America’s 

Scenic and 

Historic 

Trails on 

Public 

Lands: The 

Intersection 

of Cultures, 

Heritage, 

and Outdoor 

Recreation
upper elementary levels. Civics and history 

teachers who are covering Western U.S. history, 

lawmaking, or cooperation and conflict between 

cultural groups may find the unit especially useful, 

as may language arts teachers who want to 

provide engaging primary source documents for 

their students.

The unit supports innovative strategies in 

education, such as:

Social and emotional learning: Students 

participate in small groups in which they work 

together, listen and speak to one another, and 

collaborate. 

Interdisciplinary instruction: As they progress 

through the unit, students analyze maps to 

determine the nearest scenic or historic trail, 

practice persuasive communication skills, 

explore clauses of a statute, and interpret 

diary entries from people who traveled on 

historic trails.

Each activity takes 45 minutes to conduct, though 

they include extension ideas. The activities work 

best as a collective unit that progresses from 

introducing scenic and historic trails to parsing 

legislative language and diaries. 

Curriculum 

Connections

This unit addresses the following Common Core 

English Language Arts Standards:

• CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.1: Cite several pieces 

of textual evidence to support analysis of what 

the text says explicitly as well as inferences 

drawn from the text.

• CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.7.3: Analyze the 

interactions between individuals, events, 

and ideas in a text (e.g., how ideas influence 

individuals or events, or how individuals 

influence ideas or events).

Dear Teacher,

Welcome to this Classroom Investigation Series 

unit about America’s national scenic and historic 

trails. The main goal of this teaching guide 

is for students to understand and appreciate 

their public lands through outdoor recreation 

and analysis of cultural interactions between 

emigrants and American Indians during westward 

expansion.

Through this teaching guide, students learn to 

locate national scenic and historic trails that 

they can visit with their families. Students also 

carefully read the inspirational language of the 

National Trails System Act, which motivates 

them to explore public lands and highlights the 

crucial role of volunteers in trail maintenance. 

Like other agencies in the Department of the 

Interior, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 

values the significant contributions made by 

volunteers across public lands. Those who 

volunteer on public lands learn how multiple-use 

land management balances energy and mineral 

development, recreation, respect for Indian 

tribes and Alaska Natives, grazing, and habitat 

protection. Recreation and volunteer experiences 

on public lands can turn casual visitors into 

well-informed, lifelong allies of public lands who 

deeply understand the BLM’s mission.

The final activity in the teaching guide shows 

students that there was no single way that 

American Indians and emigrants to the West 

interacted, contrary to media and movie 

portrayals. Students compare diary entries 

that describe a range of interactions between 

groups, from respectful cooperation to spiraling 

violence. The diaries present the complex 

interests and motivations that drove the behavior 

of emigrants and American Indians. As students 

gain an appreciation of this complicated history, 

they deepen their respect for American Indian 

culture. Ultimately, students understand the 

nation’s special commitments to American Indian 

sovereignty, self-determination, and prosperity.

Although designed for middle school students, 

this unit can be adapted for high school and 
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

This unit also supports standard D2.Civ.3.6-8 of 

the “College, Career, & Civic Life C3 Framework 

for Social Studies State Standards,” published 

by the National Council for the Social Studies: 

Examine the origins, purposes, and impact of 

constitutions, laws, treaties, and international 

agreements.

The activities address the following essential 

understandings:

• Scenic and historic trails are open to all and are 

located near most Americans.

• The National Trails System is built upon four 

fundamental values: scenic, historic, natural, 

and cultural.

• Congress specified clear roles for citizens and 

groups in the National Trails System Act.

• Diaries of people who traveled on historic trails 

illuminate crucial elements of American history.

About the Bureau of 

Land Management

The BLM manages more than 245 million acres 

of public land located primarily in 12 western 

states, including Alaska. The BLM also administers 

700 million acres of subsurface mineral estate 

throughout the nation. The agency’s mission is 

to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity 

of America’s public lands for the use and 

enjoyment of present and future generations. 

Diverse activities authorized on these lands 

generated $75 billion in sales of goods and 

services throughout the American economy in 

fiscal year 2016—more than any other agency in 

the Department of the Interior. These activities 

supported more than 372,000 jobs. 

The Department of the Interior and the BLM carry 

out their overlapping missions by encouraging the 

responsible development of energy and minerals 

on public lands; working as good neighbors 

with partners and communities to promote 

multiple use on public lands; supporting working 

landscapes to boost employment; and providing 

access to hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, and 

other recreational opportunities. National scenic 

and historic trails are congressionally designated 

trails protected by the BLM and other land 

management agencies. BLM-managed trails 

contribute to visitors’ health and enhance visitor 

appreciation for America’s public lands. As visitors 

gain appreciation for public lands, they deepen 

their understanding of shared conservation 

stewardship, habitat preservation, and multipleuse management. Trails invite the public to 

conserve natural treasures while increasing public 

access to the outdoors.

The Importance of 

Scenic and Historic 

Trails

National scenic and historic trails bring Americans 

outdoors and achieve two important outcomes. 

