GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 839 

Assessment of Impacts of Proposed 

Coal-Resource and Related Economic 

. Development on Water Resources, 

. Yampa River Basin, Colorado and 

Wyoming-A Summary 

Assessment of Impacts of Proposed 

Coal-Resource and Related Economic 

Development on Water Resources, 

Yampa River Basin, Colorado and 

Wyoming-A Summary 

Compiled and Edited by Timothy Doak Steele and 

Donald E. Hillier 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 839 

1981 
United States Department of the Interior 

CECIL D. ANDRUS, Secretary 

Geological Survey 

H. William Menard, Director 

Free on application to Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 604 South Pickett Street, Alexandria, VA 22304 
FOREWORD 

The American public has been concerned with the enhancement and protection of the environment at minimal social costs, particularly with respect to 

development and use of the Nation's energy resources. Substantial investments 

made during recent years to protect and improve air and water quality are being 

evaluated critically for effectiveness and social desirability. A review of existing 

and pending legislation which establishes acceptable National goals for environmental protection (including air- and water-quality standards and land-use 

planning) indicates a trend in setting more realistic goals in response to changing 

policies on economic development and energy consumption. 

The Yampa River basin assessment is one of a series of multidisciplinary 

studies supported by the U.S. Geological Survey. The intent of these studies is to 

determine the types and forms of hydrologic, geologic, and other information 

useful to decision-making at Federal, State, and local levels in analyses of 

policies affecting development and use of natural resources. 

Decisions affecting policy of energy-resource development need to consider the 

environmental, social, and economic impacts of such development. Expanded 

energy-resource development will lead to increased generation and discharge of 

residual waste materials to the land, to surface and ground waters, and into the 

air. Through modification or treatment, some residual wastes having no 

economic value may be converted to commercial byproducts of economic value. 

Discharge of residuals generally will have some impact on environmental quality. 

Any plan to modify or reduce these discharges may affect the basin's water 

resources, in terms of water withdrawals, water consumption, and assimilative 

capacity. Planning for the development and management of the natural 

resources of the Yampa River basin is needed in the context of these uncertainties. 

This report summarizes several studies conducted to evaluate the waterresources related consequences of various alternative proposals for energyresource development in the Yampa River basin, primarily in terms of increased 

mining and conversion of near-surface coal. The intended audience of this report 

includes those regional and basin planners and managers, involved in areas of expanding energy development, who are concerned with water use and environmental impacts. 

PHILIP COHEN 

Chief Hydrologist 
PREFACE 

" ... communication to the public and its representatives of knowledge of alternative opportunities for water management and use will result in more rational 

decisions." 

National Academy of Sciences, 1968, p. 81 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Foreword - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ill 

Preface - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IV 

Metric-English equivalents - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VI 

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 

Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 

Purpose and scope - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 

Acknowledgments - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 

Part I. Study framework 

Regional coal-resource development alternatives and assessment approaches, by T. D. Steele 5 

Legal aspects of water-resources development, by W. I. Knudsen, Jr., and J. A. Danielson - 7 

Technical information in planning and management of regional water resources in areas of 

coal-development potential, by I. C. James IT and P. E. Stark - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 

Part II. Assessment techniques 

Regional economic analysis for predicting water use and waste residuals, by J. E. Schefter - 14 

Water-use and residuals implications of coal-conversion and transportation alternatives, 

by R. M. Hirsch - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 

Surface-water investigations, by D. P. Bauer - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 24 

Stream quality, by D. A. Wentz - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 31 

Regional sediment characteristics, by E. D. Andrews - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42 

Remote-sensing applications, by F. J. Heimes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 46 

Solute-transport modeling of ground water, by J. W. Warner - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 47 

Summary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 52 

References - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 53 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. Scenes from the Yampa River basin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 

2. Map of the Yampa River basin, Colorado and Wyoming, showing location of 

coal- resource development and various study areas - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 

3. Schematics of four cooling systems - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21 

4-7. Graphs showing: 

4. Comparison of water use for alternative cooling systems of coal use 

assuming 12.5 million tons of coal mined per year - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25 

5. Projections of total residuals resulting from coal-development alternatives, 

1990 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26 

6. Computed concentrations of ammonia nitrogen for existing wastewater-treatment facilities and 7-day low flows with a 10-year recurrence interval in 

the Yampa River - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28 

7. Comparison of mean monthly variations in regulated and unregulated streamflow and dissolved-solids concentrations, Yampa River at Deerlodge Park, 

Colo., 1951-69 water years - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32 

8. Map showing location of sites where streamflow was sampled during the basinwide reconnaissance, August-September 1975, and during the quarterly 

sampling program, December 1975 through August-September 1976 - - - - - 36 

v 
Page 

FIGURE 9. Graph showing frequency distributions of total manganese in streamflow, 

August-September 1975 through August-September 1976 - - - - - - - - - - - - 37 

10. Graph showing frequency distributions of arsenic in stream-bottom sediments, 

August-September 1975 through August-September 1976 - - - - - - - - - - - - 38 

11-13. Maps showing: 

11. Areal distribution of sediment yields extrapolated from station records - 43 

12. Lineament and fault map superimposed on Landsat scene that includes 

the western part of the Yampa River basin, February 26, 1975 - - - - - - - 47 

13. Projected increases in dissolved-solids concentrations in ground water 

resulting from all mines in the Twentymile Park model area - - - - - - 49 

TABLES 

Page 

TABLE 1. Coal-resource development alternatives, 1975--90 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 

2. Estimates of water-withdrawal coefficients, water-withdrawal multipliers, and total 

water withdrawal, by sector, for the Colorado part of the Yampa River basin 

in 1975 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 16 

3. Comparison of the impact of four alternative coal-use processes on selected aspects 

of the environment, Colorado part of the Yampa River basin - - - - - - - - - - - 18 

4. Direct and indirect impacts, of four different coal-use processes, Colorado part of 

the Yampa River basin - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19 

5. Water-use and residuals discharge under seven coal-resource development alternati ves-1990 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 19 

6. Comparison of four cooling technologies assuming mining of 12.5 million tons 

(11.3 million t) of coal per year - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 22 

7. Proposed major surface-water impoundments, reservoir-modeling analysis - - - - - 30 

8. Seasonal maximum likely ambient concentrations of chemical constituents in streamflow, August-September 1975 through August-September 1976 - - - - - - - - - - 40 

9. Potential sediment yields from surface-mined areas for three estimated levels of coal 

production, 1990 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 45 

METRIC-ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS 

[The inch-pound units used in this report may be converted to metric units by the following conversion factors] 

To convert 

square foot per second 

(ft2

/s) 

cubic foot per second 

(ft3

/s) 

mile (mi) 

square mile (mF) acre 

acre-foot (acre-ft) 

gallon(gal) 

ton (short) 

British thermal unit (Btu) 

pound 

Multiply by 

0.0929 

0.02832 

1.609 

2.590 

0.4047 

1,233 

3.785 

0.003785 

0.9072 

1,055 

0.454 

VI 

To obtain 

square meter per second 

(m2/s) 

cubic meter per second 

(m3/s) 

kilometer (km) 

square kilometer (km 2

) 

hectare (ha) 

cubic meter (m3) 

liter (L) 

cubic meter (m3) 

metric ton (t) 

joule (J) 

kilogram (kg) 
Assessment of Impacts of Proposed Coal-Resource and 

Related Economic Development on 

Water Resources, Yampa River Basin, Colorado and 

Wyoming-A Summary 

Compiled and Edited by Timothy Doak Steele and Donald E. HHiier 

ABSTRACT 

Expanded mining and use of coal resources in the Rocky 

Mountain region of the western United States will have substantial impacts on water resources, environmental amenities, and 

social and economic conditions. The U.S. Geological Survey has 

completed a 3-year assessment of the Yampa River basin, 

Colorado and Wyoming, where increased coal-resource development has begun to affect the environment and quality of life. 

Economic projections of the overall effects of coal-resource 

development were used to estimate water use and the types and 

amounts of waste residuals that need to be assimilated into the 

environment. Based in part upon these projections, several 

physical-based models and other semiquantitative assessment 

methods were used to determine possible effects upon the 

basin's water resources. 

Depending on the magnitude of mining and use of coal 

resources in the basin, an estimated 0.7 to 2.7 million tons (0.6 

to 2.4 million metric tons) of waste residuals may be discharged 

annually into the environment by coal-resource development 

and associated economic activities. If the assumed development 

of coal resources in the basin occurs, annual consumptive use of 

water, which was approximately 142,000 acre-feet (175 million 

cubic meters) during 1975, may almost double by 1990. In a 

related analysis of alternative cooling systems for coalconversion facilities, four to five times as much water may be 

used consumptively in a wet-tower, cooling-pond recycling 

system as in once-through cooling. An equivalent amount of coal 

transported by slurry pipeline would require about one-third the 

water used consumptively by once-through cooling for in-basin 

conversion. 

Current conditions and a variety of possible changes in the 

water resources of the basin resulting from coal-resource 

development were assessed. Basin population may increase by 

as much as threefold between 1975 and 1990. Volumes of wastes 

requiring treatment will increase accordingly. Potential 

problems associated with ammonia-nitrogen concentrations in 

the Yampa River downstream from Steamboat Springs were 

evaluated using a waste-load assimilative-capacity model. 

Changes in sediment loads carried by streams due to increased 

coal mining and construction of roads and buildings may be apparent only locally; projected increases in sediment loads 

relative to historic loads from the basin are estimated to be 2 to 7 

percent. 

1 

Solid-waste residuals generated by coal-conversion processes 

and disposed of into old mine pits may cause widely dispersed 

ground-water contamination, based on simulation-modeling 

results. Projected increases in year-round water use will 

probably result in the construction of several proposed reservoirs. Current seasonal patterns of streamflow and of dissolvedsolids concentrations in streamflow will be altered appreciably 

by these reservoirs. Decreases in time-weighted mean-annual 

dissolved-solids concentrations of as much as 34 percent are anticipated, based upon model simulations of several configurations of proposed reservoirs. 

Detailed statistical analyses of water-quality conditions in the 

Yampa River basin were made. Regionalized maximum waterquality concentrations were estimated for possible comparison 

with future conditions. Using Landsat imagery and aerial 

photographs, potential remote-sensing applications were 

evaluated to monitor land-use changes and to assess both snow 

cover and turbidity levels in streams. The technical information 

provided by the several studies of the Yampa River basin assessment should be useful to regional planners and resource 

managers in evaluating the possible impacts of development on 

the basin's water resources. 

INTRODUCTION 

Water is an important resource contributing to 

the physical and economic well-being of any region. 

The amount and quality of "available" water are 

factors affecting the economic development that 

may occur. With time, economic development will 

affect the water resources of a region through 

withdrawals and consumptive use of water in 

various economic activities and discharge of waste 

residuals (that is, byproducts of a process that have 

no economic value) that eventually may enter the 

hydrologic system (Kneese and Bower, 1968). 

The Yampa River basin in northwestern 

Colorado and southcentral Wyoming is a region of 

natural beauty which has remained largely unaffected by the activities of humans (fig. lA-C). Its 
FIGURE 1. (above and facing page)-Scenes from the Yampa River basin: A. Yampa River above Steamboat Springs, Colo. B. Muddy 

Creek near Baggs, Wyo. C. Weber Sandstone, Dinosaur National Monument, Colo. D. Dragline at Energy Fuels No. 1. Mine. 

E. Hayden Powerplant. F. Runoff from waste spoils, Edna Mine. 

scenery and recreational activities attract many 

campers, skiers, fishermen, and white-water 

floaters. Economic development in the Yampa 

River basin traditionally has been dominated by 

agricultural and recreational use of its water and 

2 

other natural resources. However, this historical 

dominance is changing, due to increasing demands 

being placed upon the region's resources as a result 

of energy-resource development (fig. lD-F) (James 

and Steele, 1977). 
The basin encompasses an area of approximately 

8,080 mF (20,900 km2); about three-fourths of the 

basin is located in northwestern Colorado and onefourth is located in Wyoming (fig. 2). In Colorado, 

Moffat and Routt Counties (fig. 2) constitute 

nearly two-thirds of the total drainage area of the 

basin, contain about 80 percent of the basin's population, and have the majority of the economic activity. Primarily for these reasons, many of the 

component studies dealt more with conditions in 

the Colorado part of the basin. The regional setting 

of the Yampa River basin is described by Steele, 

Bauer, Wentz, and Warner (1979). 

PURPOSE AND SCOPE 

The Yampa River basin assessment was a multidisciplinary project conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey to demonstrate the application of 

methods for evaluating existing water resources in 

a region (Greeson and others, 1977), and to assess 

potential effects of impending coal-resource and associated economic development on the region's 

3 

limited water resources. In addition to evaluating 

hydrologic processes that might be affected by the 

discharge of gaseous, liquid, and solid residuals to 

the environment, the assessment included: (1) A 

summary of the effects that State water laws and 

Federal compacts may have on the availability and 

distribution of water resources; (2) a summary of 

how technical information may be used in regional 

planning and management of water resources; and 

(3) regional economic and water-use analyses based 

on various alternatives of coal-resource and associated economic development. 

The basin assessment demonstrated how a 

variety of assessment methods could be applied interactively. It also provided some general indication of how application of these techniques might 

be useful to other regions facing similar development and constraints on limited available resources. Detailed data and technical analyses dealing 

with the region's water resources were designed to 

fulfill some of the information needs for regional 

planning and decisionmaking. 

In the design and implementation of the basin 

assessment, various project activities were coordinated with other studies being conducted concurrently in the basin. The two phases of the basin 

assessment were outlined by Steele, Bauer, Wentz, 

and Warner (1976a) and by Steele, James, Bauer, 

and others (1976b). In the first phase, existing environmental conditions in the basin and feasible 

coal-development alternatives were described 

(Steele, Bauer, and others, 1979). In the second 

phase, some potential direct (coal-resource related) 

and indirect (related to the associated economic 

development) effects of coal-resource development 

alternatives on the region's water resources were 

evaluated. All study results are documented in 

detail in a series of special-topic reports, which are 

included in the references at the end of this report. 

The principal investigator(s) of each basinassessment study are indicated by authorship of 

each chapter composing this report. Other personnel affiliated with each study generally are 

acknowledged by the report(s) cited in each 

chapter and listed in the references. 

The first three chapters of this report discuss the 

general aspects of the assessment, including the inherent need for technical information in decisionmaking. The remaining seven chapters briefly 

describe the assessment techniques used and indicate possible applications to water-resources assessments in other regions undergoing energy 

development. 
*"" 

s- ·· ~~80 

.. ---··- \. BOUNDARY 

SEDIMENT-SAMPLING SITE '-, 1'-.. ._/,r"'"' .. \..,..··v/V .""'-"--!. .. ---- WASTE-LOAD ASSIMILATIVE \..._ i ~/ .. 

~ 

CAP A CITY STUDY ·. , (' 

TRAVEbTIME STUDY .""-"··_) ~ ~· "\_ 

COAL MINE ( I 'l_ 

POWERPLANT , ... ./SWEETWATER'' 

PROPOSED RESERVOIR: -_,---._ ~ 

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AREA ·...._....... '- \...!.. / ' ' . 

EXPLANA TlON 

,------- ~ 

' ' . I 

"' 

• • Denver \ 

' 

I 

WYOMING 

~ 

t:;> 

COLORADO 

--+ TRANSMOUNT AIN r·· ~ .,_ "'\ q I 9li'1v. ' 

DIVERSION : '{, ... '\:.fli' L. ____ _____ _j 

41 o f'·--coLORAi5(:f---~--------·,:: 109° WYOMING } ,;,_· ~~~i~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~F : {(;~ 

: _, I ~ 

./ 

( ., 

fJj ( ~~~~;~:; J: X, 

_;Monument .· ..._".v J 

r71),r / \ .· YAMPA 

.=t; i... : ~---~/p 

YAMPA 'L -~· :;--kly .. r;-... ;;J;;t,;~-1> .~,} ·. )(,.J Cross -- ·"'-t .... Jumper 

· Mountain "",......,..,..."""'""" 

Deerlodge "'"' -....... ""~ - r , 

~k ,. __,...., .. -~-- B'ase from U.s. Geologic al SurveY'-"' . 

1:500 000 State base map, 1969 ~ .. /\... 

0 10 20 30 MILES 

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS 

-~"'""""­

\:" .. ""-

FIGURE 2.-The Yampa River basin, Colorado and Wyoming, showing location of coal-resource development and various study 

areas. (Modified from Steele, 1978a.) 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Contractual studies conducted as part of the 

basin-assessment project included: 

1. Regional economic input-output analysis of 

Routt and Moffat Counties: Bernard Udis, R. C. 

Hess, T. H. Adams, D." V. Orr, and consulting 

economists associated with the Bureau of 

Economic Research, University of Colorado, 

Boulder, Colo. 

2. Water rights and institutional analysis: W. I. 

Knudsen, Jr., and J. A. Danielson, of the Colorado 

Department of Natural Resources, Division of 

Water Resources, Office of the State Engineer, 

Denver, Colo. 

Other individuals contributing to basinassessment studies included: P. E. Stark, Routt 

County Department ofEnvironmental Health; R. 

M. Eddy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

Technical Investigations Branch, Surveillance and 

Analysis Division, Region VIII; and R. D. 

Anderson, Colorado Department of Health, Water 

Quality and Control Division. 

U.S. Geological Survey personnel assisting in 

specific studies included: G. K. Moore, remotesensing applications; R. E. Rathbun and D. A. 

Schultz, instream-reaeration studies; and J. D. 

Sherman, multireservoir analysis. Additional support to various studies was provided by D. B. 

Tramberg, Stockton, Calif.; T. L. Washington, 

Denver, Colo.; P. E. Harrold, Bradley, Ill.; S.M. 

Hofford, Fort Collins, Colo.; Dan Sinn, Lawrence, 

Kans.; and numerous personnel of the Colorado 

and Wyoming District offices of the U.S. 

Geological Survey. 

PART I. STUDY FRAMEWORK 

REGIONAL COAL-RESOURCE 

DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES 

AND ASSESSMENT APPROACHES 

By TIMOTHY DOAK STEELE1 

Most coal-resource development in the Yampa 

River basin-at least through 1990-is expected to 

occur in areas south of the Yampa River between 

Steamboat Springs, Colo., and Craig, Colo. (fig. 2), 

where there are extensive coal deposits that have 

been or will be leased, largely by the Federal 

government (U.S. Department of the Interior, 

1976a, fig. Rl-3, p. RI-7 and 8). Projections of coal 

production are subject to some uncertainty 

because of various regulations and Federal policy 

affecting the rate of leasing and development. 

