more significant than other regions. 

Despite the drive for improved energy efficiency, the market is seen as relatively static from a 

technology perspective with size being a less significant constraining factor than it is in the 

domestic sector. This has allowed the use of less efficient insulation types and has made the 

choice of blowing agent less significant. 

The situation is rather different for supermarket display cabinets, where occupied floor area is an 

important factor. Nonetheless, the energy efficiency of such supermarket systems is often 

dictated by the choice of refrigerant delivery system (distributed versus stand-alone). It is only in 

the stand-alone cases, where the foam technology choices are likely to be critical. 

- Current blowing agent selection

The graph below illustrates the spread of blowing agent choice as at 2008: 

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ Other Appliances 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

6

At this point in time, there was some residual use of HCFCs in this sector in North America. This 

was partly as a result of the fact that regulatory requirements were only just taking effect in the 

US. However, there was also some continued use in Canada, since the phase-down there 

continues to progress on a tradable allowance system. 

In the North American vending machine sector, there has also been some use of CO2 (water) 

systems as well as some emerging acceptance of methyl formate in the application. In 2008, the 

use of methyl formate was nominal (perhaps 125 tonnes [3-4%]), but there is an understanding 

that it may have grown further since then to perhaps about 5%. 

 Reefers and Refrigerated Transport

- Current Market Trends 

This sector covers both the manufacture of reefers (refrigerated containers) and the manufacture 

of other refrigerated transport bodies (e.g. insulated tanks and truck bodies). The sector is 

distinguished from others by the fact that the polyurethane foam system is injected into a cavity 

rather than constructed from pre-fabricated parts (e.g. discontinuous steel-faced panels). Over 

50% of all foam in this sector is manufactured in developing countries indicating the dominant 

position that China holds in the global manufacture of reefers. 

- Current blowing agent selection

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ Reefers & Refr. Transport 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

7

The graph of consumption in developed countries shows the substantial variations in blowing 

agent choice across the regions, with the European region focusing on the use of hydrocarbons, 

whilst Japan and North America are largely reliant on HFCs. As with other appliances, there was 

some residual reliance on HCFCs in 2008 in North America – primarily in Canada. 

Developing Countries 

Domestic Refrigerators and Freezers 

 - Current Market Trends 

The manufacture of domestic refrigerators and freezers in developing countries is dominated by 

production by North East Asia (including China and South Korea) and Latin America. In China 

alone it is estimated that more than 300,000 tonnes of PU foam was consumed in 2008 in the 

domestic refrigerator and freezer market alone. Growth rates are running at around 8% per 

annum based on both domestic growth and the shift of production capacity from other countries. 

In Latin America, the market has been growing at 5-7% per year, but has been influenced in the 

post-2008 period by some Government intervention to increase refrigerator ownership and to 

catalyse the replacement of old, inefficient units. The market, particularly in Mexico and 

surrounding countries, also continues to be influenced by the relocation of production from the 

United States and the export demand that this provides. 

- Current Blowing Agent Selection 

The choice of blowing agent in developed countries as a whole is illustrated in the graph below. 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ Dom. Appliances 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

8

The market in developing countries is split between the use of hydrocarbons and HCFCs. There 

is also a small amount of HFC use for the export market to North America in the Latin American 

region. 

The original decision to invest in hydrocarbon technology was driven, in part, by the likely 

demand arising from large populations, which in turn led to perceived economies of scale. An 

additional factor in the direct transition from CFCs to hydrocarbons in the previous phase was 

the active promotion and encouragement provided under the Multilateral Fund, which offered 

additional support to leap-frog HCFCs in this sector. 

 Other Appliances 

- Current Market Trends 

In contrast with domestic appliances, only just over 25% of ‘other appliances’ manufactured 

globally are made in developing countries, with the bulk of these being in China. As noted for 

developed countries, the range of product types is very diverse. However, there is typically 

greater demand for small-scale display cabinets in developing countries driven by the size of 

retail outlets. 

- Current blowing agent selection

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ Other Appliances 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

9

As can be seen in the graph above, virtually the total blowing agent demand in this sector in 

2008 was for HCFCs. There is now interest in hydrocarbons and methyl formate. Accordingly, 

this sector is reliant on the delivery of HCFC alternatives under Decision XIX/6 initiatives. 

Options are discussed further in Chapter 2. 

 

 Reefers and Refrigerated Transport

- Current Market Trends 

Although refrigerated transport units (e.g. insulated tankers and refrigerated truck bodies) are 

manufactured throughout the developed world for local use, the bulk of global refrigerated 

container manufacture has shifted to China based on unit pricing – partially derived from 

economies of scale. This market has grown relatively rapidly and, as an in-situ process has 

needed to be based on proven technologies for the most part. 

- Current blowing agent selection

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ Reefers & Refr. Transport 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

As can be seen from the graph above, main blowing agents currently in use are HCFCs, and this 

is almost exclusively HCFC-141b. There is also some reported use of HFC-134a in Latin 

America, although the precise application is not known. It is expected that a froth foaming 

process would be practised in this instance. 
 

10

CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS 

This sector covers all applications of rigid polyurethane foams in building and 

construction, including the use of foamed panels in large-scale walk-in cold storage facilities, 

which are typically considered as temporary buildings. 

Developed Countries

PU Boardstock

- Current Market Trends 

The growth in use of PU (incl. PIR) boardstock products has been dramatic in some markets, 

particularly where cavity wall constructions are common and the minimum energy efficiency 

requirements cannot be met with less efficient insulation types such as mineral fibre. There is a 

trend toward incorporating boardstock products in external thermal insulation construction 

systems (ETICS) for the refurbishment of solid walls. Although these typically have a payback 

within their lifetimes (i.e. net negative whole life cost), they are amongst the more expensive 

renovation options. Accordingly, fibre insulation has made ground in on-going residential loft 

insulation upgrades as a more cost-effective renovation strategy, where it can be applied. 

- Current blowing agent selection

 

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

50,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Boardstock 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

11

The bulk of the polyurethane boardstock market has transferred to hydrocarbon (initially cyclo 

pentane but now more typically n- or iso-pentane), with only very minor use of HFCs in North 

America. As can be seen, consumption levels in Japan are relatively low based on the fact that 

PU Spray systems are a more prevalent way of insulating than PU boardstock in that region. No 

further transitions are expected in developed regions in the near future. 

PU Continuous Panels

- Current Market Trends 

 

The growth of the polyurethane composite (sandwich) panel market has continued apace in the 

period since the last Assessment. These panels can typically be faced with steel, aluminium or 

other metallic surfaces and are increasingly being marketed as architectural panels. In some 

instances, they are now being designed to incorporate PV solar panels and offer the potential of 

contributing strongly towards zero-carbon building solutions now being demanded in some 

countries. 

- Current blowing agent selection

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Continuous Panel 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

There has been retention of HFCs in some countries in Europe based on the requirements to meet 

certain regulatory and insurance criteria with respect to fire. However, increasingly, hydrocarbon 

is seen as the long term solution in this sector, since the thickness of foam requirements is driven 
 

12

more by panel strength requirements than it is by thermal performance per se. Typical panel 

thicknesses for new buildings can be in the 80-100mm range. As can also be seen from the 

relevant graph, this technology is far more established in Europe than elsewhere. However, 

growth rates are rapid in parts of North America and in the Rest of the Developed World 

(RODW). There was, in 2008, some residual use of HCFC technology in Canada. 

PU Discontinuous Panels

- Current Market Trends 

There has been a level of conjecture about the relative size of the discontinuous panel market 

sector as a proportion of the total metal-faced panel industry. Some projections have the absolute 

size of the discontinuous panel market staying relatively static – arguing that increased demand 

will be met exclusively by the continuous sector as investments respond to economies of scale. 

Others, including this Assessment, argue that, where market penetration is spreading 

geographically, fledgling production facilities will always start in a discontinuous fashion. In the 

end, it is the transport costs of finished products that probably dictates the final outcome and this 

will be further reviewed in subsequent Assessments. 

- Current blowing agent selection

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Discontinuous Panel 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

13

Again Europe has the bulk of this market with the blowing agent choice being split between 

HFCs and hydrocarbons depending on the prevailing response to the risk of handling 

hydrocarbons in discontinuous processes. As for the continuous panel scenario, there was some 

residual use of HCFCs in North America as at 2008. 

PU Spray Foam

- Current Market Trends 

As noted under the PU boardstock section, this technology is a major component of the Japanese 

insulation sector and spray foam remains the most significant market on a per-capita basis. In 

North America, there are two distinct product types: - a low density infill product for gap-filling 

between timber studs (primarily to avoid air infiltration) and a higher density thermal insulation 

material for more technically demanding applications such as commercial flat-roofing. In 

Europe, the product is typically used on flat-roofed residential buildings in Southern Europe (e.g. 

Spain and Italy). The technology is seen to have a particular role in cost-effective renovations in 

these regions. 

- Current blowing agent selection 

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Spray 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

The primary blowing agent choices for this technology in developed countries are HFCs. This 

can be either HFC-245fa (primarily in the United States) or HFC-365mfc/227ea blends (more 
 

14

prevalent in Europe). The low density in-fill foams used in North America are typically 

CO2(water) blown. There is also significant use of super-critical CO2 in Japan, although this has 

not been graphed separately at this stage, since CO2 consumption data has been harder to verify. 

Nonetheless, it is estimated that CO2-based technologies as a whole represent the majority of 

consumption in the Japanese market. 

PU One Component Foam

- Current Market Trends 

This is a predominantly European market arising from the construction methods used with brick 

and block constructions. The product is based on a moisture-cured system (hence the term ‘onecomponent’) and is used primarily on site. The market is highly sensitive to construction activity, 

particularly in the residential sector, but is likely to benefit from renovation activities also. 

- Current blowing agent selection

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU One Component 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

Although hydrocarbons are noted as the primary blowing agent in Europe, this analysis needs to 

be enhanced further in future Assessments since, although many formulations are based on 

blends, one of the principle components is believed to be dimethyl either (DME) and other 

similar products. Ethers would typically qualify as oxygenated hydrocarbons (HCOs) and would 

be accounted accordingly in future analyses. 
 

15

PU Pipe-in-Pipe (including moulding of pipe sections)

- Current Market Trends 

This market has historically been strong in centralised economies where the provision of heat to 

large residential complexes is delivered from a central heat source. These district heating systems 

have become more significant now in other regions where the advent of combined heat and 

power (CHP) systems has encouraged similar underground pipe solutions. Some of these 

systems can now be on quite a small-scale (so-called micro-CHP). 

- Current blowing agent selection

 

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Pipe‐in‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

The major market for this approach is in Europe where hydrocarbon technologies have proved 

fully operable for the pre-insulated pipes required. There is also some minor use of HFCs. 

PU Block – Pipe Section

- Current Market Trends 

Compared with other polyurethane markets, this sector remains fairly mature and tends to 

fluctuate mostly with process-based investments. Polyurethane pipe sections (particularly PIR) 
 

16

have a niche in cryogenic applications, where their resilience at these temperatures is important. 

In other parts of the market they are under more pressure from other products offering better fire 

performance (e.g. phenolic foam or mineral fibre). 

- Current blowing agent selection

PU block can be made both continuously and discontinuous. Where market demand supports it, 

continuous block offers less waste. However, cutting pipe sections from blocks is always an 

inefficient process and the choice of blowing agent needs to reflect this, both economically and 

environmentally. Accordingly, there has been increasing pressure on the use of hydrocarbons in 

this sector despite the initial concerns over process safety. For the larger producers, the 

management of hydrocarbon technology has proved both possible and cost-effective – once the 

initial investment was made. For smaller manufacturers, HFCs have been a more obvious choice. 

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Block‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

PU Block - Slabstock

- Current Market Trends 

Again, this product type is relatively mature and is typically used for non-routine applications for 

polyurethane foams where a degree of fabrication is necessary. The market for slabstock 

products is typically higher than for pipe section – partly due to the lower losses resulting from 

the fabrication step. This can be passed on in more competitive pricing. 
 

17

 

- Current blowing agent selection

The processing is precisely as described for PU Block-Pipe and the blowing choice is identical as 

a result. There are few applications for slabstock where the choice of a hydrocarbon blowing 

agent does not suffice. Therefore, the final blowing selection is broadly driven by process 

considerations. 

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Block‐Slab 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

Developing Countries 

PU Boardstock

- Current Market Trends 

PU Boardstock has not been an historic part of the product mix in developing countries and the 

only known production facility has been in Turkey (accounted for under MENA). This facility 

has broadly been supplying the European market and does not really reflect indigenous demand. 

That said, there is an increasing interest in all thermal insulation options for new buildings, 

particularly in colder climates as the demand for energy efficiency, driven both by energy 

security and climate change considerations, increases. It has been observed by the FTOC that 

technology transfer from developed to developing countries relating to energy efficiency 
 

18

solutions and standards has been on the increase during this Assessment period and may lead to 

the adaptation of more developed country insulation strategies for both timber-framed and brick/ 

block constructions. 

- Current blowing agent selection

In the one known facility, the choice of blowing agent has been consistent with the market 

served (Europe) and no particular technological challenges have been observed. 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Boardstock 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

PU Continuous Panels

- Current Market Trends 

In view of the pre-fabricated nature of these products and the reproducibility that this brings, this 

technology has been more transferable than others and multi-national interests have not been 

afraid to invest directly in continuous plants where the overall population size and potential 

economic growth are seen to justify it. One of the advantages of this type of construction is the 

speed at which the erection of new buildings can take place around a steel frame. The technology 

also has the advantage of having the thermal insulation characteristics in-built, thereby avoiding 

the risk of under-insulation which can be associated with systems built up on site. 

 
 

19

- Current blowing agent selection

The choice of blowing agent has largely been a measure of the timing of the investment. Once 

the developed countries became comfortable with the use of hydrocarbons, it was inevitable that 

this would be adopted for new investments in developing countries. However, earlier plants were 

based on HCFCs (typically HCFC-141b) and will require conversion as part of the enactment of 

Decision XIX/6. The choice of alternative will is quite widespread with both hydrocarbons and 

HFCs being options. 

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Continuous Panel 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

PU Discontinuous Panels

- Current Market Trends 

A similar argument exists to that in developed countries about the proportion of the PU panel 

sector that will remain discontinuous as the market grows. However, an additional factor is in 

play in the developing country scenario. This is simply that the investment cost for continuous 

processing equipment is likely to be beyond many indigenous manufacturers. As is shown in the 

following graph, the manufacture of steel-faced discontinuous panels is quite widespread within 

the developing world and is likely to remain so for a significant period to come. Again, the value 

of prefabrication in a factory environment has additional value in a developing country scenario. 

 
 

20

- Current blowing agent selection

As with continuous panels, the primary blowing agents were HCFCs in 2008. However, the 

proportion of the market based on this technology was higher, based on the lack of multi-national 

influence on the chosen investment strategies. 

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Discontinuous Panel 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

There have been reports from Latin America (notably Brazil) that this is an area where methyl 

formate may have a role based on its basic performance. Some commercialisation has taken 

place since 2008, although the longer-term prospects still need to be evaluated. Hydrocarbons 

and saturated HFCs will be the other choices likely to be considered in the short-term, with 

unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) unlikely to make inroads until commercialisation takes place and the 

cost implications have been fully assessed. 

PU Spray Foam

- Current Market Trends 

The requirement for the refurbishment of residential properties in China has led to the 

unprecedented growth of the PU Spray Foam market there. The centralised nature of parts of the 

economy in that region means that this trend might not be replicated to the same extent in other 

parts of the developing world. Nonetheless, the obvious value of PU Spray Foam in cost-
 

21

effectively improving the thermal performance of existing buildings will certainly ensure that it 

has a major role in thermal insulation strategies around the world. 

- Current blowing agent selection

The current estimate for the Chinese market alone is 70,000-80,000 tonnes per year currently. 

However, in 2008, this was considerably lower (probably around 25,000 tonnes) leading to a 

demand for blowing agent of between 2,500 tonnes and 3,000 tonnes for that year. 

The sector is currently completely dependent on HCFCs (most typically HCFC-141b) and is 

seeking to resist the transition to saturated HFCs with their climate dis-benefits. However, the 

challenge for developing countries is to identify technologies that are largely unproven (at least 

on a large scale) within developed countries. Methyl formate, methylal and super-critical CO2

have all been mentioned in this context and pilot projects have been targeted at evaluating each 

in the spray foam environment. In Mexico, for example, the PU spray foam market represents 

30% of all HCFC consumption in that country and the HPMP is currently proposing methyl 

formate as the replacement of choice. However, the FTOC has concern that the evidence base is 

currently too low to demonstrate that methyl formate can be used safely and effectively in PU 

Spray applications1

. 