As stated in the National Trails System Act, 

trails “provide for the ever-increasing outdoor 

recreation needs” of Americans and help them 

fight a sedentary lifestyle. Whereas books, 

television shows, and other media promote 

awareness of historical events, trails invite people 

to walk where historic figures walked, thereby 

illuminating our shared past while recreating on 

public lands.

President Lyndon B. Johnson prompted Congress 

in 1965 to “copy the great Appalachian Trail 

in all parts of our country, and make full use of 

rights-of-way and other public paths.” Congress 

responded in 1968 by passing the National Trails 

System Act. The act designated two national 

scenic trails and established the process and 

criteria for future designations. It also defined 

four categories of trails:
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

• National recreation trails “provide a variety 

of outdoor recreation uses in or reasonably 

accessible to urban areas.”

• National scenic trails “provide for maximum 

outdoor recreation potential and for the 

conservation and enjoyment of the nationally 

significant scenic, historic, natural, or cultural 

qualities of the areas through which such trails 

may pass.”

• National historic trails are “extended trails 

which follow as closely as possible and 

practicable the original trails or routes of travel 

of national historic significance.”

• Connecting or side trails “provide additional 

points of public access to national recreation, 

national scenic or national historic trails or 

which will provide connections between such 

trails.”

Visit https://www.nps.gov/subjects/

nationaltrailssystem/maps.htm for a map of all 

trails in the National Trails System. The map is 

designed to facilitate access to national scenic 

and historic trails.

In addition to managing significant portions of 

national scenic trails, the BLM is entrusted with 

managing more miles of national historic trails 

than any other agency. BLM responsibilities 

include managing 18 national trails (5 scenic 

and 13 historic), crossing nearly 6,000 miles of 

BLM public lands in 15 states. The BLM serves as 

interagency trail administrator, or trailwide lead, 

for the Iditarod, Old Spanish, and El Camino 

Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trails. 

The BLM also supports five national trail-related 

visitor centers that tell the stories of the trails. 

Managing each trail across the landscape involves 

a mosaic of private lands and federal, state, tribal, 

and local governments, requiring extraordinary 

interagency and partner collaboration to connect 

every mile across urban, suburban, rural, and 

remote areas.

National historic trails tell the iconic stories 

of America, including exploration, western 

expansion and settlement, economic 

development, cultural divides, and the pursuit of 

religious freedom. These pathways of history and 

their associated settings are identified, protected, 

and interpreted by the BLM and volunteers for 

future generations. Physical remnants include 

wagon ruts, swales, wagon train encampments, 

structures, signature rocks, pioneer grave sites, 

skirmish sites, and artifacts such as period coins, 

weapons, household items, and tools.

America’s prized National Trails System 

exemplifies shared stewardship and conservation 

through numerous trail partnerships; offers 

back-to-work employment opportunities along 

trails (e.g., trail maintenance and visitor services); 

and serves American families by providing 

outstanding recreational opportunities to enhance 

quality of life.

For more information about how the BLM 

manages national scenic and historic trails, 

including brief descriptions of the 18 trails 

protected by the BLM, visit https://www.blm.

gov/node/4227.

Table of Contents

Activity 1 National Scenic and Historic Trails: 

Why and Where?

Activity 2 The National Trails System Act: 

What and Why?

Activity 3 In Their Own Words: Culture and 

Conflict on the Trails
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 1, National 

Scenic and Historic 

Trails: Why and Where?

For the Teacher

This activity addresses the following 

essential understandings:

• Scenic and historic trails are open to all and 

are located near most Americans.

• The National Trails System is built upon four 

fundamental values: scenic, historic, natural, 

and cultural.

Overview

This is the first of three activities 

that addresses national scenic and 

historic trails. This activity introduces 

students to:

• The scale and location of national scenic and 

historic trails.

• The values outlined in the National Trails 

System Act.

Time Estimate

45 minutes

Learning Objectives

Students will be able to (1) describe the four 

values underlying the National Trails System 

Act; (2) identify the location of the national 

scenic or historic trail closest to their school; 

and (3) describe the attractive features of 

that trail.

Teacher Preparation

1. Arrange for computers and an 

internet connection so students 

can find and research the 

nearest trail.

2. Make enough copies of the Activity 1 

Handout for each student.

3. Provide flipchart paper and markers for five or 

six small groups.
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Procedure

students into groups of four or five, in which 

they will prepare and deliver a “radio ad” 

designed to attract visitors to the trail. The 

ad should include:

• The distance of the trail from your school.

• The approximate length of the trail and 

what visitors can do or see there.

• The reason the trail was designated (which 

of the four values: scenic, historic, natural, 

and cultural).

• Why people should visit the trail—what’s 

fun, educational, or interesting about it.

5. Invite groups to “air” their 2-minute ads until 

all groups have presented.

6. Reconfigure the class into one unit and ask: 

What did you learn about the importance of 

trails? What features make a trail attractive 

to visitors?