Moreover, environmental-control measures currently in force may change. Consequently, 

regional-r.3source planners have to cope with these 

and other uncertainties when considering the 

ramifications of mining, processing, energy conversion, and transportation of coal, especially with 

respect to waste residuals released to the environment and water use (Steele, James, and others, 

'Former Project Chief, Yampa River Basin Assessment; Currently with WoodwardClyde Consultants, Denver, Colo. 

5 

1976b; Steele, Bauer, and others, 1979). Alternatives for disposal of waste residuals and water 

use in mining will vary with mining techniques and 

required land reclamation (Keefer and Hadley, 

1976). 

Starting with conditions for the base year 1975, 

seven assumed coal-resource development alternatives, projected at 5-year intervals to 1990, were 

developed (Udis and others, 1977; Steele and 

others, 1979), which are summarized in table 1. 

These alternatives are based in part on coalproduction projections for the basin described in 

the Northwest Colorado Coal environmental statement (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976a). A 

maximum coal production of 20 million tons (18 

million t) per year was assumed for 1990 in alternatives 1-4; a 50-percent variance in coal production was assumed in alternatives 5-7. The seven 

alternatives imply that coal mined in the basin 

may be used in different ways. That is, all coal 

mined in the basin between 1975 and 1990 will not 

be converted to electricity or gas products by plants 

within the basin, nor will all coal mined be transported in raw form by railroads or possibly a slurry 

pipeline to markets outside the basin. Rather, a 

combination of such uses, listed in table 1, 

probably will occur. 
TABLE 1.-Coal-resource development alternatives, 1975-90 

[From Steele, Bauer, Wentz, and Warner (1979). Development alternatives assume coal use for electric-power generation to average 3,500 tons per year per megawatt of 

generation capacity. In reality, coal use will be affected by such factors as plant efficiency, plant size, quality of the coal, and environmental controls imposed on residuals. The 1975 base reflects a 430-megawatt capacity at the Hayden Powerplant] 

Type of growth and alternativel 

Slow: 

7 Electric powerplants (760 megawatts)--

Rail road exports----------------------

Total----------------------------

Moderate: 

1 Electric powerplants (760 megawatts)--

Railroad exports----------------------

Total----------------------------

2 Electric powerplants (760 megawatts)--

Coal gasification plants (250 million 

standard cubic feet each). 

Railroad exports----------------------

Total----------------------------

3 Electric powerplants (760 megawatts) 

(1,200 megawatts). 

Railroad exports----------------------

Total----------------------------

4 Electric powerplants (760 megawatts) 

(1,200 megawatts). 

Slurry pipeline-----------------------

Railroad exports----------------------

Total----------------------------

Rapid: 

5 Electric powerplants (760 megawatts) 

(2,800 megawatts) 

(4,800 megawatts). 

Railroad exports----------------------

Total----------------------------

6 Electric powerplants (760 megawatts) 

(1,200 megawatts) 

(3,200 megawatts). 

Coal gasification plant (250 million 

standard cubic feet). 

Railroad exports----------------------

Total----------------------------

Coal use, in millions of tons per year 

1975 1980 1985 1990 

1. 50 ( 2 1980) 4.20 4.20 4.20 

3.10 1.80 3.80 5.80 

~ 6.00 8.00 10.00 

1. 50 ( 2 1 980) 4.20 4.20 4.20 

3.10 5.80 10.80 15.80 

~ 10.00 15.00 20.00 

1. 50 ( 2 1980) 4.20 4.20 4.20 

0 0 ( 2 1985) 6.25 ( 2 1990) 12.50 

3.10 5.80 4.55 3.30 

~ 10.00 15.00 20.00 

1.50 (2 1980) 4.20 (2 1982) 8.40 8.40 

3.10 5.80 6.60 11.60 

~ 10.00 15.00 20.00 

1. 50 (2 1980) 4.20 (2 1982) 8.40 8.40 

0 0 0 ( 2 1989) 10.00 

3.10 5. 80 6.60 1.60 

~ 10.00 15.00 20.00 

1 . 50 (21980) 4.20 (2 1985) 14.00 (2 1990) 30.80 

3.10 7.80 10.00 0 

~ 12.00 24.00 36To 

1 . 50 ( 2 1980) 4.20 (2 1985) 8.40 (2 1990) 19.60 

0 0 (

2 1985) 6.25 6.25 

3.10 7.80 9.35 4.95 

~ 12.00 24.00 30.80 

1Sequence code as given in Udis, Adams, Hess, and Orr (1977). 2Year in which additional capacity becomes fully operational. 

In developing the alternatives, primary consideration was given to meeting the estimated demand by coal-fired power-generation plants, which 

currently is a major proposed use of coal in the 

6 

basin. The first two alternatives assumed the coalfired power-generation capacity existing or being 

constructed in the basin-the Hayden and Craig 

powerplants (fig. 2). The remaining coal produced 
was then allocated to other uses: transportation out 

of the basin by railroads or slurry pipeline, and coal 

gasification. In the third and fourth alternatives, 

plans for proposed expansions of the Hayden and 

Craig powerplants, doubling the capacity that is 

existing or being constructed, were assumed to be 

completed, with the remaining coal production being used as listed in table 1. The fifth and sixth 

alternatives assumed that part or all of the 

proposed 6,400-megawatt Oak Creek coal-fired 

power-generation facility might be constructed by 

1990 (Oak Creek Power Co., 1976). These alternatives assumed a 1990 coal-production rate of 

more than 30 million tons (27 million t), which 

would leave sufficient coal for only one coalgasification plant for alternative 6, with the 

remainder being transported out of the basin. A 

seventh alternative was included to provide a lessthan-projected rate of development (table 1). The 

rate of future Federal coal leasing, as well as other 

factors, will affect the extent to which the alternatives described are realistic for determining the 

types and range of water-resources impacts. 

Guided by the coal-resource development alternatives in table 1, specific studies were conducted 

to assess the implications of discharged waste 

residuals and water use that might result from each 

alternative. Interactions between economic and 

environmental-control factors, water use, and demand for various forms of energy were considered 

in several of these analyses. 

The studies were designed to answer questions 

such as the following: (1) What increases in population and changes in the basin economy are expected? (2) What are some of the water-use 

ramifications of this development (in terms of both 

withdrawals and consumption)? (a) Are these projections in conflict with existing water-use patterns 

in the basin? (4) What residual wastes will be discharged that may adversely affect the environment 

in general and the basin's water resources in particular? ( 5) Is enough water available, in either a 

physical or institutional sense, for projected uses in 

the basin? ( 6) How will the water resources change 

over time, in terms of water supply or water-quality 

characteristics? and (7) Should some limits be imposed to either the extent or the form of energyresource or related economic development? 

Although complete answers to these questions 

were not provided in every instance, the questions 

themselves give some indication of the direction 

and scope of the studies addressed by the Yampa 

River basin assessment and summarized by this 

7 

report. The assessment approaches were developed 

around a central theme of determining several of 

the possible environmental implications of the anticipated regional economic growth stimulated by 

accelerated mining of coal. Study results also indicate future information needs using physicalbased data, particularly related to regional water 

resources. With this information, planners and 

managers should be able to more effectively use the 

available natural resources in the region, given 

stated or implied resource-development and environmental goals. 

LEGAL AS,PECTS OF WATERRESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 

By WALTER I. KNUDSEN, Jr. 1 

and jERIS A. DANIELSON1 

There is much concern regarding the availability 

of water in the Yampa River basin for energyresource development. The supply of water for 

various specified uses is a function of its physical 

presence; its legal availability as dictated by interstate compacts, court decrees, and judicial constraints; and its economic value. Several factors affecting the legal availability of water in this region, 

from the standpoint of water law and securing and 

transferring water rights in Colorado, are described 

by Knudsen and Danielson (1977). 

"First in time, first in right" is the popular 

phrase used to describe the doctrine of prior appropriation as it applies to water, particularly in 

the Yampa River basin. The western United States 

acquired the doctrine of prior appropriation from 

Spain via Mexico. Implementation of the doctrine 

initially involved only the principal uses of surface 

waters. As surface waters have become almost completely appropriated in many parts of the West, 

similar institutional controls were applied to 

ground-water resources. Most concerns during the 

next 15 years in the Yampa River basin involve increasing water demands and the extent to which 

surface waters physically and institutionally will 

be available to meet these demands. Longer term 

concerns involve availability and quality of ground 

water. The withdrawal of ground water has not yet 

1Colorado Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water Resources, Office 

of the State Engineer. 
presented any major problems in the Yampa River 

basin. However, the doctrine of prior appropriation 

also applies to tributary ground water. 

Surface water is available in widely varying 

quantities from year to year, and from location to 

location. Naturally occurring hydrologic variability 

often results in water shortages in certain areas or 

during certain times when and where demand for 

water exceeds the supply. 

In the Yampa River basin as well as elsewhere in 

the Western States, a traditional means of water 

allocation involves use of a priority date. The 

priority date is that legally recognized point in 

time, as defined by State statute, when water was 

first put to beneficial use by someone seeking the 

adjudication of a water right. As long as there is 

sufficient water available to meet the demands of 

all water appropriators, few problems occur. When 

insufficient water exists to meet all demands at a 

given point in time, then the priority date is used to 

allocate the available water. Those priorities most 

recent in time Uunior priorities) must allow sufficient surface water to pass by their points of 

diversion in order to let downstream priorities 

earlier in time (senior priorities) receive the water 

due them, according to their decree as adjudicated 

by the judicial system. 

Another factor complicating water administration is a hierarchy of beneficial use. For most 

western States, these include, in descending order: 

domestic water supply, agricultural use, industrial 

use, and recreation. Recently, minimum-flow requirements for protection of aquatic life have been 

added to this ordering. 

When allocating water in water-short areas, the 

use of water may be of a higher order than the 

priority date. However, statute and case law as 

developed from these provisions in the courts (at 

least in Colorado) has set the priority date as the 

primary means for allocating water in water-short 

areas with the provision that a higher order use, 

such as domestic, could acquire a lower order use, 

such as irrigation, through condemnation 

proceedings. For example, an irrigation water right 

with a priority date senior to a domestic water right 

will get its water first if there is not sufficient water 

to fill both decrees. However, the domestic right 

may acquire the irrigation right through condemnation proceedings and the payment of just 

compensation as determined by negotiation or 

judicial decree. 

8 

Water rights in Colorado are established through 

adjudication procedures in the judicial system, not 

through the State Engineer's Office. In Wyoming, 

the State Engineer oversees the adjudication of 

water. A water right is recognized as a property 

right and can be bought and sold the same as any 

other piece of property. At the same time, the water 

right must be used or it is subject to loss through 

established judicial procedure. A water right is 

decreed to a point of diversion-not to an individual-and it is decreed for a specific use or set 

of uses. Any change in use is subject to judicial 

review, which allows for protection of the rights of 

all appropriators-both senior and junior. 

The judicial framework for administering water 

law is discussed by Knudsen and Danielson (1977) 

for Colorado and by the Wyoming State Engineer's 

Office (1970) for Wyoming. Case law has had a substantial effect upon water law and administration. 

Statutes alone cannot give total guidance in all 

situations where there have been and will be differences of opinion as to the statutes' meaning and 

intent. Case law affecting water rights normally 

arises from one of two types of litigation: that 

which is a direct challenge of statute; and that 

which evolves from civil suits, the end result of 

which directly affects water law. Some examples of 

interest are given by Knudsen and Danielson 

(1977). 

The agriculturally oriented purpose for several 

projects proposed in the Yampa River basin by the 

U.S. Water and Power Resources Service (U.S. 

·Bureau of Reclamation) has been reoriented 

towards energy-resource development (U.S. 

Bureau of Reclamation, 197 4; Weatherford and 

Jacoby, 1975; Jacoby and others, 1976). These and 

other proposals consider the transfer of surface 

water out of the basin. In order to determine what 

the in-basin effect would be for a given project configuration, any such modification would require a 

reevaluation of the entire water-distribution 

system of the basin. 

Two interstate compacts directly affect the 

amounts of water available for energy development 

in the Yampa River basin. The Colorado River 

Compact of 1922 (Colorado Revised Statutes, 1973, 

Art. 37-61) states that use of water in the Upper 

Colorado River Basin by the States of Colorado, 

Utah, Wyoming, and New Mexico will not cause 

the flow of the river at Lees Ferry, Ariz., to be 

depleted below an aggregate of 75 million acre-ft 

(92.5 billion m3) in any successive 10-year period. 
The Upper Colorado River Com pact of 1948 

(Colo.rado Revised Statutes, 1973, Art. 37-62), apportions the amount of water allocated to the Upper Basin States (Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, 

Arizona, and New Mexico) and also dictates the 

procedure to be used by the Upper Basin States to 

meet a demand for water by the Lower Basin 

States. Stipulations of this compact directly affecting the Yampa River basin involve the 

minimum release of water from the Yampa River 

near Maybell, Colo. (fig. 1), and the distribution of 

irrigation diversions of certain tributaries of the 

Little Snake River along the Colorado-Wyoming 

State line (Knudsen and Danielson, 1977). 

On-stream reservoir operations, which may increase in the Yampa River basin, constitute a 

special case of water administration and management. This is partly due to the need to ensure that 

illegal storage of water does not occur. The criteria 

used to determine the reservoir outflow required to 

fulfill downstream senior water rights vary in accordance with local conditions and customs. The 

management of such stored water needs to be 

accomplished without jeopardizing senior water 

rights. 

Numerous proposed reservoir projects in the 

Yampa River basin have been designed not only to 

appropriate additional waters of the Yampa River 

basin but also to rearrange, to some degree, the 

existing water-use patterns (Steele and others, 

1979). Future water-development projects will be 

dependent on factors such as future land-use patterns in the area and the availability of water. The 

Yampa River basin and adjacent areas have an 

abundance of energy resources that will require 

substantial amounts of water for development 

(Holland, 1975; Van Zandt, 1975; Steele, 1976). If 

no unappropriated water is available following the 

implementation of the major proposed reservoirs 

mentioned above, future development may depend 

upon the acquisition of existing surface-water 

rights to meet anticipated water demands or on the 

development of ground-water resources. Changes 

in use and changes in points of diversion for water 

rights are granted by the courts, and each case is 

considered individually. It is difficult to give 

definitive guidelines for forecasting future actions 

by the courts in these matters. However, in any actions, adverse effects upon existing water rightsjunior or senior-are evaluated carefully by all 

affected parties. 

9 

In the Upper Colorado River Basin, some water 

traditionally used for irrigation is being transferred 

to industrial use through purchase and the appropriate judicial procedures (Colorado Department of Natural Resources, 1980). The circumstances surrounding such transfers vary from case 

to case. Irrigation is a seasonal use of water; an industry commonly requires a year-round use of a 

fixed amount of water. There is a difference in the 

consumptive uses of irrigation versus industry; that 

is, that portion of a water withdrawal that is totally 

consumed by the beneficial use and not returned to 

the river system. Generally, such transfers in water 

use are dependent on the degree of injury to vested 

rights, the historic diversion of the right to be 

transferred, consumptive use of the water, and 

other factors the water court or affected parties 

may introduce in the adjudication in a particular 

case. 

With increased coal-resource and associated 

economic development, the competition for water 

in the basin is becoming greater and greater. In the 

event certain streams of the Yampa River basin 

become depleted to the point where Colorado or 

Wyoming can no longer meet their interstatecompact commitments in the Upper Colorado 

River Basin, the doctrine of prior appropriation will 

determine which junior decrees are to be denied 

water in order to fulfill these commitments. This 

could well involve junior decrees adjudicated to industrial companies for energy development or for 

allocating minimum flows to protect aquatic life. 

In summary, water in the Yampa River basin is 

allocated by a combin~tion of constitutionally 

recognized rights, State statutes, water-rights 

decrees, administrative practice, and case law as 

developed through litigation. In Colorado, the 

State Engineer administers the water of the State 

in accordance with water decrees adjudicated by 

the courts of the State. In Wyoming, the State 

Engineer has a direct role in administration of 

water rights. These factors, plus other changes to 

the physical system due to the addition or depletion of water, undoubtedly will interact with existing water rights and will affect subsequent use of 

water in the Yampa River basin. Physical-based 

water-resource studies need to consider these institutional factors. 

No mention has been made up to this point of the 

numerous pieces of Federal water-pollution-control 

legislation having general or specific application to 
the Yampa River basin (Upper Colorado River 

Commission, 1965-77). Sections of the Federal 

Water Pollution Control Amendments Act of 1972 

(Public Law · 92-500) and the Colorado River 

Salinity Control Project Act (Public Law 93-320) 

have particular significance. The setting, review, 

and modific.ation of stream and effluent standards 

by the States of Colorado and Wyoming also have 

relevant application. The interactions between 

water quantity and water quality entail several institutional difficulties, as demonstrated by time of 

passage of separate legislative articles and the 

specification of separate administrative bodies 

responsible for enactment of these articles. Many 

of these difficulties will be overcome with time and 

with the setting of precedents. However, within the 

context of this basin assessment, it is hoped that 

certain vested institutional interests can be made 

more interactive and that legislative incompatibilities can be resolved through rational discussion of both physical and economic implications. 

TECHNICAL INFORMATION 

IN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 

OF REGIONAL WATERRESOURCES IN AREAS OF 

COAL-DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL 

By IVAN C. jAMES II and PHILLIP E. STARK' 

Not until he reached a sod hut at the other end of the town did 

he make a bargain worth mentioning; here he happened on a 

widow with two half-grown boys; the widow was Danish and ran 

a small poultry farm. 

***Yes, indeed, she needed potatoes, for both herself and the 

boys, and for the birds as well; she hadn't any money in the 

house, but she had the chickens.*** Wouldn't he trade some 

potatoes for a fowl or two? 

-Of course he would: Per Hansa was more than willing; after 

dickering awhile, he bartered nine pails of potatoes for three 

young chickens. 

-This is a mighty profitable deal-he thought-The Hallings are good people, but the Danes are even better. 

***"Listen, Mother, perhaps you'd just as soon take three 

pailfuls more and give me the fourth hen?" ***The widow 

agreed to that at once and Per Hansa felt that now he had made 

a fme bargain indeed. 

The widow, too, seemed very well satisfied; they beamed in 

mutual gratitude, filled with generous thoughts. 

(ROlvaag, 1927) 

'Former Director, Routt County Department of Environmental Health, Steamboat 

Springs, Colo. 