PU One Component Foam

- Current Market Trends 

The PU One Component Foam market is prevalent in two developing country regions. The first 

of these is ‘Russia and the former Soviet States’ primarily reflecting the extension of European 

building practices into these regions. The second, and most significant, market is China where 

approximately 150 million cans are produced annually. This accounts for approximately 100 

ktonnes of PU chemical and up to 6,000 tonnes of blowing agent – making it a similar size to the 

European market. 

- Current blowing agent selection

Although HFCs are understood to be the primary choice in the former Soviet States, the Chinese 

market has followed the European technology move into hydrocarbons. The following graph 

demonstrates this trend. 

 1 The ‘minority view’ challenges this statement and cites the number of project submissions made to the MLF 

Secretariat in support of this position. However, the FTOC is conscious that the decision to submit or approve such 

products cannot be used as a ‘proxy’ for technology endorsement. 
 

22

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU One Component 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

PU Pipe-in-Pipe (including moulding of pipe sections)

- Current Market Trends 

As noted in the developed country section for this application, the more centralised economies 

have tended to adopted district heating systems as a means of distribution and, with it, have made 

good use of pre-insulated polyurethane pipes. As with PU One Component Foams, China is the 

dominant market for these, although there is considerable use in Russia and Former Soviet States 

as well. 

- Current blowing agent selection

The current foam systems are based on HCFC technology, but there is a clear option to switch to 

hydrocarbon, based on the substantial experience gained in Europe using this technology. This 

will be particularly the case in China, where the economies of scale should make investment a 

rational proposition. The situation will be less clear in Russia and the former Soviet States, 

where some use of HFC-based technologies is also possible – particularly in smaller 

manufacturers. 
 

23

 

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Pipe‐in‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

PU Block – Pipe Section

- Current Market Trends 

These markets (both for pipe section and slabstock) are relatively mature in nature. In developing 

countries, the PU Block processes are almost exclusively discontinuous. This reflects the fact 

that investment costs are lower and small operations can be scattered across regions where larger 

scale investments would not be cost-effective. However, for the same reasons, it is particularly 

difficult to track the split between pipe section demand and slabstock demand, since the only 

distinction occurs at the block fabrication stage. 

For the purposes of this report, it is assumed that the split between the two sectors is 50/50. This 

is largely an arbitrary split at this point and further bottom-up research would certainly help in 

validating this assumption. The main significance of the separation of the two product types is in 

the waste levels from each, with pipe section fabrication resulting in up to 50% waste in some 

instances. 
 

24

- Current blowing agent selection

The dominant blowing agent choice at present is HCFCs. This sector therefore represents one of 

those requiring to be addressed under Decision XIX/6. It is also one that accounts for a large 

number of the really small consuming enterprises. The technology choices are therefore s-HFCs, 

or those potentially flammable blowing agents that can be shown to be managed at this scale. 

This may include pre-blended hydrocarbons, methyl formate and others, but pilot projects are yet 

to deliver conclusive messages for these technologies. 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Block‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

PU Block - Slabstock

- Current Market Trends 

Comments for this sector are the same as those for PU Block – Pipe. 

- Current blowing agent selection

Comments for this sector are the same as those for PU Block – Pipe. 

 
 

25

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PU Block‐Slab 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

 

FLEXIBLE POLYURETHANE FOAM 

PU - Flexible Slabstock

The use of CFCs in flexible slabstock has been completely phased out over this 

Assessment period, if not before. There was little, if any, substitution with HCFCs as an 

auxiliary blowing agent and therefore the issues with respect to ozone depleting substances 

(ODS) are virtually fully resolved. 

However, the Montreal Protocol through its Technical Options Committees has a duty of 

care to maintain an overview of the replacement technologies - particularly where there may be 

on-going health, safety or environmental concerns. These remaining paragraphs therefore briefly 

review the current status. 

The main technologies now in use are methylene chloride and carbon dioxide (CO2

(LCD)). Other, more minor technologies also exist and, between them all, they cover all 

applications. However, processing is sometimes more challenging and in some cases more 

expensive. This is specifically the case for low density/ ‘high hardness’ foams where the high 

process temperature (“exotherm”) limits the effectiveness of some current replacement 

technologies. 
 

26

Methylene chloride continues to be under scrutiny from a health and safety perspective. 

However, the pressure for replacement has not grown substantially since 2001. 

Liquid carbon dioxide, while successful in developed countries, specifically when the use 

of methylene chloride is restricted or forbidden, proved to be a serious challenge in most Article 

5(1) countries. The combination of a complicated technology with virtually unchallenged use of 

easy-to-process methylene chloride proved a major burden for an initially enthusiastic embrace 

of the environmentally preferable LDC option. In the USA there is also considerable use of 

acetone and in Europe some use of variable pressure technology. On a smaller scale, special 

additives are used—frequently as co-technology to limit the amount of methylene chloride 

required. There is also very limited use of n-pentane, formic acid and MDI based foams—the 

latter generally for speciality products. Forced cooling, a previously popular technology in the 

USA has virtually disappeared because of perceived increased emissions of TDI and fire risk. 

The further uptake of Exotherm Management Technologies (EMT) continues to be monitored, 

although little has been published recently on the subject. There is also some recent, but 

unsubstantiated, information that methyl formate may be acting as a replacement for pentane, 

acetone and methylene chloride. 

PU – Flexible Moulded

All-water-based technology is predominant in cold cured foams. In hot-cure applications 

there is also use of methylene chloride. In very low density/soft foams (e.g pillows) there is 

some use of LCD or GCD but generally, this technology did not get the same attention as in 

slabstock applications—most likely because there is no exotherm problem and water-based 

technology performs well in most cases. HCFC-141b is used in exceptional circumstances such 

as highly filled acoustical foams but is not essential as a replacement in this industry. The use of 

HCFCs in this industry is not allowed in most developed countries. Methyl formate has emerged 

as a legitimate replacement for HCFC-141b where it is still used and may also provide 

advantages over CO2(water) where this technology has already been adopted. 

PU – Integral Skin and Miscellaneous

This sector includes both rigid and flexible integral skin applications and also noninsulating rigid foam applications for packaging, leisure (e.g. surf boards), floatation and floral 

foams. 

A variety of blowing agents has been identified as alternatives to HCFCs in this sector. 

These include CO2 (water), various s-HFCs, n-pentane and methyl formate. With some 

drawbacks associated with skin formation using CO2 (water) technologies, methyl formate may 

offer a particularly attractive alternative and there has already been considerable uptake in Latin 

America (most notably Brazil) already. 
 

27

POLYOLEFIN FOAMS 

There are three prime product types in the uncross-linked polyethylene foam sector: 

sheet, plank and tubular. All of these have used CFCs in the past. This is in contrast to crosslinked polyethylene foams which are produced for specialist applications and have typically been 

blown with inert gases such as nitrogen. The transition issues facing sheet, plank and tubular 

products are broadly similar and these are therefore considered together in this review. 

Developed Countries

- Current Market Trends 

The market for polyethylene pipe section continues to be buoyant based on the demand for lowcost, easy-to-install pipe insulation in the residential sector, where fire performance is less 

regulated in many regions. The product is particularly suited to do-it-yourself activities, since it 

is easy handled and manipulated. However, the actual thermal performance can be variable 

depending on the quality of installation. 

- Current blowing agent selection

Hydrocarbons (typically iso-butane) are the dominant blowing agents in Europe and predominate 

in other regions too (see graph below) 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PE Block‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

28

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PE Block‐Slab 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

For PE Block-Slab, the market is split between construction, leisure and packaging applications, 

with packaging dominating on some regions (e.g. Japan). 

Developing Countries 

- Current Market Trends 

Although the markets are similarly characterised in developing countries as those in developed 

countries, the geographic distribution is limited rather more in this case by historic technology 

transfer, with Latin America embracing PE pipe section more significantly than other regions. 

Latin America also has significant involvement with PE slab production, again with a similar 

application portfolio to that in developed countries. However, the larger market for slab in 

developing countries is found in South East Asia. As with Japan, this is understood to be 

underpinned by a larger use in the packaging sector. 

 

- Current blowing agent selection

In all developing country regions, the dominant blowing agent is now hydrocarbon. 
 

29

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PE Block‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PE Block‐Slab 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

30

EXTRUDED POLYSTYRENE FOAMS 

Developed Countries

Sheet 

- Current Market Trends 

The XPS sheet market has a number of similarities with the PE Slab market in that a large 

proportion is used for leisure and packaging. In some instances, the packing requires some 

thermal performance (e.g. fast foods and hot drinks), but the thermal properties are no required to 

be persistent in the same way as thermal insulation applications in construction, transport or 

appliances. The market has been less studied quantitatively by the FTOC since the phase-out of 

CFCs and almost universal switch to hydrocarbons. 

- Current blowing agent selection

 As noted above, hydrocarbons (butane, isobutane, pentane, isopentane), HFCs (HFC134a, HFC-152a); and hydrocarbon / CO2 (LCD) blends, have found a range of commercial use 

with hydrocarbons being the dominant selection in most regions. HFC-152a also been used 

significantly in the United States to overcome local VOC emission regulations. 

Few future developments are expected. However, capital investment required for the 

handling of flammability issues and on-going concerns over VOC emissions will be limiting 

factors in further expansion of hydrocarbon containing systems. 

Board

- Current Market Trends 

Extruded polystyrene board has effectively emulated the growth of PU/PIR products in the 

thermal insulation sector as markets have been stimulated by increased energy efficiency in 

buildings. The product’s competitive position is underpinned by its particularly good moisture 

resistance, which has been responsible for widespread use as a floor insulation material in 

Europe. In North America, the product is typically competing with PIR (“polyiso”) products in 

the residential sheathing market, as well as in a number of commercial and industrial building 

applications. 

- Current blowing agent selection

The following graph illustrates the rather bizarre situation in terms of blowing agent selection by 

region as it was in 2008. 
 

31

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ XPS Board 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

In Europe, the primary replacement technologies have been HFC-134a, HFC-152a and 

CO2 (or CO2/alcohol), while in Japan there has also been significant use of hydrocarbons 

(notably isobutene). In North America, the transition away from HCFCs has been more difficult 

because of particular product requirements, especially in the residential sector. HCFC-142b, 

therefore, remained the dominant blowing agent as at 2008. However, since then, transition to sHFCs has occurred, as companies have mastered the adoption of HFC technology for sheathing 

products and also achieved the relevant building code requirements. 

Investment criteria continue to be a barrier to further use of CO2-based technologies in 

Europe, although pressures are likely to increase concerning the on-going use of HFCs. A review 

of the F-Gas regulation is on-going in the EU and will be completed before the end of 2011. 

There may be some future interest in the use of HFOs for this application, but cost considerations 

may necessitate the use of these substances as blends with HCs and possibly HCOs (e.g. dimethyl ether). 

Developing Countries 

Sheet 

- Current Market Trends 

The market drivers are very similar to those described for developed countries. 
 

32

- Current blowing agent selection

Technologies have also shifted almost universally to hydrocarbon despite earlier concerns about 

the flammability of both the blowing agent and the substrates on high temperature extrusion 

lines. There is no immediate expectation for this sector to make any further blowing agent 

transitions. 

Board

- Current Market Trends 

There has been substantial growth in markets for XPS board in a number of Article 5 

countries, most notably in China and some middle-eastern countries. This has increased the 

demand for HCFCs by in excess of 15,000 tonnes per annum since 2001. However, latest 

information suggests that some recent fires in major Chinese cities may result in some 

retrenchment for both new and existing buildings, driven by new fire standards. Although EPS 

and some EPS might be the primary culprits, the impact could be seen across all organic foam 

products. 

 

- Current blowing agent selection

The industry was totally based on HCFCs in 2008, although the split between HCFC142b and HCFC-22 continues to remain unclear. 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

20,000

Russia &

Former

Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ XPS Board 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

33

For other Article 5 countries, the relatively low cost of investment in locally produced 

manufacturing plant and the high demand for improved thermal performance in buildings is 

expected to drive further rapid growth of XPS board production. Prior to 2015, the predominant 

blowing agents are expected to continue to be HCFCs. Ultimately, hydrocarbons may prove the 

dominant blowing agents in these territories. 
 

34

 PHENOLIC FOAMS 

Developed Countries 

 PF Boardstock 

- Current Market Trends 

Phenolic Foam boardstock has continued to make progress in the buoyant European market, with 

the key manufacturers being able to switch between PU boardstock and PF boardstock products, 

at will, against the same market specifications. This has meant that capacities can be better 

utilised and PU raw material shortages offset. 

In Japan, the market has continued to be supportive of phenolic boardstock in view of its 

superior fire performance and highly competitive insulation values. However, the recent 

earthquake and tsunami have created interruptions in production which may have some shortterm impact on supply. 

- Current blowing agent selection

The bulk of the sector is now fully switched to hydrocarbon technologies, although this was 

slightly less the case in 2008 (see graph below): 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PF Boardstock 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

35

There is still some use of 2-chloro-propane at one facility in Europe, but otherwise the industry is 

expected to normalise even further around the hydrocarbon option. 

 PF Pipes and Blocks 

- Current Market Trends 

The market for phenolic pipe insulation continues to be highly regionalised with the United 

Kingdom representing the major market in Europe and, perhaps, the world. This results from a 

specific combination of ‘reaction-to-fire’ requirements which rules out competitive materials 

such as PU/PIR. The future direction of other markets in Europe will depend on the extent to 

which individual countries adopt maximum smoke requirements, which can now be specified 

through the European classification system. 

The production economics have also been improved by the introduction of continuous process 

technologies for the more common sizes of pipe. 

- Current blowing agent selection

The choice of blowing agent for the continuous process has been hydrocarbon. This has had little 

effect on the overall fire performance of the product or its market acceptance. For discontinuous 

block processes, the choice remains s-HFCs, particularly for the smaller manufacturers. This is 

reflected in the graph below: 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PF Block‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

36

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PF Block‐Slab 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

Technology choices are the same for PF Block-Slab Foam, although hydrocarbon is less 

prevalent because no continuous process exists for this product group. Accordingly, s-HFCs are 

the most significant blowing agents in use, with the exception of Japan, where hydrocarbon 

solutions have been effectively engineered. 

 PF Panels 

- Current Market Trends 

The market for metal-faced phenolic foam panels is relatively mature in Japan. The primary 

products are for residential siding and office partitioning. These are usually discontinuously 

produced. The market in Europe is still in a fledgling state and is targeted at niche panel 

applications such as clean rooms, cold stores and computer safe rooms. 

- Current blowing agent selection

Reflecting the size and maturity of the Japanese market, the technology has been able to be 

adapted for hydrocarbon blowing agents. In Europe, (most notably the UK), the size of 

production operations is insufficient to support hydrocarbon investments at present and s-HFCs 

are typically used. 
 

37

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Europe N. America Japan RODW

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PF Panel 2008 ‐ Developed

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

Developing Countries 

 PF Boardstock 

- Current Market Trends 

 

At the present time, there are no known PF Boardstock manufacturers in developing countries. 

- Current blowing agent selection

There is currently no blowing agent consumption. 

 PF Pipes and Blocks 

- Current Market Trends 

Historically, there was some PF Block Foam manufacture in India, but this is understood to have 

ceased as a consequence of limited market penetration and conversion costs out of ozone 

depleting substances. The only developing country consumption is now in South Africa, where 
 

38

European block foam technology continues to be operated – partially supplying products for the 

mining sector. 

- Current blowing agent selection

It is understood that HCFC-141b remains the blowing agent of choice in South Africa at present, 

although considerations are underway for a transition to non-ODS alternatives. Further 

investigations are on-going into potential choices, but the scale of the operation might leave sHFCs as the only viable alternative in the short-term. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Russia &

Former Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PF Block‐Pipe 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs
 

39

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Russia &

Former Soviets

NE Asia SE Asia S Asia SS Africa MENA Latin America

Annual Consumption (tonnes)

Region

Blowing Agent Consumption by Type ‐ PF Block‐Slab 2008 ‐ Developing

HFOs

CO2

HCOs

HCs

HFCs

HCFCs

CFCs

 

PF Panels 

- Current Market Trends 

At the present time, there are no known PF Discontinuous Panel manufacturers in developing 

countries. 

- Current blowing agent selection

 There is currently no blowing agent consumption. 
 