1. Ask students what they see in their minds 

when they hear the word “trail.” Ask students 

to discuss the trails they have visited, 

including how far they typically travel to get 

to trails, how often they visit trails, how much 

time they spend on trails after arriving, what 

they do on trails, and why they visit trails.

2. Discuss how their answers relate to the four 

values that shape the National Trails System Act: 

scenic, historic, natural, and cultural. Explain that 

the 1968 act created the National Trails System, 

designated two existing trails, and described the 

process for designating new trails.

3. Using a projector or individual computers, 

visit https://www.nps.gov/subjects/

nationaltrailssystem/maps.htm to find the 

scenic or historic trail closest to your school.

4. Once students identify the closest trail, 

distribute the Activity 1 Handout and divide 

Adaptations to Consider

Assessment

Work with students to develop a rubric for the ads.

• Ask students to produce alternative media to 

promote the nearest trail, such as a collage, 

website, or YouTube video.

• For steps 3 and 4, ask students to identify the 

five or six closest scenic and historic trails, 

and assign a unique trail for which each group 

should create a radio ad.

• Plan a field trip to hike a portion of the trail 

the class selected, and engage students in 

planning the trip as much as possible.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 1 Handout

National Scenic and Historic Trails: Why and Where?

Based on the national scenic or historic trail nearest to your school, prepare and present a 2-minute 

radio advertisement that describes the trail. Be sure to include these items in your ad:

• The distance of the trail from your school. 

• The approximate length of the trail and what visitors can do or see along the trail.

• The reason the trail was designated (which of the four values: scenic, historic, natural, and cultural).

• Why people should visit the trail—what’s fun, educational, or interesting about it.

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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 2, The 

National Trails System 

Act: What and Why?

For the Teacher

This activity addresses the following 

essential understanding:

• Congress specified clear roles for citizens and 

groups in the National Trails System Act.

Overview

This is the second of three activities 

that addresses national scenic and 

historic trails. This activity introduces 

students to:

• The rationale for the National Trails System 

Act of 1968.

• What the act says about how citizens can be 

involved in establishing and maintaining trails.

Time Estimate

45 minutes

Learning Objectives

Students will be able to (1) identify the reasons 

Congress passed the act and (2) describe the 

roles envisioned for citizens through the act. 

Teacher Preparation

1. Read the background material, 

which describes citizen 

involvement in maintaining and 

publicizing trails.

2. Make enough copies of the Activity 2 

Handout (front and back) for each student.
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Procedure

Each year, more than 25,000 volunteers help the 

BLM carry out its mission, and many maintain 

and promote scenic and historic trails. The 

following example describes how a group helped 

to maintain a BLM-managed trail in Oregon. In 

2016, the BLM’s Ashland Resource Area hosted 

an American Hiking Society Volunteer Vacation. 

These events give volunteers interested in trail 

Assessment

work and recreation site maintenance a chance 

to give back to the places they love to visit. A 

10-person volunteer crew camped for a week at 

the Hyatt Lake Recreation Area. During the day, 

volunteers performed routine maintenance work, 

such as removing downed trees, on the Pacific 

Crest National Scenic Trail.

• Circulate among pairs and groups 

to determine how well students are 

understanding the excerpts of the act.

• Assign this constructed response item: 

Which of the four values from the act (scenic, 

historic, natural, and cultural) is most relevant 

to the trail you selected in Activity 1, and how 

does the trail support that value?

Background

1. Inform students that Congress passed a law 

in 1968 called the National Trails System Act, 

to define some trails as scenic and historic. 

The act also gave future lawmakers a set of 

standards for adding new trails. 

2. Distribute the Activity 2 Handout, and ask 

students to read the excerpts from the act 

and answer the six discussion questions.

3. Pair students together so they can compare 

answers for 5 minutes. Note: Answers will vary 

for questions 1 and 2. 

4. Ask each pair of students to join with another 

pair to describe how Congress attempted to 

bring to life the four values at the heart of the 

act: scenic, historic, natural, and cultural. 

5. Reconfigure the class into one unit and 

ask (1) what did you learn by discussing 

the questions with other students, and (2) 

what specific actions can citizens take to 

be involved in the planning, development, 

maintenance, and management of trails? 
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 2 Handout

National Trails System Act: 

What and Why?

Directions: Read the excerpts of the National Trails 

System Act, and answer the questions that follow.

16 U.S.C. 1241: Congressional statement of 

policy and declaration of purpose

(a) CONSIDERATIONS FOR DETERMINING 

ESTABLISHMENT OF TRAILS

In order to provide for the ever-increasing 

outdoor recreation needs of an expanding 

population and in order to promote the 

preservation of, public access to, travel within, 

and enjoyment and appreciation of the openair, outdoor areas and historic resources of 

the Nation, trails should be established (i) 

primarily, near the urban areas of the Nation, 

and (ii) secondarily, within scenic areas and 

along historic travel routes of the Nation, 

which are often more remotely located.

