Children are 30% of the 

world’s population, but 

100% of our future.
Children are 30% of the 

world’s population, but 

100% of our future.

Protecting children 

from environmental 

risks is fundamental 

to the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency’s (EPA) 

efforts to make the world 

a healthier place, 

now and for future 

generations. 

Children need clean air to breathe, clean 

water to drink, safe food to eat, and a healthy 

environment to learn, grow, and thrive. Yet 

every day, children are exposed to environmental 

risks that may stand in the way of these basic 

necessities. They may even be more vulnerable 

to some environmental risks than adults for 

several reasons: 

n Children’s nervous, immune, digestive, and 

other systems are still developing and their 

ability to metabolize or inactivate toxicants 

may be different than adults;

n Children eat more food, drink more fluids, 

and breathe more air in proportion to their 

body weight than adults; and

n Children’s behavior—such as crawling and 

placing objects in their mouths—may result 

in greater exposure to environmental 

contaminants.

 Many of the health problems that result 

from exposure to harmful environmental conditions can be prevented, managed, and treated. 

This is why EPA considers risks to children when 

setting standards to control pollution. You can 

play a role, too.
Children Need 

Protection Where They 

Live, Learn, and Play

Each day, children may be exposed to a variety of environmental contaminants at home, school, and outdoors. These environmental exposures can have 

harmful effects on children’s health and behavior, and the amount and timing 

of exposure can influence the magnitude of these effects. Children need our 

protection. Learning about children’s environmental health is the first step to 

protecting them from environmental risks.

 Children are often at risk of exposure to 

indoor air pollution. 

Poor indoor air quality can cause respiratory illness in children because their 

respiratory systems are still developing. They also breathe more air than adults 

in proportion to their body weight. Respiratory diseases, such as asthma, can 

severely affect a child’s ability to live an active life.

Exposure to allergens and irritants, including animal dander, cockroaches, 

mold, and dust mites, plays a significant role in triggering asthma episodes in 

children. Secondhand tobacco smoke is another asthma trigger that typically 

occurs in the home. It may cause bronchitis, pneumonia, and ear infections, 

and is believed to be associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Since 

children spend a lot of their time at home, 

day care, and school, reducing their 

exposure to indoor environmental triggers in these places is 

especially important.
Outdoor air pollution may affect 

children more than adults. 

Outdoor activity is part of a healthy lifestyle, 

but when air pollution levels are high, adverse 

health effects may result. Outdoor air pollutants 

that have been shown to be particularly harmful to 

children include ozone and fine particulate matter. 

Other air pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), 

nitrogen oxides (NOx), and toxic air pollutants, also 

may affect children’s health.

Ground-level ozone (a component of smog) is 

formed when NOx and other air pollutants react in 

the presence of heat and sunlight. Smog can cause 

coughing, throat irritation, and chest pain. It can 

reduce lung function, inflame the linings of the 

lungs, and trigger asthma attacks, even the day after 

ozone levels are high. Repeated inflammation over 

time may permanently scar lung tissue. Children and 

teenagers who are active outdoors–especially those 

with asthma or other respiratory illnesses–are particularly vulnerable to smog.

Some fine particles are emitted directly into 

the air from combustion sources such as cars, trucks, 

buses, construction and farming equipment, and electric utilities. Fine particles 

in urban air also result from chemical reactions of SO2 and NOx with other 

chemicals in the atmosphere. Exposures to fine particles have been linked to a 

number of children’s health problems, including bronchitis and asthma. Diesel 

exhaust is a source of fine particles and is also a likely human carcinogen.

SO2 is formed when fuel containing sulfur–mainly coal, oil, and diesel–is 

burned, and during metal smelting and other industrial processes. The majority 

of SO2 released into the air comes from electric utilities and refineries, particularly those that burn coal. SO2

 contributes to respiratory disease, and may 

aggravate existing heart and lung disease.