40

 CHAPTER 2: TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS 

POLYURETHANE FOAMS 

Developments on blowing agents in the PU foam sector

The primary challenge for the foam sector continues to be the phase-out of HCFCs in 

developing countries under Decision XIX/6. HPMPs are being developed to meet the 2013 

freeze and the 10% use reduction in 2015. In developed countries HCFCs were completely 

eliminated by the middle of the last decade in the polyurethane (PU) foam sector and the 

substitute technologies and the usage patterns have reached a relatively mature status. The 

analysis of this experience along with the proper considerations associated with the markets 

differences and the scope of Decision XIX/6 focused on alternatives that minimize the climate 

change impact, provides a valuable insight for the HCFC phase-out in developing countries. 

Developed Countries 

The section describes the blowing agents currently used in developed countries: 

Table 1. Blowing Agents currently used in developed countries 

PU RIGID FOAM 

Domestic refrigerators and freezers c-pentane, cyclo/iso pentane blends, HFC- 245fa, HFC-134a 

Other appliances c-pentane, cyclo/iso pentane blends, HFC- 245fa, HFC365mfc/227ea blends, HFC-134a, methyl formate, CO2 (water) 

Transport & reefers c-pentane, cyclo/iso pentane blends, HFC- 245fa, HFC365mfc/227ea blends, HFC-134a 

Boardstock 

c-pentane, n-pentane, iso pentane, cyclo/iso pentane blends, npentane/iso pentane blends, HFC- 245fa, HFC-365mfc/227ea 

blends 

Panels – continuous 

c-pentane, n-pentane, iso pentane, cyclo/iso pentane blends, 

cyclo/n-pentane blends, n-pentane/iso pentane blends, HFC245fa, HFC-365mfc/227ea blends 

Panels discontinuous 

HFC- 245fa, HFC-365mfc/227ea blends, HFC-134a, c-pentane, npentane, iso pentane, cyclo/iso pentane blends, n-pentane/iso 

pentane blends, CO2 (water), formic acid, methyl formate 

Spray HFC- 245fa, HFC-365mfc/227ea, Supercritical CO2, CO2 (water), 

Blocks 

c-pentane, n-pentane, iso pentane, cyclo/iso pentane blends, npentane/iso pentane blends, HFC- 245fa, HFC-365mfc/227ea 

blends, methyl formate 

Pipe-in-pipe c-pentane, n-pentane, HFC- 245fa, HFC-365mfc/227ea blends, 

CO2 (water), methyl formate 

One Component Foam Mixtures of propane, butane and dimethyl ether, HFC-134a, HFO1234ze 

PU FLEXIBLE FOAM 

Integral Skin CO2 (water), HFC-134a, HFC- 245fa, HFC-365mfc/227ea blends, 

n-pentane, methyl formate 

Shoe Soles CO2 (water), HFC-134a 

Flex moulded CO2 (water), methyl formate 
 

41

It is important to notice the different roles of the blowing agent in PU rigid and flexible 

foams. Although in both it has the primary function to physically expand the foaming mixture to 

produce the foam, in the case of rigid foam it should remain within the closed cells and 

contribute to the insulating performance. To fulfil this latter function, the blowing agent should 

have a low gaseous thermal conductivity plus a low rate of diffusion of the gas through the foam 

(matrix) so that the good insulating properties are retained for many years. A low solubility of 

the blowing agent in the PU matrix is also require to ensure that it is retained as a gas in the foam 

cell avoiding the solid plasticisation and the loss of thermal insulation. In the case of domestic 

refrigeration high solubility of the blowing agent in the thermoplastic material of the inner lining 

may result in a severe deterioration of the mechanical strength. 

In the case of flexible foam, particularly in integral skin and shoe soles, the blowing 

agent has a critical role in forming a robust/aesthetic skin as a result of its condensation during 

the high-pressure injection process. For this application a relatively low boiling point of the 

blowing agent is desirable. During the CFC phase-out most of the shoe sole market migrated to 

all water blown formulations along with the use of polyester polyols to meet the abrasion 

resistance requirements From table 1, there is wide scale use of hydrocarbons in PU foams 

together with HFCs in some specific applications, such as HFC 245fa in most North American 

domestic refrigerators and freezers, and HFC-365mfc/227ea blends to meet the most stringent 

fire tests in panels. Formulations based on hydrocarbons have been refined over the years and 

their insulation performance, as expressed by foam thermal conductivity, is now similar to those 

for HCFC- 141b based foams. They can now also meet very stringent fire test requirements as 

panels or boards. 

 

There is a clear exception to the trend to use hydrocarbons for PU foams; despite trials, 

HCs are not used in spray foams for safety reasons. Instead, HCFC 141b has been replaced by 

HFC 245fa or HFC365mfc/227ea blends, often in combination with significant amounts of CO2

(water) – “reduced-HFC” technology. CO2 (water) may be used when increasing foam thickness 

can compensate for the higher thermal conductivity of the foam. In Japan, supercritical CO2

technology has been developed and is used. The strengths and weaknesses of the HC and HFC 

technologies are described in table 2. 
 

42

Table 2. Strengths & Weaknesses of HC and HFC technologies 

SECTOR/OPTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES COMMENTS 

Rigid Foam 

Low GWP Highly 

flammable 

High conversion 

costs, uneconomic 

for SMEs. Not 

suitable for spray 

Low unit costs Low operating costs 

Hydrocarbons (c-pentane & 

n-pentane & cyclo/iso 

blends) 

Acceptable foam 

properties 

Global industry 

standard 

Non-flammable High GWP Low conversion 

costs. Industry 

standard for spray 

High unit costs High operating costs, 

could be improved 

by using “HFC 

reduced” HFC/ 

CO2 (water) 

formulations 

HFC-245fa, HFC365mfc/HFC-227ea 

Good foam properties Improved insulation 

(versus HC) 

Flexible Foam (Integral Skin & Shoe soles) 

Low GWP Highly 

flammable 

High conversion 

costs, uneconomic 

for SMEs 

Low unit costs Low operating costs 

n-pentane 

Good skin quality 

Non-flammable High GWP Low conversion 

costs 

High unit costs High operating costs 

HFC-134a, HFC-245fa, 

HFC-365mfc/HFC-227ea 

Good skin quality 

The major drawback of the hydrocarbon family is their flammability. This has a strong 

impact on both the capital costs for processing -to ensure that safety is properly engineered- and 

on product handling, which is particularly problematic for smaller enterprises. Efforts have been 

made to reduce costs at the foam manufacturers by pre-blending the hydrocarbons into polyols at 

systems houses. The challenge is to develop a long-term stable formulation with no phase 

separation. A successful industrial case has been reported in Northern Europe where a system 

house, for some years, has been delivering formulated polyols containing c-pentane in one-tonne 

containers and 200 l drums to different industries in Eastern and North-Eastern Europe 

(PROKLIMA, 2009). This approach allows reduced investments on the user’s side without 

compromising the insulating efficiency and the long-term dimensional stability performance. 

This experience shows that investment in one blending facility may make it possible to reduce 

investments in manufacturing plants. While the cost of HC storage tanks, pumps and premixing 

stations can be avoided, the safety modifications for the polyol blend storage and foaming line 

and the installation of proper monitoring and ventilation systems will still be required. It is 

estimated that savings in increased capital cost (ICC) for the end user are in the order of 25 to 

35%. 
 

43

The technology based on CO2, derived from the isocyanate-water reaction, has been used 

with limited success for commercial refrigeration (displays, vending machines) where insulation 

performance is not critical. Its major drawbacks are the relative poor insulating performance 

resulting from the relatively high lambda value of CO2; the required increase in foam moulded 

density caused by the high permeability values of CO2 through the polyurethane matrix; and the 

reduced “adhesion” to the substrates where it is applied (metal, thermoplastics), a consequence 

of the high amount of polyurea present in the polymer. In the Japanese spray market, the use of 

water blown foam along with patented super-critical CO2 technology has been developed and 

commercialised; however, there may be limitations in some applications that require an 

improved insulating performance. 

There is also a small use in developed countries of methyl formate (United States, 

Australia) particularly for commercial refrigeration, an application where the insulating 

performance is not critical and some global beverage players (i.e. Coca-Cola) are requesting 

foams based on non-HFCs, 0 ODP substances. Further discussion on this technology can be 

found below. 

Although a large proportion of the industry in developed countries has settled on 

hydrocarbons or HFCs as their blowing agent of choice, there are increasing pressures -in the 

case of HCs- to improve the thermal performance of foams, particularly in the appliance sector, 

and to limit the future use of saturated hydrofluorocarbons (s-HFCs) and to phase these down 

where possible. 

 

In this context, there is a growing interest in the potential role of the recently developed 

unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) in the domestic refrigeration sector and other rigid foam applications, 

particularly in North America, where saturated HFCs have a significant market, and in PU Spray 

foam both in Europe and North America. One of these (HFC-1234ze) has found some initial use 

in Europe as a replacement for HFC-134a in PU One Component Foams. 

These compounds represent an emerging group of blowing agents that exhibit a number 

of the characteristics also displayed by saturated HFCs, but have considerably lower GWPs (< 

15). The prime reason for these lower values relates to the shorter lifetime of the molecules in the 

atmosphere caused by the presence of a double bond between adjacent carbon atoms. Early work 

suggests that they deliver better thermal performance than their saturated counterparts, although 

toxicological work remains to be completed for those yet to be commercialised. Cost predictions 

are similar to saturated HFCs. Their main characteristics are presented in table 3. 
 

44

Table 3. Saturated HFCs (HFOs) 

HFO-1234ze FEA-1100 HBA-2 AFA-L1 

Chemical Formula Trans- CF3CH=CHF Cis- CF3-CH=CH-CF3 Undisclosed Undisclosed 

Molecular Weight 114 164 Undisclosed Undisclosed 

Boiling Point ( 0C ) -19 32 15.3<T<32.1 10.0<T<30.0 

Gas Conductivity 

(mW/mK @ 100

C) 13.0 10.7 Not Reported 15.9 

Flammable Limits 

in Air (vol.%) None to 28o

C^ None None None 

TLV or OEL 

(ppm) (USA) Unpublished 9.7 Undisclosed Undisclosed 

GWP (100 yr time 

horizon) 6 9.4 <15 <15 

^ Flame limits of 7.0-9.5 at 30oC are quoted

Developing Countries 

One of the major challenges of the foam industry is the HCFC phase-out in developing 

countries under Decision XIX/6. This Decision calls for an accelerated phase-down of the use of 

HCFCs leading to their replacement, in the foam sector, by zero ODP blowing agents. At the 

same time, the Executive Committee (ExCom) of the Montreal Protocol is requested, when 

applying funding criteria, to give priority to cost effective projects with focus on substitutes that 

minimize other environmental impacts, including on the climate, taking into account globalwarming potential, energy use and other relevant factors. 

Today two types of polymeric foams use HCFCs as blowing agents: Polyurethane (PU) 

Foams (mainly HCFC-141b and some HCFC-22) and Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Board Foams 

(HCFC-142b and HCFC-22). They compete with other materials, such as mineral fibres, EPS in 

thermal insulation and other applications. The PU foam sectors using HCFCs are insulating 

foams, integral skin foams and microcellular foams (shoe soles). In the last two sectors the usage 

is much less than in the insulating market because of the smaller overall market and the higher 

foam density. XPS board foams are mainly used for insulation purposes. 

The main route for PU foams is to use hydrocarbons (HC), principally pentanes (npentane, c-pentane and cyclo/iso-pentane blends). This is particular true for the sectors where the 

large size of the companies (HCFC use > 50 tonnes/year) benefits the economics despite of the 

high conversion cost: domestic refrigeration, continuous panels and some commercial 

refrigeration and discontinuous panels manufacturers. In the case of medium size enterprises (50 

tonnes/year >HCFC use >10 tonnes/year) the option of pre-blending hydrocarbons into polyols -

described above- may represent a sustainable long-term approach. The Multilateral Fund and the 

Implementing Agencies have taken up the matter and two pilot projects have been sponsored and 

are under development (China and Egypt); one of them along with the introduction of a third HC 

stream at the mixing point. The results will be ready during 2011. 
 

45

Although the use of HC technology provides lower operating costs than other alternatives 

such as HFCs, the significant capital costs for conversions make unviable its application for 

small size enterprises (HCFC use < 10 tonnes/yr). It is estimated that the minimal Incremental 

Capital Costs (ICC) for the conversion to HC are in the range of USD300,000 to USD500,000. 

On the other side, in addition to their high GWP, the use of saturated HFC-based 

technologies (HFC 245fa, HFC-365mfc/HFC-227ea) may result in significant increases in 

operating costs owing to their higher unit prices and molecular weights. It is also clear that, 

despite of the promising results, their unsaturated counterparts (HFOs) are unlikely to be 

available in time to meet the early stages (pre-2015) of the HCFC phase-out as required under 

Decision XIX/6. In the interim, there is evidence that some enterprises manufacturing appliances 

in developing countries are already blending saturated HFCs with hydrocarbons to meet energy 

requirements. 

From the above considerations, HCFC phase-out in sectors that include a large number of 

SMEs (a typical industry characteristic in the Article 5 countries) represents the most significant 

challenge. Many of the enterprises have little, if any, internal capacity to optimise formulations 

and their capacity to handle flammable compounds is limited. There continues to be a need to 

characterise the performance of foams made from low-GWP alternatives in the range of 

applications envisaged. This is an on-going exercise, but is particularly important for 

technologies that do not have a significant history of use in non-Article 5 countries. The role of 

the Pilot Projects sponsored under the Multilateral Fund are especially relevant here and the 

work of UNDP on methyl formate, for example, has already cleared the way for wider use in the 

flexible moulded and integral skin sectors with potential for others to follow. 

In the case of rigid foam applications, perhaps the most critical case, a conventional testing 

programme for a new blowing agent includes2

: 

• Toxicology and ecotoxicology testing (ODP, GWP, toxicology) 

• Processing characteristics: 

9 Stability in polyol blends 

9 Miscibility with polyols 

9 Flow properties (flow index, minimum fill density) 

9 Reaction times including jig dwell times 

9 Atmospheric concentrations during processing and comparison with flammable limits in 

air 

9 Effects on equipment – seals and metal parts 

• Physical & Fire properties: 

9 Closed cell content 

9 Density/strength (compression strength) relationships 

9 Dimensional stability versus temperature and ageing using accepted accelerated methods 

9 Thermal conductivity versus temperature and ageing using accepted accelerated methods 

 2

 For a more fundamental approach tending to provide a performance explanation tests like cell gas analysis with 

time, water vapour transmission, glass transition temperature over time at different temperatures, etc., are 

desirable. 
 

46

9 Foam friability 

9 Adhesion to different substrates 

9 Fire code testing for construction industry foam-based components 

• Trials under commercial production conditions and long term testing of articles 

For integral skin and shoe-soles, open celled applications where the blowing agent does 

not remain in the product, the testing programme on physical properties should include the skin 

appearance and related properties like abrasion resistance. 

In addition to the option of pre-blended HCs into the polyols, new technology alternatives 

for the SMEs are emerging or have recently emerged: methylal, methyl formate and modified 

water blown formulations. 

Methylal, also called dimethoxymethane, is a flammable liquid with a negligible GWP 

and a boiling point of 42 oC. To date, it has been marketed primarily within the thermoplastic 

foam sector (extruded polystyrene and polyolefin) as a co-blowing agent with HFC-134a to date. 

The use of methylal as a co-blowing agent in conjunction with hydrocarbons and HFCs 

for PU rigid foam applications (domestic refrigeration, panels, pipe insulation and spray) has 

been described in the literature. It is claimed (Lambiotte, 2006) that in continuous panels it 

promotes blending in the mixing head and improves the miscibility of pentane, the foam flow 

and uniformity, the adhesion to metal surfaces and the insulation properties by reducing the cell 

size. In discontinuous panels, the addition of a low percentage of methylal to HFCs (245fa, 

365mfc or 134a) would make it possible to prepare pre-blends with polyols of low flammability 

with no detrimental effect on the fire performance of the foam. As in the case of hydrocarbons 

Methylal would reduce the cost and improve the miscibility, the foam flow and uniformity the 

adhesion to metal surfaces. 

There is no known use of methylal as sole auxiliary blowing agent in PU foam. By 

decision 58/30 the ExCom approved a demonstration project to assess its use as a possible 

replacement of HCFCs in developing countries. The final report will be issued during 2011 but 

the partial results in integral skin/microcellular foams already released show an excellent skin 

formation compared to HCFC-141b. 

However, the flammability of the methylal/polyols blends is a major point of concern. 

Data recently reported shows that the addition of more than 3 parts of methylal brings the flash 

point of the blend down to values lower than 35 oC, similar to those obtained with hydrocarbons 

(InterTox, 2010). According to the Global Harmonised System such type of blends are classified 

as a flammable liquid of category 3. The impact of the increased capital cost needed to handle a 

blend of these characteristics at the end user can make the use of methylal prohibited for the 

SMEs. 