(b) INITIAL COMPONENTS

The purpose of this chapter is to provide 

the means for attaining these objectives by 

instituting a national system of recreation, 

scenic and historic trails, by designating the 

Appalachian Trail and the Pacific Crest Trail 

as the initial components of that system, and 

by prescribing the methods by which, and 

standards according to which, additional 

components may be added to the system.

(c) VOLUNTEER CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT

The Congress recognizes the valuable 

contributions that volunteers and private, 

nonprofit trail groups have made to the 

development and maintenance of the Nation’s 

trails. In recognition of these contributions, 

it is further the purpose of this chapter 

to encourage and assist volunteer citizen 

involvement in the planning, development, 

maintenance, and management, where 

appropriate, of trails.

16 U.S.C. 1242: National Trails System

(a) COMPOSITION: RECREATION TRAILS; 

SCENIC TRAILS; HISTORIC TRAILS; 

CONNECTING OR SIDE TRAILS; UNIFORM 

MARKERS

The national system of trails shall be 

composed of the following:

(1) National recreation trails...which will 

provide a variety of outdoor recreation 

uses in or reasonably accessible to urban 

areas.

(2) National scenic trails...which will be 

extended trails so located as to provide 

for maximum outdoor recreation potential 

and for the conservation and enjoyment 

of the nationally significant scenic, historic, 

natural, or cultural qualities of the areas 

through which such trails may pass. 

National scenic trails may be located so 

as to represent desert, marsh, grassland, 

mountain, canyon, river, forest, and 

other areas, as well as landforms which 

exhibit significant characteristics of the 

physiographic regions of the Nation.

(3) National historic trails...which will be 

extended trails which follow as closely 

as possible and practicable the original 

trails or routes of travel of national historic 

significance. National historic trails shall 

have as their purpose the identification 

and protection of the historic route and its 

historic remnants and artifacts for public 

use and enjoyment. 
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Questions

1. What is the first reason given for the National Trails System Act in 16 U.S.C. 1241(a)? Why do you 

think urban areas are prioritized over more remote areas?

2. Do you agree that urban areas should receive priority? Why or why not?

3. In addition to establishing the Appalachian Trail and Pacific Crest Trail, what does 16 U.S.C. 1241(b) 

accomplish?

4. What does Congress encourage volunteer citizens to do regarding trails? Why does Congress 

encourage volunteer citizen involvement with scenic and historic trails? What specific trail 

maintenance and marketing tasks are appropriate for citizen volunteers and groups?

5. In what kinds of locations should national scenic trails be established? Why?

6. What is the purpose for creating national historic trails?
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3, In Their 

Own Words: Culture 

and Conflict on the 

Trails

For the Teacher

This activity addresses the following 

essential understanding:

• Diaries of people who traveled on historic 

trails illuminate crucial elements of American 

history.

Overview

This is the third of three activities 

that addresses national scenic and 

historic trails. This activity introduces 

students to:

• Primary source documents that illuminate the 

interactions between American Indians and 

emigrants who headed west on trails.

• Diverse perspectives on conflicts between 

emigrants and American Indians.

Time Estimate

45 minutes

Learning Objectives

Students will be able to (1) identify various 

types of primary source documents that 

describe the interactions between emigrants 

and American Indians and (2) assess what 

primary source documents say about conflicts 

between the two groups of people and how 

those conflicts were addressed. 

Teacher Preparation

1. Make copies of the Activity 3 

Handout—there are five versions 

(A through E). Make enough 

copies for each small group.
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Assessment

• Have students write their own “diary entry” 

that describes an episode in their lives that 

involved cross-cultural cooperation or conflict. 

Students should include how assumptions, 

communication challenges, or common 

interests affected the experience and 

compare the historic diary entry to their own 

“diary entry.”

• Have students assume that they are 

newspaper or radio reporters with a chance to 

interview their favorite diarist of the five. Ask 

them to develop a set of at least 10 interview 

questions they would ask that diarist.

Procedure

1. Point out that one way to understand part 

of America’s story is to examine how people 

described the historical events they lived 

through. Historic trails encourage us to 

investigate our heritage and how key events 

helped shape the nation’s development.

2. Explain that the trails brought diverse cultural, 

religious, ethnic, and national groups into 

contact with each other. Along the trails, 

American Indian and European American 

cultures intersected, resulting in varying 

degrees of cooperation and conflict. Explain 

that students will look at primary source 

documents to gain an understanding of the 

cultural interaction. Documents describe 

experiences of European Americans and 

American Indians.

3. Divide the class into five equal-sized groups. 

Distribute Handouts A through E by group 

so that each student has a copy of the 

appropriate handout. Give students about 

10 minutes to silently read the handout.

4. Ask students to follow the directions on the 

handout. For the next 15-20 minutes, their job is 

to determine a conflict level rating and answer 

questions at the bottom of their handout.

5. Ask each group to select a spokesperson. 

Provide 5 minutes for each spokesperson to 

report out on their group’s discussion and 

decision. Prompt them to cite the documents 

to support their decision.