NOx refers to a group of highly reactive gases emitted by motor vehicles, 

electric utilities, and other fuel-burning industrial and commercial sources. NOx 

gases can contribute to respiratory illnesses especially in children, and as noted 

above, both SO2 and NOx can react to form harmful particles in the air. 

Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants, are emitted 

from combustion sources, such as motor vehicles and power plants, and industrial 

activities. A number of commonly occurring toxic air pollutants, including 
solvents, organic chemicals, and heavy metals, have been shown to harm the 

developing nervous system, reproductive organs, and immune system–all of 

which grow and develop rapidly during the first months and years of life. 

Long-term exposure to some toxic air pollutants may cause cancer.

Lead is a risk to children’s physical and 

mental development.

Removing lead from gasoline in the U.S. is considered by many to be one of 

the great public health achievements of this generation. Lead levels in children’s 

blood dropped dramatically from the 1970s to the mid-1980s, as the use of leaded 

gasoline was phased out. However, lead 

still poses a risk.

Lead was a common ingredient in household paint until it was 

banned in 1978. Children 

living in homes built before 1978 

may be exposed to hazards from 

deteriorated lead paint and lead 

dust. Because children play 

outside and frequently put their 

hands in their mouths, contaminated soil near automobile repair 

shops, abandoned mines, industrial sites, and highways also may be 

a source of exposure. In addition, lead 

in drinking water can contribute to overall lead exposure. 

Childhood exposure to lead may result in damage to the nervous system leading 

to behavioral problems and reduced intelligence, and may cause impaired growth 

and hearing.

Mercury is toxic during child development.

Children born to women with substantially elevated blood mercury levels are 

at increased risk for nervous system and developmental effects, delayed onset of 

walking and talking, and abnormalities in vision, hearing, and speech. At far lower 

exposures, reduced neurological and developmental test scores occur. Children 

exposed to mercury after birth may be sensitive to the toxic effects of 

mercury because their nervous systems are still developing.
Mercury is found in the environment in several forms, but coalfired power electric utilities are 

the largest source of mercury emissions in the U.S. Mercury emitted 

from plants and other combustion 

sources is deposited on surface 

water and transformed into methylmercury, which builds up 

in fish. People are exposed to 

methylmercury almost exclusively by 

eating fish. Though fish is an important part of a balanced diet, federal and state 

fish advisories guide consumers to limit their intake of certain fish that contain 

higher levels of mercury.

Children may be exposed to contamination through 

the water supply. 

The U.S. has one of the safest water supplies in the world. Public water 

systems test water for more than 90 chemical, microbial, and radiological 

contaminants, and are required to treat water to remove harmful substances 

under the Safe Drinking Water Act.

 While actual events of serious drinking water contamination are infrequent 

and usually of short duration, it is possible for children to ingest contaminated 

water from a public water system or, more commonly, from a private well or by 

swimming in polluted bodies of water. Microbial contaminants, such as bacteria 

and viruses, are of special concern because they may cause immediate or acute 

reactions, such as vomiting or diarrhea. Long-term exposure to some contaminants, including pesticides, minerals, and solvents, at levels above standards may 

cause gastrointestinal problems, skin irritations, cancer, reproductive and developmental problems, and other chronic health effects. High levels of nitrates in 

drinking water can cause serious 

illness in infants. If contamination 

poses an immediate health threat, 

water suppliers are required by 

law to notify customers right away. 

Individuals with private wells are 

responsible for testing to assure 

that the water is safe to drink.
Children may be more sensitive and more exposed to 

pesticides. 

Children, due to their relative body size, may be more exposed to pesticides 

because they drink more water, breathe more air, and eat more of certain foods 

compared to adults. Young children eat three to four times more 

food than adults in proportion to 

their body size, and they often eat 

greater proportionate quantities 

of a more limited variety of foods. 

Children may be disproportionately 

exposed to certain pesticide residues that may be present in food. 

Still, for children and adults alike, 

the benefits of a diet that includes 

fruits and vegetables far outweigh 

the potential risks of pesticides.