10 

In the rural Dakotas of the 1890's where this 

vignette occurred, the monetary economy was not 

well established. The bartering exemplified involved formalities and the investment of time and 

effort little used in today's market economy. 

The bargaining that Per Hansa and the widow 

undertook is a microcosm of the much more complicated bargaining that takes place between 

various interest groups involved with energy development and water-resources planning. Perhaps 

the differences are even more striking than the 

similarities. 

For Per Hansa and the widow, there was no question of property rights-he owned the potatoes, she 

the chickens-the question was the ratio at which 

they would be exchanged. If they could not come to 

an agreement, the trade would not be made, and 

they each would be no better off than before. Per 

Hansa may have been willing to trade up to four or 

five pails of potatoes for a chicken, and the widow 

may have taken as little as two; so even both 

were better off after the trade, their individual abilities to bargain may have determined how much 

better off. 

Property rights of individuals to enjoy clean 

water and air, and the rights of productive enterprises to discharge residuals into the environment 

are less well defined than the rights that Per Hansa 

and the widow exercised through ownership. Lacking a market mechanism for their determination, 

prices for environmental amenities are usually not 

known. Permitting requirements allow for significant amounts of public involvement and political 

input to the process. A multiplicity of interests also 

distinguishes this process. It is oversimplifying to 

categorize the interest groups as either "prodevelopment" or "anti-development." Although 

such feelings may exist, other issues concerning the 

management of the social and environmental effects of energy development may be of even greater 

importance. 

Although Per Hansa or the widow each could 

have prevented the completion of any trade, in the 

decisionmaking for energy-development the 

relative abilities of the various parties to effect, 

veto, or otherwise influence the decisionmaking 

process, in accordance with their desires, are not 

well defined. The myriad of requirements involved 

with the leasing, development, transportation, and 

conversion of energy gives many opportunities for 

review of the development process and also gives 

many points where opposing interests may express 
their op1n10ns. Pro-development interests, however, also have the advantage of our traditional 

view, ensconced in law, that the use of private 

property is largely at the discretion of the owner, 

provided that requirements to protect the general 

health, safety, and well-being of society are 

observed. Thus, a somewhat balanced set of forces 

exists, with the sway affected by public opinion 

through its expression in the legislative and executive powers of government tempered by traditional and constitutional judiciary considerations. 

Into this potentially adversary situation, the 

scientist comes forth with technical information 

and assessments on the likely impact of various 

alternative-development plans and mitigating 

programs. The sensitivity of the situation and the 

potential for this information to affect the decisionmaking process makes collection and analysis of 

the environmental information a potential threat 

from the viewpoint of the interested parties. 

The fact often not realized by the contenders is 

the positive value that information can have for 

both of them in resolving their conflict. In contrast 

to Per Hansa and the widow, where the total quantity of potatoes and chickens was fixed and they 

were just bargaining for a mutually advantageous 

redistribution, the environmental-development 

conflict commonly has opportunities for resolution 

that are better for most of the interested parties. 

Achieving such resolutions requires bargaining 

and a technical-information base to demonstrate to 

the interested parties the potential benefits and 

costs of the alternative actions being considered. 

Without a technical-information base, the relative 

benefits and costs of such disparate items as 

reclaimed land, nutrient concentrations in streamflow, municipal indebtedness, and environmental 

damages cannot be displayed. The potential for 

discovering those compromise solutions, that are 

viewed by the major interests as better than what 

might have been achieved without the information, 

remains unfulfilled. 

Methods for making decisions concerning 

natural-resources development and the environmental consequences of such development vary 

from situation to situation, reflecting the influence 

of tradition, legal development, and extent of controversy over the issues to be determined. The 

failure of prescribed decisionmaking processes to 

reach a compromise acceptable to the major parties 

of interest may lead to an appeal of the decision to 

11 

a higher administrative, legislative, or judicial 

authority, which has the effect of mixing the 

decisionmaking methods in a sequential manner. 

Another type of mixing occurs in cases where the 

decisionmaking takes place in many steps at different locations. Development of a mine-mouth 

electric powerplant requires decisionmaking at 

many political levels as described by Beckner 

(1976). Although decisionmaking usually cannot be 

simply described, there are several decisionmaking 

processes which may approximate particular situations or components of a larger planning process. 

The information requirements for each of these 

processes can be more easily and generally described than for the total decisionmaking process. 

Many natural-resource decisions that would 

adversely impact the environment were virtually 

unopposed before the growth of environmentalism 

in the late 1960's. Opposition to decisions prior to 

that time often existed only locally and was not 

well organized; effective legal and procedural 

mechanisms were lacking. The public as a whole 

had more trust in government, more perceived 

need for economic development, and a feeling of inevitability of governmental and corporate plans. 

Because the decisionmaking was centered in the 

private sector or accomplished in government in a 

rather rigorously prescribed procedure and environmental effects were of less concern, the needs 

for technical information in the decision process 

were rather small. Environmental information 

(data and modeling) was used after the main decision was made, when ameliorating procedures such 

as streamflow augmentation for dilution of heat 

load and residual discharge were being considered. 

Relatively limited information is also used in 

making decisions, the outcomes of which are determined by an administrative process. An example is 

the one-stop regulatory agency. Authority to grant 

permits, set rules, and establish standards, 

legislatively delegated to administrative agencies, 

is a rather commonly used decisionmaking mechanism in Federal and State governments. 

For convenience, for maintenance of a mask of 

equity, and for minimizing the risks of judicial 

review, action agencies often favor uniformity in 

rulemaking and regulatory approach. It requires 

very little information and engenders less judicial 

risk to decree a uniform level of residuals modification, and requires much less information than is required to design a minimum cost regional 
residuals-management system to achieve a particular environmental objective. Conversely, an efficient approach to environmental management 

may require considerably larger efforts in understanding the response of the environment to the 

direct and indirect effects of various actions. The 

social benefits of customized residuals-management programs may be quite large, but the benefits 

of such approaches to the regulatory and legislative 

bodies apparently has not been great enough to 

warrant serious consideration in most cases. 

At the legislative level of decisionmaking, conflicting viewpoints are brought to compromise by 

the usual techniques of representative governments; vote trading, logrolling, coercion, etc. 

(Haefele, 1971), in a decisionmaking process that 

can be characterized as political accommodation. 

This has a tendency to broaden the scope of 

tradeoffs to unrelated issues. The various sides to 

an issue may attempt to garner support via vote 

trading, which effectively extends coalitions into 

somewhat unusual areas of concern. By its involvement in decisionmaking, the legislative body may 

increase the number of parties to the decision and 

increase the scope of the options available. To 

achieve a resolution that both sides find acceptable, the legislative body may sweeten the compromise solution through .the infusion of public 

funds to lessen adverse impacts. 

The information requirements for political accommodation are considerably different than for 

other decisionmaking processes. Legislatures do 

not have the expertise or time to thoroughly understand the technicalities or details of the issues involved. Rather, they often rely on their clientele's 

desires rather than hard information as a basis for 

decisionmaking. What information they do utilize 

must, of necessity, be very compressed, simplified, 

and aggregated. Information in raw forms, or that 

is not distilled to its essence for the decision at 

hand, is not likely to be utilized. 

Suggestions have been made by some-particularly economists-that the solution to environmental problems lies in a strict definition of 

property rights and the development of a 

marketing system in those rights. "Rights-topollute" could be established for particular receiving media and they could be exchanged like any 

other commodity. The well-known ability of the 

marketplace to, under certain conditions, optimally allocate resources could be used. A produc12 

tive process generating residuals could then make 

its optimal decision concerning the level of 

residuals modification and amount of "rights" to 

buy. Environmental interests could similarly enter 

the marketplace and bid on these rights and leave 

them unexercised. There are some very real 

problems with a system of decisionmaking by a 

marketplace process, particularly with respect to 

the public-goods nature of environmental amenities. The possibilities for efficiently achieving environmental objectives by such systems, however, 

has intrigued economists for some time. In this 

more restrictive application of the method, information is simply needed to arrive at the amount of 

"rights" to be established to meet the specified environmental objectives. This may simply be environmental results that link loadings to ambient 

environmental quality, or possibly also include 

economic analyses to estimate the optimal level of 

environmental quality, considering the costs of 

residuals treatment in relation to the benefits from 

improved environmental quality. 

As the environmental decisionmaking process 

evolves, the amount, kind, and nature of the information supplied to it must change if it is to remain 

relevant. The use of technical information purely 

for design efficiency has given way to its use for 

assessing a wide range of cause-and-effects relationships related to energy development. Such assessments also must be evaluated by public and interest groups. 

The less technically specialized individual needs 

to have the technical material presented in a 

form which is accurate yet comprehensible at 

his technical level. Communication of technical 

knowledge thus becomes more difficult and more 

important. Information and data developed from 

the Yampa River basin assessment have been and 

are being used for decisionmaking. Although the 

nature of the decisions being made may be 

somewhat unique to this basin and to the present 

condition of the environmental decisionmaking 

process, it may be informative to describe some of 

the specific uses that have been made of information developed in this study. The remainder of this 

chapter describes some examples of the uses of 

technical data and information. 

As a result of recently adopted Federal surfacemining regulations (Public Law 95-87), local coalmine operators are using surface-water-quality 

data obtained during the assessment to fulfill cer-
tain regulatory obligations, such as providing a 

surface-water-quality data base. Also, by comparing water-quality data obtained subsequent to the 

assessment with the assessment data, the coalmine operators are able to determine the effects of 

their activities on surface-water quality. Using the 

comparisons, the coal-mine operators are able to 

modify their activities, if needed, to minimize the 

effects of mining on surface-water quality. 

Regulatory agencies also are using both the 

surface-water-quality data provided by the coal 

companies and the assessment data to assess the 

impacts of mining on surface-water quality. 

As of 1980, projects to improve wastewatertreatment facilities, implemented under Section 

208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act 

Amendments of 1972 (Public Law 92-500), have 

been completed or are in progress at Steamboat 

Springs (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

1977), at Oak Creek and at Hayden in Routt 

County, and at Craig in Moffat County (Norton, 

Underwood, and Lamb, Engineering Associates, 

1978). Surface-water-quality data from the Yampa 

River basin assessment have been and are being 

used by planners and engineers associated with 

these projects to aid in the design of the 

wastewater-treatment facilities. The data also are 

being used to anticipate impacts of effluent discharged from the plants. Model results of the 

potential effects of the wastewater-treatment plant 

at Steamboat Springs (Bauer and others, 1978) indicated that certain standards for effluent did not 

need to be as stringent as originally proposed in 

order to meet specified water-quality goals. As a 

result, local governments modified the standards 

for effluent, which may have resulted in substantial cost savings for the project. 

Surface-water-quality data also were used in the 

planning and feasibility reports prepared for a 

reservoir in Routt County (Woodard-Clyde Consultants, 1977). The data were used to establish 

water-quality characteristics prior to reservoir construction and to anticipate possible impacts of the 

reservoir on water quality in the Yampa River. 

Results from both the waste-load assimilativecapacity analysis of the Yampa River (Bauer and 

others, 1978) and the reservoir-development 

analysis (D. B. Adams, D. P. Bauer, R. H. Dale, 

and T. D. Steele, written commun., 1978) have 

been used by local officials to determine the effects 

13 

of augmenting minimum streamflow by reservoir 

releases. On the basis of these results~ local officials 

have concluded that selected ambient waterquality characteristics may be improved by flow 

augmentation and that the impact of pollutants 

discharged to streams downstream from reservoirs 

can be reduced by flow augmentation. 

Another aspect of the use of data from the 

Yampa River basin assessment involved the North 

West Colorado Council of Governments, a local 

multicounty governmental agency, that received 

funds under Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments Act of 1972 (Public 

Law 92-500) to develop an area-wide water-quality-management plan. As stipulated in Section 208 

of Public Law 92-500, the North West Colorado 

Council of Governments is to identify surfacewater-quality problems within the six-county area 

it represents and is to implement measures to 

eliminate existing problems and prevent future 

problems. As the goal of identifying existing waterquality problems was similar to that of the Yampa 

River basin assessment, cooperative program efforts were modified by the U.S. Geological Survey 

to fulfill the Section-208 requirements for waterquality information from Routt County (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 1976). As a result, data 

provided by the U.S. Geological Survey were 

suitable for use by the North West Colorado Council of Governments in its Section-208 planning 

endeavor (Britton, 1979). Thus, the two agencies 

were able to minimize duplication of effort by coordinating desired study products. 

In summary, local officials are using data and information from several studies conducted during 

the Yampa River basin assessment. Information 

from this and related projects has allowed officials 

and managers to fulfill regulatory obligations and 

to predict some of the effects of planned development on the water resources of the region. 

Moreover, an attempt has been made to present 

the resultant information in a form that is understandable and applicable to regional problems. 

Technical studies in other energy-developing 

regions might well apply the reporting format used 

by this basin assessment. Information surveys 

conducted in the future will be the best judge of 

the extent to which attempts at communicating 

technical information have been successful and will 

indicate better ways to provide information for 

decisionmaking. 
PART II. ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES 

Given the previously described study framework, 

in terms of assumed development alternatives, institutional aspects of water availability, and the 

technical information needs for decisionmaking, a 

range of assessment techniques was applied to the 

Yampa River basin. The general implication is that 

the indicated set of studies, the results of which are 

highlighted in the following chapters, could serve 

as a general guide for similar assessments in other 

energy-developing regions of the West. 

Details of study applications using these techniques are given in separate technical reports. In an 

attempt to demonstrate the interactions of the 

several study components and the need to consider 

these interactions, only selected results are 

highlighted here. 

REGIONAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 

FOR PREDICTING WATER USE AND 

WASTE RESIDUALS 

By jOHN E. SCHEFTER 

The development and use of coal resources of the 

Yampa River basin will induce further economic 

activity within the region. The various sectors or 

industries of the regional economy do not operate 

in isolation; they are interdependent. Growth in 

one economic sector will result in an increase in its 

demand for inputs required to produce its product 

and, thus, will stimulate growth in the sectors 

providing those inputs. An increase in the production or output of these indirectly affected sectors 

will, in turn, stimulate output in other sectors. This 

increase in the output of the sectors of the regional 

economy generally will result in an overall increase 

in employment and population in the region, which 

will further stimulate growth in the various sectors. 

Because impacts of the development of coal 

resources will reverberate throughout the basin, the 

total (direct and indirect) increase in the output of 

the regional economy will be larger than just the 

direct increase in the value of the output of the 

coal-mining and coal-use sectors. 

For any given rate of coal mining, the magnitude 

of the direct and indirect increase in the output of 

each sector, and the composition of the increase in 

the overall output of the regional economy, will de14 

pend upon how and where the coal is used. For example, the use of any given quantity of coal in a 

coal-gasification process is likely to have a different 

effect on the output of the various sectors than 

would the use of the' same amount of coal in 

thermal-electric-power generation. They are different processes and thus require inputs from different sectors and different levels of inputs from the 

same sectors. Similarly, transport of coal out of the 

basin by coal-slurry pipeline is likely to have a different effect on the various sectors of the regional 

economy than would coal transported by unit train 

(Palmer and others, 1977). The direct and indirect 

effects of a given rate of coal mining on the output 

of the various sectors of the economy, and, thus, on 

the level and composition of the total output of the 

regional economy, can be expected to be greater if 

the coal is used within the basin, rather than transported out of the basin. 

Each sector of the regional economy uses a different amount, of water and generates different 

amounts and types of residuals per dollar of output. Thus, the rate of coal mining, the coalutilization process, and the method of transporting 

the coal out of the basin will affect rates of water 

use and the discharge of waste residuals within the 

basin. 

Economic input-output analysis (Miemyk, 1965) 

provides a means of estimating the total (direct 

and indirect) changes in the output of each sector 

of the regional economy, given any specified change 

in the output of one or more of the energy-related 

(coal-mining, coal-conversion, or coal-transportation) sectors-or any other sector. Given coefficients which specify the amount of water used 

and residuals discharged per dollar of output for 

each sector, an input-output model can be used to 

predict the changes in water use and residuals discharged as a result of projected changes in 

economic activity (Gray and McKean, 1975; Howe 

and others, 1975). A description of an input-output 

model of the Colorado part of the Yampa River 

basin as approximated by Routt and Moffat Counties is given in Udis and Hess (1976), Udis, Adams, 

Hess, and Orr (1977), and Hirsch James, and 

Schefter (1978). 

Input-output analysis provides linear approximations to the economic interactions between the 

sectors of an economy: outputs vary linearly with 
inputs and inputs are employed in fixed proportions. Also, water use, employment, and residuals 

discharge are assumed to vary linearly with output. 

The linearity inherent to input-output analysis is 

not particularly troublesome in the absence of 

relatively large expected or predicted changes in 

the output of any one sector. However, the 

technology used by energy-related sectors undergo-:-

ing relatively large expansion may be expected to 

be substantially different from that currently used. 

Moreover, coal-resource development in the 

Yampa River basin may result in new types of industry coming into the region. 

The input-output model of the Yampa River 

basin economy was designed to consider 

technological differences between the existing and 

potential new coal-mining, thermal-electric 

powerplant, and unit-train operations, and to consider the possibility that a coal-slurry pipeline 

and/or coal-gasification plants might be operated 

in the region. Three sectors were included in the 

model to represent expansion of surface mining of 

coal, underground mining of coal, and unit-train 

operations. An additional three sectors were included to represent (potential) thermal-electric 

powerplants, coal-gasification plants, and a coalslurry pipeline. 

Plant-process models (1. C. James IT, E. D. Attanasi, T. Maddock III, S. H. Chiang, B. T. Bower, 

and N. C. Matalas, written commun., 1978) were 

used to derive estimates of the direct productionrequirement coefficients for the new and expansion 

sectors. These coefficients give the inputs directly 

required by the new and expansion sectors, per dollar of output, from all other sectors of the regional 

economy. 

To provide estimates of water withdrawal in the 

Yampa River basin under several energydevelopment alternatives, it was necessary to 

derive estimates of water withdrawal per dollar of 

output for each sector of the economy. For most of 

the existing sectors (32 and 45 in table 2), waterwithdrawal coefficients were derived by estimating 

the total quantity of water withdrawn by each of 

the sectors in 1975, and dividing this total by the 

dollar value of the output of the corresponding sector during that year. Water-withdrawal coefficients 

for the new and expansion sectors were primarily 

derived using plant-process models (1. C. James II, 

E. D. Attanasi, T. Maddock III, S. H. Chiang, B. 

T. Bower, and N. C. Matalas, written commun., 

1978; Hirsch, 1979). New electric powerplants were 

assumed to use wet-cooling towers. Estimates of 

water-withdrawal coefficients and of the quantity 

of water withdrawn by each sector in 1975 are 

presented in table 2. 