6. Reconvene the entire class into one unit. Ask 

whether they think the five diary entries, overall, 

suggest more cooperation between cultures 

than violent conflict.

• Have students hike a nearby trail with friends 

or family (or go on an organized field trip) and 

report back on:

- What types of information were on the 

interpretive trail signs? Also, what does 

the trail’s website say about the history of 

the area?

- How challenging would the trail have 

been for a wagon train to use?

- What clues are along the trail about how 

people lived in the past (e.g., were there 

rock fences or water sources, and what 

might such clues reveal about how people 

used the land)?
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Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Alternatives to Consider

• Instead of having groups report out to the 

entire class for step 5, regroup students so 

that each new group has one student who can 

explain each of the diary entries (that is, each 

new group would have one student who read 

the Clayton diary, one who read the Whitman 

diary, one who read the Delano diary, and so 

forth). In the new groups, give each student 2 

minutes to explain the diary entry he or 

she read.

• Refer students back to the trail they identified 

in Activity 1 (or, if they identified a scenic trail, 

ask them to find the nearest historic trail). 

Ask students to research and discuss or write 

about these questions:

- What historic event does the trail 

commemorate?

- Why is it important for people to know 

about this event?
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group A

In Their Own Words: Culture 

and Conflict on the Trails

There is no denying that there were brutal aspects 

of Indian-emigrant relations and a cultural clash 

as settlers moved into native lands. However, 

countless records show that peaceful relationships 

and visits were also common among Indians and 

emigrants. Many emigrants found that Indians 

were more interested in trading than violence. 

Food was often the primary motivation, with 

Indians providing emigrants much needed 

supplies. In return, Indians sought clothing, 

firearms, and small items, such as mirrors, tin 

cups, fishhooks, or metal tools. Emigrants often 

employed Indians to herd livestock, act as guides, 

or assist in river crossings. Meetings between 

Indians and emigrants were regularly peaceful 

and mutually advantageous. Indian culture, at 

the time, did not record written accounts of 

their history. As a result, much of the information 

comes from records of white European 

Americans.

Directions: Read the Clayton diary entry to yourself, 

decide whether the diary entry supports the 

“cooperation” theme using the scale, and discuss 

the questions with others in your group. Select a 

spokesperson who will explain your group’s diary 

entry and answers to the rest of the class.

William Clayton Diary Entry

“At 1:00 p.m. the encampment was formed on 

the bank of the lake and a guard instantly placed 

at the passes, as many of the Indians had followed 

us...One of the Indians presented several 

certificates from persons who had previously 

traveled through their village, all certifying that 

the Grand Chief of the Pawnees was friendly 

disposed, and they had made him presents of a 

little powder, lead, salt, etc. Heber gave them a 

little tobacco, and a little salt. President Young 

gave to the chief, some powder, lead, salt and a 

number of the brethren gave a little flour each. 

The old chief, however, did not seem to think the 

presents sufficient, and said he did not like us 

to go west through their country, he was afraid 

we should kill their buffalo and drive them off. 

Brother Shumway told him we did not like buffalo, 

but this does not appear to give him much 

satisfaction. However, there was no appearance 

of hostility. In fact, all that came to camp seemed 

highly pleased to shake hands with our brethren 

and would run from one side to another so as 

not to miss one...Brother Shumway says there 

are about twelve thousand of the Pawnees in this 

neighborhood, and it is reported that there are 

five thousand warriors. We did not see many of 

them...We have no fear, however, because their 

only object appears to be plunder, and it is the 

calculation to be well prepared by night and day.”

Citation: Clayton, W. 1921. William Clayton’s 

Journal: A Daily Record of the Journey of the 

Original Company of “Mormon” Pioneers from 

Nauvoo, Illinois, to the Valley of the Great Salt 

Lake. Salt Lake City: The Deseret News.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group A (continued)

Using the scale below, assign the diary entry a number from 1 to 5, and explain your rating with 

evidence from Clayton’s words.

1 2 3 4 5

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

were in constant 

violent conflict.

Emigrants 

and American 

Indians had 

misunderstandings 

and occasional 

conflict.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

had conflicts but 

worked them out 

peacefully.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

resolved most 

conflicts with one 

side benefiting 

more than the 

other.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

found a way to 

work out conflicts 

to the benefit of 

both sides.

Questions:

• What is the cause of the conflict between the Mormon pioneers and the American Indians? 

Why does Clayton say the Mormon pioneers do not fear violent conflict with the Pawnees?

• To what extent would you say there is trust and respect between the emigrants and American 

Indians? Cite evidence from the diary.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group B

In Their Own Words: Culture 

and Conflict on the Trails

There is no denying that there were brutal aspects 

of Indian-emigrant relations and a cultural clash 

as settlers moved into native lands. However, 

countless records show that peaceful relationships 

and visits were also common among Indians and 

emigrants. Many emigrants found that Indians 

were more interested in trading than violence. 