Children’s behavior, such as 

playing on lawns, floors, or carpeting recently treated with pesticides, 

as well as putting their fingers or objects, including dirt and toys that may be contaminated with pesticide residues, in their mouths, also can lead to higher exposures. Access to containers of pesticides and other chemicals in the house, garage, 

or storage sheds can result in dangerous exposures.

The dose, toxicity, and timing of exposure can have a significant impact on 

the nature and severity of the resulting health effect. During early years of 

development, children’s bodies metabolize substances differently than adults. 

In some cases, this may make a pesticide more toxic to a child. Too much 

exposure to pesticides may lead to a variety of health effects, such as acute 

poisoning, disruption of the hormone and immune systems, respiratory problems, 

neurological damage, and cancer.

Elevated levels of radon in indoor air 

may cause cancer. 

Radon is an invisible, odorless, radioactive gas that comes from the natural breakdown of uranium in soil, rock, and water. Radon can enter into basements or crawl 

spaces through cracks and porous foundations, leading to high levels in indoor air 

where children may sleep or play. In some locations, well water containing dissolved 

radon also may affect children’s health. Testing homes for radon is simple and inexpensive, and if discovered, radon problems can usually be fixed. 
Carbon monoxide can be a risk 

to fetuses, infants, and children. 

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas produced 

whenever any fuel such as gas, oil, kerosene, wood, or charcoal is burned. 

If indoor and outdoor appliances that burn fuel are properly installed, vented, 

maintained, and used, the amount of CO in the air we breathe is usually not 

hazardous. However, dangerous levels of CO can accumulate where appliances 

are not working with proper ventilation or are used incorrectly. If a pregnant 

woman is exposed to elevated levels of CO, it may harm the fetus. Infants 

and children are believed to be more susceptible to CO exposure than adults. 

Exposure to very high levels of CO can result in severe injury or death.

 Unprotected sun exposure

during childhood increases lifetime risk for skin cancer. 

Children spend much of their time outdoors, exposed to the sun. Overexposure 

to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun can cause sunburns in the short term, 

but also may lead to long term health problems such as skin cancer, cataracts, 

and premature aging of the skin. Just one or two blistering childhood sunburns 

may double the risk of some skin cancers as an adult. Artificial sources of UV light 

such as sunbeds and sunlamps also can damage the skin and unprotected eyes. 

Preliminary scientific research suggests that UV radiation also may harm the 

immune system.

Asthma 20 million people, including 6.1 million children, have asthma.1

Hospitalizations for asthma increased from 21 per 10,000 children in 1980 to 27 per 10,000 children 

in 2002.2

In 1999, asthma was the fourth ranking cause of non-injury-related hospitalization among children less 

than 15 years of age.3

In 2002, 187 children under 18 years of age died from asthma.4 The number of children ages 1-14 

dying from asthma increased 186 percent from 1979 to 2002.5

Asthma disproportionately affects children from lower-income families and children from different 

racial and ethnic groups.6

Asthma is the most common chronic childhood disease in the United States.7

Economic Impact of Asthma In 1994-1996, children with asthma missed approximately 

14 million school days a year.8

The direct and indirect costs of asthma to the U.S. economy were estimated at $16.1 billion in 2004.9

• About 1/3 of the costs are associated with children’s asthma.10

• School absenteeism costs approximately $1.5 billion each year in lost productivity.11

Asthmatic patients and their families pay a higher portion of their medical care costs than patients 

with other diseases because of heavy reliance on prescription medication combined with lower 

insurance coverage for prescription drugs.