Also presented in table 2 are the waterwithdrawal multipliers as estimated using the 

input-output model. Whereas the water-withdrawal coefficient for a sector is an estimate of the 

direct water-withdrawal per dollar of output, the 

water-withdrawal multiplier is an estimate of the 

total (direct and indirect) water withdrawal by all 

sectors of the regional economy per dollar of output 

delivered to final demand (that is, ultimately consumed in or exported from the basin) by the sector 

in question. For example, if a new thermal-electric 

powerplant (sector 35) is to generate one dollar's 

worth of electricity for export from the basin, it will 

directly require that about 99 gallons (375 L) of 

water be withdrawn. But, it is estimated that due 

to indirect effects (including increased mining of 

coal to fuel the powerplant) the export of the dollar's worth of electricity will directly and indirectly 

result in the withdrawal of a total of about 118 gallons ( 447 L) of water. 

Though not presented here, estimates of the 

water-consumption coefficients also were derived, 

along with estimates of the water-consumption 

multipliers and total water consumption in the 

basin in 1975. These estimates are presented in 

Hirsch, James, and Schefter (1978, table 5). 

It is estimated that the livestock sector in 1975 

withdrew and consumed, by far, the most water 

-primarily for the irrigation of pastures and 

hayfields. But the existing electric-energy (27) and 

surface coal-mining (6) sectors were estimated to 

rank second and fourth, respectively, in the quantity of water withdrawn in the basin in 1975 

(table 2). 

Estimates were derived of the quantity of 13 

types of residuals discharged per dollar of output 

by various sectors. For the energy-related sectors, 

these residuals coefficients were derived primarily 

using plant-process models (1. C. James II, E. D. 

Attanasi, T. Maddock III, S. H. Chiang, B. T. 

Bower, and N. C. Matalas, written commun., 

1978). The residuals coefficients for the expanded 

surface-mining sector were derived under the assumption that the coal would be mined under a 

moderate to high level of land reclamation to 

reduce wind- and water-borne sediment (1. C. 

James II, E. D. Attanasi, T. Maddock III, S. H. 

Chiang, B. T. Bower, and N. C. Matalas, written 

commun., 1978). For other sectors, the estimates of 

15 
TAHLE 2.-Estimates of water-withdrawal coefficients, water-withdrawal multipliers, and total water withdrawal, by sector, for 

the Colorado part of the Yampa River basin in 1975 

Sector 

No. Tit 1 e 

1. Livestock-----------------------

2. Irrigated agriculture-----------

3. Other agriculture---------------

4. Forestry------------------------

5. Oil and gas---------------------

6. Surface coal mining-------------

7. Underground coal mining---------

8. Other mining--------------------

9. Oilfield services---------------

10. Coal-mining services------------

11. Food and associated products----

12. Lumber and wood products--------

13. Printing and publishing---------

14. Stone, clay, and glass----------

15. Other manufacturing-------------

16. Service stations--bulk dealers--

17. Other wholesale establishments--

lB. Eating and drinking places------

19. All other service stations------

20. All other retail services-------

21. Lodging-------------------------

22. Recreation----------------------

23. Winter sports-------------------

24. Other nonprofessional services--

25. Railroad transportation---------

26. All other transportation--------

27. Electric energy-----------------

28. All other utilities-------------

29. Contract construction--light----

30. Contract construction--heavy----

31. Rentals and finance-------------

32. Local government----------------

33. Expanded SFC coal operations----

34. Expanded UG coal operations-----

35. New powerplant operations-------

36. Coal-gas plant operations-------

37. Slurry-pipeline operations------

38. Unit-train operations-----------

45. Households----------------------

Total water withdrawals (in 

(acre-feet). 

Coefficient 

(Ga 11 ons 

per dollar) 

16 

4,808.0 

4,113.0 

.2 

8.0 

34.0 

25.4 

.0 

112.0 

33.0 

25.0 

6.0 

27.0 

.7 

52.0 

10.9 

1.7 

2.8 

11.5 

2.2 

3.8 

2.8 

2.8 

3.4 

6.2 

1.0 

5.2 

98.8 

2.3 

6.8 

3.2 

4.9 

.7 

25.4 

.0 

98.8 

36.3 

393.0 

.0 

6.4 

Water withdrawal 

Multiplier 

(Gallons 

per dollar) 

5,228.8 

4,173.3 

152.8 

15. 1 

36.8 

33.2 

6.8 

117.8 

33.5 

25.6 

1,393.0 

39.0 

7.7 

58.6 

18.8 

6.7 

10.5 

46.2 

14.2 

10.9 

11.2 

21.4 

17.6 

12. 1 

7.9 

24.3 

123. 1 

6.8 

11.9 

7.0 

19.0 

8. 1 

28.4 

9.2 

118.3 

51.3 

426.9 

3.4 

17.2 

Total 

(Acre-feet) 

387,437.9 

4,250.0 

2.6 

12.9 

1,470.0 

2,700.9 

.0 

236.8 

804.5 

673.6 

37.1 

185.6 

1.0 

83.3 

27.8 

15.6 

32.3 

152.0 

9.7 

175.8 

40.2 

83. 1 

39.1 

155.2 

56. 1 

82.9 

5,427.3 

18. 1 

58.6 

104.9 

860.8 

30.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

1,519.0 

406,784.8 
the residuals coefficients were derived using a 

variety of sources. 

Not all of the estimates of residuals discharge 

were linked solely to the value of the output of the 

various sectors. Some also were based on estimates 

of residuals discharged per person and, thus, were 

linked to the regional population. For example, the 

quantity of biochemical oxygen demand was linked 

both to the dollar value of the output of the 

livestock sector and the population of the region. 

Population estimates for the Yampa River basin 

were based on estimated employment in each sector. The employment estimates were, in turn, 

based on sector-employment coefficients, which 

are estimates of the num her of persons employed 

per dollar of output by each sector. Due to space 

limitations, the estimated employment coefficients, residuals coefficients, and the corresponding multipliers for each sector are not 

pre sen ted herein. 

The input-output model was used to predict the 

impacts of alternative methods and rates of coal 

use on several aspects of the basin's environment. 

In making these predictions, the output of the existing coal-mining and electric-energy sectors (sectors 6, 7, and 27, table 2) was constrained to 1975 

levels. All additional coal mining and utilization is 

assumed to occur in the new and expansion sectors 

(33 through 38, table 2). 

Predictions were made using two sets of 

scenarios. In the first set of four scenarios, it was 

assumed that an additional 12.5 million tons (11.3 

million t) of coal, above the estimated 4.6 million 

tons (4.2 million t) extracted in 1975, is to be surface mined. The second set of seven scenarios (the 

coal-resource development alternatives presented 

in table 1) is intended to encompass the range of 

anticipated coal-resource development in the 

basin. 

The four scenarios were employed to obtain 

across-use comparisons of the impacts of using the 

additional coal in each of four ways. 

1. All of the additional coal is used within the 

basin by thermal-electric powerplants to generate 

electricity, solely for export from the basin. 

2. All of the additional coal is used within the 

basin by coal-gasification plants to manufacture 

gas for export from the basin. 

3. All of the additional coal is exported from the 

basin via a coal-slurry pipeline. 

4. All of the additional coal is exported from the 

basin via unit trains. 

17 

In this first set of scenarios, any required construction under each of the alternatives has been 

assumed to be completed and the economy is assumed to be in a relatively steady state. This, of 

course, ignores part of the problem, as many 

severe, though relatively short-lived, impacts of 

energy development may occur during. the construction phase (Luken, 1974). 

Estimates of population, water withdrawal and 

consumption, and residuals discharge under each 

of the scenarios are presented in table 3. Estimates 

also are presented for the existing (1975) level of 

development. 

The two scenarios under which coal is used 

within the basin give rise to the most economic 

development, which results in the greatest increase 

in population, residuals output, and water use. The 

export of coal from the basin for use elsewhere, as 

in the other two scenarios, does not, of course, 

eliminate either residuals output or water use-it 

only "exports" these problems along with the coal. 

If a goal is to increase the level of economic activity in the Yampa River basin, then coalgasification plants could be considered, for they 

produce the greatest increase of the four scenarios 

(table 3). On the other hand, if a goal is to remove 

coal resources with the least disruption to the existing conditions in the region (at least to those 

aspects considered), then either unit trains or a 

coal-slurry pipeline appear to be better alternatives 

(table 3). 

The coal-slurry pipeline would consume, directly 

and indirectly, more water than would unit trains. 

The estimates of residuals discharge associated 

with the coal-slurry pipeline, however, are less than 

or equal to those in the unit-train scenario, for most 

types of residuals considered. Moreover, estimates 

were not made of noise pollution and of "damages" 

imposed on motorists who must wait at railroad 

crossings for unit trains to pass. These problems associated with unit trains may be of significant 

magnitude if trains are frequently used. 

Though all water used directly by a coal-slurry 

pipeline would be consumed through export from 

the basin, the total rate of consumption under the 

pipeline alternative would be considerably less 

than that for either the thermal-electric powerplant or coal-gasification-plant scenarios. 

The total impacts of energy development under 

each scenario are divided into percentage direct 

and percentage indirect in table 4. It can be seen 

that plant-process models, which estimate only 

direct impacts, provide nearly the same, but lower 
TABLE 3.-Comparison of the impact of four alternative coal-use processes on selected aspects of the environment, Colorado part 

of the Yampa River basin 

Process using 

12.5 million tons of coal 

Item Existing 

( 1975) Electric 

powerplant 

Coalgasification 

plant 

Slurrypipe 1 i ne 

export 

Unittrain 

export 

Population----------------------------

Water withdrawals (acre-ft per year)--

Water consumption (acre-ft per year)--

17,897 

406,785 

142,267 

23,203 

464,227 

197,999 

27,505 

442,550 

175,518 

20,058 

424,284 

158,598 

19,806 

415,021 

149,392 

Residuals discharged (tons per year): 

Solid: 

Ash-------------------------------

Other solids----------------------

Airborne: 

73,926 

25,666 

733,725 

142,009 

723,036 

178,210 

73,926 

27,243 

73,926 

27,059 

Total suspended particulates------

Hydrocarbons----------------------

Nitrogen oxides-------------------

Sulfur oxides---------------------

Carbon monoxide-------------------

122,225 

5,682 

22' 193 

11 ,635 

7,790 

135,810 

7,371 

147,366 

55,479 

12,983 

130,529 

6,518 

47,784 

17,559 

9,227 

128,852 

5,756 

22,310 

11 ,665 

7,880 

131 '721 

5,875 

22,490 

11 '82 7 

8,054 

Waterborne: 

Biochemical oxygen demand---------

Chemical oxygen demand------------

Nitrogen--------------------------

Phosphorus------------------------

Suspended solids------------------

Dissolved solids------------------

estimates of water use and certain process-relatedresiduals discharge (ash, other solids, total 

suspended particulates, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and 

suspended solids) as the input-output model. 

However, plant-process models used without the 

input-output model would greatly underestimate 

the change in population-related (indirect) 

residuals discharge (biochemical oxygen demand, 

chemical oxygen demand, nitrogen, phosphorus, 

and dissolved solids). 

The second set of scenarios encompass the seven 

coal-resource development alternatives of table 1. 

Table 5lists the estimates of population, water use, 

and residuals discharge under each of these seven 

scenarios, or coal-resource development alternatives. As these alternatives are intended to encompass the range of coal-resource development in 

2' 152 

7' 145 

130 

199 

13,276 

2' 180 

7' 152 

141 

203 

38,312 

2,202 

7' 158 

151 

206 

38,340 

2' 163 

7' 148 

134 

200 

38,291 

2' 162 

7' 147 

134 

200 

38,289 

62,790 63,026 63,220 62,888 62,876 

18 

the basin, both the rate of coal extraction and the 

method of utilizing the coal varies between 

scenarios. As a consequence, the estimates 

presented in table 5, though largely selfexplanatory, do not easily yield generalizations as 

to relative impacts of different rates of mining or 

uses of the coal. They should be considered to be 

only conditional, if-then, predictions of the impact 

of coal-resource development. 

In summary, the ranges of projected economic 

activity in coal-resource development for the 

Yampa River basin were used to estimate future 

water demands and discharged waste residuals. 

While considerable uncertainty is inherent in any 

one of these projections, this technique does 

provide some estimate of relative magnitudes and 

types of stresses on the basin's environment. The 

estimates of the quantity of different types of 
TABLE 4.-Direct and indirect impacts, as a percentage of total impacts, of four different coal-use processes, Colorado part of the 

Yampa River basin 

Electric Coal-gasifi- S 1 u r ry- p i pe 1 i ne Unit-train 

Item powerplant cation plant export export 

Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Direct lndi rect Direct 

(percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) 

Water withdrawals----------------- 98 2 94 6 97 3 95 

Water consumption----------------- 99 99 99 99 

Residuals discharged: 

Solid: 

Ash--------------------------- 100 0 100 0 

Other sol ids------------------ 97 3 95 5 0 100 0 

Airborne: 

Total suspended particulates-- 91 9 74 26 92 8 96 

Hydrocarbons------------------ 91 9 67 33 15 85 72 

Nitrogen oxides--------------- 100 0 99 1 26 74 71 

Sulfur oxides----------------- 100 0 98 2 7 93 87 

Carbon monoxide--------------- 99 1 92 8 69 31 91 

Waterborne: 

Biochemical oxygen demand----- 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 

Chemical oxygen demand-------- 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 

Nitrogen---------------------- 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 

Phosphorus-------------------- 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 

Suspended solids-------------- 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 

Dissolved solids-------------- 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 

TABLE 5.-Water-use and residuals discharge under seven coal-resource development alternatives-1990 

[Code designation and composition of alternative is given by Udis, Adams, Hess, and Orr 1977. Slow Growth, 10 million tons; 

moderate growth, 20 million tons; rapid growth, 30.8 million tons] 

Coal-resource development alternative 

Indirect 

(percent) 

5 

100 

4 

28 

29 

13 

9 

100 

100 

100 

100 

0 

100 

1975 

base Slow 

growth 

7 

Moderate growth Rapid growth 

Water use (acre-ft per year): 

Withdrawal----------------------

Consumption---------------------

Total population------------------

Residuals discharge (tons per year): 

Solid: 

Ash---------------------------

Other solids------------------

Airborne: 

Total suspended particulates--

Hydrocarbons------------------

Nitrogen oxides---------------

Sulfur oxides-----------------

Carbon monoxide---------------

Waterborne: 

Biochemical oxygen demand-----

Chemical oxygen demand--------

Nitrogen----------------------

Phosphorus--------------------

Suspended solids--------------

Dissolved solids--------------

406,785 

142,267 

420,135 425,960 

154,804 159,486 

17,897 21,128 24,703 

73,926 214,331 

12,601 36,535 

122,225 

5,682 

22,193 

11,635 

7,790 

2,152 

7' 145 

130 

199 

13,276 

62,790 

126,077 

6,103 

48,915 

20,992 

8,926 

2,169 

7' 149 

136 

201 

20,636 

74,991 

214,331 

36,535 

133,076 

6,311 

49,224 

21 '167 

9,147 

2,188 

7' 155 

145 

204 

36,661 

89,604 

2 

453,490 

185,612 

32,419 

863,441 

182,065 

132,546 

6,983 

74,562 

26,936 

10,361 

2,228 

7' 166 

162 

210 

36,712 

89,949 

3 4 

442,493 449,906 

175,818 183,183 

25,844 26,075 

436,024 436,024 

74,325 74,325 

134,448 

6,813 

91 '182 

35,834 

10,804 

2,194 

7' 156 

147 

205 

36,668 

89,655 

133,218 

6,765 

91 '108 

35.765 

10,729 

2,195 

7' 157 

148 

205 

36,670 

89,665 

5 

536,965 

267,979 

35,834 

1,618.383 

275,870 

150,856 

9,785 

315,393 

114,334 

19,969 

2,245 

7' 170 

169 

213 

54,016 

105,708 

6 

506,639 

237,489 

36,607 

1 ,351 '758 

247,862 

145,425 

8,715 

216,075 

78,022 

16,068 

2,250 

7' 171 

171 

214 

54,021 

105,744 

residuals discharged to the atmosphere and the 

hydrologic system of tables 3 and 5 require further 

analysis before impacts on air and water quality 

can be predicted. 

19 
WATER-USE AND RESIDUALS 

IMPLICATIONS OF 

COAL-CONVERSION AND 

TRANSPORTATION ALTERNATIVES 

By ROBERT M. HIRSCH 

Each coal-use alternative has a set of implications regarding discharge of residuals into the environment and use of water (Gold and others, 

1977). In this chapter, a comparative analysis is 

made of alternative cooling systems in powerplants. Then, assuming a fixed amount of coal 

production, relative water-use implications are 

compared in use of this coal for electric-power 

generation, coal gasification, or a coal-slurry 

pipeline. Finally, a comparison of total residuals 

discharged as a result of the seven assumed coaldevelopment plans gives some insight into the possible environmental problems confronting resource 

managers in the Yampa River basin. 

A coal-burning powerplant generating electricity 

must reject a vast amount of waste heat into the 

environment. For every megawatt-hour (MWh) of 

electricity produced, approximately 6.2 million 

Btu (6.5 billion joules) of heat is produced. There 

are five major methods available for dealing with 

this residual. Four of these methods-once-through 

cooling, cooling ponds, wet-cooling towers, and 

dry-cooling towers-were investigated to determine 

their implications for the use of water and energy as 

well as for the residuals produced in the heatproduction process. A fifth method not examined 

here is the beneficial use of waste heat. 

The relative amounts of the heat load rejected by 

each mechanism are dependent upon: (1) the type 

of cooling device used; (2) climatic conditions 

(temperature, humidity, and wind); (3) hydrologic 

conditions (quantity and temperature of available 

water); and (4) certain plant-operating conditions. 

The first three of these methods rely, to varying 

degrees, on evaporation as a cooling mechanism. 

For each kilogram of water evaporated, a water 

body loses 2,400 Btu (2.5 million joules) of heat. As 

a consequence of this evaporation, there is not just 

an addition of moisture to the atmosphere and loss 

of surface water available for other uses, but there 

also will be an increase in the concentration of dissolved and suspended solids in the remaining 

water. Thus, the consequences of heat-rejection 

methods involve changes in atmospheric conditions, water availability, and water quality. 