Food was often the primary motivation, with 

Indians providing emigrants much needed 

supplies. In return, Indians sought clothing, 

firearms, and small items, such as mirrors, tin 

cups, fishhooks, or metal tools. Emigrants often 

employed Indians to herd livestock, act as guides, 

or assist in river crossings. Meetings between 

Indians and emigrants were regularly peaceful 

and mutually advantageous. Indian culture, at 

the time, did not record written accounts of 

their history. As a result, much of the information 

comes from records of white European 

Americans.

Directions: Read the Whitman diary entry to 

yourself, decide whether the diary entry supports 

the “cooperation” theme using the scale, and 

discuss the questions with others in your group. 

Select a spokesperson who will explain your 

group’s diary entry and answers to the rest of the 

class.

Narcissa Whitman Diary Entry

July 27, 1836: “Have had no game of any kind 

except a few messes of antelope, which an Indian 

gave us. We have plenty of dried buffalo meat, 

which we have purchased from the Indians - and 

dry it is for me. It appears so filthy! I can scarcely 

eat it; but it keeps us alive, and we ought to be 

thankful for it...Do not think I regret coming. 

No, far from it; I would not go back for a world. 

I am contented and happy, notwithstanding I 

sometimes get very hungry and weary. Have six 

week’s steady journey before us. Feel sometimes 

as if it were a long time to be traveling. Long 

for rest, but must not murmur. Feel to pity the 

poor Indian women, who are continually traveling 

in this manner during their lives, and know no 

other comfort. They do all the work and are the 

complete slaves of their husbands. I am making 

some little progress in their language; long to be 

able to converse with them about the Saviour.”

July 29: “Mr. Gray was quite sick this morning and 

inclined to fall behind. Husband and I rode with 

him about two hours and a half, soon after which 

he gave out entirely. I was sent on, and soon after 

husband left him to come and get the cart; but 

I overtook an Indian, who went back and soon 

met husband, and both returned to Mr. Gray. The 

Indian helped him on his horse, got on behind 

him, supported him in his arms and in this manner 

slowly came into camp. This was welcome relief, 

and all rejoiced to see them come in; for some 

of us had been riding seven hours, others eight, 

without any nourishment.”

Citation: Whitman, N. 2001. The Letters and 

Journals of Narcissa Whitman, 1836-1847. https://

www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/

two/whitman1.htm#062736.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group B (continued)

Using the scale below, assign the diary entry a number from 1 to 5, and explain your rating with 

evidence from Whitman’s words.

1 2 3 4 5

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

were in constant 

violent conflict.

Emigrants 

and American 

Indians had 

misunderstandings 

and occasional 

conflict.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

had conflicts but 

worked them out 

peacefully.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

resolved most 

conflicts with one 

side benefiting 

more than the 

other.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

found a way to 

work out conflicts 

to the benefit of 

both sides.

Questions:

• How fairly does Whitman think American Indian women are treated? Cite evidence from 

the diary.

• How does Whitman seem to feel about the Indian who helped Mr. Gray? Cite evidence from the 

diary.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group C

In Their Own Words: Culture 

and Conflict on the Trails

There is no denying that there were brutal aspects 

of Indian-emigrant relations and a cultural clash 

as settlers moved into native lands. However, 

countless records show that peaceful relationships 

and visits were also common among Indians and 

emigrants. Many emigrants found that Indians 

were more interested in trading than violence. 

Food was often the primary motivation, with 

Indians providing emigrants much needed 

supplies. In return, Indians sought clothing, 

firearms, and small items, such as mirrors, tin 

cups, fishhooks, or metal tools. Emigrants often 

employed Indians to herd livestock, act as guides, 

or assist in river crossings. Meetings between 

Indians and emigrants were regularly peaceful 

and mutually advantageous. Indian culture, at 

the time, did not record written accounts of 

their history. As a result, much of the information 

comes from records of white European Americans.

Directions: Read the Tul-lux Hol-li-quilla 

testimony description to yourself, decide whether 

the testimony supports the “cooperation” theme 

using the scale, and discuss the questions with 

others in your group. Select a spokesperson who 

will explain your group’s entry and answers to the 

rest of the class.

Tul-lux Hol-li-quilla Testimony Description

According to the court reporter who documented 

the testimony, Tul-lux Hol-li-quilla “says that he 

was present at the signing of the treaty with the 

Warm Springs Indians, at the Dalles, Oregon....

he knows that said treaty reserved the rights of 

his tribe to fish at their usual and accustomed 

places.”

The court reporter quotes Tul-lux Hol-liquilla as saying, “I went into the room where 

[Superintendent of Indian Affairs] Huntington 

was and he explained to me that he had a paper 

which he wanted me to sign...that the said paper 

would protect us when leaving the agency, when 

fishing, hunting or gathering berries; that if we 

would sign the paper passes would be issued 

whenever we left the reservation, which would 

show the white men that we were not Piutes 

and it was with this understanding that I signed 

the paper presented, by Huntington. Absolutely 

nothing whatever was said by Huntington, 

or anyone else present at the said meeting, 

concerning our fishing rights or fishery. I am sure 

that we would have refused to sign any papers 

that would take from us such a precious right; that 

it was about a year later when we learned...that 

Huntington had deceived us and induced us to 

sign away our fishing rights.” 