• They pay about 25 percent of the cost themselves compared to 10 percent for other general 

medical care costs.12

Lead Poisoning About 430,000 American children (approximately 2 percent) ages 1-5 

had elevated levels of lead in their blood (that is, levels at or greater than 10 ug/dL) in 1999-2000. That 

number of lead poisoned children declined significantly from 4.7 million in 1978.13

Childhood lead poisoning reduces IQ, which can never be regained.14

The decline in blood lead levels is due largely to the phasing out of lead in gasoline between 1973 and 

199515 and to the reduction in the number of homes with lead-based paint from 64 million in 1990 to 

38 million in 2000.16

Today, elevated blood lead levels are due mostly to the ingestion of contaminated dust, paint, and soil.17

Blood lead levels are higher for children ages 1-5 from lower-income families and for certain racial and 

ethnic groups.18

The Facts About Children’s Health

1

 EPA, Asthma Facts, Indoor Environments Division, Office of 

Air and Radiation, EPA 402-F-04-019, May 2006.

2

 CDC Asthma Prevalence, Health Care Use and Mortality, 

 2002. See http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/asthma/

asthma.htm.

3 EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

Edition, 2003, p.75. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

4 CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/asthma/

asthma.htm.

5 American Lung Association, Trends in Asthma Morbidity 

and Mortality, May 2005, Table 4. See http://www.lungusa.

org/finding-cures/our-research/trend-reports/asthmatrend-report.pdf.

6

 EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, p. 71.

7

 National Academy of Science, Clearing the Air: Asthma and 

Indoor Air Exposures, 2000, Executive Summary, p.1.

8

 Mannino, D., DHoma, L. Akinbami, J. Moorman, C. Gwynn, 

and S. Redd, Surveillance for Asthma-United States, 1980-

1999, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51(SS01), p. 5. 

See http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/SS/SS5101.pdf

9

 National Institutes of Health. May 2004. Morbidity & 

Mortality: 2004 Chart Book on Cardiovascular, Lung, and 

Blood Diseases.

10EPA, National Costs of Asthma for 1997, p. 24.

11American Lung Association, Table 20.

12EPA, National Costs of Asthma for 1997, pp. 21-22.

13EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

Edition, 2003, p. 53. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

14ATSDR, Case Studies in Environmental Medicine, Lead 

 Toxicity, revised September 1992. See http://wonder.cdc.

gov/wonder/prevguid/p0000017/p0000017.asp.

15EPA, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1998

 (2000), p. 78. See http://www.epa.gov/air/airtrends/aqtrnd98.

16D. Jacobs, R. Clickner, J. Zhou, S. Viet, D. Marker, J. Rogers, 

D. Zeldin, P. Broene, and W. Friedmanm, 2002, The 

Prevalence of Lead-Based Paint Hazards in U.S. Housing, 

Environmental Health Perspectives 110(10): 599-606 (2002).

17CDC, Screening Young Children for Lead Poisoning: 

Guidance for State and Local Public Health Officials, 1997. 

 See http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/screening.

htm.

18CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/

mm5420a5.htm.

19President’s Task Force on Environmental Health Risks and 

Safety Risks to Children, Eliminating Childhood Lead 

Poisoning: A Federal Strategy Targeting Lead Paint Hazards, 

 February 2000, p. A-26. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/pdf13.htm/$File/leadhaz.pdf.

20Ibid, p. A-28
Economic Impact of Lead Poisoning Reduced cognitive ability, as measured by IQ scores 

and valued in terms of forgone earnings, is estimated to be about $9,600 per IQ point lost.19

The cost of not eliminating lead exposure to children between 2000-2010 is expected to be about $22 

billion in forgone earnings.20

Childhood Cancer In 2005, an estimated 9,510 cancer cases are expected to occur 

among children aged 0 -14. An estimated 1,585 deaths from all cancer cases are expected in 2005.21

Cancer is ranked fourth as the cause of death by disease among children between 1 and 19 years of age 

behind unintentional injuries, homicides, and suicides.22

Leukemia is the most common cancer diagnosis for children under age 15, accounting for about 30 percent of all cases, followed by brain and other nervous system cancers (21 percent).23