Methyl Formate (MF), also called methyl-methanoate, is a flammable liquid with a 

negligible GWP and a boiling point of 31.5 oC. Foam Supplies, Inc. (FSI) has promoted its use as 

a blowing agent in PU foams from 2000 onwards. The company filed on December 18th, 2001, 
 

47

for a US patent, which was issued on June 22nd, 2004. The use of this technology has grown 

significantly in the last four years, although continues to be very small in size. For all foam 

applications 365 tones were consumed worldwide in 2009 and around 1,000 in 2010, replacing 

over 2,000 tonnes of HCFC-141b3

. 

It is reported that MF is finding increased use in the flexible moulded and integral skin 

foam applications. Consumption in Australia, South Africa and Brazil has been established. 

Table 4 describes the strengths and weaknesses of the low GWP alternatives for these 

applications. 

The use of MF is also occurring in rigid foam applications, particularly in commercial 

refrigeration and discontinuous steel-faced panels. Additional work is progressing in the US, UK 

and elsewhere to broaden this range of use, but with mixed levels of success. 

Table 4. Alternate technologies for Integral Skin Foam & Shoe-soles 

SECTOR/OPTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES COMMENTS 

Methyl formate (MF) Low GWP Flammable Conversion costs to be 

determined 

Moderate unit costs Flammability of 

polyol/MF blends 

should be checked 

Good skin quality Moderate operating 

costs 

Patented technology. 

Commercial restriction 

CO2 (water) Low GWP Poor skin quality Suitable skin may 

require in-mouldcoating – added 

expense 

Low conversion costs Well proven in shoesoles - used with 

polyester polyols 

n-pentane Low GWP Highly flammable High conversion, 

uneconomic for SMEs 

Low unit costs Low operating costs 

Good skin quality Well proven in 

application 

There are some technical issues that would seem to act as barriers to the use in rigid 

polyurethane insulating foams of MF as a sole blowing agent and would also inhibit its use as a 

co-blowing agent in systems such as those primarily blown with CO2 (water)-blown. These 

issues can be documented as follows: 

• There is concern that measures to manage flammability for MF may require system houses to 

reformulate with more compatible polyols for rigid foam applications in order to reduce the 

risk. In some cases it may be more productive to blend methyl formate in the isocyanate 

 3

 In its 2006 assessment report the FTOC estimated the global market of blowing agent for the incumbent foam 

applications in the year 2005 at around 360,000 tonnes. 
 

48

component to obtain the required foam properties whilst avoiding flammable blends. The 

additional health risk associated with the isocyanate handling needs to be managed. 

According to the United Nations Global Harmonised Systems a liquid blend is 

classified as flammable in the number 3 category when exhibits a flash point between 23 and 

60 oC. Additionally, it is stated that “liquids with a flash point of more than 35 °C may be 

regarded as non-flammable liquids for some regulatory purposes (e.g. transport) if negative 

results have been obtained in the sustained combustibility test (which is the MF case)...” The 

current fully formulated polyols used in developing countries have HCFC-141b 

concentrations around 18 %, which -applying the ideal gas law- correspond to a MF 

concentration of 10.1 %4

. At this concentration, according to the supplier ́s data, virtually all 

type of polyols will result in MF/polyol blends with flash points lower than 35 oC (Foam 

Supplies, Presentation given to the FTOC, Salt Lake City, 2006). To avoid the implied safety 

risk a significant reformulation work is required. This is particularly important for spray 

foam, an application where the foam injection process is not controlled. 

• The gaseous thermal conductivity of MF is intermediate between HCFC-141b and c-pentane 

and would suggest the potential for foams with good thermal performance. However, MF is 

a potent solvent for the polyurethane matrix and the addition of MF either on its own or as a 

co-blowing agent with CO2 (water) results -as recently reported- in a significant reduction in 

compressive strength (shrinkage). Such effects can be countered either by reducing the level 

of the MF component present, or by increasing the density of the foam. The former reduces, 

or even nullifies, any incremental benefit in thermal performance, while the latter increases 

weight and cost and, in doing so, may not be technically or economically viable. If co-blown 

with CO2 (water) the rapid aging of thermal conductivity, characteristic of CO2 (water) 

systems, is also likely to be evident. Where shrinkage occurs, insufficient adhesion to metal 

substrates is typically observed within discontinuous sandwich panel trials. Again, the 

plasticising effect may be countered by increasing density where this is a commercial option. 

• There is a need for further aged data to assess the trends in thermal insulation performance 

and dimensional stability with time. As has already been noted, the current analysis suggests 

that there will be a very fine balance between these two characteristics even in the short-term. 

Therefore, long-term behaviour patterns are a particular area of focus at this time. There is a 

possibility that the operational window could be too narrow for commercial viability in some 

applications. The elucidation of the long-term performance is critically important in 

applications where the thermal performance is expected to be maintained for periods of up to 

50 years. 

 4 The ‘minority view’ contends that applying the ‘ideal gas law’ is not correct in practice. However, it is 

acknowledged that the flash points associated with these polyol blends can be below 35o

C, creating the need to split 

the methyl formate component between the polyol and isocyanate streams. 
 

49

• When MF is used as a co-blowing agent with other added blowing agents (e.g. 

hydrocarbons), it has the potential to improve thermal performance by favourably impacting 

the morphology of cells – usually by making the average cell size smaller and the cell size 

more uniform. This is an effect beyond the gaseous thermal conductivity itself and may 

result in the increasing use of MF as a component of blends, particularly in place of cpentane if this continues to remain in short supply. 

 

• There does not yet appear to be evidence available related to the levels of MF in the 

atmosphere for several production processes. In particular, there is little experience of using 

MF-based systems for spray foam. 

• There is a further concern about the stability of MF owing to the observed (by cell gas 

analysis) hydrolysis to formic acid, CO2 and CO. This would serve to reduce the 

concentration of MF in the foam cells and potentially contribute to further deterioration in 

thermal performance. 

• The presence of formic acid, either from breakdown of methyl formate, or through deliberate 

addition, can lead to corrosion of dispensing machine components (Cannon, Brazil, 2010)5

. 

Machinery suppliers have investigated this effect and identified a number of components that 

would need to be monitored and replaced at regular intervals. 

Water Blown Formulations. As mentioned before, historically the development of 

water blown foams has been a real challenge due to its intrinsic physical hurdles such as higher 

thermal conductivity, lower foam dimensional stability -which requires and increased moulded 

density-, and higher surface brittleness, resulting in a potentially weaker adhesion to metal 

facings. As result, the use of all water blown foam in the industry is today still limited. 

However, global system houses have recently reported the development of new water 

blown technology characterized by an improved performance that can now be considered in line 

with HCFC low-level technologies -characterized by relative high foam lambda values- (3rd 

Polyurethane Exhibition & Conference in India - PU TECH 2011). This solution, focused on 

addressing the discontinuous panels and commercial refrigeration applications, leaves the 

opening to be converted later on into co-blowing with physical blowing agents by the time when 

new proven low ODP low GWP non-flammable solutions will be available. 

It is claimed that, as a result of improved flow and optimized density distribution, applied 

densities are now in the same range of HCFC low-level technology with minimum impact on 

foam dimensional stability and mechanical properties. The systems would allow easy filling of 

the cavities and could be processed with a mould temperature of 40°C. Typical initial thermal 

conductivity is in the range of 22-23 mW/mK (measured at 10°C), relatively higher compared to 

pentane and/or some HFCs blown systems but still acceptable for commercial refrigeration and 

discontinuous panels. 

 5 The ‘minority view’ continues to challenge this assertion, although, as the text explains, the machinery suppliers 

are already taking action. 
 

50

It is also reported that the addition of formic acid as chemical blowing agent to these 

systems can result in quantified improvements in foam aesthetic, flow, density distribution and 

adhesion even at low mould temperatures. Nevertheless, some drawbacks have been identified 

and need to be taken into consideration. They are linked to potential corrosion, which requires 

the involvement of equipment suppliers to check the equipment suitability, and the eventual 

release of carbon monoxide that makes it necessary the checking of the atmospheric 

concentrations and proper ventilation. Despite these drawbacks, this technology is being used in 

developed countries where enhanced flow, lower density and improved aesthetics are key 

requirements, i.e. the production of sandwich panels for cold store applications. 
 

51

PHENOLIC FOAMS 

Historically significant phenolic foam markets were developed in Europe and Japan 

based on a combination of Boardstock and Block/Pipe products. The development of similar 

markets in North America was thwarted by poor experience with a specific roofing board 

technology (Koppers) that created corrosion problems on steel-decks. 

A further traditional application of phenolic foam has been as floral foam. The primary 

brand globally is known as ‘Oasis’. However, this material has never significantly been blown 

with ozone depleting substances, except in the case of small ‘me too’ producers. It is therefore 

not the prime focus of attention in this report. 

PF Boardstock

The traditional blowing agent for phenolic boardstock was CFC-11, although this was 

rapidly superseded by HCFC-141b. The use of HCFC-141b presented a particular challenge for 

the phenolic emulsion chemistry because of its solubility and the major technology holders found 

it necessary to modify the blowing agent with additives to make it less soluble in the foam mix. 

In the transition that took place from HCFC-141b in Europe, it became self-evident that 

the phenolic product itself was sufficiently robust in its fire performance to accommodate 

hydrocarbon blowing agents for the bulk of end-uses. Therefore, the bulk of continuous 

processes are now based on n-pentane, either on its own or in blends with other hydrocarbons. 

One technology in Europe had moved directly from CFC-11 to 2-chloro-propane and continues 

to use this blowing agent as the basis for its product range. 

There is limited use for saturated HFCs in these continuous processes, since thermal 

performance based on optimised hydrocarbon formulations is seen as sufficient for most enduses. Although it is not yet clear how the emergence of unsaturated HFCs might affect the 

blowing agent choices for future phenolic boardstock formulations, the overall performance of 

the various hydrocarbon-based technologies make it unlikely that there will be further 

technology transitions in the short term. 

There has been little, if any, implementation of phenolic foam boardstock facilities in 

developing countries to date, so any future investment is likely to be based completely on 

technology transfer from Europe or elsewhere. 

PF Blocks & Pipe Sections

As with other phenolic foam product/process types, except for the floral foam industry, 

CFC-11 was the basic blowing agent of choice. In some cases, the boiling point of the blowing 

agent was modified by using CFC-11/CFC-113 blends in order to ensure the appropriate 

rise/cure profile. This was particularly important for phenolic chemistry where the sensitivity 

between temperature and cure rate is high. The reduction in the latent heat of evaporation in the 

early stages of the reaction helped to ensure appropriate processing times. 
 

52

In similar fashion to the phenolic boardstock sector, the first transition was to HCFC141b, with the same use of additives to reduce solubility of the blowing agent. In moving from 

HCFC-141b under the regulatory pressures in both Europe and North America, the industry 

initially moved to saturated HFCs. The choice was typically HFC-365mfc/227ea for boiling 

point reasons (as for CFC-11/CFC-113 blends). There is still a lack of widespread use of 

hydrocarbons in phenolic block processes for insulation purposes, although its use continues for 

floral foams. The introduction of a continuous pipe section process has enabled reduction in 

foam losses, but has also enabled a switch in blowing agent to hydrocarbons, based on the more 

controllable environment. The bulk of phenolic pipe section supply in the UK is now based on 

this technology. 

It should be noticed that phenolic foam continues to be something of a niche product in 

most global markets and has seen little success to date in developing countries. However, its 

innate potential continues to be recognised in a number of important and growing markets. In 

general terms, it is believed that any further development of a manufacturing base in developing 

countries will be supported by comprehensive technology transfer from one of the current 

technology holders. 

As a consequence, there seems to be little requirement for support for the transition of 

existing phenolic foam facilities in developing countries. 
 

53

 THERMOPLASTIC FOAMS (POLYOLEFIN & XPS)

 

Extruded thermoplastic foams are the only ones that have historically used ozone 

depleting substances. In the case of extruded polystyrene, products fall into two categories: 

‘board’ and ‘sheet’, with ‘board’ being used for a variety of insulation, buoyancy and 

recreational activities, while ‘sheet’ has been focused on food and other packaging. Polyolefin 

(both polyethylene and polypropylene) foams have also found uses in these sectors, but the use 

of polyolefin foams in insulating applications has been more limited. 

Equipment for the manufacture of extruded thermoplastic products varies substantially by 

region and application. In North America, the manufacturing lines tend to be long, for optimum 

speed and also capable of producing wide boards (typically 1.2 metres) at thicknesses down to 

25mm. This requirement necessitates a substantial engineering solution and makes the transfer 

from one blowing agent to another very challenging. In Europe, the requirements are more 

modest, with many lines generating product at a maximum of 0.6 metres in width and at greater 

thicknesses. In South East Asia (most notably China), where the demand for extruded 

polystyrene foam is growing at its fastest, the technical and processing requirements are still 

more limited. In many cases, the polystyrene being used for extrusion has a high recycled 

content, making it less easy to process. Products generated in this scenario tend to be lower grade 

than in North America and Europe and are typically processed on 0.6 metre lines. 

Most thermoplastic foams still depending on HCFCs have used a combination of HCFC142b and HCFC-22. The proportions of each have varied considerably depending on the 

application and, in some instances, each blowing agent has been used in isolation. Alternatives to 

HCFC-142b/22 include, saturated and unsaturated HFCs, hydrocarbons, CO2 and CO2/ethanol. 

CO2, in isolation, has been found to be particularly difficult to process, which is one of the 

reasons why combinations with oxygenated hydrocarbons have been explored. Even then, there 

have been some shortcomings in the technology that have limited processing speeds and product 

ranges. 

The unsaturated HFCs have the potential to provide the best solution from a purely 

technical and environmental perspective. Hydrocarbons also offer a significant solution provided 

that the flammability issues can be managed at both product and process level. The extruded 

foam industry has had significant experience of managing hydrocarbons in the ‘sheet’ sector, 

which tended to bypass HCFCs and move straight to hydrocarbons when phasing out of CFCs. 

However, the experience of fires was commonplace and led some to conclude that this was not 

really a sustainable solution. Nevertheless, few ‘sheet’ manufacturers have stepped back from 

their choice and have presumably found coping strategies. 

There is an additional challenge for ‘board’ products, however. “Board” products are 

relatively thick for both construction and packaging applications. In developed countries where 

hydrocarbons have been adopted (particularly in polyolefin foams), this led to a particular 

problem with boards in storage and transport. In essence, the rate of diffusion of hydrocarbon out 

of the products was not sufficiently fast after production to avoid the build-up of flammable 

gases in the post-production areas. This led to some incidents. The matter was finally addressed 
 

54

by most manufacturers through the use of perforating equipment to release the hydrocarbon 

blowing agent physically. 

Another major challenge for the thermoplastic foams sector lies in dealing with 

investment costs and/or blowing agent availability. The following table illustrates the fact that 

penalties are likely to be faced either in the context of investment cost (e.g. hydrocarbons or 

CO2) or in operating costs and availability (saturated and unsaturated HFCs). However, it should 

be noted that HFC-134a is relatively widespread because of its existing use as a refrigerant. 

Blowing Agent Criterion HCFC142b/22 Hydrocarbons Saturated

HFCs

Unsaturated 

HFCs (HFOs) CO2

CO2

/ethanol 

 

Investment Costs + ++/+++ + + +++ ++/+++ 

Operating Costs ++ + ++/+++ +++ +/++ +/++ 

Widespread Availability ++ ++ +/++ + +/++ +/++ 

Potential to blend ++ ++/+++ +++ ++ ++/+++ ++/+++ 

+++ High; ++ Medium; + Low; 

An additional factor to consider is the lead time that would be required for further 

conversion, especially for non-Article 5 countries, bearing in mind the testing necessary to meet 

strict building codes. 

Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Board

The use of extruded polystyrene is primarily in the construction sector where it is used 

for a variety of insulation purposes, both in walls and roofs, but most notably in floors, where the 

product has specific competitive advantages. The product has competed successfully against both 

rigid polyurethane foams and mineral fibre in all the major regions of the world, although its 

mode of success has varied depending on the regional demand patterns. This point speaks to the 

versatility of extruded polystyrene in its application. 

The whole extruded thermoplastic foam sector was established on the ease of use of 

CFC-12 as a blowing agent. It was only when the phase-out of CFCs was required that the split 

between choices for ‘board’ and ‘sheet’ materials occurred. Sheet products moved predominantly 

to hydrocarbons, while board products chose to use HCFC-142b/22 blends for the most part, in 

order to retain the requisite thermal performance. 