Citation: Bureau of Indian Affairs. 1915. Affidavit 

of Tul-lux Hol-li-quilla regarding the treaties of 

1855 and 1865. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Warm 

Springs, OR.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group C (continued)

Using the scale below, assign the testimony a number from 1 to 5, and explain your rating with 

evidence from Tul-lux Hol-li-quilla’s words.

1 2 3 4 5

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

were in constant 

violent conflict.

Emigrants 

and American 

Indians had 

misunderstandings 

and occasional 

conflict.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

had conflicts but 

worked them out 

peacefully.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

resolved most 

conflicts with one 

side benefiting 

more than the 

other.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

found a way to 

work out conflicts 

to the benefit of 

both sides.

Questions:

• What did Tul-lux Hol-li-quilla think the Warm Springs Indians would gain by signing the treaty?

• How does he say they lost their fishing rights? 
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group D

In Their Own Words: Culture 

and Conflict on the Trails

There is no denying that there were brutal aspects 

of Indian-emigrant relations and a cultural clash 

as settlers moved into native lands. However, 

countless records show that peaceful relationships 

and visits were also common among Indians and 

emigrants. Many emigrants found that Indians 

were more interested in trading than violence. 

Food was often the primary motivation, with 

Indians providing emigrants much needed 

supplies. In return, Indians sought clothing, 

firearms, and small items, such as mirrors, tin 

cups, fishhooks, or metal tools. Emigrants often 

employed Indians to herd livestock, act as guides, 

or assist in river crossings. Meetings between 

Indians and emigrants were regularly peaceful 

and mutually advantageous. Indian culture, at 

the time, did not record written accounts of 

their history. As a result, much of the information 

comes from records of white European Americans.

Directions: Read the Burnett diary entry to 

yourself, decide whether the diary entry supports 

the “cooperation” theme using the scale, and 

discuss the questions with others in your group. 

Select a spokesperson who will explain your 

group’s diary entry and answers to the rest of the 

class.

Peter Burnett Diary Entry

“At the fort we found the Cheyenne chief and 

some of his people. He was a tall, trim, noblelooking Indian, aged about thirty. The Cheyennes 

at that time boasted that they had never shed the 

blood of the white man. He went alone very freely 

among our people, and I happened to meet him 

at one of our camps, where there was a foolish, 

rash young man, who wantonly insulted the chief. 

Though the chief did not understand the insulting 

words, he clearly understood the insulting tone 

and gestures. I saw from the expression of his 

countenance that the chief was most indignant, 

though perfectly cool and brave. He made no 

reply in words, but walked away slowly; and when 

some twenty feet from the man who had insulted 

him, he turned around, and solemly and slowly 

shook the forefinger of his right hand at the 

young man several times, as much as to say, ‘I will 

attend to your case.’

I saw there was trouble coming, and I followed 

the chief, and by kind earnest gestures made 

him understand at last that this young man 

was considered by us all as a half-witted fool, 

unworthy of the notice of any sensible man; and 

that we never paid attention to what he said, 

as we hardly considered him responsible for his 

language. The moment the chief comprehended 

my meaning I saw a change come over his 

countenance, and he went away perfectly 

satisfied. He was a clear-headed man; and, though 

unlettered, he understood human nature.”

Citation: Burnett, P.H. 1880. Recollections 

and Opinions of an Old Pioneer. New York: D. 

Appleton and Company.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group D (continued)

Using the scale below, assign the diary entry a number from 1 to 5, and explain your rating with 

evidence from Burnett’s words.

1 2 3 4 5

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

were in constant 

violent conflict.

Emigrants 

and American 

Indians had 

misunderstandings 

and occasional 

conflict.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

had conflicts but 

worked them out 

peacefully.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

resolved most 

conflicts with one 

side benefiting 

more than the 

other.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

found a way to 

work out conflicts 

to the benefit of 

both sides.

Questions:

• What almost sparked a violent conflict between the young man and the Cheyenne chief, and how 

did Burnett manage to prevent a violent outcome?

• To what extent would you say there is trust and respect between the emigrants and American 

Indians? Cite evidence from Burnett’s recollections.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group E

In Their Own Words: Culture 

and Conflict on the Trails

There is no denying that there were brutal aspects 

of Indian-emigrant relations and a cultural clash 

as settlers moved into native lands. However, 

countless records show that peaceful relationships 

and visits were also common among Indians and 

emigrants. Many emigrants found that Indians 

were more interested in trading than violence. 

Food was often the primary motivation, with 

Indians providing emigrants much needed 

supplies. In return, Indians sought clothing, 

firearms, and small items, such as mirrors, tin 

cups, fishhooks, or metal tools. Emigrants often 

employed Indians to herd livestock, act as guides, 

or assist in river crossings. Meetings between 

Indians and emigrants were regularly peaceful 

and mutually advantageous. Indian culture, at 

the time, did not record written accounts of 

their history. As a result, much of the information 

comes from records of white European 

Americans.