Schematics of the four cooling systems considered in this analysis are shown in figure 3. In the 

comparative analysis, the results of which are summarized in table 6, it was assumed that the cooling 

systems would be installed at a complex of 

powerplants using 12.5 million tons (11.3 million t) 

of coal annually and that the total plant-generating 

capacity would be about 4,000 MW, with operating 

efficiency of 39 percent and a load factor of 83 percent (1. C. James II, E. D. Attanasi, T. Maddock 

III, S. H. Chiang, B. T. Bower, and N.C. Matalas, 

written commun., 1978). 

For once-through cooling, the annual flow 

diverted from the river would average 3,580 ft3

/s 

(101 m3/s) or total 2.15 million acre-ft (2.65 billion 

m3) (table 6). This water would be pumped from 

the river, passed through the powerplant condensers where it would be heated, and then 

returned to the river (fig. 3A). Because the three 

physical mechanisms of heat loss (evaporation, 

conduction, and long-wave radiation) proceed at 

rates which are increasing functions of water 

temperature, the river would begin to cool and 

gradually return to its natural temperature. In the 

reach of the river affected by this elevated 

temperature, there would likely be changes in the 

number and variety of aquatic species. 

Because the evaporation rate of a free-water surface is an increasing function of water temperature, 

the evaporation rate for the river will be larger than 

it would be if no waste heat had been discharged to 

the river. The rate of water evaporation attributable to the powerplant is this difference 

between the actual rate and the natural rate of 

evaporation, integrated over the surface area of the 

river. The rate of water evaporation is an increasing 

function of wind speed, natural water temperature, 

and altitude. 

By computing the rate of water evaporation for 

the various climatic and hydrologic conditions assumed to exist throughout the year, the annual 

evaporation by a hypothetical 4,000-MW powerplant located on the Yampa River would be 27,800 

acre-ft (34.3 million m3), or 1 percent of the annual 

withdrawal rate (table 6). This would result in a 

2.7-percent decrease in the mean annual flow of the 

20 
tv 

~ 

ONCE-THROUGH COOLING 

.-:---- River --- Outfall 

t l 

~ I I -:!) 

r 

,l 

Blowdown 

evaporating 

pond 

--

Powerplant 

A 

WET-COOLING TOWERS 

River --- Wet- coo I i ng tower 

0 0 0 0 

I 

9 I~ Powerplant 

c 

Intake 

...--

Makeup 

water jll ;ntake 

I I. 

l ./ 

Cooling 

pond 

~ 

t 

~ 

---

~ 

Slowdown t I outfall 

~ 

t 

COOLING PONDS 

River 

t 

Intake 

---Makeup 

.L I water 

T intake 

t 

~ ~ 

Powerplant 

B 

DRY- COOLING TOWER 

---- ~~ 

t 

-- --- -:;.J) 

Powerplant 

D 

FIGURE 3.-Schematic diagrams offour cooling systems. (From Hirsch and others, 1978.) 
TABLE 6.-Comparison of four cooling technologies assuming mining of 12.5 million tons (11.3 million t) of coal per year 

[Modified from Hirsch, James, and Schefter, 1978] 

Once- Wet Dry 

Pond 

through tower tower 

Water withdrawn 2,150,000 45,700 44,400 0 

(acre-feet per year). 

Water evaporated 27,800 41,500 44,400 0 

(acre-feet per year). 

Electric energy produced 32.6 X 109 32.6 X 109 32.4 X 109 30.3 X 109 

(kilowatt-hours per year). 

Dissolved-solids load in the 218,800 218,800 210,400 218,800 

Yampa River (tons per year). 

Discharge-weighted dissolved- 143 144 140 140 

solids concentration in the 

Yampa River near Maybell 

(station 09251000) (milligrams per liter). 

Average annual flow of the 1,087,000 1,074,000 1 , 071 , 000 1,115,000 

Yampa River at Maybell 

(acre-feet per year). 

Yampa River near Maybell, Colo. (fig. 2). 

In the evaporation process, the dissolved solids in 

the rivet would remain in the water and, thus, their 

concentration would increase. Based on an existing 

discharge-weighted mean annual dissolved-solids 

concentration of 140 mg/L for the Yampa River 

near Maybell, Colo. (lorns and others, 1965), the 

average dissolved-solids concentration would 

22 

increase by an estimated 3 mg/L to 143 mg/L 

(table 6). 

The water-withdrawal rates for once-through 

cooling are so great as to render this cooling method 

technically infeasible for a 4,000-MW powerplant 

in the Yampa River basin, according to an analysis 

by Maddock and Matalas (1980). However, it is 

worthy of mention, because it would be feasible on 
either a smaller scale or combined with one of the 

other technologies. Once-through cooling is a 

technology with some favorable aspects (small 

rates of evaporation, small capital cost, and small 

plant-efficiency losses), as well as some unfavorable aspects (damage to organisms from the 

pumps and condensers and ecological changes due 

to increased water temperatures). It is included in 

this analysis to facilitate the comparison of a range 

of development alternatives. In this manner, combinations of those options can be determined, 

which would be a realistic compromise among 

various economic, environmental, and social 

objectives. 

For the second analysis, the cooling mechanism 

was assumed to be a cooling pond in the shape of a 

long sinuous canal covering 4,230 acres (1,710 ha) 

(fig. 3B). By simulation of the cooling process in 

this pond, considering the range of conditions 

prevailing in the Yampa River basin, the estimated 

annual evaporation from the pond would be 41,500 

acre-ft (51.2 million m3) (table 6). This evaporation 

would be larger than for once-through cooling, 

because this value includes both the natural and 

the waste-heat-induced evaporation from the pond. 

To compensate for the 41,500 acre-ft (51.2 million m3) evaporative loss, a volume of water would 

need to be withdrawn from the river. If the volume 

of withdrawn water equaled the evaporation, then 

the cooling water would accumulate dissolved 

solids at a rate of 7,850 tons (7,120 t) per year. To 

avoid this, an amount of water equal to 10 percent 

of the evaporation rate would need to be constantly 

removed from the cooling system and returned to 

the river (this is called blowdown). Consequently, 

the withdrawal rate would need to be 10 percent 

greater than the evaporation rate. The annual 

withdrawals would total45, 700 acre-ft (56.3 million 

m3) and the dissolved-solids load of the river would 

be unchanged due to this water use. The flow of the 

Yampa River would be diminished by 3 percent, 

and the dissolved-solids concentration would increase by 4 mg/L (table 6). 

Compared with once-through cooling, the effects 

on the river's biota using a cooling-pond system 

would be very small. The withdrawal of water 

would be 2 percent of that needed for once-through 

cooling, and the blowdown would amount to 0.4 

percent of the total annual flow of the Yampa River 

near Maybell. However, a pond system would affect the terrestrial habitat by converting 4,230 

acres (1,710 ha) from land to water. It also would 

23 

have some effects on local climate, due to the vast 

amount of heat and vapor transferred to the air 

over this area. Once-through cooling, by comparison, would spread the effects over a stream 

reach many miles in length. 

A wet-cooling water tower rejects waste heat by 

bringing the cooling water into contact with moving air as the water falls over baffles, causing it to 

form small droplets. The water is taken from a collecting basin at the base of the cooling tower, passed through the powerplant condenser, and 

pumped to the top of the tower. As the water falls 

through the tower, it moves past a large volume of 

air driven either by fans or by natural buoyancy. 

During this period of contact, some of the water 

evaporates. In addition, the water is cooled by the 

transfer of heat (conduction). The air leaving the 

tower generally is saturated and is at a greater 

temperature than it was when it entered the tower. 

Because part of the water is evaporated as it 

passes through the tower and a small amount 

drifts out of the tower structure, water must constantly be added to the system to keep the volume 

of water in the system from decreasing. In addition, 

some water must be added to prevent an excessive 

increase of dissolved solids in the system (fig. 3C). 

In a cooling tower, the fraction of waste heat that 

is rejected by evaporation is an increasing function 

of the ambient air temperature and a decreasing 

function of the relative humidity and altitude. By 

calculating the rate of evaporation for the range of 

conditions typical of the Yampa River basin, the 

annual rate of evaporation would be 40,400 acre-ft 

(49.8 million m3) (table 6). This blowdown would 

equal about 10 percent of the evaporation, so the 

total rate of annual withdrawal from the river 

would be 44,400 acre-ft (54.7 million m3). 

Assuming an operating system with no direct 

discharge of residuals to the river, the blowdown 

(4,040 acre-ft or 5.0 million m3 per year) could be 

used for transporting ash from the powerplant 

boilers for discharge into a system of evaporation 

ponds. For such a system, there is an unresolved 

question as to the ultimate fate of the residue in the 

evaporating ponds. Whether these residuals 

(predominantly salts and sulfur compounds) can 

be prevented from leaching back into the nearby 

ground water or surface waters is unknown. An 

ongoing study at the Hayden powerplant may 

provide some site-specific information on the possible long-term effects of this form of disposal (S. R. 

Ellis, written commun., 1978). 
For a wet-cooling tower system, the dissolvedsolids load in the river would decrease by an estimated 8,400 tons (7 ,620 t) per year, while the 

dissolved-solids concentration would remain unchanged at 140 mg/L (table 6). The land area occupied by the towers is considerably less than that 

required for cooling ponds (National Academy of 

Engineering, 1972, p. 131). The wet-cooling towers 

may increase fog, ice, and precipitation over the 

immediately surrounding area. 

In dry-cooling towers, the cooling water moves 

through a collection of finned tubes and the system 

operates on the same principle as an automobile 

radiator. Like an automobile radiator, the rate of 

consumption of water is virtually zero, because 

cooling occurs by conduction only (fig. 3D). Several 

characteristics of dry cooling relative to wet cooling 

are discussed by Hirsch, James, and Schefter 

(1978). 

Each cooling-system technology has its own advantages and disadvantages. For example, to avoid 

withdrawing the vast amounts of water necessary 

for once-through cooling, ponds that evaporate 

substantially more water can be used. To prevent 

the dissolved-solids concentration of the river from 

increasing when an evaporative system is used, the 

long-term hazard of permanent impoundment of 

the salts must be accepted. To achieve the advantages of no water consumption at all, the increased 

air pollution and waste of coal due to the decreased 

efficiency of a powerplant with dry cooling must be 

accepted. 

Perhaps a useful comparison of water-use 

implications for coal-use alternatives is to consider 

inbasin conversion of an additional 12.5 million 

tons (11.3 million t) of coal to electricity or synthetic gas products or export of the same amount of 

coal via a slurry pipeline. Comparisons of 

withdrawals and consumption of water are made in 

figure 4. The~agnitude of water-use requirements 

in electric-power-generation facilities can be noted. 

All water exported in a slurry pipepine is a consumptive loss from the standpoint of the basin; 

however, some of this water can be recovered and 

used at the delivery end of the pipeline. 

Nonetheless, basin water losses using a slurrypipeline transport alternative are about one-fifth to 

one-third as great as the losses for cooling purposes 

in electric-power generation in the basin (fig. 4B). 

The choice of coal use has a profound effect on 

the amounts and forms of discharged waste 

24 

residuals that must be assimilated into the environment (Steele, 1978a). Using the set of seven 

mixed coal-resources development alternatives, the 

projected residuals given previously in table 5 are 

aggregated and compared in figure 5. Total 

residuals discharged increase both as a function of 

the coal mined and the amount of the coal converted to other energy forms in the basin. These 

projected discharges include both direct and indirect impacts. As noted in table 4, the indirect effects of population, urban development, and services constitute the dominant part of several 

residual forms (Bower and Basta, 1973). With increasing in-basin coal use, greater amounts of solid 

residuals have to be contended with; these 

residuals dominate the total discharge loadings 

(table 5; fig. 5). As will be discussed later, chemical 

constituents from these residuals through decomposition processes may still adversely affect 

hydrologic conditions adjacent to disposal areas. 

In summary, each cooling technology has both 

advantages and disadvantages (Reynolds, 1980). 

Some disadvantages must be accepted in order to 

obtain the advantages of a given technology. For 

example, evaporation ponds or wet-cooling towers 

can be used to avoid withdrawing the large 

amounts of water needed for once-through cooling. 

However, this lower rate of withdrawals is accompanied by a higher rate of consumptive use and a 

greater amount of dissolved solids requiring disposal. For any given combination of coal uses there 

are different water-use and residuals-generation 

impacts. Among all of the options considered in 

this study, those involving transport of the coal in 

raw form have the smallest impacts. 

SURFACE-WATER INVESTIGATIONS 

By DANIEL P. BAUER 

Three study components composed the surfacewater investigations for the Yampa River basin assessment: (1) an analysis of the waste-load assimilative capacity for a reach of the Yampa River 

between Steamboat Springs and Hayden, Colo.; 

(2) an evaluation of several hydraulic characteristics of selected subreaches of the Yampa and the 

Little Snake Rivers; and (3) a modeling analysis of 

several proposed reservoirs. Selected results of each 

of these studies are highlighted. Detailed informa-
tv 

01 

B. WATER CONSUMPTION 

2

.

5 

A. WATER WITHDRAWALS 50~------------- -------------~ 

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FIGURE 4.-Comparison of water use for alternative cooling systems and coal use assuming 12.5 million tons (11.3 million t) of 

coal mined per year. (Modified from Hirsch and others, 1978.) 

-

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• COAL 

SLURRY 

PIPELINE 
0 

EXPLANATION 

LAND~AIR 

~WATER IN PERCENTAGE 

ADF ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT FUTURE 

~ 

(See table I) 

ELECTRIC POWER PLANT 

11111111111111111111111111 COAL GASIFICATION PLANT 

RAILROAD EXPORTS 

COAL SLURRY PIPELINE EXPORTS 

MILLIONS OF METRIC TONS OF COAL PER YEAR 

10 20 30 

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MILLIONS OF TONS OF COAL PER YEAR 

FIGURE 5.-Projections of total residuals resulting from coal-development alternatives, 1990. (J. E. Shefter, written 

commun., 1977; Steele, 1978b.) 

26 
tion on each study is documented in reports as indicated in the discussion. 

The analysis of the waste-load assimilative 

capacity indicated that concentrations of nonionized ammonia nitrogen in the Yampa River 

from Steamboat Springs to Hayden (fig. 2) may exceed the State's proposed stream standards of 0.2 

mg/L on peak-population days (Bauer and others, 

1978). The computed concentrations were based on 

population projections for the year 2010 derived 

from several planning studies (Gathers and Associates, Inc., 1976; U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 1977). December and Septem.ber 

streamflow conditions and different population 

projections for 2010 were considered (Bauer and 

others, 1978). 

Several major factors-for example, existing 

stream-reach classifications for aquatic life, suggested standards for effluent from a proposed 

regional wastewater-treatment plant, and Ste~amboat Springs area population projections-were 

considered in the model simulations. For the 

model-simulation phase, it was assumed that all 

water-quality variables considered by the model 

were only temperature dependent. For example, 

the simulation for December basically assumed the 

same biologic and pH conditions as assumed for 

September, which introduced some degree of uncertainty into the model-simulation results. 

Nonionized ammonia concentrations were eomputed separately, with due consideration given to 

prevailing conditions of temperature as well as pH. 

Concentrations of nonionized ammonia determined from computed ammonia concentrations exceeded the proposed State standard for existing 

wastewater-treatment-plant effluent when 7-day 

low flows with a 10-year recurrence interval (Q'7,10) 

of 28 ft 3

/s (0.9 m3/s) were assumed (fig. 6). Possible 

augmented flows of 20 ft3/s (0.6 m3/s) released from 

a proposed upstream reservoir such as the Yam colo 

Reservoir (fig. 2) would reduce the in-stream effects of wastewater-treatment-plant effluents (fig. 

6). The fraction of ammonia nitrogen that exists in 

nonionized form increases with increasing pH. 

When pH exceeds 8.5, nonionized-ammonia concentrations may become great enough to be toxic to 

fish (Willingham, 1976). 

Stream-reaeration coefficients also were computed for several reaches of the Yampa River 

between Steamboat Springs and Hayden, Colo. 

(Bauer and others, 1979). Reaeration, the physical 

absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere, is the 

primary process by which a stream replaces the 

oxygen consumed in the biodegradation of organic 

wastes. For the reaeration-coefficient computation 

procedure, ethylene and propane were used as 

tracer gases and rhodamine-WT dye was used as 

dispersion tracer. The basic premise of the 

reaeration-coefficient computation is that the ratio 

of the rate coefficient for a tracer gas desorbing 

from water to the rate coefficient for oxygen being 

absorbed by the same water is a constant and is independent of mixing and water temperature. 

Measured reaeration coefficients, adjusted to 20°C, 

range from 33.4 to 6.04 d- 1 for the stream reaches. 

These direct measurements were then compared 

with coefficients computed using several semiempirical and empirical fuhctions (Bauer and others, 

1979). 

The model used for the waste-load assimilativecapacity analysis similarly could be used in other 

stream reaches in which steady-state assumptions 

of streamflow and waste inputs are acceptable. 

Steady-state assumptions may be acceptable in 

many situations, particularly when the focus of a 

study is on critical-flow conditions, usually associated with low-flow periods for a given stream. 

A semiempirical reaeration-rate formula by 

Tsivoglou and Neal (1976) compared the closest to 

the measured reaeration data for the Yampa River. 

A technique described by Bennett and Rathbun 

(1972) was used for the earlier waste-load 

assimilative-capacity analysis (Bauer and others, 

1978). The amount of error difference because of 

the use of the Bennett and Rathbun (1972) formula 

is not known. Because of the many available empirical and semiempirical reaeration formulas, 

completion of reaeration studies prior to making a 

waste-load assimilative-capacity analysis would 

result in a more accurate analysis. 

As part of a second surface-water investigation, 

traveltime, unit-concentration, and longitudinaldispersion characteristics were measured for 

stream reaches on the Yampa and the Little Snake 

Rivers. Two sets of data were collected for the 

Yampa River and three sets of data were collected 

for the Little Snake River. Information on traveltime and unit concentrations provides a convenient 

means of predicting the timing and peak con27 
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DISTANCE FROM MOUTH, IN KILOMETERS 

310 300 290 280 270 260 250 

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--- NONAUGMENTED FLOW 

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195 190 185 180 175 170 165 160 155 

DISTANCE FROM MOUTH, IN MILES 

FIGURE 6.-Computed concentrations of ammonia nitrogen for existing wastewater-treatment facilities and 7-day low flows with 

a 10-year recurrence interval in the Yampa River. (From Bauer and others, 1978; Steele, 1978a.) 
centrations at various downstream locations for a 

contaminant discharged or spilled upstream. 