The causes of childhood cancer are poorly understood, though in general it is thought that different forms 

of cancer have different causes.24

Economic Impact of Childhood Cancer The total cost per case of childhood cancer is 

estimated to be approximately $623,000 (in 1998 dollars).25

The estimated annualized cost of cancer for children under 15 years of age is $4.8 billion

(in 1998 dollars).26

Developmental Disorders Approximately 12 million children (17 percent) 

under age 18 suffer from one or more developmental disabilities, which include physical, cognitive, 

psychological, sensory, and speech impairments.27

In 1997-2000 about 0.6 percent of children were reported to be diagnosed with mental retardation.28

Between 3 and 8 percent of the babies born each year will be affected by developmental disorders 

such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or mental retardation.29

Mental retardation is more common for children from lower-income families and for certain racial 

and ethnic groups.30

The causes of developmental disorders are generally unknown.31

Economic Impact of Developmental Disorders During the 1999-2000 school year, the 

50 states and the District of Columbia spent approximately $50 billion on special education services, 

amounting to $8,080 per special education student.32

Expenditures can range from 1.6 times (for students with specific learning disabilities) to 3.1 times 

(for students with multiple disabilities) higher than expenditures for a regular education student.33

Estimated lifetime costs in 2003 dollars are expected to total $51.2 billion for persons born in 2000 

with mental retardation.34

21American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts and Figures 2005. 

Atlanta. 2005.

22Ries LAG, Kosary CL, Hankey BF, Miller BA, Clegg, L, 

Edwards BK (eds). SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-1995, 

National Cancer Institute, http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1973_1995.

23EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

 Edition, 2003, p. 76. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

24Ibid.

25P.Landrigan, C. Schecter, J. Lipton, M. Fahs, and J. Schwartz, 

Environmental Pollutants and Disease in American Children: 

Estimates of Morbidity, Mortality, and Costs for Lead

Poisonings, Asthma, Cancer, and Developmental Disabilities,

Environmental Health Perspectives 110(7): 771-8 (2002).

26Ibid.

27Boyle, CA, Decoufle P., Yeargin-Allsop M., Prevalence and 

Health Impact of Developmental Disabilities in US Children, 

Pediatrics, March 93 (3):399-403, 1994; and U.S. Census 

Bureau Population Estimates Program, Washington, DC.

28EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second

Edition, 2003, p. 85. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

29B. Weiss and P. Landrigan, The Developing Brain and the

Environment: An Introduction, Environmental Health

Perspectives 108 (Suppl.3): 373-4 (2000).

30EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

Edition, 2003, p.85.

31CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd.

32Chambers, JG, Parrish, T., and Harr, JJ 2002. What Are We

Spending on Special Educations Services in the United

States, 1999-2000? Palo Alto, CA: American Institutes for

Research. See http://www.csef-air.org/publications/seep/

national/AdvRpt1.PDF.

33Chambers JG, Shkolnik J, Perez M. Total expenditures for

students with disabilities, 1999-2000: spending variation by

disability. Washington, DC: American Institutes for 

Research, 2003. See http://csef.air.org/publications/seep/

national/final_seep_report_5.pdf.

34CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/

mm5303a4.htm
Asthma 20 million people, including 6.1 million children, have asthma.1

Hospitalizations for asthma increased from 21 per 10,000 children in 1980 to 27 per 10,000 children 

in 2002.2

In 1999, asthma was the fourth ranking cause of non-injury-related hospitalization among children less 

than 15 years of age.3

In 2002, 187 children under 18 years of age died from asthma.4 The number of children ages 1-14 

dying from asthma increased 186 percent from 1979 to 2002.5

Asthma disproportionately affects children from lower-income families and children from different 

racial and ethnic groups.6

Asthma is the most common chronic childhood disease in the United States.7

Economic Impact of Asthma In 1994-1996, children with asthma missed approximately 

14 million school days a year.8

The direct and indirect costs of asthma to the U.S. economy were estimated at $16.1 billion in 2004.9

• About 1/3 of the costs are associated with children’s asthma.10

• School absenteeism costs approximately $1.5 billion each year in lost productivity.11

Asthmatic patients and their families pay a higher portion of their medical care costs than patients 

with other diseases because of heavy reliance on prescription medication combined with lower 

insurance coverage for prescription drugs.