Directions: Read the Delano diary entry to 

yourself, decide whether the diary entry supports 

the “cooperation” theme using the scale, and 

discuss the questions with others in your group. 

Select a spokesperson who will explain your group’s 

diary entry and answers to the rest of the class.

Alonzo Delano Diary Entry

“A difficulty soon occurred between them and 

the Indians, which ended in bloodshed, and was 

the commencement of a warfare, which of course 

eventually terminated in favor of the whites. An 

Indian stole an axe from the tent of a miner, who, 

on missing it, went to a village a mile or two 

distant, and with threatening language demanded 

its restoration, when an Indian who had not been 

guilty of the theft went into the wigwam and 

brought it out. The miner, instead of receiving it 

quietly, began to beat the Indian. This so enraged 

him, that when the miner turned to go, he seized 

his bow and shot his assailant dead. A few days 

afterwards two men were hunting mules in the 

neighborhood, and becoming separated, one 

of them was shot dead with an arrow, while the 

other being assaulted, effected his escape.

In addition to these outrages, the Indians had 

taken mules and cattle, and it became unsafe to 

risk life or property in immediate proximity with 

them. Under these circumstances it was deemed 

best to give them a severe lesson, and a party 

proceeded, well armed, to their village, and in a 

skirmish killed five or six Indians, and destroyed 

their houses.”

Citation: Delano, A. 1857. Life on the Plains and 

among the Diggings. New York: Miller, Orton & Co.
Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

Activity 3 Handout, Group E (continued)

Using the scale below, assign the diary entry a number from 1 to 5, and explain your rating with 

evidence from Delano’s words.

1 2 3 4 5

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

were in constant 

violent conflict.

Emigrants 

and American 

Indians had 

misunderstandings 

and occasional 

conflict.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

had conflicts but 

worked them out 

peacefully.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

resolved most 

conflicts with one 

side benefiting 

more than the 

other.

Emigrants and 

American Indians 

found a way to 

work out conflicts 

to the benefit of 

both sides.

Questions:

• What sparked the violent conflict between the emigrants and American Indians?

• Do you think the cycle of revenge continued or stopped after the last “skirmish” described?

23

Classroom Investigation, AMERICA’S SCENIC AND HISTORIC TRAILS ON PUBLIC LANDS: THE INTERSECTION OF CULTURES, HERITAGE, AND OUTDOOR RECREATION

For Further Research

Historical Trails: https://www.oregontrailcenter.org/HistoricalTrails/Indians.htm

Native Americans on the Oregon Trail: http://oregontrail101.com/native.html

Disrupting the Natives: Changes to the Native American Way of Life: http://www.octa-trails.org/

articles/disrupting-the-natives

Acknowledgments

Author

Scott Richardson, BLM Education Specialist, Division of Education, Interpretation, and Partnerships, 

Washington, DC

Reviewers

Janet C. Ady, BLM Division Chief, Division of Education, Interpretation, and Partnerships, Washington, DC

Derrick Baldwin, BLM Education Specialist, Division of Education, Interpretation, and Partnerships, 

Washington, DC

Bibi Booth, BLM Deputy Division Chief, Division of Education, Interpretation, and Partnerships, 

Washington, DC

Ranel Stephenson Capron, BLM Federal Preservation Officer, Division of Cultural and Paleontological 

Resources and Tribal Consultation, Washington, DC

Kevin Flynn, BLM Technical Information Specialist, Division of Education, Interpretation, and 

Partnerships, Washington, DC

Greg Fuhs, BLM Public Affairs Specialist, Division of Communications, Washington, DC

Janet Lacey, BLM Education Specialist, Division of Education, Interpretation, and Partnerships, 

Washington, DC

Jeanne Moe, BLM Project Archaeology Lead, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana

Cindy G. Osorto, BLM Planning and Environmental Specialist, Division of National Conservation Lands, 

Washington, DC

Patricia Rizzo, ESOL Teacher, Westbriar Elementary School, Vienna, Virginia

Deb Salt, BLM National Trails Coordinator, Division of National Conservation Lands, Washington, DC

Lena Morreale Scott, Senior Program Director, Street Law, Inc., Silver Spring, Maryland

Betsy Wooster, BLM National Lead for Youth, Division of Education, Interpretation, and Partnerships, 

Washington, DC

Production

Tammie Adams, BLM Writer/Editor, National Operations Center, Denver, Colorado

Jennifer Kapus, BLM Visual Information Specialist, National Operations Center, Denver, Colorado

Janine Koselak, BLM Visual Information Specialist, National Operations Center, Denver, Colorado
Notes:
The BLM’s Division of Education, Interpretation, and Partnerships produced this publication. 

The BLM’s National Operations Center, Information and Publishing Services Section, provided 

production services.

The mention of company names, trade names, or commercial products does not constitute 

endorsement or recommendation for use by the federal government.

August 2018

BLM/WO/GI-17/001+1115

EE 2042e