Traveltime and unit concentrations for a range of 

stream-discharge conditions were estimated using 

the measured data and a mathematical model 

described by McQuivey and Keefer ( 1976). The 

simulation of traveltime and unit-concentration 

data involves initially calibrating the model for the 

observed data and then simulating results to other 

flow conditions. Cumulative traveltime and unitconcentration relationships can then be derived. for 

any stream reaches at any assumed discharge 

(Bauer and others, 1979). Traveltime simulations 

for the Little Snake River using the model-analysis 

scheme were compared and agr.eed within 5 percent 

of the measured medium-flow data for May 197'7. A 

similar comparison also was made for the unitconcentration data, with agreement within 30 to 40 

percent. Traveltime simulations based on linearregression relationships of mean stream velocity or 

discharge also are given for both streams (Bauer 

and others, 1979). Longitudinal-dispersion coefficients, computed for the Yampa and the Little 

Snake Rivers, ranged from 6,050 to 400 ft2/s (560 to 

37 m2

/s) for the two streams. 

As an example of an application of the derived 

traveltime information, assume that an accidental 

spill occurred in the Steamboat Springs area in 

which 1,000 pounds (453 kg) of a soluble conservative contaminant was spilled into the Yampa 

River. Assume a stream discharge at Steamboat 

Springs (fig. 2) of 1,000 ft 3/s (28 m3/s). One immediate concern might be to determine the arrival 

time and peak concentration of this contaminant 

at the Hayden water plant downstream. At this 

discharge, the traveltime of the leading edge of the 

conservative contaminant could be expected to arrive at Hayden in approximately 12.5 hours. The 

estimated peak concentration would be 1,580 ~tg/L 

at Hayden, 15.7 hours after the spill (Bauer and 

others, 1979). Health standards for a particular 

contaminant would indicate the potential toxic effects of such a concentration and dictate whether or 

not the water use should be curtailed. 

In conclusion, prediction of travel rates and 

dispersion in streams is important for pollution 

control and for use as a warning system in case of 

contaminant spillage upstream from critical wateruse diversion points. The technique described 

above provides a means of estimating streamtravel rates and unit concentrations for a large 

range in flow conditions, based on one fieldsampling study. In cases where no traveltime 

studies can be made, a regional regression 

relationship may be used (Boning, 1974). 

In order to meet projected future demands for 

water, considerable interest has been expressed 

and plans proposed for additional development of 

surface waters of the Yampa River basin. As indicated by Maddock and Matalas (1980), some of 

the future water demands involve year-round use 

for cooling systems in coal-conversion facilities. 

Also, anticipated population growth results in increased household and service-related water demands. Streamflow in the basin presently is 

regulated by few reservoir impoundments. Thirtyfive major reservoirs with storage capacities larger 

than 2,000 acre-ft (2.5 million m3) have been 

proposed as part of 18 surface-water projects 

(Steele, 1980). The total potential reseryoir 

capacity is approximately 2.2 million acre-ft (2. 7 

billion m3), which is 41 percent more than the 

mean annual outflow from the basin. Feasibility 

and planning reports for several of the proposed 

reservoirs have been prepared (Oak Creek Power 

Co., 1976; U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976b). 

Two projects to export substantial amounts of 

water for use outside the basin also have been 

proposed. These include the Vidler Tunnel diversion involving tributaries of the Yampa River and 

the Hog Park diversion involving tributaries of the 

Little Snake River (fig. 2). 

Within this particular investigation, three 

modeling efforts were conducted interactively as a 

demonstration study to evaluate various aspects of 

proposed reservoir development and the transmountain diversions (D. B. Adams, D. P. Bauer, 

R. H. Dale, and T. D. Steele, written commun., 

1978). A reservoir-system model, HEC-3 (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, 1968), was used to 

analyze effects on streamflow of alternative reservoir configurations described below. A riversalinity model (Ribbens, 1975) was used to estimate dissolved-solids concentrations at selected 

locations in the basin for the different reservoir 

configurations. A third model, using the 

streamflow and water-quality information 

provided in part by the first two models, evaluated 

inreservoir water temperatures and specificconductance conditions at selected sites for as29 
TABLE 7 .-Proposed major surface-water impoundments, reservoir-modeling analysis 

[Modified from Steele, Bauer, Wentz, and Warner, 1979] 

Reservoir Stream 

Sandstone------------ Savery Creek-------

Pot Hook------------- Slater Fork--------

Yamcolo-------------- Bear River---------

Bear2 ---------------- Yampa River--------

Blacktai13----------- Yampa River--------

Lower Green3--------- Green Creek--------

Childress3----------- Trout Creek--------

Upper Middle3-------- Middle Creek-------

Lower Middle3________ Middle Creek-------

Juniper-------------- Yampa River--------

Cross Mountain------- Yampa River--------

Hinman Park---------- Elk River----------

Grouse Mountain------ Willow Creek-------

Pleasant Valley------ Yampa River--------

Dunckley------------- Fish Creek---------

California Park------ Elkhead Creek------

Craig---------------- Yampa River--------

Storage capacity 

(acre-ft) 

15,500 

60,000 

9,000 

11,610 

229,250 

99,600 

24' 160 

102,200 

25' 150 

1,079,990 

142,000 

44,040 

79,260 

43,220 

57,090 

36,540 

44,490 

10mitted from river-salinity analysis of configuration 4. 

2Competes for Blacktail Reservoir site. 

30ak Creek Water & Power Project. 

Configuration 

1 '2 

2,3,4 

2,3,4 

2,3,4 

2,3,4 

2,3,4 

1,2,3 

1 '2' 3 

3,4 

3,4 

3,4 

3,4 

sumed inflow conditions and outflows (Adams, 

1975). 

The various proposed reservoirs considered in the 

study analyses are listed in table 7 and are located 

on the basin map (fig. 2). These represent the 

greater part of the total storage volume of known 

proposed reservoirs in the basin. The four alternative configurations of reservoir development 

30 
used to demonstrate the application of the named 

models were as follows: 

1. Upper-lower configuration-Juniper-Cross 

Mountain and Yamcolo-Bear Reservoirs. 

2. Moderate-development configuration-alternative 1 plus Sandstone-Pothook and Oak CrE!ek 

Power & Water Project Reservoirs. 

3. High-level development configuration-alternative 2 plus six additional reservoirs as indicated 

in table 7. 

4. Upper mainstem and tributary configuration-alternative 3 without Juniper-Cross Mountain Reservoirs. 

Each configuration was also analyzed with and 

without the transmountain diversions described 

earlier. Data requirements for each of the modeling 

studies and details of the study approaches are 

described by D. B. Adams, D.P. Bauer, R. H. Dale, 

and T. D. Steele (written commun., 1978). 

To demonstrate results from the river-salinity 

modeling analysis, estimated regulated versus unregulated mean monthly streamflows and 

dissolved-solids concentrations of the Yampa River 

at Deerlodge Park, Colo. (fig. 2), are shown in 

figure 7 for assumed reservoir configurations 1,. 2, 

and 4 (table 7). These model analyses are based on 

historical flows and dissolved-solids concentrations, the latter being extrapolated by regression 

analysis from available records of specific conductance (Wentz and Steele, 1980). 

The reservoir-system model analysis, which considered four reservoir configurations and two transmountain diversions, indicated that periods of 

water shortage would occur for both storage and export. For example, shortages for the Vidler Tunnel 

diversion would occur from 42 to 77 percent of the 

time, while shortages for the Hog Park diversion 

would occur 20 percent of the time. The greatest 

amounts of shortages for in-basin uses occurred for 

Juniper Reservoir irrigation diversions and 

Blacktail Reservoir releases for powerplant coolling 

(D. B. Adams, D.P. Bauer, R. H. Dale, and T .. D. 

Steele, written commun., 1978). 

Model results for reservoir configuration 2 (fig. 

7B) are quite similar to those discussed above for 

configuration 1. The dominating effect of Juniper 

and Cross Mountain Reservoirs on the downstream 

part of the mainstem Yampa River (fig. 2) is 

apparent. 

In reservoir configuration 4, five additional reservoirs are assumed to be constructed, however, 

without Juniper and Cross Mountain Reservoirs. 

31 

The principal assumed water uses from those reservoirs are additional irrigation and cooling water 

for coal-conversion facilities. Downstream on the 

Yampa River at Deerlodge Park, streamflow decreases would be more apparent during snowmelt 

runoff in the spring (April through June) (fig. 7C). 

Seasonal variations in dissolved-solids concentrations would have some differences but would be virtually unchanged on an annual time-weighted 

basis. 

Prior to extensive reservoir development, more 

specific reservoir-modeling analyses than those 

demonstrated in a more detailed technical report 

(D. B. Adams, D.P. Bauer, R. H. Dale, and T. D. 

Steele, written commun., 1978) need to be conducted to aid in evaluating interactive and 

downstream effects of such development. Additional consider.ation of the ramifications relative 

to basin-compact requirements and infringements 

of senior water rights need to be incorporated into 

such a specific analysis. The reservoir-modeling 

study (D. B. Adams, D.P. Bauer, R. H. Dale, and 

T. D. Steele, written commun., 1978) served only to 

demonstrate the application of modeling techniques in evaluating the impacts of reservoir 

development. The reservoir-system and dissolvedsolids models used in this analysis were quite 

simplistic and were relatively easy to apply; 

whereas, the third model used to evaluate inreservoir conditions was more complex in structure, 

in operation, and in detail of required data. The 

three models selected for the reservoir-modeling 

study were based principally on the data and 

resources available for the effort. Several choices 

are presented to the reservoir modeler who is required to provide results of alternative proposed 

plans to water-resources managers. The modeler 

first needs to decide the desired accuracy to fulfill 

the specified objectives of the effort and then 

should evaluate thoroughly the available existing 

data. From such an evaluation, the model selection 

can be made realistically for a given study effort. 

STREAM QUALITY 

By DENNIS A. WENTZ 

Water is vital to those persons living in the 

Yampa River basin. Future economic development, including coal mining, conversion, and 

transport, is in part dependent upon existing and 

future water-quality conditions. 
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FIGURE 7.-Comparison of mean monthly variations in regulated and unregulated streamflow and 

dissolved-solids concentrations, Yampa River at Deerlodge Park, Colo., 1951-69 water years (R. 

32 
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z:J 

w 

ua::: 

zw 

oc.. 

uen 

en~ Q<( 

-a: 

...J(.!) 

0- en.-J I _J 

ow~ 

::;z 

oen 

en 

i5 

Regulated 

Unregulated 

Regulated 

Unregulated 

/ 

/ 

/ -........ .--.---_________ __, 

---

-

/--

/\ 

// \ 

/ \ 

I \ 

I \ 

I \ I 

I 

I 

I 

-_1 

B. Reservoir configuration 2 

Aug. ·Sept. 

H. Dale, written commun., 1978): (A) 1reservoir configuration 1; (B) reservoir configuration 2; (C) 

reservoir configuration 4. 

33 
u. 

0 

(/) 

Cl 

z 

<( 

(/) 

:::) 

01- I:W 

~--~ 

z..u 

-~5 

~<( 0 

....J 

u. 

~ 

<( 

w 

a: 

1-

(/) 

z 

0 

i= 

<(W 

a:: a: 1-1-

z:::i 

w 

ua:: 

zw 

00... 

U(f) 

(/)~ 

o<t 

-a: 

....J(.9 

0- (/)....J 

I ....J 

ow~ 

~z om 

en 

i5 

Regulated 

Unregulated 

---------~ 

OL---~--~~--~~--=~--~----~--~~--~L---~--~~-~ Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. 

400 

200 

100 

Regulated 

Unregulated 

OL---~-----L----~--~-----L----~----~--~~--~----~--~ 

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June Juty Aug. Sept. 

C. Reservoir configuration 4 

FIGURE 7.-Continued. 

34 
An areal depiction of predevelopment streamquality conditions in the Yampa River basin 

provides a useful basis upon which to evaluate the 

incremental effects of coal-resource and associated 

economic development (Wentz and Steele, 1978). 

Other than the statistical techniques described in 

this section, modeling techniques to specifically 

predict stream-quality changes resulting from coalresource and associated economic development and 

associated water uses are still being developed or 

are none xis tent. Hence, the following description is 

a qualitative analysis of predevelopment streamquality conditions. 

The assessment of predevelopment stream 

quality consisted of two phases. During the first 

phase, information available from past (lorns and 

others, 1964) and ongoing data-collection programs 

were evaluated. During the second phase, baBinwide reconnaissance and quarterly-sampling 

programs to complement the prior data were 

designed and implemented. 

Detailed evaluations of historic data on stream 

temperature and major inorganic constituents are 

given by Wentz and Steele (1980). The results of 

the basinwide reconnaissance were based on data 

collected at 85 stream sites throughout the Yampa 

River basin during August-September 1975 (fig. 8). 

Site descriptions, type of data collected at each 

site, and interpretation of these data are discussed 

in detail by Wentz and Steele (1980). The data 

from the basinwide reconnaissance have been 

published by Giles and Brogden (1978). 

Based on the results of the basinwide reconnaissance, 42 quarterly sampling sites (fig. 8) were 

chosen to determine the seasonal changes in stream 

quality and variations in stream discharge. 

Descriptions of these sites are presented by Wentz 

and Steele (1980, table 1). Sampling was conducted during December 1975, and during March, 

June, and August-September 1976. The resultant 

data have been published by the U.S. Geological 

Survey (1978). 

The smallest trace-element concentrations were 

determined in samples collected at low flows during August-September 197r. The mean concentrations and the frequency distributions, for nwst 

trace elements (both dissolved and total forrns), 

were similar for both sampling periods dm~ing 

August-September 1975 and 1976. The only exeeptions were dissolved vanadium, total zinc, and, 

possibly, dissolved cobalt (Wentz and Steele, 

1980). 

The frequency distributions of some trace elements (for example, total mercury) did not change 

throughout the period of study. However, freql,lency distributions for many dissolved and total 

trace elements indicated that most maximum concentrations occurred during March 1976, as shown 

by the frequency distributions for total manganese 

(fig. 9). Reasons for the March maximums in both 

dissolved and total trace-element concentrations 

are not apparent. The large total trace-element 

concentrations during March 1976 apparently 

resulted primarily from large concentrations of 

suspended forms, and these may have been associated with large suspended-sediment concentrations noted during the sampling. Also, the lowest 

pH values were measured during March 1976 

(Wentz and Steele, 1980) and may have contributed to the greater solubility of some trace elements at this time of year, and, thus, to the larger 

concentrations of dissolved forms. 

During the quarterly sampling program, iron and 

manganese again accounted for the majority of instances (90 percent) where public water-supply 

standards for dissolved or total concentrations 

(Colorado Department of Health, 1977) were exceeded, just as they did during the basinwide 

reconnaissance. Cadmium was the trace element 

most commonly exceeding aquatic-life standards 

(32 percent of the total number of occurrences 

where aquatic-life standards were exceeded). 

Except for mercury, and possibly chromium, the 

smallest trace-element concentration in streambottom sediments were determined in samples collected during August-September 1976. Concentrations of some trace elements (for example, 

arsenic-fig. 10) decreased gradually from 1975 to 

1976. Others, such as copper, decreased most after 

March 1976. Often, as in the latter instance, the 

seasonal pattern may have been somewhat obscured by the fact that a different laboratory 

procedure was used for determining concentrations 

in samples collected during June 1976. Small traceelement concentrations in the surficial bottom 

sediments during August-September 1976 may 

have resulted from relatively minor runoff in the 

basin during the 1976 water year. Sediments 

deposited in the stream channels during the 1976 

water year probably contained smaller traceelement concentrations than were contained in the 

previously deposited sediments. 

35 
~ 

en 

EXPLANA.TION 

'V 3 RECONNAISSANCE SITE 

'171A QUARTERLY SAMPLING 

... 1 

SITE 

ONGOING (1979) U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

SAMPLING SITE NOT 

DIRECTLY ASSOCIATED 

WITH THE YAMPA RIVER 

BASIN ASSESSMENT ( 

__..,. 

~ 

"" j .--.•.. / 

,, 109° WYOMING } 2 41 rr -----ci")[ORt\D(Y ----~-- ----,'\· *. -

: / 

~I , . ::-: I ~ Dmosaur 

,..!I ,i i Nat1onal 

i ~ . ·

1 Monurnent r:: ""' ... .! 

! r ,~·r 

~·· L 

. .../·· 

/ 

(\ 

: Little Snake 

J 

River above 

. Lily--

,l.cft'tle snakf · /. ~River near 1 /· 

~~=--- . 

~-. ...._,... .. __,....., .. ~ 

Base from U.S. Geological Survey ( 

1 ~ 500, 000 State base map, 1969 v-..f\... 

0 10 20 30 MILES 

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS 

MOFl·'AT 

YAMPA R [ V E R 

FIGURE 8.-Location of sites where streamflow was sampled during the basinwide reconnaissance, August-September 1975, and during the 

quarterly sampling program, December 1975 through August-September 1976. (From Wentz and Steele, 1980.) 
en 

w 

ren 

u. 

0 

a: 

w 

al 

~ 

::> 

z 

JOr--r-n--.--.--r--r~r-·~~--~~~,-~~--~~v--,--~~ 

24 

18 

12 

6 

30 

24 

18 

12 

6 

0 

30 

24 

18 

12 

6 

0 

30 

24 

18 

12 

6 

0 

30 

24 

18 

12 

Au,gust- September 1975 

31 sites 

August- September 1976 

28 sites 

TOTAL MANGANESE, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER 

FIGURE 9.-Frequency distributions of total manganese in streamflow, August-September 1975 through 

August-September 19'76. (From Wentz and Steele, 1980.) 