• They pay about 25 percent of the cost themselves compared to 10 percent for other general 

medical care costs.12

Lead Poisoning About 430,000 American children (approximately 2 percent) ages 1-5 

had elevated levels of lead in their blood (that is, levels at or greater than 10 ug/dL) in 1999-2000. That 

number of lead poisoned children declined significantly from 4.7 million in 1978.13

Childhood lead poisoning reduces IQ, which can never be regained.14

The decline in blood lead levels is due largely to the phasing out of lead in gasoline between 1973 and 

199515 and to the reduction in the number of homes with lead-based paint from 64 million in 1990 to 

38 million in 2000.16

Today, elevated blood lead levels are due mostly to the ingestion of contaminated dust, paint, and soil.17

Blood lead levels are higher for children ages 1-5 from lower-income families and for certain racial and 

ethnic groups.18

The Facts About Children’s Health

1

 EPA, Asthma Facts, Indoor Environments Division, Office of 

Air and Radiation, EPA 402-F-04-019, May 2006.

2

 CDC Asthma Prevalence, Health Care Use and Mortality, 

 2002. See http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/asthma/

asthma.htm.

3 EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

Edition, 2003, p.75. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

4 CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/asthma/

asthma.htm.

5 American Lung Association, Trends in Asthma Morbidity 

and Mortality, May 2005, Table 4. See http://www.lungusa.

org/finding-cures/our-research/trend-reports/asthmatrend-report.pdf.

6

 EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, p. 71.

7

 National Academy of Science, Clearing the Air: Asthma and 

Indoor Air Exposures, 2000, Executive Summary, p.1.

8

 Mannino, D., DHoma, L. Akinbami, J. Moorman, C. Gwynn, 

and S. Redd, Surveillance for Asthma-United States, 1980-

1999, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51(SS01), p. 5. 

See http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/SS/SS5101.pdf

9

 National Institutes of Health. May 2004. Morbidity & 

Mortality: 2004 Chart Book on Cardiovascular, Lung, and 

Blood Diseases.

10EPA, National Costs of Asthma for 1997, p. 24.

11American Lung Association, Table 20.

12EPA, National Costs of Asthma for 1997, pp. 21-22.

13EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

Edition, 2003, p. 53. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

14ATSDR, Case Studies in Environmental Medicine, Lead 

 Toxicity, revised September 1992. See http://wonder.cdc.

gov/wonder/prevguid/p0000017/p0000017.asp.

15EPA, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1998

 (2000), p. 78. See http://www.epa.gov/air/airtrends/aqtrnd98.

16D. Jacobs, R. Clickner, J. Zhou, S. Viet, D. Marker, J. Rogers, 

D. Zeldin, P. Broene, and W. Friedmanm, 2002, The 

Prevalence of Lead-Based Paint Hazards in U.S. Housing, 

Environmental Health Perspectives 110(10): 599-606 (2002).

17CDC, Screening Young Children for Lead Poisoning: 

Guidance for State and Local Public Health Officials, 1997. 

 See http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/screening.

htm.

18CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/

mm5420a5.htm.

19President’s Task Force on Environmental Health Risks and 

Safety Risks to Children, Eliminating Childhood Lead 

Poisoning: A Federal Strategy Targeting Lead Paint Hazards, 

 February 2000, p. A-26. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/pdf13.htm/$File/leadhaz.pdf.