When the blend was chosen, it was known that the cell wall permeability of HCFC-142b 

was significantly lower than that of HCFC-22. Therefore, the long-term thermal performance of 

products would largely be determined by the proportion of HCFC-142b in the blend and its 

subsequent retention. Since HCFC-22 is a major refrigerant, its availability has been greater, and 

its price lower, throughout its period of use. This has been particularly important in some 

developing country regions where access to HCFC-142b has been more difficult and the cost 

significantly higher. Since some product and building codes will have been written around the 

sole use of HCFC-22, it may make the transitional hurdle a little easier when phase-out of 

HCFCs is finally embraced. 
 

55

The extruded polystyrene sector is continuing to grow rapidly in China and elsewhere in 

Asia and practical transitional solutions will be essential. It seems unlikely that either saturated 

or unsaturated HFCs will make major in-roads in the markets for reasons of cost and availability. 

Therefore, the most likely solution will be based on hydrocarbons, on their own or in blends. The 

level of investment needed to support this is unclear, but, since the plants are relatively small, 

and there is parallel experience with extruded polystyrene sheet, it may be that the transition will 

be less challenging than currently envisaged. CO2 seems unlikely as a solution in isolation. 

The extrusion process remains highly emissive, and this puts a particular burden on the 

avoidance of high GWP solutions, such as saturated HFCs. The only time when such an 

approach might be justified is in applications and jurisdictions where thermal performance is 

absolutely paramount. In these cases, it may be possible to make further transitions from 

saturated to unsaturated HFCs in due course. 

Polyolefin Foams

Polyolefin foams have made less penetration into the construction markets that have been 

the bedrock of the extruded polystyrene industry. The one exception to this has been in the pipe 

insulation sector, where the added resilience offered by the product has proved of substantial 

value. The primary use for polyolefin foams has been as a high performance packaging material 

– particularly when used for the packaging of delicate, high value equipment. 

The choice of blowing in the polyolefin foam sector has followed a very similar pattern 

to that of extruded polystyrene foam. However, because of the lack of a large demand for 

insulating properties, the industry switched more fully to hydrocarbons when transitioning from 

CFCs. The remaining use of HCFCs in this product sector is much more limited than in the 

extruded polystyrene sector. Nevertheless, where use does exist -possibly in goods related to 

recreational applications- technical assistance may be necessary to ensure that appropriate 

precautions are taken in any final switch to hydrocarbons. 

The polyolefin foam sector is only seen to present a limited challenge in the efforts to 

phase of HCFCs under Decision XIX/6. It would appear that relevant climate-positive solutions 

are available and that widespread experience exists concerning their use. There may be some, as 

yet, unidentified niche applications that could present more of a challenge, but no evident has yet 

emerged to this effect. 
 

56

CHAPTER 3: BANKS AND RECOVERY OPTIONS 

RECENT TEAP WORK ON THIS ISSUE 

The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) of the Montreal Protocol has 

been actively quantifying and locating banks of ODS in a series of studies responding to 

decisions of the Parties. The latest of these was Decision XX/7 which initiated the most 

comprehensive review of banks and potential mitigation options yet. 

The Task Force convened by the TEAP to complete this work reported in two separate 

reports: Phase 1 in June 2009 and Phase 2 in October 2009. The second of these reports focused 

particularly on the quantification of savings that could be achieved, the timing at which recovery 

and destruction would be required and the cost of so doing. As had been the case in earlier 

studies, the TEAP Task Force divided the ODS Banks into three major categories of ‘effort’: 

low, medium and high. Although ‘effort’ is partially a synonym for ‘cost’, this is not completely 

the case, since there is some adjustment for the fact that the relative costs of some sectors, such 

as foams, will always be higher than other sectors, such as refrigeration. Rather than having all 

refrigerant recovery in the ‘low’ category and all foam in the ‘high’ category, there is some 

offsetting to allow a level of differentiation within each sector. Note that although the emphasis 

of the research was on reducing ODS emissions, most of the conclusions could also apply to 

reducing HFC emissions as well. 

The TEAP analysis also recognized that recovery from densely populated (urban) areas 

would be easier than from sparsely populated (rural) areas. Its full analysis is summarized in the 

following table: 

Sector Low Effort Medium Effort High Effort 

 

Domestic Refrigeration – Refrigerant DP SP 

Domestic Refrigeration – Blowing Agent DP SP 

Commercial Refrigeration – Refrigerant DP SP 

Commercial Refrigeration – Blowing Agent DP SP 

Transport Refrigeration – Refrigerant DP/SP 

Transport Refrigeration – Blowing Agent DP/SP 

Industrial Refrigeration – Refrigerant DP/SP 

Stationary Air Conditioning – Refrigerant DP SP 

Other Stationary Air Conditioning – Refrigerant DP SP 

Mobile Air Conditioning – Refrigerant DP SP 

Steel-faced Panels – Blowing Agent DP SP 

XPS Foams – Blowing Agent DP/SP* 

PU Boardstock – Blowing Agent DP/SP* 

PU Spray – Blowing Agent DP*/SP* 

PU Block – Pipe DP SP 

PU Block – Slab DP SP 

Other PU Foams – Blowing Agent DP/SP* 

Halon – Fire Suppression DP SP 

DP = Densely Populated Areas; SP = Sparsely Populated Areas 

 * Still technically unproven
 

57

This table underlined the fact that, even before cost elements were explicitly addressed, 

the management of existing ODS banks, in foams, was seen as representing the most significant 

challenge (largely high effort). Indeed, in some instances (e.g., PU Spray Foams) it was 

acknowledged that recovery and destruction of blowing agents from those sources was still 

globally unproven technically. This reflects the fact that flows of ODS into building demolition 

waste streams are still in their infancy and there is little global experience as yet in managing 

such materials. Even in Japan, where the regulation of demolition processes attracts high levels 

of compliance, a study on ODS Bank Management in the built environment conducted by the 

Japan Technical Committee on Construction Materials (JTCCM) in the period 2002-2005 

concluded that it was not possible to mandate the recovery and destruction of ODS in buildings 

because of continuing uncertainties about technical feasibility and economic impacts. Of course, 

this is not to rule out the likelihood that experience will spawn innovation and technological 

development in this area. However, the Japanese view was that this is best achieved by voluntary 

action, often supported by incentives, rather than unenforceable legislation. 

The main conclusions from this work were that the refrigerant banks represented the most 

cost-effective ODS bank management options (as measured in $ per tonne of CO2 saved), 

partially because of their easier accessibility and partially because the baseline emissions for 

refrigerants are higher than for foams, which tend to display relatively low emissions during the 

majority of their lifecycles. 

For appliances, it was clear that measures to manage ODS banks would need to be 

implemented within the next five years, even in developing countries, if the main ozone and 

climate benefits arising from CFC recovery and destruction were to be realised. This fact is 

highlighted in the next section where the location of ODS banks on foams is analysed for 2008. 

For foams, the main areas where recovery at end-of-life could be legitimately expected at 

low/medium effort, were identified as: 

• Domestic Appliances 

• Commercial Refrigeration 

• Steel-faced panels 

• Block Pipe Section & Slab 

Progress on recovery and destruction from these product areas are reviewed further in the 

later sections of this chapter. 

 

BANK ESTIMATES IN 2008

 In the period leading up to the preparation of this report, it had been anticipated that the 

Committee would provide baseline bank estimates for 2020. However, in view of the large 

uncertainties still associated with the selection of alternatives and the sensitivities involved in 

making quantitative predictions about future consumption, it was decided to limit this chapter to 

the assessment of banks as at 2008. 
 

58

 The following tables provide a summary of the banks of blowing agents contained within 

foams in developed and developing countries for 2008. 

 

Foam Banks ‐ Developed Countries ‐ 2008

CFCs HCFCs HFCs HCs Other Total % CFC*

Available

% HCFC*

Available

PU ‐ Dom. Appliances 283528 144834 55607 224807 0 708776 21.59% 99.80%

PU ‐ Other Appliances 27324 68954 22953 17789 255 137275 46.30% 99.88%

PU ‐ Reefers 12342 18639 6816 6970 0 44767 28.33% 98.83%

Total Appliances 323194 232427 85376 249566 255 890818 23.94% 99.75%

36.28% 26.09% 9.58% 28.02% 0.03%

PU ‐ Boardstock 616683 297973 7560 383219 0 1305435 100.00% 100.00%

PU ‐ Continuous Panel 147619 56633 21552 116124 0 341928 100.00% 100.00%

PU ‐ Disc. Panel 123785 85377 38707 20801 0 268670 100.00% 100.00%

PU ‐ Spray 97608 102470 40733 0 523 241334 100.00% 100.00%

PU ‐ Block‐Pipe 10220 4660 1631 3379 0 19890 18.74% 98.15%

PU ‐ Block‐Slab 26168 12192 4110 8573 0 51043 27.11% 98.64%

PU ‐ Pipe‐in‐Pipe 38950 15506 3531 10767 0 68754 100.00% 100.00%

XPS ‐ Board 250016 369145 26339 28113 0 673613 100.00% 100.00%

PE ‐ Block‐Pipe 8033 5183 516 8055 0 21787 18.74% 98.15%

PE ‐ Block‐Slab 8057 3317 643 9234 0 21251 27.11% 98.64%

PF ‐ Boardstock 10699 6724 1772 13741 0 32936 100.00% 100.00%

PF ‐ Disc. Panel 4364 3640 559 3399 0 11962 100.00% 100.00%

PF ‐ Block‐Pipe 3865 3153 1038 2849 0 10905 18.74% 98.15%

PF ‐ Block‐Slab 1185 987 626 606 0 3404 27.11% 98.64%

Total Constr./Other 1347252 966960 149317 608860 523 3072912 96.75% 99.95%

43.84% 31.47% 4.86% 19.81% 0.02%

Grand Total 1670446 1199387 234693 858426 778 3963730 82.66% 99.91%

42.14% 30.26% 5.92% 21.66% 0.02%

* Availability based on correction for banks already in waste stream

 The table shows that only around 24% of CFC blowing agent banks remains available in 

Domestic Appliance Foams with the remainder already in landfill. By contrast, most the HCFC remains 

available. For the ‘construction and other’ foams, only the products produced from block foams have 

significantly reached their end-of-life and entered into the waste stream. The opportunity for recovery 

from products is, therefore, still substantial if appropriate techniques can be developed to recovery and 

destroy blowing agents economically. 
 

59

Foam Banks ‐ Developing Countries ‐ 2008

CFCs HCFCs HFCs HCs Other Total % CFC*

Available

% HCFC*

Available

PU ‐ Dom. Appliances 241750 108607 1217 181904 0 533478 72.98% 100.00%

PU ‐ Other Appliances 7977 16902 0 0 0 24879 85.93% 100.00%

PU ‐ Reefers 14850 23767 531 0 0 39148 81.91% 100.00%

Total Appliances 264577 149276 1748 181904 0 597505 73.87% 100.00%

44.28% 24.98% 0.29% 30.44% 0.00%

PU ‐ Boardstock 1709 0 0 784 0 2493 100.00% N/A

PU ‐ Continuous Panel 22306 9092 0 2621 0 34019 100.00% 100.00%

PU ‐ Disc. Panel 55536 34961 0 4205 0 94702 100.00% 100.00%

PU ‐ Spray 60232 37146 0 0 0 97378 100.00% 100.00%

PU ‐ Block‐Pipe 8011 2953 0 0 0 10964 67.58% 100.00%

PU ‐ Block‐Slab 12509 4562 0 0 0 17071 75.55% 100.00%

PU ‐ Pipe‐in‐Pipe 42387 21122 0 227 0 63736 100.00% 100.00%

XPS ‐ Board 70311 184277 0 44 0 254632 100.00% 100.00%

PE ‐ Block‐Pipe 8815 0 0 4898 0 13713 67.58% N/A

PE ‐ Block‐Slab 10975 0 0 5324 0 16299 75.55% N/A

PF ‐ Block‐Pipe 782 198 0 0 0 980 67.58% 100.00%

PF ‐ Block‐Slab 782 198 0 0 0 980 75.55% 100.00%

Total Constr./Other 294355 294509 0 18103 0 606967 96.04% 100.00%

48.50% 48.52% 0.00% 2.98% 0.00%

Grand Total 558932 443785 1748 200007 0 1204472 85.55% 100.00%

46.40% 36.84% 0.15% 16.61% 0.00%

* Availability based on correction for banks already in waste stream

By way of contrast to the developed country scenario, approximately 73% of banked CFCs in 

domestic appliance foams were still available for recovery and destruction in 2008. There are no 

significant HCFCs already in the waste stream and these remain available for recovery and destruction 

where economically viable. 

 
 

60

RECOVERY ACTIVITIES IN THE APPLIANCE SECTOR 

Experiences to date – Developed Countries

In contrast to the challenges of the building sector, there is considerably more experience 

in managing foams from appliances and commercial refrigeration equipment. In several regions 

of the world, including Europe and Japan the recovery of blowing agents from domestic 

refrigerators and freezers has been required. This has been extended over time to cover other 

types of appliance. In the case of Europe this has been driven by product lifecycle legislation 

such as the WEEE6 Regulation rather than the ozone regulations per se, although efforts have 

been made to ensure that both regulatory strands are complementary to one another. 

This said, there have been on-going concerns in Europe about the percentage of end-oflife appliances being de-manufactured in line with the legislative requirements as well as the 

maintenance of adequate standards for recovery and destruction within those operations 

designated to manage the process. Even in Germany, a recent study uncovered a number of 

failures to uphold the existing standards. Further investigation revealed that the most likely cause 

of these malpractices has been the over-capacity in the sector, with prices for the de-manufacture 

of domestic refrigerators dropping from their initial levels in excess of $25/unit to values as low 

as $8/unit. 

Another factor to consider here is that voluntary carbon finance cannot be leveraged in 

the region, even though the relevant methodologies (Voluntary Carbon Standard (VCS) and 

Climate Action Reserve (CAR)) apply to these recovery and destruction operations. This is 

because the market sees no ‘additionality’ from ODS recovery and destruction in regions where 

the measure is already mandated. Even if such funding were to be available, its contribution 

would be less substantial for HCFC recovery and destruction than for CFC recovery and 

destruction. This observation arises from the lower GWP of HCFCs in comparison with CFCs. 

This issue is dealt with further within the following developing country discussion, where a 

further analysis by TEAP is presented. 

In North America, there is still no federal requirement for the recovery of blowing agent 

from foams in appliances. However, there are a number of state level initiatives which encourage 

recovery and destruction. California is looking at the option of using their wider cap-and-trade 

mechanisms for the inclusion of ODS recovery, using the Climate Action Reserve methodology 

as a basis. However, this methodology necessarily needs to take a conservative view on savings 

and the uncertainties around anaerobic degradation of ODS in landfills has led to lower baseline 

emission estimates and a reduction in the realisable savings from end-of-life measures. With the 

low current valuation of carbon, even on exchanges with high reputations such as CAR, the 

financial incentives may be insufficient to encourage widespread recovery and destruction of 

foam blowing agents, despite the adoption of semi-automated processes with lower investment 

costs. 

 6

 WEEE – ‘Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’ 
 

61

The other driver for recovery of ODS in appliances in North America has been the 

introduction of energy efficiency schemes, promoted by the energy supply companies to reduce 

demand in vulnerable regions of the territory. However, these schemes are not obliged to recover 

ODS and it is often left to the environmental consciousness of the individual companies to 

influence decisions to include recovery from units. This is even more the case for blowing agents 

than it is for refrigerants, since blowing agents are further along the cost-abatement curve. 

Experiences to date – Developing Countries

An additional piece of analysis of the TEAP data for developing countries, as presented 

at the July 2010 Geneva Workshop on ODS Bank Management, illustrated the significant 

difference between CFC and HCFC recovery in terms of cost-effectiveness. Depending on 

location (urban or rural) the cost of recovery and destruction of HCFCs in appliance foam can 

range from $60-$90 per tCO2-eq. saved or even more in developed countries where transport and 

labour costs are higher. This compares to a figure of $10 per tCO2-eq. saved for CFCs where the 

opportunity exists for both the refrigerant and foam blowing agent to be recovered at the same 

time. The analysis doesn’t take into account the recovery of HFC-134a refrigerant in the 

appliance, which can, of course, provide additional climate benefit for a given investment under 

appropriate circumstances. 