37 
15.--.---.---.--~,---.---.--.---~--~~ 

12 !August-September 1975 

9 I 21 sites 

I 6 

1

.......-Mean 

3 

o~--~~~~~~~~~~~L---~--~~~--~ 

0 

15r---.---.---~~~--~--~--~--~--~~--~ 

12 

9 

6 

3 

o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~--~--~--~ 

~ 15.---.---.----.---.---.----.---.---~-------.---.---, 

w 

~ 12 

u. 9 

0 

6 

3 

0 L22LSZL22Ll2t=ztz=LGGL __ l_~=si_~~ 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 

15r---.--..---~--~--~--~--~--~--~~--~ 

12 

9 

:W I 

29 sites 

ohl2±2ll22EZ&=ct __ L_~~_L~ 

22 24 

15.---.---rr---.---~-------.---.---.---.,---~--.-~ 

12 

9 

6 L_______.-.-.·.·.· 

3 

August-September 1976 

27 sites 

L±GL~ZZU==ct=zi_~2Sl--l __ fl==L __ L_~ 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 

ARSENIC, IN MICROGRAMS PER GRAM 

FIGURE 10.-Frequency distributions of arsenic in stream-bottom sediments, 

August-September 1975 through August-September 1976. (From Wentz and Steele, 1980.) 

38 
The frequency distributions for pH did not vary 

greatly throughout the study period. The median 

pH, however, had a cyclic trend, decreasing from a 

maximum of 8.4 during August-September 1975 to 

a minimum of7.7 during March 1976, and incrteasing to a maximum of 8.4 during August-September 

1976 (Wentz and Steele, 1980). The pH values during March 1976 may have been due to a combi[nation of relatively cold water temperatures, which 

increased the solubility of carbon dioxide, and 

limited buffering capacity, which allowed the 

hydrogen ion produced by the dissolved carbon 

dioxide to remain in solution rather than be used to 

form bicarbonates. 

During the quarterly sampling program, only two 

pH values exceeded the upper limit of9.0 for public 

water supply, and no values were less than the 

lower limit of 5.0 (Colorado Department of Health, 

1977). The same two values exceeded the upper 

limit of 9.0 for aquatic life; whereas, 13 values were 

less than the lower limit of 6.5 (Colorado Department of Health, 1977). 

The frequency distributions of nutrient eoncentrations had the same seasonal patterns as dissolved and total trace elements. Large nitrogen (all 

forms) and total-phosphorus concentrations during 

March 1976 probably were contributed primarily 

by runoff from areas grazed by cattle. Organic 

carbon and dissolved phosphorus did not change 

seasonally. Apparently the runoff sources eontributed relatively little organic carbon; whereas, 

dissolved phosphorus is readily absorbed and 

would be expected to be retained in the soil zone. 

The upper temperature limit to protect coldwater biota is 20°C (Colorado Department of 

Health, 1977). During the quarterly sampling 

program from December 1975 through AugustSeptem her 1976, 7 of 163 temperature measurements ( 4 percent) exceeded the 20°C limit. Three 

temperatures exceeded 20°C were measured during 

June 1976, and four were measured during 

August-September 1976. No recorded temperature 

was greater than the recommended upper limit of 

30°C for warm-water biota (Colorado Department 

of Health, 1977). All temperatures greater than 

20°C appear to have been due to natural causes. 

Techniques for estimating annual seasonal variations of stream temperature on a regional basis are 

described by Wentz and Steele (1980) and by 

Low ham (1978). 

The pattern of seasonal changes in the frequency 

distributions of dissolved oxygen in streams was 

virtually the same as the pattern of seasonal 

changes in the frequency distributions of water 

temperature. This indicated that the dissolvedoxygen concentration was controlled, to a large extent, by the solubility of the gas, which is greater at 

colder temperatures, and also by reaeration 

(Bauer, Steele, and others, 1978; Bauer, Rathbun, 

and others, 1979). Photosynthesis tended to increase dissolved-oxygen concentrations during the 

late summer months, at 71 percent of the 

dissolved-oxygen concentrations measured during 

August-September 1975 and 68 percent measured 

during August-September 1976 were greater than 

100-percent saturation. 

Sites where streamflow quality was degraded 

during the quarterly sampling program were determined by analyzing the various frequency distributions for dissolved and total trace elements and 

nutrients and for trace elements in stream-bottom 

sediments and statistically separating the outliers-indicating degraded conditions-from the 

background distributions representative of ambient conditions. The results indicated that sites 

21, 28, 31, 39, 49, 62A, and 75 (fig. 8) had one 

outlier each during December 1975 through 

August-September 1976 and sites 26, 46, and 68 

(fig. 8) had more than one outlier each during 

the same time period. The outlier analysis technique and specific-site conditions are described in 

detail by Wentz and Steele (1980). 

The results of the quarterly sampling program 

corroborated the results of the basinwide reconnaissance; however, the quarterly sampling 

program additionally indicated areas of concern for 

the future. Careful consideration needs to be given 

to alternative water- and land-use practices in the 

watersheds upstream from those sites with outliers. 

The three sites determined to have had more than 

one outlier each are the same three sites for which 

basinwide-reconnaissance data indicated upstream 

water-quality degradation. 

Based on the analysis of data collected during 

the basinwide reconnaissance and during the 

quarterly sampling program, seasonal variations of 

maximum likely ambient concentrations of 

selected chemical constituents were determined. 

Application of the procedure in this context was 

first used by Wentz (1974) for detecting impacts of 

metal mining on Colorado streams. The maximum 

likely ambient concentration for a given constituent is defined herein as the mean plus twice 

the standard deviation (x+2s) for data obtained at 

39 
TABLE B.-Seasonal maximum likely ambient concentrations of chemical constituents in streamflow, August-September 1975 

through August-September 1976 

[Modified from Wentz and Steele (1980). mg/L=milligram per liter; 11g/L=microgram per liter; 11g/g=microgram per gram] 

Concentration 1 (.x+2s) 

August- AugustConstituent December March June 

September September 

1975 1976 1976 

1975 1976 

Specific conductance, micromhos per centimeter 1 '700 1,200 2,100 970 1 ,300 

Dissolved organic carbon, mg/L----------------- 21 21 19 20 14 

Dissolved plus suspended organic carbon, mg/L-- 22 24 26 --------- 14 

Dissolved Kjeldahl nitrogen, mg/L as N--------- .49 1.0 1.4 .63 .69 

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen, mg/L as N------------- .69 1.2 2.0 .80 .98 

Dissolved nitrite plus nitrate, mg/L as N------ .21 1.2 6.0 .095 .29 

Total nitrite plus nitrate, mg/L as N---------- .21 1.2 5.9 .099 .31 

Dissolved phosphorus, mg/L as P---------------- .067 . 15 .16 .096 .25 

Total phosphorus, mg/L as P-------------------- . 13 .18 .45 .20 .32 

Dissolved antimony, ~g/L----------------------- --------- 2.4 .0 1.8 .44 

Total antimony, ~g/L--------------------------- --------- 2.4 2.9 .87 .0 

Dissolved arsenic, ~g/L------------------------ --------- 1.2 2.7 1.6 2.1 

Total arsenic, ~g/L---------------------------- --------- 1.4 10 2.8 2.7 

Dissolved cadmium, ~g/L------------------------ .0 1.7 4.9 1.4 1.6 

Total cadmium, ~g/L---------------------------- (2) (2) (3) (4) (2) 

Dissolved cobalt, ~g/L------------------------- .56 1.9 1.7 1.3 2.1 

Total cobalt, ~g/L----------------------------- 62 (5) (6) (6) (6) 

Dissolved copper, ~g/L------------------------- 3.0 9.7 4.1 4.6 2.2 

Total copper, ~g/L----------------------------- 18 (7) (7) (7) (7) 

Dissolved iron, ~g/L--------------------------- 160 220 210 170 150 

Total iron, ~g/L------------------------------- 1,900 1,400 12,000 2,900 1,900 

Dissolved lead, ~g/L--------------------------- 1.4 6.4 15 5.1 5.5 

Total lead, ~g/L------------------------------- (8) (8) (9) (8) (8) 

Dissolved manganese, ~g/L---------------------- 220 320 200 150 130 

Total manganese, ~g/L-------------------------- 310 350 460 220 180 

Dissolved mercury, ~g/L------------------------ .067 .062 .11 . 16 .00 

Total mercury, ~g/L---------------------------- .10 .11 .046 .22 .31 

40 
TABLE B.-Seasonal maximum likely ambient concentrations of chemical constituents in streamflow, August-September 1975 

through August-September 1976-Continued 

Concentration (x+2s) 

August- AugustConstituent December March June 

September September 

1975 1976 1976 

1975 1976 

Dissolved nickel, ~g/L------------------------- 4.4 4.3 3.3 4.2 2.6 

Total nickel, ~g/L----------------------------- 50 (6) (1) (6) (6) 

Dissolved selenium, ~g/L----------------------- 2.6 1.5 15 0.0 2.1 

Total selenium, ~g/L--------------------------- 3.0 2.4 19 .84 2.1 

Dissolved vanadium, ~g/L----------------------- 2.7 1.0 1.9 6.0 7.0 

Dissolved zinc, ~g/L--------------------------- 14 18 18 26 10 

Total zinc, ~g/L------------------------------- 33 130 69 35 16 

Bottom antimony, ~g/g-------------------------- 7.0 3.1 3.8 2.2 .0 

Bottom arsenic, ~g/g--------------------------- 13 14 9.3 7.7 11 

Bottom chromium, ~g/g-------------------------- 50 5.4 16 (7) 12 

Bottom copper, ~g/g---------------------------- 19 22 22 (7) 13 

Bottom iron, ~g/g------------------------------ 15,000 56,000 22,000 21,000 9,900 

Bottom lead, ~g/g------------------------------ 270 29 20 (7) 29 

Bottom mercury, ~g/g--------------------------- .072 .076 .49 .26 .24 

Bottom nickel, ~g/g---------------------------- 17 28 45 (7) 22 

Bottom selenium, ~g/g-------------------------- ---------- .0 ---------- ---------- ---------

Bottom silver, ~gig---------------------------- ---------- 4.2 ---------- ---------- ---------

1 1n a few instances, the dissolved concentration is greater than the total concentration for 

the same constituent during the same sampling period. This happens because the value of s for the 

dissolved constituent is greater than the value of s for the total constituent. 

2All values were less than 10 ~g/L. 

3All but three values were less than 10 ~9/L. 

4All but one value were less than 20 ~g/L. 

5All but one value were less than 50 ~g/L. 

6All values were less than 50 ~g/L. 

7The parameters x and s could not be calculated because too many data values were reported as 

less than a given number. 

8All values were less than 100 ~g/L. 

9A11 but two values were less than 100 ~g/L. 

41 
sites determined from the outlier analysis to be unaffected by upstream water-quality degradation. 

This includes all sites sampled during the 

basinwide reconnaissance except 21, 26, 46, 54, and 

68, and all sites sampled during the quarterly 

sampling program except 26, 46, and 68 (Wentz 

and Steele, 1980). A summary of maximum likely 

ambient concentrations for selected constituents is 

given in table 8. 

As future coal-resource and associated economic 

development occur, data from subsequent streamquality sampling programs can be compared to the 

results already determined. Determination of longterm trends would require establishment of 

programs in which samples would be collected and 

analyzed in a consistent manner during several 

years. Program objectives need to be clearly 

defined with respect to sampling locations, sampling procedures, frequency of sampling, sample 

preservation, analytical techniques and accuracy, 

and constituents to be determined (Sanders and 

others, 1980) . 

Stream-quality reconnaissance in other areas 

where energy-resource development is increasing or 

planned would provide a basis on which to determine water-quality changes due to such development. Including a variety of water-quality constituents, in addition to those for which applicable 

stream-quality standards exist, would provide a 

better basis on which to evaluate geochemical 

changes that might adversely affect fish and 

aquatic life. Experience gained through conducting 

stream-quality reconnaissances will assist with the 

design and evaluation of data-collection programs 

to meet cost-effective goals. 

REGIONAL SEDIMENT 

CHARACTERISTICS 

By EDMUND D. ANDREWS 

The sediment load of streams is a primary factor 

determining the quality of water and its suitability 

for various uses. Sediment load also significantly 

affects the hydraulic stability of a stream channel, 

as well as the aquatic habitat. The supply of sediment to the channel network, and, thus, to the 

sediment load of the stream, is the result of many 

factors. Of these factors, land use is probably the 

factor most readily affected by human activity. Extensive changes in land use are anticipated in the 

Yampa River basin during the next 15 years, due 

42 

primarily to energy-resources and associated 

economic development. A regional sediment appraisal of the Yampa River basin was conducted to 

evaluate areal differences in sediment loads in 

streams and to assess possible changes in sediment 

loads due to projected increases in surface mining 

of coal (Andrews, 1978). 

Using available historical data for 17 gaging stations in the Yampa River basin, the mean annual 

sediment load was computed using the streamflowduration, sediment-rating-curve method described 

by Miller (1951). A functional relation between the 

total sediment load and water discharge was determined by summing the suspended-load and bedload relations (Andrews, 1978). Then, the mean annual total sediment load at a gaging station was 

computed by combining the total sediment-load 

relation with the average annual frequency of 

various discharges recorded at the station. The 

mean annual suspended, bedload, and total sediment loads as well as mean annual discharge at the 

17 gaging stations in the Yampa River basin were 

summarized by Andrews (1978, table 2). 

A comparison of the values at the individual stations in the basin indicated that the source areas of 

sediment and streamflow are quite different 

(Andrews, 1978). The Little Snake River subbasin, 

with an area of 3,730 mP (9,660 km2) upstream 

from Lily, Colo., supplies 27 percent of the annual 

runoff to the Yampa River at Deerlodge Park and 

69 percent of the sediment load. Conversely, the 

Yampa River subbasin, with an area of 3,410 mi2 

(8,830 km2) upstream from near Maybell, Colo., 

contributes 73 percent of the runoff and only 27 

percent of the estimated total sediment load for the 

entire Yampa River basin. 

A sediment-yield map of the Yampa River basin 

(fig. 11) was prepared, using computed average 

unit-area sediment yields at each gaging station. 

Two areas with sediment yields ranging from 300 to 

500 tons/mP (105 to 175 t/km 2

) per year occurred in 

the basin (fig. 11). The area drained by the Little 

Snake River contributes approximately 60 percent 

of the total sediment load of the Yampa River at 

Deerlodge Park. The area, drained primarily by 

Milk Creek and the Williams Fork-both tributaries to the Yampa River, contributes approximately 20 percent of the annual sediment load of 

the Yampa River at Deerlodge Park. 

About 48 percent of the Yampa River basin has 

sediment yields ranging from 110 ·to 300 tons/mi2 

(35 to 105 t/km2) per year (fig. 11). The smallest 

sediment yields-less than 100 tons/mP (35 t/km2

) 
~ 

~ 

EXPLANATION 

SEDIMENT YIELDS, IN TONS 

PER SQUARE Mll..E PER YEAR 

(METRIC TONS PER SQUARE 

KILOMETER PER YEAR) 

~ Less than 100 (Less than 30) 

I · · • o I 

100 to 300 (30 to 91) 

300 to 500 (91 to 152) 

FIGURE 11.-Areal distribution of sediment yields extrapolated from station records. (From Andrews, 1978.) 
per year-occur along the eastern margin of the 

basin. This area is approximately 1,300 mi2 (3,370 

km2) or 17 percent of the basin. 

As a result of coal-resource development, land 

disturbances in mine areas and in urban centers 

will probably increase the quantity of sediment 

supplied to stream channels. The Surface Mining 

Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (Public Law 

95-87) requires that sediment-detention ponds be 

constructed and that surface-mined areas be 

reclaimed and revegetated according to specified 

standards. During and immediately following mining, however, the hillslopes will have greater runoff 

and erosion rates than the original undisturbed 

hillslopes. As reclamation proceeds and vegetation 

becomes reestablished, the erosion rates should 

gradually decrease to rates comparable to adjacent 

undisturbed hillslopes (1. C. James II, E. D. 

Attanasi, T. Maddock ill, S. H. Chiang, B. T. 

Bower, and N. C. Matalas, written commun., 

1978). 

Increases in sediment loads of streams due to 

surface mining were estimated using a method 

developed by the Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency 

Committee (1968). This method rates the effects of 

surface mining using nine characteristics of a 

watershed: surface geology, soil profile, climate, 

runoff, topography, ground cover, land use, upland 

erosion, and channel erosion. Estimated sediment 

yield is determined by comparing the numerical 

score of the watershed being evaluated with the 

numerical score of watersheds with measured sediment yields. This method is appropriate for estimating the increased sediment yield due to surface mining, because certain categories, such as soil 

and vegetation cover, will change, whereas other 

categories, such as surface geology and climate, 

should not change appreciably. 

The three alternative levels of coal production 

through 1990 described previously (table 1) were 

assumed for this analysis (Udis and others, 1977; 

Steele and others, 1979). Based on these projections and other assumptions described by Andrews 

(1978), the areas of land being mined as well as 

partly reclaimed can be calculated annually for 

each of the three levels of production through 1990. 

The estimated quantities of sediment that would 

be eroded from surface-mined areas through 1990 

are summarized in table 9. An estimated additional 10,000 to 30,000 tons (9,000 to 27,000 t) of 

sediment will be supplied to the mainstem Yampa 

44 

River annually during 1985-90 due to surface mining within the basin (table 9). These estimates 

compare favorably with the estimates of 4,500 to 

30,000 tons (4,000 to 27,000 t) per year made by the 

U.S. Department of the Interior (1976a), and also 

compare favorably with the 10,000 to 44,000 tons 

(9,000 to 40,000 t) per year estimated for the basin 

by 1990 using values of total gross output and multiplying them by residuals coefficients for suspended solids (Steele, 1978a; adapted from table 5 

in this report). These latter estimates are slightly 

larger because indirect impacts are incorporated 

into the residuals coefficients. 

The impacts of this additional sediment load in 

the Yampa River and its tributaries will depend in 

part on where within the basin surface mining 

takes place. Surface mining in the eastern part of 

the basin, where sediment yields are generally less 

than 100 tons/mi2 (35 t/km2

) per year (fig. 11), may 

substantially increase the quantity of sediment 

supplied to the stream channels. For example, if all 

new surface mines in the basin were located in 

areas upstream of the gaging station on the Yampa 

River near Hayden (fig. 2), the estimated increase 

in sediment load at this location would be 10 to 30 

percent, and would be the result of mining only 

about 1 to 3 percent of the contributing drainage 

area. 

It is doubtful, however, that all additional mining will be located upstream of the gaging station 

near Hayden (U.S. Department of the Interior, 

1976a). A more realistic estimate is that only about 

50 percent of the new surface mines will be located 

upstream of Hayden. Thus, the probable increase 

in the sediment load of the Yampa River near 

Hayden due to surface mining through 1990 will be 

5 to 15 percent, depending upon the volume of coal 

production. 

Farther west in the basin, the relative impact of 

increased sediment yields due to the surface mining will be less for two reasons. First, existing sediment yields are already relatively large due to 

sparse ground cover and a lack of soil development. 