20Ibid, p. A-28
Economic Impact of Lead Poisoning Reduced cognitive ability, as measured by IQ scores 

and valued in terms of forgone earnings, is estimated to be about $9,600 per IQ point lost.19

The cost of not eliminating lead exposure to children between 2000-2010 is expected to be about $22 

billion in forgone earnings.20

Childhood Cancer In 2005, an estimated 9,510 cancer cases are expected to occur 

among children aged 0 -14. An estimated 1,585 deaths from all cancer cases are expected in 2005.21

Cancer is ranked fourth as the cause of death by disease among children between 1 and 19 years of age 

behind unintentional injuries, homicides, and suicides.22

Leukemia is the most common cancer diagnosis for children under age 15, accounting for about 30 percent of all cases, followed by brain and other nervous system cancers (21 percent).23

The causes of childhood cancer are poorly understood, though in general it is thought that different forms 

of cancer have different causes.24

Economic Impact of Childhood Cancer The total cost per case of childhood cancer is 

estimated to be approximately $623,000 (in 1998 dollars).25

The estimated annualized cost of cancer for children under 15 years of age is $4.8 billion

(in 1998 dollars).26

Developmental Disorders Approximately 12 million children (17 percent) 

under age 18 suffer from one or more developmental disabilities, which include physical, cognitive, 

psychological, sensory, and speech impairments.27

In 1997-2000 about 0.6 percent of children were reported to be diagnosed with mental retardation.28

Between 3 and 8 percent of the babies born each year will be affected by developmental disorders 

such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or mental retardation.29

Mental retardation is more common for children from lower-income families and for certain racial 

and ethnic groups.30

The causes of developmental disorders are generally unknown.31

Economic Impact of Developmental Disorders During the 1999-2000 school year, the 

50 states and the District of Columbia spent approximately $50 billion on special education services, 

amounting to $8,080 per special education student.32

Expenditures can range from 1.6 times (for students with specific learning disabilities) to 3.1 times 

(for students with multiple disabilities) higher than expenditures for a regular education student.33

Estimated lifetime costs in 2003 dollars are expected to total $51.2 billion for persons born in 2000 

with mental retardation.34

21American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts and Figures 2005. 

Atlanta. 2005.

22Ries LAG, Kosary CL, Hankey BF, Miller BA, Clegg, L, 

Edwards BK (eds). SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-1995, 

National Cancer Institute, http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1973_1995.

23EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

 Edition, 2003, p. 76. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

24Ibid.

25P.Landrigan, C. Schecter, J. Lipton, M. Fahs, and J. Schwartz, 

Environmental Pollutants and Disease in American Children: 

Estimates of Morbidity, Mortality, and Costs for Lead

Poisonings, Asthma, Cancer, and Developmental Disabilities,

Environmental Health Perspectives 110(7): 771-8 (2002).

26Ibid.

27Boyle, CA, Decoufle P., Yeargin-Allsop M., Prevalence and 

Health Impact of Developmental Disabilities in US Children, 

Pediatrics, March 93 (3):399-403, 1994; and U.S. Census 

Bureau Population Estimates Program, Washington, DC.

28EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second

Edition, 2003, p. 85. See http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/

ochpweb.nsf/content/ACEreport3_19final.htm/$File/

ACEreport2_21final.pdf.

29B. Weiss and P. Landrigan, The Developing Brain and the

Environment: An Introduction, Environmental Health

Perspectives 108 (Suppl.3): 373-4 (2000).

30EPA, America’s Children and the Environment, Second 

Edition, 2003, p.85.

31CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/dd.

32Chambers, JG, Parrish, T., and Harr, JJ 2002. What Are We

Spending on Special Educations Services in the United

States, 1999-2000? Palo Alto, CA: American Institutes for

Research. See http://www.csef-air.org/publications/seep/

national/AdvRpt1.PDF.

33Chambers JG, Shkolnik J, Perez M. Total expenditures for

students with disabilities, 1999-2000: spending variation by

disability. Washington, DC: American Institutes for 

Research, 2003. See http://csef.air.org/publications/seep/

national/final_seep_report_5.pdf.

34CDC, http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/

mm5303a4.htm
Children are 30% of the 

world’s population, but 

100% of our future.