Average Cost Effectiveness of Climate Savings

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Cost Effectiveness ($ per tonne CO2 saved)

Total Potential Saving (Mtonnes CO2 saved)

CFC

HCFC

Potential for Recovery vs. Cost Effectiveness

The Impact of Dealing with Appliances (2010-2030)

Refrigerant only

Refrigerant & CFC Foam

HCFC Foam in Appliances
 

62

One of the other factors to consider is that waste streams are unlikely to be segregated by 

blowing agent type and the cost-effectiveness will vary according to the product mix arriving at 

end-of-life on an annual basis. The following graph illustrates how this might change with time 

for appliances in developing countries. It can be seen that the period of greatest costeffectiveness is between now and 2020. After that time, higher carbon prices would be needed to 

support the cost-effectiveness of recovery of predominantly HCFCs. 

Cost Effectiveness Ranges for ODS & ODS Substitute Bank 

Management in Developing Countries (Appliances & Foams)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

2026

2027

2028

2029

2030

Year

Costs ($ per tonne CO2 saved)

Low Effort - Lower Bound

Low Effort - Upper Bound

Low/Medium Effort - Lower Bound

Low/Medium Effort - Upper Bound

RECOVERY ACTIVITIES IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 

Experiences to date by Region (incl. logistics)

As noted in the earlier sections of this Chapter, the only low/medium effort recovery 

options for foams in the buildings sector are found in the building services (e.g. pipe and duct 

insulation) and in certain forms of prefabricated construction (e.g. steel-faced panels). 

In practice, the quantity of block manufactured and used globally for pipe insulation and 

other building services products (e.g. duct insulation) is relatively small as a proportion of the 

total. Where pipe section is produced from block (or, indeed, extruded from thermoplastic 

foams), there is a potential for recovery during decommissioning. This may also be the case for 

block foam prefabricated for use in composite panels. 

For steel-faced panels there is also some relevant experience, since these products tend to 

be used on buildings in Europe with shorter average life-times than traditional constructions 

(typically 30 years). Although these are only now reaching the waste stream in any number, the 
 

63

potential to use existing refrigerator de-manufacturing equipment or even direct incineration 

exists. In most cases, the presence of the steel facings also adds to the economic case since these 

can be recovered and recycled. Nevertheless, across the European Union’s 27 member states 

(EU-27) there is a large range of demolition waste practice. Only where waste segregation is 

already highly advanced (e.g., Austria) does the economics of recovery and destruction stack-up. 

This is demonstrated in the following table, although it should be noted that the final relative 

cost-effectiveness (in cost per tonne of CO2 saved) between appliances and panels will depend 

on the blowing agent mix reaching the waste stream: 

Cost effectiveness – Panels vs. Appliances

Tonnage

Band

Domestic

Appliance

JTCCM

(Japan)

Kingspan

Panels

(trial projects)

Austria

Study 

Destruction

Transport

Sorting

Dismantling -------

-------

€ 40-50

€ 25-35 

€ 55-65 

€ 3-4 

€ 20-25

€ 20-25 

€65-90 

€ 4-6

€ 25-35 

€ 5-10 

Discounted! 

€ 20-30

(based on 

steel-faced 

panels @ 

€200/te)

Per kg of blowing agent

Discounted! 

Total € 65-85 € 98-119 € 99-141 € 20-30

There is therefore some reticence within some Member States to see any move towards a 

mandated recovery and destruction requirement for ODS in steel-faced panels. However, the 

potential of an incentive-led approach, perhaps based on carbon valuation, may prove a more 

mutually acceptable way forward. 

Moving onto more general ODS banks in building foam, the most recent study completed 

by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the United Kingdom, the assessment of cost 

associated with the management of ODS in buildings was in the order of £200 ($300) per tCO2-

eq. saved (BRE, 2010). It should be stressed that the prime purpose of this study was not to 

review costs in detail, but it is interesting to note that this assessment supports the view that 

average recovery costs from the wider building sector would be proportionately higher than 

those associated with steel-faced panels. 

 
 

64

FUTURE TRENDS AND DRIVERS 

Financing

 The future trends in carbon financing are far from settled at this time following the failure 

of the Copenhagen Conference of the Parties to meet a binding agreement on the way forward. 

Although the Cancun meeting endorsed alternative bilateral and multilateral funding options via 

the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs), it is still not clear whether these will 

sit alongside existing mechanisms or actually replace them. Either way, there is expected to be 

wholesale reform of the current Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). In turn, this is leading 

to considerable uncertainty about the valuation of carbon savings in the short to medium terms. 

With this in mind, the valuation of carbon in the short-term depends on intrinsic valuations 

placed on carbon mitigation at national level rather than a market-based carbon price per se. The 

only region where this is not strictly true is in Europe, where the EU Emissions Trading Scheme 

(EU ETS) continues to provide a direct monetary basis (around €17 per tonne of CO2 as at May 

2011). However, as noted earlier in this chapter, there is no specific leverage for ODS recovery 

from appliances, because the measure would not be additional to the regulatory base (WEEE and 

the recast Ozone Regulation). 

Other Regulatory Drivers 

 With continuing uncertainties about the cost-effectiveness of blowing agent recovery 

from foams in a number of key sectors, it is unlikely that regulation will extend significantly in 

the next five years, particularly because access to public or private finance is likely to be limited 

under the current economic constraints. The link between proposed regulation and the cost has 

been heightened considerably in recent years because of the need for Regulatory Impact 

Assessments in a number of jurisdictions. There is concern amongst some industry sectors that 

penalising the low/medium effort product base by the stigma of regulatory control, when other 

high effort products are likely to remain unregulated would drive counter-productive market 

behaviour. 

 

 
 

A1 - 1

APPENDIX 1: REVIEW OF ALTERNATIVE BLOWING AGENTS

The major blowing agents being commercially used as substitutes for HCFCs in the foam 

sector, or being considered for commercial introduction in the short-term, are shown in the subsections that follow – each of which contains a table with basic properties and supply information. 

These tables are supplemented by descriptive paragraphs which provide technical information on 

the blowing agents themselves and some information on usage patterns and commercial 

availability. It should be noted that there are no references to regulatory constraints in this Section. 

While the impact of ODS regulations is probably well known to the reading audience and does not 

require further iteration here, it might be useful to note, for example, that other environmental 

factors, such as classification as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may have a bearing on local 

acceptance. The reader is therefore encouraged to make a full evaluation of the national and local 

circumstances when choosing blowing agent options. 

The tables and the subsequent descriptive paragraphs provide technical information on the 

blowing agents themselves and some information on usage patterns and commercial availability. 

It should be noted that there are no references to regulatory constraints in this Appendix. While, 

the impact of ODS Regulations is probably well known to the reading audience and does not 

require further iteration here, it might be useful to note, for example, that all fluorocarbons in the 

United States are not treated as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) for regulatory purposes. 

The blowing agents options have been divided in seven different families: 

1.1 HCFCs 

1.2 Hydrocarbons 

1.3 Carbon Dioxide 

1.4 Oxygenated Hydrocarbons (Methyl Formate, Methylal and Dimethyl Ether) 

1.5 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Methylene Chloride, Trans-1,2 di-chloroethylene and 2-

chloropropane) 

1.6 Saturated HFCs 

1.7 Unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) 
 

A1 - 2

1.1 HCFCs 

HCFC-141b HCFC-142b HCFC-22 

 

Chemical Formula CH3CFCl2 CH3CF2Cl CHCIF2

Molecular Weight 116.95 100.50 86.47 

Boiling Point ( 0C ) 31.9 -9.2 -40.8 

Gas Conductivity (mW/mK @ 100C) 8.8 8.4 9.9 

Flammable Limits in Air (vol.%) 7.6-17.7 6.2-17.9 - 

TLV or OEL (ppm) (USA) 500 1000 1000 

GWP (100 yr time horizon) 725 2310 1810 

Key Producers 

Arkema, Cgangsu 3f, 

Daikin, Hangzhou 

Fist, Kangtai Fluorine 

Chemical, Quzhou 

Rongqiang, 

Shandong Dongda, 

Solvay, Zhejiang 

Lantian, Zhejiang 

Sanmei 

Arkema, Cgangsu 

3f, Daikin, 

Hangzhou Fist, 

Kangtai Fluorine 

Chemical, 

Shandong Dongda, 

Solvay, Zhejiang 

Sanmei 

Arkema, Cgangsu 3f, 

Daikin, DuPont, 

Honeywell, 

Produven, 

Quimobasicos, 

Quzhou Rongqiang, 

Shandong Dongyue, 

Solvay, Zhejiang 

Sammei, Zhejiang 

Quhua. 
 

A1 -3

HCFC – 141b 

Description & Usage

HCFC-141b is a liquid at room temperature and does not have a flash point. HCFC-141b 

has been used as a foam blowing agent in almost all rigid and integral skin foam sectors. 

Physical and Chemical properties7

Chemical name: 1,1-dichloro-1-fluoroethane 

Formula: CH3CFCl2 

Molecular Weight: 116.95 

EC Number (EINECS): 605-613-2 

CAS Number: 1717-00-6 

Density (g/cm3) 1.25 (10 °C) 

Boiling Point (°C) 31.9 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 525 (25 oC) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m. K) 8.8 (10 °C), 9.7 (25 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 4.1 

Solubility in water 1.7 g/L 

HSE properties

Toxicological data: 

 WEEL, 8 hr. TWA, ppm 500 

Autoignition temperature 550 °C 

Flammable limits in air (vol. %) 7.6-17.7 

VOC No 

GWP8

 (100-yr Time Horizon) 725 

ODP 0.11 

Commercial status

Producers: Arkema, Changshu 3f, Daikin, Hangzhou Fist, 

Kangtai Fluorine Chemical, Quzhou 

Rongqiang, Shandong Dongda, Solvay, 

Zhejiang Lantian, Zhejiang Sanmei. 

 

7 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/247.html. Consulted April 2011. 

8

 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. 
 

A1 -4

HCFC – 142b

Description & Usage

HFC-142b is a gas at room temperature, highly flammable. It is used as a foam blowing 

agent for extruded polystyrene foams. It can be used alone or as a blend with HCFC-22. 

A blend of 60/40 HCFC-142b/HCFC-22 (60/40) is non-flammable. 

Physical and Chemical properties9

Chemical name: 1-chloro-1,1-difluoroethane 

Formula: CH3CF2Cl 

Molecular Weight: 100.50 

EC Number (EINECS): 200-891-8 

CAS Number: 75-68-3 

Density/Specific gravity 1.107 (25 oC) 

Boiling Point (°C) -9.2 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 7786 (25 oC) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m. K) 8.4 (10 °C), 11.5 (25 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 3.49 

Solubility in water Slightly soluble 

HSE properties

Toxicological data: 

 TLV or OEL (USA, ppm) 1000 

 WEEL, 8 hr. TWA, ppm 1000 

Autoignition temperature 632 °C 

Flammable limits in air (vol. %) 6.2-17.9 

Flash Point -65 oC 

VOC No 

GWP10 (100-yr Time Horizon) 2310 

ODP 0.066 

Commercial status

Producers: Arkema, Changshu 3f, Daikin, Hangzhou Fist, 

Kangtai Fluorine Chemical, Shandong 

Dongda, Zhejiang Lantian, Zhejiang Sanmei. 

 

9

 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/131.html. Consulted April 2011. 

10 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. 
 

A1 -5

HCFC-22

Description & Usage

HCFC-22 is a non-flammable colourless gas liquefied under pressure. One main 

application is as a non-flammable mixture with HCFC-142b for PU and XPS foams. In 

rigid PU foam it has been used in combination with HCFC-141b. 

Physical and Chemical properties11

Chemical name: Chlorodifluoromethane 

Formula: CHCIF2

Molecular Weight: 86.47 

EC Number (EINECS): 200-871-9 

CAS Number: 75-45-6 

Density (g/cm3

) 1.41 (20 °C) 

Boiling Point (°C) -40.8 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 6290 (25 oC) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m. K) 9.9 (10 °C), 11.0 (30 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 2.98 

Solubility in water 3 g/L 

Soluble in most organic solvents 

HSE properties

Toxicological data12 

TLV (as TWA) 1000 ppm, 3540 mg/m3 (ACGIH 

1992-1993) 

TWA (NIOSH REL) 1000 ppm (3500 mg/m3

) 

Decomposition temperature 480 °C 

VOC No 

GWP13 (100-yr Time Horizon) 1810 

ODP 0.055 

Commercial Status

Producers: Arkema, Changshu 3f, Daikin, DuPont, 

Honeywell, Produven, Quimobasicos, 

Quzhou Rongqiang, Shandong Dongyue, 

Solvay, Zhejiang Sammei, Zhejiang Quhua. 

 

11 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/83.html. Consulted April 2011. 

12 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/83.html. Consulted April 2011. 

13 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. 
 

A1 -6

1.2 Hydrocarbons 

Cyclo-Pentane n-Pentane Iso-Pentane Iso-Butane n-Butane

 

Chemical Formula (CH2)5 CH3(CH2)3CH3 CH3CH(CH3)CHCH3 CH3CH(CH3)CH CH3CH2CH2CH3

Molecular Weight 70.1 72.1 72.1 58.1 58.1

Boiling Point ( 0C ) 49 36.1 28 -11.7 -0.45 

Gas Conductivity (mW/mK 

@ 100

C) 11.0 14.0 13.0 15.9 13.6

Flammable Limits in Air 

(vol.%) 1.5-8.7 1.4-8.0 1.4-8.3 1.8-8.4 1.8-8.5 

TLV or OEL (ppm) (USA) 600 610 1000 800 800 

GWP (100 yr time horizon) <25 <25 <25 <25 <25

Key Producers 

 Chevron 

Phillips, 

Haltermann 

Products,

ExxonMobil, 

Haldia 

Petrochemical 

Ltd., Maruzen

Petrochemical, 

Puyang 

Zhongwei Fine 

Chemical 

Beijing 

Yanshan 

Petrochemical 

Co. Ltd., 

Chevron 

Phillips,

Haltermann

Products,

ExxonMobil, 

Maruzen 

Petrochemical, 

Shell 

Chevron Phillips,

Haltermann

Products,

ExxonMobil, Jilin 

Jinlong Industrial Co 

Bayer, Chevron 

Phillips,

ExxonMobil, 

Refinery of 

Jinling 

Petrochemical

Chevron 

Phillips, 

ExxonMobil, 

Shanghai 

Petrochemical 

Co. Ltd. 

^ Measured at 0 oC 
 

A1 -7

CYCLOPENTANE 

Description and Usage

Cyclopentane is a colorless and flammable liquid with a gasoline-like odor. It is a 

blowing agent for polystyrene and polyurethane foam processes. 

Physical and Chemical properties14

Chemical name: Cyclopentane 

Formula C5H10

Molecular Weight 70.13 

EC Number (EINECS) 206-016-6 

CAS Number 287-92-3 

Density (g/cm3

) 0.746 (20 °C) 

Boiling Point (o

C) 49 

Melting point (oC) -93.3 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 318 (20 °C) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m.K) 11.0 (10 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 2.42 (20 °C) 

Solubility in Water Insoluble 

HSE properties15

Toxicological data 

 TLV (as TWA) (ACGIH 1993-1994) 

 TWA (NIOSH REL) 

600 ppm, 1720 mg/m3 

600 ppm, 1720 mg/m3

Flammable limits in air (%) 1.5 - 8.7 

Autoignition Temperature 380 °C 

Flash Point (°C) -42 

VOC Yes16

GWP (100-yr Time Horizon) <2517

ODP 0 

Commercial Status

Producers Chevron Phillips, Haltermann 

Products, ExxonMobil, Haldia 

Petrochemicals Ltd., Maruzen 

Petrochemical, Puyang Zhongwei Fine 

Chemical Co., Ltd. 

 

14 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/8000/6348.html. Consulted April 2011. 

15 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/8000/6348.html. Consulted April 2011. 

16 Subject to regulations that can vary from country to country and within a country 

even from region to region. 

17 Precise figure varies according to local atmospheric conditions. 
 

A1 -8

ISOPENTANE 

Description and Usage

Isopentane is a colorless and flammable liquid with a gasoline-like odor. It is a blowing agent for 

polystyrene and polyurethane foam processes. 

Physical and Chemical properties18

Chemical name: 2-Methylbutane 

Formula C5H12

Molecular Weight 72.15 

EC Number (EINECS) 201-142-8 

CAS Number 78-78-4 

Density (g/cm3

) 0.620 (20°C) 

Boiling Point (o

C) 28 

Melting point (o

C) -160 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 727 (25 °C) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m.K) 13.0 (10 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 2.48 (20 °C) 

Solubility in Water < 0.1 g /100ml (23°C) 

HSE Properties19

Toxicological data 

TWA (ACGIH) 600 ppm 

Odor threshold (ppm) 10 

Flammable limits in air (%) 1.4 – 8.3 

Autoignition Temperature (°C) 420 

Flash Point (°C) -57 

VOC Yes20

ODP 0 

GWP (100-yr Time Horizon) <2521

 Commercial Status

Producers Chevron Phillips, Haltermann Products, 

ExxonMobil, Jilin Jinlong Industrial Co. 