Thus, surface mining will not greatly alter these 

factors and, hence, the relative increase in sediment yield will be small. Second, areas of surface 

mining in the western part of the basin actually being disturbed are relatively small. Hence, the additional sediment load of the Yampa River at the 

gaging station near Maybell due to surface mining 

will be an estimated 2 to 7 percent of the present 
TABLE 9.-Potential sediment yields from surface-mined areas for three estimated levels of coal production, 1990 

[Modified from Andrews, 1978] 

Growth projection 1 

Slow Moderate Rapid 

Tons Tons Tons 

Square Square Square 

per per per 

mi les 2 mi les 2 miles 2 

year 3 year 3 year 3 

1975-80: 

Area mined--------------------------- 2.0 2.9 3.4 

Area partly reclaimed---------------- 0 0 0 

Total sediment yield from surfacemined and partly reclaimed areas------------ 4,500 6,700 7,800 

1980-85: 

Area mined---------------------------

Area partly reclaimed----------------

Total sediment yield from surface2.6 

2.0 

4.9 

2.9 

7.3 

3.4 

mined and partly reclaimed areas------------ 8,100 15,000 21,000 

1985-90: 

Area mined---------------------------

Area partly reclaimed----------------

Total sediment yield from surface3. 1 

2.6 

6.0 

4.9 

9.4 

7.3 

mined and partly reclaimed areas------------ 10,000 19,000 30,000 

1Projected coal production from Steele, Bauer, Wentz, and Warner (1979, table 4). 

2Assuming 50 acres of land are mined to produce 1 million tons of coal. 

3sediment yields have been adjusted to reflect a basin of 40 square miles. 

mean annual sediment load at that site, depending 

upon the volume of coal production (Andrews, 

1978). 

In conclusion, even at the greatest projected 

volume of coal production in the basin by 1990, the 

additional quantity of sediment contributed to the 

streams will be small when compared to the total 

45 

quantity of sediment currently being transported 

out of the Yampa River subbasin or the basin in its 

entirety. Additional studies, such as that outlined 

by Smith (1980), will be needed to assess the effects 

of potential changes of sediment regime on fish and 

aquatic life in streams of the Yampa River basin. 

Moreover, the impacts of sediment entrapment by 
proposed reservoirs in the Yampa River system or 

any other region impacted by surface mining or associated economic development will need to be 

considered in any basinwide analysis. 

REMOTE-SENSING APPLICATIONS 

By FREDERICK j. HElMES 

Effective planning for optimal allocation of 

natural resources requires the collection and 

analysis of large amounts of diverse data on a 

timely basis. The potential for using remotesensing applications to provide various types of information on a timely basis was investigated using 

Landsat (Land-satellite) data and small-scale color 

and color-infrared aerial photographs (Heimes and 

other, 1978). Landsat data were used for: (1) 

regional land-use classification and mapping, (2) 

lineament mapping, and (3) mapping of areal snow 

cover. Aerial photographs were used for estimating 

turbidity in selected streams. 

Traditional methods of inventorying and updating land-use information are costly and timeconsuming, especially in large areas like the 

Yampa River basin, where land use is diverse and 

changing rapidly. Landsat provides repetitive 

imagery of large areas that may be suitable for 

defining and updating land-use categories on a 

regional scale. Using the land-use classification 

system suggested by Anderson, Hardy, Roach, and 

Witmer (1976) as a guide, a Landsat classification 

of selected areas in the Yampa River basin was 

made (Heimes and others, 1978). Certain limitations in classifying sparsely vegetated areas and irrigated hay meadows were identified. 

Demands and competition for surface-water 

resources are increasing in the Yampa River basin. 

Consequently, expanded development of groundwater resources may occur. Landsat imagery 

provides the areal coverage necessary to detect major lineaments, which may indicate faults or fracture zones with potential for increased groundwater availability (Goetz and others, 1975; Moore 

and Deutsch, 1975). 

For demonstration purposes, interpreted lineaments were superimposed on a Landsat scene, with 

mapped faults obtained from geologic maps (fig. 

12). Only a small percentage of the mapped faults 

corresponded to the interpreted lineaments. The 

lack of correlation is not necessarily significant, 

because lineaments can be a manifestation of fractures and faults indicated only by subtle topo46 

graphic and vegetative trends that are not readily 

discernible during ground mapping. Limitations of 

this technique are described by Heimes, Moore, 

and Steele (1978). Wells being drilled in the region 

should provide additional information for verification of the inferred correlations between groundwater occurrence and faults or fractures. 

A large percentage of the total annual streamflow 

in the Yampa River basin is contributed by 

snowmelt runoff (Steele and others, 1979). Landsat 

data can provide the information necessary to map 

areal snow extent in large watersheds (Barnes and 

Bowley, 1974). This areal assessment, combined 

with an estimation of water equivalent of snow, 

could be a useful tool for forecasting basinwide 

surface-water availability (Leaf, 1971; Brown and 

Hannaford, 197 5). 

In areal classification of snow cover, clouds commonly have spectral characteristics similar to 

snow. This causes problems in delineating snow extent on Landsat scenes containing clouds. Snow 

areas also may be obscured by dense conifer forests 

(Rango, 1975, p. 61, 231). This was not a major 

problem in classifying snow-covered areas in the 

western part of the basin because few dense conifer 

forests occur in this part of the basin. However, in 

mountainous areas of the eastern part of the basin, 

which supply the majority of the snowmelt runoff, 

dense conifer stands created some problems in classification (Heimes and others, 1978). 

Expansion of surface coal mining probably will 

increase sediment loads in the basin's streams. 

Construction of buildings and roads and increased 

dry land farming also may increase sediment loads. 

Large sediment loads may be indicated by increased turbidity in streams. Aerial photography, 

used in conjunction with a few ground-control data 

points, may be a rapid method for assessing turbidities in streams (Ritchie and others, 1976). 

Changes in turbidity in a water body result in 

changes in reflected energy which may be recorded 

on photographs. The sensitivity of color and colorinfrared photographs to changes in turbidity was 

evaluated to determine if turbidity could be indirectly (quantitatively) measured using the 

photographs. 

Results of an investigation in which turbidity 

measurements were made concurrently with aerial 

photographs for part of the basin indicated a correlation of R2 2 0.90 between reflectance values 

and measured turbidity values (Heimes and others, 

1978). This correlation of spectral reflectance with 
FAULT . 

-----c,L~:~M~T ; 

FIGURE 12.-Lineament and fault map superimposed on Landsat scene that includes the western part of the Yampa River basin, 

February 26, 1975. (From Heimes and others, 1978.) 

turbidity measurements indicated that there may 

be potential for using aerial photography to infer 

turbidity of streams, with minimal ground-data 

collection required. 

In conclusion, results from the remote-sensing 

investigations indicated that satellite data and 

aerial photographs may be useful, in many instances, in conjunction with traditional techniques 

for timely regional assessment of the variables 

discussed. The investigations conducted were 

designed as a preliminary evaluation of the 

feasibility of using remote-sensing applications and 

were not oriented toward the development of 

operational procedures. However, results from 

these studies could lead to operational techniques 

using remote-sensing technology. Such techniques 

47 

would facilitate the rapid collection and analysis of 

some data required for efficient allocation of 

resources on a regional basis. 

SOLUTE-TRANSPORT MODELING 

OF GROUND WATER 

By j AMES W. WARNER 

Projected water demands for coal-resource and 

associated economic development, coupled with 

limited supplies of surface water and proposals to 

export surface water out of the basin, have resulted 

in renewed interest to selectively develop groundwater supplies. Coal resources in the Yampa River 

basin are being and will be mined primarily by 
surface-stripping techniques from the Mesaverde 

Group of Late Cretaceous age, a thick sequence of 

interbedded sandstones, shales, and coal (U.S. 

Department of the Interior, 1976a). The Mesaverde 

Group also is one of the major aquifer systems in 

the basin (Brogden and Giles, 1977). Most of the 

planned coal mines in the basin will be in the Williams Fork Mountains, a major recharge area for 

the Mesaverde Group. Adverse changes in groundwater quality may result if uncontrolled infiltration 

of water occurs through mine waste-spoil piles and 

pits containing fly and bottom ash from powerplants (table 5). 

Two digital-computer models were constructed 

for the Mesaverde Group aquifer system in the 

Twentymile Park and the Williams Fork Mountains areas (fig. 2) to evaluate the effects of this 

potential ground-water degradation. The models 

assumed nonreactive mass transport of conservative substances and were based on mathematical-solution techniques described by Pinder and 

Bredehoeft (1968), Reddel and Sunada (1970), and 

by Bredehoeft and Pinder (1973). 

The models were calibrated by comparing 

measured ground-water levels with model-calculated ground-water levels. In addition, measurements of ground-water discharge at springs and 

gain-loss measurements of ground-water discharge 

along selected stream reaches draining the model 

areas were compared with model-calculated quantities of ground-water flow. Model construction, 

data used, and details concerning the calibration of 

the two study models are discussed in detail by J. 

W. Warner and R. H. Dale (written commun., 

1980). 

Model simulations of assumed projected conditions were used to calculate the potential effects of 

regional coal-resource development on the quality 

of the ground-water system. The capability of the 

models to realistically predict water-quality conditions depends on the accuracy of the calibration 

and the degree to which model assumptions and input data are representative of future conditions. 

Very little disruption of the sandstone aquifers is 

expected as the result of the coal mining; thus, the 

direction and rate of ground-water movement 

should not be substantially altered. Furthermore, 

it was assumed that mining operations would not 

affect the long-term average recharge to the 

aquifer. Disruption of the earthen material overlying the coal was assumed to neither increase nor 

decrease the long-term infiltration rate of precipitation. The ground water in the model areas was 

assumed to be in a continuous state of equilibrium 

with regard to recharge, discharge, and characteristics of the aquifer (J. W. Warner and R. H. Dale, 

written commun., 1980). 

A critical problem of water-quality degradation 

by coal mining involves dissolution of materials by 

water percolating through disturbed overburden 

materials. Results of a recent study by McWhorter, 

Skogerboe, and Skogerboe (1975) in the eastern 

part of the Yampa River basin indicated a general 

increase in all major chemical constituents in water 

that came in contact with the waste-spoil piles at 

coal mines-either as runoff or as percolation; dissolved solids in leachate from the waste-spoil piles 

increased from 2,200 to 7,300 mg/L. In the model 

simulations reported by J. W. Warner and R. H. 

Dale (written commun., 1980), an assumed increase of 5,000 mg/L in dissolved-solids concentrations in the leachate draining from mined areas 

into the ground water was used. 

To demonstrate the application of this modeling 

technique, the effects of uncontrolled point-source 

contamination on ground-water quality were 

simulated for five existing surface-coal mines in the 

Twentymile Park model area. The effects on the 

ground-water quality from all mines in the Twentymile Park model area after 20 years is shown on 

figure 13a. Degraded ground water would occur in 

much of the southern and eastern parts of the 

model area and would occupy an area of about 57 

mP (148 km2). An increase in dissolved-solids concentration of 200 mg/L in the ground water would 

be typical within a 0.5- to 1.0-mi (0.3- to 1.6-km) 

radius of the mines. Degraded ground-water discharge would occur to all streams in the model area 

and would result in incremental increases in 

dissolved-solids concentration in several of the 

streams at low flows (J. W. Warner and R. H. Dale, 

written commun., 1980). 

After 60 years, degraded ground water would occupy an area of about 76 mi 2 (197 km2) and would 

extend throughout much of the model area (fig. 

13B). The incremental increases in dissolved-solids 

concentration at low flows in several streams would 

become correspondingly greater. The dissolved 

solids discharged annually to these streams as the 

result of coal mining would be about 100,000 tons 

(90,000 t), which would be about 50 percent of the 

increase in dissolved solids resulting from mining 

in the ground-water system. The remainder (about 

90,000 tons or 81,000 t) would remain in the 

aquifer. 

48 
A. After 20 years 

1 2 3 

KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

4 MILES 

~ AQUIFER ABSENT OR NOT CONSIDERED IN L__j MODEL 

-1000- LINE OF EQUAL INCREASE IN DISSOLVED-SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONInterval in milligrams per liter is variable 

,..--

( ) COAL MINE \.. ....... _ J 

F IGURE 13.-Projected increases in dissolved-solids concentrations in ground water resulting from all mines in the Twentymile 

Park model area . (From J.W. Warner and R. H. Dale, written commun., 1980.) (A) after 20 years; (B), after 60years; and (C) , 

after 200 years. 

After 200 years, degraded ground water would occupy most of the model area (fig. 13C). Degraded 

49 

ground water with an increase in dissolved-solids 

concentrations of greater than 200 mg/1 would ex-
40oJO' R. 88 W. R. ;..:.-,...-~ R.87W. R.86W. 10J000· R. 86 W. R. 85 W . 

T. 6 N. 

T. 5 N. 

40°22'30" 

T. 5 N. 

T. 4 N. 

B. After 60 years 

2 3 4 MILES 

4 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

D -1000 - LINE OF EQUAL INCREASE IN DISAQUIFER ABSENT OR NOT CONSIDERED IN SOLVED-SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONMODEL Interval in milligrams per liter is variable 

/--

( ) COAL MINE \. ,_ J 

FIGURE 13.-Continued 

50 
C. After 200 years 

2 3 4 MILES 

4 KILOMETERS 

EXPLANATION 

D -1000- LINE OF EQUAL INCREASE IN DISAQUIFER ABSENT OR NOT CONSIDERED IN SOLVED-SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONMODEL Interval in milligrams per liter is variable 

,---

( ) COAL MINE 

\.. ,_ / 

FIGURE 13.-Continued. 

51 
tend almost to the Yampa River and would occupy 

an area of about 52 mP (135 km2). The spread of 

degraded ground water would be relatively 

slow-primarily because most degraded ground 

water would discharge into one of the streams 

draining the model area. The quality of water in 

the Yampa River should not be markedly degraded 

by the increase in dissolved-solids concentrations 

in these tributaries or by direct discharge of 

degraded ground water. The relatively greater base 

flows in the Yampa River contributed by upstream 

tributaries should mask most of the effects of the 

mine-degraded ground waters reaching the stream, 

assuming that future upstream water demands and 

use do not significantly decrease the base flows. 

Detailed results of other model simulations for 

the Twentymile Park and Williams Fork Mountains model areas are given by J. W. Warner and R. 

H. Dale (written commun., 1980). As both mining 

and ground-water development increase, additional modeling will be useful in assessing potential changes in ground-water quality. 

This form of modeling analysis may be used 

throughout the country to predict possible changes 

in the quality of water in aquifers affected by coal 

mining. By using predictive modeling, the time 

changes in ground-water quality and the 

magnitude of the changes may be estimated. Also, 

delineating potential problem areas would aid in 

determining the location of wells needed to monitor 

actual changes in ground-water quality. 

SUMMARY 

In the Yampa River basin assessment, a variety 

of water-resources-related studies was conducted, 

using, whenever possible, data from several alternative projections of economic growth, estimates of 

discharged residuals and water use associated with 

this growth, and numerous types of field data. It is 

important to note that, ideally, the economicprojection analysis and the residuals and water-use 

estimates should precede the water-resourcesrelated studies to aid in defining the scope and 

level of detail for such studies. This preferential sequence of ordering of study components was not 

always followed in conducting the Yampa River 

basin assessment. In order to meet project 

deadlines, several physical-based studies were conducted prior to or concurrently with the regional 

economic analyses. Hence, assumptions initially 

made during water-resources-related studies may 

52 

well have been refined or modified, based upon information obtained subsequently in other studies. 

The basin assessment attempted to link economic growth with residuals and water-use estimates. One should be cognizant of the inherent uncertainties, both in growth projections and in the 

coefficients, to estimate residuals and water use 

and of other limitations in this procedure. A range 

of possible options is available which may affect 

discharged residuals and water use. Factors included in these options include costs of treatment 

to comply with effluent discharge or ambient 

stream standards, institutional as well as physical 

constraints on residuals-disposal alternatives, 

ranges of water-use influences by water availability 

(both in a legal and physical sense), and treatment 

of hydrologically related residuals to achieve acceptable water quality. 

Emphasis of the Yampa River basin-assessment 

water-resources studies, for the most part, was to 

demonstrate methods rather than to provide 

results from which specific inferences or recommendations could be made. The overall study 

framework was to apply techniques which could 

evaluate the anticipated effects of regional 

economic growth. These techniques are, in essence, 

screening tools, which indicate the types and forms 

of detailed physical-based analyses and data that 

might provide useful information to assist 

designated authorities in resource planning and 

management. Moreover, the interactive nature of 

these analyses has been demonstrated and needs to 

be kept in mind as the need arises for reevaluation 

of future conditions. 

Legal and institutional constraints exist that 

may affect the availability and quality of water 

resources required for energy-related development 

in the Yampa River basin. The doctrine of prior appropriation and the two interstate compacts affecting the waters of the basin-the Colorado River 

Compact of 1922 and the Upper Colorado River 

Basin Compact of 1948-are among these constraints. More recent legislation involving water 

quality needs to be evaluated interactively with 

these prior regulations allocating amounts of surface water. 

The dominant seasonal use of diverted surface 

waters for irrigation of hay meadows and grain 

crops may be offset in part by increasing yearround uses of water for industries and muncipalities. Analysis and evaluation of waterwithdrawal records may indicate certain instances 
where economic incentives might be proposed to 

promote more efficient water use. 

Assuming that the water desired for direct uses 

in coal-resource development can be obtained, the 

series of physical-based studies outlined in this 

summary report indicate several water-related consequences of such development which need to be 

considered. First, additional year-round uses of 

water for industries and municipalities probably 

will occur. This promotes a strong interest in impoundment of flows during high-runoff periods to 

distribute the seasonal pattern of streamflow more 

evenly throughout the year. Competition for surface waters may induce greater development of the 

basin's ground-water resources. Increased amounts 

and additional types of residuals may impact upon 

the environment. 

Some of the highlighted studies were designed to 

evaluate the assimilative capacity and possible 

rate of disposal of residuals created as a result of 

coal-resource and related economic development. 

Due to implementation of upstream surface-water 

storage structures and possible transbasin diversions, in-stream flows may well be altered in terms 

of seasonal patterns, annual amounts, and associated quality characteristics. Additional interactive studies need to be implemented to intermittently reevaluate such changes, particularly in lieu 

of recently passed or proposed regulations affecting 

the extent of such changes. 

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"US. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 198Q-777-034j37