 

18 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/45.html. Consulted April 2011. 

19 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/45.html. Consulted April 2011. 

20 Subject to regulations that can vary from country to country and within a country 

even from region to region 

21 Precise figure varies according to local atmospheric conditions. 
 

A1 -9

n-PENTANE 

Description and Usage

n-Pentane is a colorless and flammable liquid with a gasoline-like odor. It is a blowing 

agent for polystyrene and polyurethane foam processes. 

Physical and Chemical properties22

Chemical name: n-Pentane 

Formula C5H12

Molecular Weight 72.1498 

EC Number (EINECS) 203-693-4 

CAS Number 109-66-0 

Density (g/cm3) 0.62 6 (20 °C) 

Boiling Point (oC) 36.1 

Melting point (oC) -129.7 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 512 (25 °C) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m.K) 14.0 (10 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 2.48 (20 o

C) 

Solubility in Water 0.04 g /100ml (23 °C) 

HSE Properties23

Toxicological data 

TWA (OSHA PEL) 

TWA (NIOSH REL) 

C (NIOSH REL) 

LEL (NIOSH IDLH) 

1000 ppm, 2950 mg/m3

120 ppm, 350 mg/m3

610 ppm, 1800 mg/m3 (15-minute) 

1500 ppm

Flammable limits in air (%) 1.4 – 8.0 

Autoignition Temperature (°C) 285 

Flash Point (°C) - 49 

VOC Yes24

ODP 0 

GWP (100-yr Time Horizon) <2525

Commercial Status

Producers Beijing Yanshan Petrochemical Co. 

Ltd., Chevron Phillips, Haltermann 

Products, ExxonMobil, Maruzen 

Petrochemical, Shell. 

 

22 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/8000/7301.html. Consulted April 2011. 

23 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/8000/7301.html. Consulted April 2011. 

24 Subject to regulations that can vary from country to and from region to region 

25 Precise figure varies according to local atmospheric conditions. 
 

A1 -10

ISOBUTANE

Description and Usage

Isobutane is a colorless gas with a faint petroleum-like odor. It is a blowing agent for 

polyethylene and polyurethane foam processes. 

Physical and Chemical properties26

Chemical name: Isobutane 

Formula C4H10

Molecular Weight 58.12 

EC Number (EINECS) 200-857-2 

CAS Number 75-28-5 

Density/Specific gravity 0.557 

Boiling Point (o

C) -11.7 

Melting point (o

C) -255.3 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 2580 (25 oC) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m.K) 15.9 (20 oC) 

Vapour density (air=1) 2.01 (20 o

C) 

Solubility in Water Slightly soluble 

HSE properties27

Toxicological data 

TWA (NIOSH REL) 800 ppm, 1900 mg/m3

Flammable limits in air (%) 1.8 – 8.4 

Flash Point (°C) -107 

Autoignition Temperature (°C) 460 

GWP (100-yr Time Horizon) <2528

VOC Yes29

ODP 0 

Commercial Status

Producers Bayer, Chevron Phillips, ExxonMobil, 

Refinery of Jinling Petrochemical 

 

26 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/24.html. Consulted April 2011. 

27 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/24.html. Consulted April 2011. 

28 Precise figure varies according to local atmospheric conditions. 

29 Subject to regulations that can vary from country to country and within a country 

 even from region to region 
 

A1 -11

n-BUTANE

Description and Usage

n-Butane is a colorless gas with a faint disagreeable odor. It is used It as blowing agent 

for polyethylene and extruded polystyrene processes. 

Physical and Chemical properties30

Chemical name: n-butane 

Formula C4H10

Molecular Weight 58.12 

EC Number (EINECS) 203-448-7 

CAS Number 106-97-8 

Density (g/cm3) 0.579 (20 °C) 

Boiling Point (oC) -0.45 

Melting point (o

C) -138.35 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 1556 (20 °C) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m.K) 13.6 (0°C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 2.046 

Solubility in Water 61mg/L (20 °C) 

HSE properties31

Toxicological data 

TWA (ACGIH TLV) 

TWA (OSHA PEL) 

800 ppm 

800 ppm 

Odor threshold (ppm) 50000 

Flammable limits in air (%) 1.8 - 8.5 

Flash Point (°C) -60 

Autoignition Temperature (°C) 405 

GWP (100-yr Time Horizon) <2532

VOC Yes33

ODP 0 

Commercial Status

Producers Chevron Phillips, ExxonMobil, 

Shanghai Petrochemical Co. Ltd. 

 

30 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/22000/20510.html. Consulted April 2011. 

31 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/22000/20510.html. Consulted April 2011. 

32 Precise figure varies according to local atmospheric conditions. 

33 Subject to regulations that can vary from country to country and within a country even 

from region to region 
 

A1 -12

1.3 Carbon Dioxide 

CARBON DIOXIDE 

Description & Usage

Carbon Dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is a gas in normal conditions and exists in the 

atmosphere in small concentrations. It is a colourless, odourless, non-flammable gas, 

with very low chemical reactivity and toxicity. 

Physical and Chemical Properties34

Formula CO2

Molecular weight 44.0 

EC Number (EINECS): 204-696-9 

CAS Number: 124-38-9 

Triple point 

 Pressure (bar) 5.11 

 Temperature (°C) -56.6 

Critical point 

 Pressure (bar) 75.2 

 Temperature (°C) 31 

Specific volume (L/kg) 2.156 

Density 1.56 g/cm3

 (20 °C) 

Vaporisation Heat (Kcal/kg) 83.20 (triple point) 

Sublimation Heat (Kcal/kg) 136.40 (1 atm) 

Heat of formation of gas (Kcal/kg) 2.137 (25 °C) 

 

34 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/8000/6241.html. Consulted April 2011. 
 

A1 -13

Phase diagram for carbon dioxide
 

A1 -14

HSE Properties

Carbon dioxide is toxic only at very high concentrations (5000 ppm = 9000 mg/m3). 

Commercial Data

Carbon dioxide is a generic chemical with numerous suppliers and wide availability in 

most countries. There are two main supply sources: 

• From mining sources (natural CO2). Carbon Dioxide exists in the underground and is 

produced by the decomposition of carbonate compounds in presence of steam or by 

the sudden cooling of magma which release CO2 as a gas. 

• Chemically generated as a by-product of several chemical reactions in the main 

industrial processes. One of the main sources is the process to produce ammonia and 

urea. The main impurities are sulphurous products, inert gases and water. 

Since CO2 is normally utilized as an additive in the food industry, it is supplied at very 

high purity (some suppliers guarantee more than 99,9%). 

CO2 is liquefied to be stored and transported. There are two are systems to store carbon 

dioxide for industrial use: pressurized bottles for small consumption requirements and 

bulk tanks for high consumptions. All mayor suppliers of liquid gases provide rental 

contracts for the mentioned storage solutions. 

• Pressurised bottles: Bottles of liquid CO2 are at pressures of 70 to 100 bar at normal 

ambient temperature. Two types of pressure bottles are used – bottom feed, with an 

internal bottom-feed pipe for delivering liquid CO2 or top-feed, for delivering gaseous 

CO2. Avoid any heating of the bottles either by sun light or any heating source. 

Bottles must be handled with care using gloves and avoiding any hard contact. 

• Bulk tanks: CO2 is stored in insulated, pressurised tanks of capacity from 3 up to 50 

m3, at a pressure of about 16-18 bar and temperature about –30 to –24 °C. The tank is 

normally fitted with a CO2 level detector and cooling system to control the pressure 

within the required limits. It is recommended that the tank is protected from adverse 

weather conditions and to erect around it a guard rail, to restrict access. Any parts of 

the electric installation should be placed under a roof or indoors. 

Carbon Dioxide as blowing agent for polyurethane foams

In polyurethane foam (flexible slab-stock, flexible moulded, integral skin, rigid) the 

carbon dioxide is generated chemically by the reaction between water and isocyanate. 
 

A1 -15

1.4 Oxygenated Hydrocarbons 

Methylal Methyl 

Formate Di-methyl Ether 

 

Chemical Formula CH3 OCH2OCH3 CH3(HCOO) CH3OCH3

Molecular Weight 76.1 60.0 46.07 

Boiling Point ( 0C ) 42 31.5 -24.8 

Gas Conductivity (mW/mK @ 150C) Not available 10.7 (@ 250C) 15.5 

Flammable Limits in Air (vol.%) 2.2-19.9 5.0-23.0 3.0-18.6 

TLV or OEL (ppm) (USA) 1000 100 1000 

GWP (100 yr time horizon) <25 <25* 1 

Key Producers 

Spectrum 

Chemicals, 

Alcan 

International, 

Kimbester (China) 

Caldic 

Lambiotte & Cie 

BOC 

Foam Supplies 

Multiple Chinese 

producers 

Air Liquide 

 
 

A1 -16

METHYL FORMATE (ECOMATE®) 

Description & Usage

Ecomate® is a colourless, flammable liquid with an ethereal odour. It is a registered 

trademark of Foam Supplies, Inc. protected by Patent No. 6753357. It is being promoted 

as blowing agent for PU rigid foams mainly but also for flexible foams and microcellular 

elastomers with zero ODP and GWP. Use has been reported in commercial refrigeration. 

Physical and Chemical properties35

Chemical composition: Methyl Formate 97.5 %, Methanol 

2.5 % 

Molecular Weight 60 

EC Number (EINECS): 203-481-7 

CAS Number: 107-31-3 

Density (g/cm3

) 0.98 (20 °C) 

Boiling Point (°C) 32.1 

Melting Point (°C) -100 

Vapour pressure (mm Hg) 476.4 (20 °C) 

Gas conductivity (mW/m. K) 10.7 (25 °C) 

Water solubility (%) 33 (20 oC) 

HSE Properties36

Toxicological data: 

 Methyl Formate 

 ACGIH, TWA (ppm) 100 

 ACGIH, TWA (ppm) 100 

 TWA, OSHA (ppm) 100 

Flammable limits (vol. %) 5.0 - 23.0 

Flash point (°C) approx. -28 

Autoignition Temperature (°C) approx. 440 oC 

VOC No 

GWP (100 years) Negligible 

ODP 0 

Commercial Status

Current Supplier: BOC, Foam Supplies 

 

35 http://www.ecomatesystems.com. Consulted April 2011. 

36 MSDS, Foam Supplies, reviewed on 12.03.2010. 
 

A1 -17

1.5 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons 

Methylene Chloride Trans-1,2-

dichloroethylene 2-chloropropane 

 

Chemical Formula CH2Cl2 ClHC=CHCl CH3CHClCH3

Molecular Weight 84.9 97 78.5 

Boiling Point ( 0C ) 40 48 35.7 

Gas Conductivity (mW/mK 

@ 100

C) Not available Not available Not available 

Flammable Limits in Air 

(vol.%) None 6.7-18 2.8-10.7 

TLV or OEL (ppm) (USA) 35-100 200 50 

GWP (100 yr time horizon) Not available <25 Not available 

Key Producers Multiple Sources Arkema Alfa Aesar 
 

A1 -18

METHYLENE CLORIDE 

Description & Usage 

Methylene chloride, or dichloromethane, is a clear, colourless liquid with a penetrating ether-like odour. 

Pure, dry methylene chloride is very stable and will not produce corrosion in mild or galvanized steel, 

copper, nickel, lead or tin. In the presence of water, however, it may undergo very slow hydrolysis to 

produce small quantities of hydrogen chloride, which can lead to corrosion. This process is accelerated by 

elevated temperatures and the presence of alkaline or metals. Commercially available methylene chloride 

is normally inhibited with small quantities of stabilizers to avoid this process. Typical stabilizers are 

propylene oxide and cyclohexane. 

The low photochemical ozone creation potential (PCOP) and lack of ozone depletion potential (ODP) made 

it a significant CFC-replacement in the manufacture of polyurethane flexible foam. 

Physical and Chemical properties37

Chemical name: Dichloromethane 

Formula: CH2Cl2 

Molecular Weight: 84.93 

EC Number (EINECS): 200-838-9 

CAS Number: 75-09-2 

Density (g/cm3

) 1.322 (20 °C) 

Boiling Point (°C) 39.8 

Melting Point (°C) -95 

Viscosity (cp) 0.41 (25 °C) 

Refractive index 1.4244 (20 °C) 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 349 (20 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 2.9 

Water Solubility 10-50 mg/ml 

HSE properties

Toxicological data: 

 TLV (ppm) 50 

 OSHA PEL (ppm) 25 

Flash point -4 oC 

Autoignition temperature 605 oC 

LFL (%) 13 

UFL (%) 223 

GWP38 (100-yr Time Horizon) 8.7 

The potential carcinogenicity of MC is a controversial issue. There is one study, performed for the 

National Toxicology Program (NTP) that suggests carcinogenic effects of high lifetime doses in mice. 

Other bioassays with different animals (rat, hamster) and at lower concentrations did not confirm these 

findings, indicating that the association between MC exposure and carcinogenicity may be unique to mice 

 

37 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/8000/6380.html. Consulted April 2011. 

38 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. 
 

A1 -19

and even then concentration related. This was supported by subsequent research, concluding that important 

species differences exist in metabolism between the mouse on one side, and rats, hamsters, or humans on 

the other side. Evidence was provided that the GST pathway of metabolism is linked to the carcinogenic 

response observed in mice. Since humans show a very limited ability to metabolize MC via the GST 

pathway, the mouse is a poor surrogate for assessing human hazard. 

The above mentioned research efforts led to the development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic 

(PB-PK) model to evaluate the carcinogenic risk to man from exposure to MC. Application of this model 

on experimental animal data concludes to no significant risk for man under current hygiene standards. 

The U.S. EPA has accepted the PB-PK model, and used in its draft Update to the Health Assessment 

Document (HAD) for methylene chloride. Also EPA's Science Advisory Board indicated approval. 

OSHA, however, indicated reservations, and has based its proposed revision of the occupational exposure 

standard for MC on the before mentioned NTP study. The industry has submitted critical comments to this 

proposal, and achieved reconsideration by the agency. The effected date for the new standard delayed 

accordingly. 

Industrial mortality studies have shown no evidence of that methylene chloride, even at relatively high 

concentrations (100-350 ppm, with peaks of up to 10,000 ppm) represents a carcinogenic or cardiovascular 

ischemic risk to humans. 

The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in January 1997 adopted a comprehensive 

standard for workplace exposure to methylene chloride. The standard establishes permissible exposure 

limits (PELs) of 25 ppm as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) and 125 ppm as a short-term exposure 

limit (STEL). The compliance dates vary by industry sector and size of business; all companies must be in 

compliance by April 2000 at the latest. The standard also requires medical surveillance and contains a 

number of other ancillary provisions. The ACGIH threshold limit value (TLV) is 50 ppm for an 8-hour 

TWA exposure. In 1987, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) published a Statement of 

Interpretation and Enforcement Policy for household products containing methylene chloride. This policy 

statement establishes labeling guidance for these products under the Federal Hazardous Substances Act. In 

addition, the use of methylene chloride in cosmetic and food products is restricted by the Food and Drug 

Administration (FDA). 

The EU classification was established as Carc. Cat. 3 /Xn;R40 in the 23rd ATP in 1997. This classification 

was implemented by member states by December 1998. 

Commercial status

Methylene chloride is a generic chemical and available from numerous manufacturing and trading sources. 

The use of recycled material in PU foam applications is discouraged because of a possible catalytic effect 

of dissolved trace metals. Several manufacturers such as Dow Chemical and Solvay offer product versions 

that have been specifically stabilized for the use in PU foam. 
 

A1 -20

TRANS-1,2-DICHLOROETHYLENE

Description & Usage

Trans-1,2-dichloroethylene is a liquid at room temperature and is recommended for use in a variety of 

polyurethane foam blowing applications primarily in combination with HFC-134a and HFC-245fa. Studies 

have shown that trans-1,2-dichloroethylene moderates the frothing effect particularly with HFC-134a and 

significantly improves its blowing efficiency. 

Physical and Chemical Properties39

Chemical name: trans-1,2-dichloroethylene 

Formula: C2H2Cl2 

Molecular weight: 96.94 

EC Number (EINECS): 205-860-2 

CAS Number: 156-60-5 

Specific gravity: 1.26 

Boiling point (°C) 48 

Vapor pressure @ 25°C (mm Hg) 333 

Heat of vaporization (kJ/mol) 30.3 

Vapor density (air = 1) @ 20°C 1.8 

Solubility @ 25°C (g trans / 100 g water) 0.63 

HSE properties40 

Toxicological data: 

 TLV 200 ppm (ACGIH TLV® 8-hr TWA) 

Flammable limits in air (volume %) 6.7 - 18 

Flash point (°C) -12 

Minimum ignition energy @ 25°C (mJ) 40.5 

Autoignition temperature (°C) 460°C 

Volatile Organic Compound Yes 

GWP (100-yr Time Horizon) Negligible 

ODP 0 

Commercial Status

Current Producers: Arkema 

 

39 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/108.html. Consulted April 2011. 

MSDS, Arkema, Revised 03.04.2006. 

40 MSDS, Arkema, Revised 03.04.2006.
 

A1 -21

1.6 Saturated HFCs

HFC-134a HFC-152a HFC-245fa HFC-365mfc HFC-227ea

 

Chemical Formula CH2FCF3 CHF2CH3 CF3CH2 CHF2 CF3CH2 CF2 CH3 CF3CHF CF3

Molecular Weight 102 66 134 148 170 

Boiling Point ( 0C ) -26.2 -25 15.3 40.2 -16.5 

Gas Conductivity (mW/mK @ 100C) 12.4 14.3* 12.5* 10.6* 11.6

Flammable Limits in Air (vol.%) None 3.9-16.9 None 3.8-13.3 None 

TLV or OEL (ppm) (USA) 1000 1000 N/A N/A 1000 

GWP (100 yr time horizon)^ 1430 124 1030 794 3220 

Key Producers 

Arkema, Daikin, 

DuPont, Honeywell, 

Kangtai Fluorine 

Chemical, Produven, 

Quzhou Rongqiang, 

Shandong Dongyue, 

Solvay, Zhejiang 

Guomao, Zhejiang 

Lantian, Zhejiang 

Sammei, Zhejiang 

Quhua 

Changshu 3f, 

Daikin, DuPont, 

Hangzhou Fist, 

Solvay, Shandong 

Dongyue, Zhejiang 

Lantian, Zhejiang 

Sammei. 

Honeywell, Central 

Glass, Zhejiang 

Lantian 

Solvay Solvay 

* Measured at 24-250C
 

A1 -22

HFC-134a

Description & Usage

HFC-134a is a non-flammable gas at room temperature. It is the most widely used zero 

ODP fluorochemical and is an established refrigerant. HFC-134a has been used as a 

blowing agent in almost all foam sectors, particularly rigid and integral skin foam. It is 

also being used for extruded polystyrene foam in Europe and North America. 

Physical and Chemical properties41

Chemical name: 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane 

Formula: CF3CH2F 

Molecular Weight: 102.03 

EC Number (EINECS): 212-377-0 

CAS Number: 811-97-2 

Density (g/cm3

) 1.2076 (25 °C) 

Boiling Point (°C) - 26.2 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 4730 

Gas conductivity (mW/m. K) 12.4 (10 °C), 13.7 (25 °C) 

Vapour density (air=1) 3.18 

Solubility in water 1.5 g/L 

HSE properties

Toxicological data42: 

 TLV or OEL (USA) (ppm) 1000 

 WEEL, 8 hr. TWA, ppm 1000 

Flash Point -79 oC 

Flammable limits in air (vol. %) None 

VOC No 

GWP43 (100-yr Time Horizon) 1430 

ODP 0 

Commercial status

Producers: Arkema, Daikin, DuPont, Honeywell, Kangtai 

Fluorine Chemical, Produven, Quzhou 

Rongqiang, Shandong Dongyue, Solvay, 

Zhejiang Guomao, Zhejiang Lantian, Zhejiang 

Sammei, Zhejiang Quhua. 

 

41 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/6000/5730.html. Consulted April 2011. 

42 MSDS, DuPont, Revised 18.04.2007. 

43 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. 
 

A1 -23

HFC-152a

Description & Usage

HFC-152a is a flammable gas at room temperature. It has limited use in polyurethane 

foam because it is flammable, and it diffuses out of the foam quickly, preventing it from 

offering additional long term thermal insulation value. Yet, HFC-152a is widely used as 

a blowing agent for one component PU foam system where the foam is mostly used to fill 

a cavity and thermal insulation value is not the most critical parameter. 

HFC-152a is used with HFC-134a in XPS boardstock. Although it does not offer long 

term thermal insulation value for the product, it is mainly used to reduce the foam density 

of HFC-134a foam, and improve processing conditions. It is also used as blowing agent 

for extruded polystyrene sheets, mostly used in food packaging applications. It is the only 

HFC that is approved by US food and drug administration (FDA) for this application. 

Physical and Chemical properties44

Chemical name: 1,1-Difluoroethane 

Formula: CH3CHF2

Molecular Weight: 66.05 

EC Number (EINECS): 200-866-1 

CAS Number: 75-37-6 

Density (g/cm3

) 0.886 (30 °C) 

Boiling Point (°C) - 25 

Vapour pressure (mmHg) 4100 (25 °C) 

Gas conductivity (mW/m. K) 14.3 (25 °C)

HSE properties

 

Toxicological data: 

 AIHA recommended TWA (ppm) 1000 

Flammable limits in air (vol. %) 3.7 - 10 

Flash Point -81 oC 

VOC No 

GWP45 (100-yr Time Horizon) 124 

ODP 0 

Commercial status

Current Producers: Changshu 3f, Daikin, DuPont, Hangzhou Fist, 

Solvay, Shandong Dongyue, Zhejiang Lantian, 

Zhejiang Sammei. 

 

44 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/2000/32.html. Consulted April 2011. 

45 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007.
 

A1 -24

HFC-245fa

Description & Usage

HFC-245fa is a non-flammable liquid having a boiling point slightly below room 

temperature. It is used for a wide variety of foam blowing applications. 

Physical and Chemical properties46

Chemical name: 1,1,1,3,3-Pentafluoropropane 

Formula: CF3CH2CHF2

Molecular Weight: 134.05 

EC Number (EINECS): 610-280-1 

CAS Number: 460-73-1 

Density (g/cm3

) 1.106 (97 °C) 

Boiling Point47 (°C) 15.3 

Freezing Point (°C) -103 

Vapour Pressure (KPa) 123 (20 °C) 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m. K) 12.05 (20 °C) 

Water Solubility 0.13 g/L 

HSE properties

Toxicological data: 

 WEEL, 8 hr. TWA (ppm) 300 

Flammable limits in air48 (vol. %) None 

Flash Point49 (°C) None 

VOC No 

GWP50 (100-yr Time Horizon) 1030 

ODP 0 

Commercial status

Current Producers: Honeywell, Central Glass, Zhejiang Lantian. 

 

 

46 http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/erd/Chemicals/24000/22949.html. Consulted April 2011. 

47 MSDS, Honeywell, Revised 28.08.2007. 

48 Measured at ambient temperature and pressure using ASTM E681-85 with electrically 

heated match ignition, spark ignition and fused wire ignition; ambient air. 

49 ASTM D 3828-87; ASTM D1310-86. 

50 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. 
 

A1 -25

HFC - 365mfc 

Description & Usage

HFC - 365mfc is a liquid at room temperature with low gas phase thermal conductivity. It 

is being used for a wide variety of foam blowing applications. 

Physical and Chemical properties51

Chemical name: 1,1,1,3,3-Pentafluorobutane 

Formula: CF3CH2CF2CH3

Molecular Weight: 148.09 

EC Number (EINECS): 430-250-1 

CAS Number: 406-58-6 

Density/Specific gravity 1.26 (25 oC) 

Boiling Point (°C) 40.2 

Vapour pressure (kPa) 53 (25 °C) 

Heat of vaporization (kJ/kg.K) 177 

Gas conductivity (mW/m. K) 10.6 (25 °C) 

Vapour density (air = 1) 5.11 

Solubility in Water52 (mg/L) 26.1 (25 °C) 

HSE Properties

Toxicological data: 

 SAEL (Solvay Acceptable Exposure Limit) 200753 (ppm) 1000 

Flammable limits in air (vol. %) 3.6-13.3 

Minimum Ignition Energy (mJ) 10.8 (25 °C) 

Flash point (°C) < –27 

Autoignition Temperature (°C) 594 

GWP54 (100-yr Time Horizon) 794 

ODP 0 

Commercial Status

Current Producers: Solvay 

Geographic Constraints

The use of HFC-365mfc might fall within the scope of European Patent 381 986 and its 

counterparts, all held by Bayer. Solvay has acquired from Bayer the right to sublicense its 

customers under these patents in all countries except in the USA and in Canada. 

 

51 http://www.solvaychemicals.co.uk/product/datasheet/0,0,-_EN-1000798,00.html. 

Consulted April 2011. 

52 http://esc.syrres.com/interkow/webprop.exe?CAS=406-58-6. Consulted April 2011. 

53 MSDS, Solvay, Issued 16.09.2008. 

54 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. 
 

A1 -26

HFC 227ea 

Description & Usage

HFC-227ea is used as a component in non-flammable HFC-365mfc blowing agent 

blends. Its prime purpose is to suppress flammability (flash-point) of the blowing agent 

and/or of the polyol system. Commercially available are blends with HFC-227ea ratios of 

7% and 13% by wt. 

Physical and Chemical properties55

Chemical name: 1,1,1,2,3,3,3 Heptafluoropropane 

Formula: CF3CHFCF3 

Molecular Weight: 170 

EC Number (EINECS): 207-079-2 

CAS Number: 431-89-0 

Density/Specific gravity 1.54 

Boiling Point (°C) -16.5 

Vapour pressure @ 25 °C (bar) 4.6 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m.K at 10 °C) 11.6 

Gas Conductivity (mW/m.K at 25 °C) 12.7 

Vapour density (air=1) 30.2 (25°C) 

Solubility in Water ≈ 0.4 g/l (20°C) 

Decomposition temperature 425 °C 

Flammable limits in air (vol. %) none 

HSE properties

Toxicological data: 

 AEL TWA 1000 ppm56

VOC No 

GWP57 (100-yr Time Horizon) 3220 

ODP 0 

Commercial Status

Current Producers: Solvay 

 

55 Manufacturer ́s information, Solvay Fluor GmbH, Germany. 

 http://www.solvaychemicals.com/EN/products/Fluor/Hydrofluorocarbons_HFC/Solk

ane227technicalgrade.aspx. Consulted April 2011. 

56 Manufacturer ́s Information, Solvay Fluor GmbH, Germany. MSDS, Rem Tec 

International, Revised 30.11.2009. 

57 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007.
 

A1 -27

1.7 Unsaturated HFCs (HFOs) 

HFO-1234ze FEA-1100 HBA-2 AFA-L1

 

Chemical Formula Trans- CF3CH=CHF Cis- CF3-CH=CH-CF3 Undisclosed Undisclosed 

Molecular Weight 114 164 Undisclosed Undisclosed

Boiling Point ( 0C ) -19 32 15.3<T<32.1 10.0<T<30.0 

Gas Conductivity (mW/mK @ 

100

C) 13.0 10.7 Not Reported 15.9 

Flammable Limits in Air (vol.%) None to 28o

C^ None None None 

TLV or OEL (ppm) (USA) Unpublished 9.7 Undisclosed Undisclosed 

GWP (100 yr time horizon) 6 5 <15 <15 

Key Producers Honeywell DuPont Honeywell Arkema 

^ Flame limits of 7.0-9.5 at 30oC are quoted 
 

A2 - 1

APPENDIX 2: ALLOCATION OF COUNTRIES TO REGIONS 

Latin America and the Caribbean 

(LAC) Antigua and Barbuda 

Argentina 

Bahamas 

Barbados 

Belize

Bolivia

Brazil

Chile

Colombia 

Costa Rica 

Cuba 

Dominica 

Dominican Republic 

Ecuador 

El Salvador 

Grenada 

Guatemala 

Guyana

Haiti

Honduras 

Jamaica 

Mexico

Nicaragua 

Panama

Paraguay 

Peru

Saint Kitts and Nevis 

Saint Lucia 

Saint Vincent and The Grenadines 

Suriname 

Trinidad and Tobago 

Uruguay 

Venezuela

Middle East/North Africa 

(MENA) Algeria

Bahrain 

Egypt

Iran, Islamic Republic of 

Iraq
 

A2 - 2

Israel

Jordan

Kuwait

Lebanon 

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 

Mauritania

Morocco

Oman

Palestine

Qatar

Saudi Arabia 

Syrian Arab Republic 

Tunisia 

Turkey

United Arab Emirates 

Yemen

Sub-Saharan Africa 

(SSA) Angola

Benin

Botswana 

Burkina Faso 

Burundi

Cameroon 

Cape Verde 

Central African Republic 

Chad 

Comoros 

Congo 

Congo, Democratic Republic of 

Cote d'Ivoire 

Djibouti

Equatorial Guinea 

Eritrea

Ethiopia

Gabon 

Gambia

Ghana 

Guinea 

Guinea-Bissau 

Kenya

Lesotho

Liberia 
 

A2 - 3

Madagascar 

Malawi

Mali

Mauritius

Mozambique

Namibia 

Niger 

Nigeria 

Rwanda 

Sao Tome and Principe 

Senegal

Seychelles

Sierra Leone 

Somalia

South Africa 

Sudan

Swaziland 

Tanzania, United Republic of 

Togo

Uganda 

Zambia

Zimbabwe 

South/Central Asia 

(SCA) Afghanistan 

Bangladesh 

Bhutan

India

Maldives

Nepal 

Pakistan 

Sri Lanka 

South-East Asia 

(SEA) Brunei Darussalam 

Cambodia 

Indonesia 

Lao People's Democratic Republic 

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines 

Singapore 

Thailand

Viet Nam 
 

A2 - 4

North-East Asia 

(NEA) China (incl. Taiwan)

Mongolia 

North Korea 

South Korea 

Japan

Japan 

Europe Albania

Andorra

Austria 

Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Belgium

Bulgaria 

Croatia 

Cyprus 

Czech Republic 

Denmark 

Estonia

Finland

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Holy See 

Hungary 

Latvia

Iceland 

Ireland

Italy

Liechtenstein 

Lithuania 

Luxembourg 

Macedonia 

Malta

Moldova

Monaco 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Poland

Portugal

Romania 
 

A2 - 5

San Marino 

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden 

Switzerland 

United Kingdom 

Yugoslavia 

North America 

Canada 

USA

Australia, New Zealand & The Pacific 

(ANZP) Australia 

Cook islands 

Fiji

Kiribati

Marshall Islands 

Micronesia 

Nauru 

New Zealand 

Niue

Palau

Papua New Guinea 

Samoa

Solomon Islands 

Tonga

Tuvalu

Vanuatu

Russia & Former Soviet Countries

Armenia

Azerbaijan 

Belarus 

Georgia

Kazakhstan 

Kyrgyzstan 

Russian Federation 

Tajikistan 

Turkmenistan 

Ukraine 

Uzbekistan 
 

A3 - 1

APPENDIX 3: UNEP FOAMS TECHNICAL OPTIONS COMMITTEE

Committee Member Affiliation Country 

 

Mr. Terry Armitt Hennecke United Kingdom 

Mr. Paul Ashford, Co-chair Caleb Management Services Limited United Kingdom 

Mr. Chris Bloom Dow United States 

Mr. Roy Chowdhury Australian Urethane Systems Australia 

Mr. Kiyoshi Hara Japanese Urethane Manufacturers Assoc Japan 

Mr. Mike Hayslett Maytag/AHAM United States 

Dr. Mike Jeffs Consultant Belgium 

Mr. Candido Lomba ABRIPUR Brazil 

Mr. Yehia Lotfi Technocom Egypt 

Mr. Christoph Meurer Solvay Germany 

Ms. Francesca Pignagnoli Dow Italy 

Mr. Miguel Quintero, Co-chair Consultant Colombia 

Mr. Ulrich Schmidt Haltermann Products Germany 

Mr. Enshang Sheng Huntsman Polyurethanes China 

Ms. Helen Walter-Terrinoni Du Pont United States 

Mr. Tom Werkema Arkema United States 

Mr. Dave Williams Honeywell United States 

Mr. Allen Zhang Owens Corning China 

 

 

{PRIVATE }
Ozone Secretariat

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

P.O. Box 30552-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

Tel. No.: +254 (0) 20 762 3611

Website: http://ozone.unep.org

http://ozone.unmfs.org 

E-mail: ozoneinfo@unep.org

United Nations Environment Programme

P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100, Kenya

Tel: +254-(0)20-762 1234

Fax: +254-(0)20-762 3927

Email: uneppub@unep.org

web: www.unep.org

www.unep.org